Négocier Les Identités Nationales Et Sous-Nationales, La Fabrique Du
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THÈSE UNIVERSITE DE PAU ET DES PAYS DE L’ADOUR École doctorale 481 ITEM Présentée et soutenue le 17 Décembre, 2020. par David Irungu MBUTHIA pour obtenir le grade de docteur de l’Université de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour Spécialité : Histoire THE CHALLENGE OF NEGOTIATING BETWEEN NATIONAL AND SUB-NATIONAL IDENTITIES THROUGH HERITAGE-MAKING IN POST-DEVOLUTION KENYA: WITH THE EXAMPLE OF MUKURWE WA NYAGATHANGA CULTURAL SITE NEGOCIER LES IDENTITES NATIONALE ET SOUS-NATIONALES, LA FABRIQUE DU PATRIMOINE DANS LE KENYA DE LA DECENTRALISATION: L’EXEMPLE DE SITE CULTUREL DE MUKURWE WA NYAGATHANGA MEMBRES DU JURY RAPPORTEURS • Susan Mwangi Senior Lecturer, Kenyatta University • Henri Médard PR, Université Aix Marseille EXAMINATEUR • Herve Maupeu MCF, UPPA DIRECTEUR • Christian Thibon PR, émé, UPPA The Challenge of Negotiating Between National and Sub-national Identities Through Heritage-making in Post- devolution Kenya: With the Example of Mukurwe wa Nyagathanga Cultural Site. David Irungu MBUTHIA - 2020 Declaration I, David Irungu Mbuthia, declare that this Research Dissertation is my original work. Other works that have been quoted are duly acknowledged. i The Challenge of Negotiating Between National and Sub-national Identities Through Heritage-making in Post- devolution Kenya: With the Example of Mukurwe wa Nyagathanga Cultural Site. David Irungu MBUTHIA - 2020 Dedication This work is dedicated to my wife and children, without whose sacrifices and encouragement it would not have been possible. My wife Florence Waruinu Mwangi Irungu took up more than her fair share of domestic responsibilities during my lengthy academic sojourns in France, field work missions, and the innumerable times I worked late into the night. During these periods, our children Frank Mbuthia, Gracelyne Wangui, and Justin Mwangi were deprived of quality time and play with Daddy. I cannot remember how many times they asked the question, “Dad, when will you finish your work?” collectively and individually. My hope is that, as they continue to explore the world of knowledge, they will one day find the content of this thesis inspiring and worthwhile. I also dedicate this work to my Mum and Dad, Jane Wangui and Francis Mbuthia, for instilling in me the love for education from childhood, and for their encouragement and moral support throughout this study. Lastly, I dedicate this work to heritage managers in Kenya and beyond, with whom I have endeared to share my twenty years of experience in heritage management which straddles between pre and post-devolution eras. I hope they will find the work useful. ii The Challenge of Negotiating Between National and Sub-national Identities Through Heritage-making in Post- devolution Kenya: With the Example of Mukurwe wa Nyagathanga Cultural Site. David Irungu MBUTHIA - 2020 Acknowledgement The attainment of this PhD is a dream come true for me. The motivation to undertake the research that culminated in its attainment was fuelled by a long standing interest in heritage and its conservation. My dream to earn a doctorate degree would, however, not have been possible without the help and intervention of many individuals and institutions that contributed in various ways. To these individuals and institutions, I owe much gratitude. Below I mention some of them. First, I thank my supervisor Professor Christian Thibon, who guided and encouraged me throughout the long process of researching and writing, with a lot of insight and patience. I also thank Professor Jean Rieucau, and Christine Garnero Monera, both of whom gave me very helpful critique during the inception of this research. My gratitude also goes to Dr. Hérve Maupeu, Dr. Washington Ndiri, and Dr. Susan Mwangi who shared with me great insights at the formative stages of this research. I also thank Dr. Edwin Siundu who proof-read my final thesis and gave me invaluable editorial advice. I would also like to thank the management of the National Museums of Kenya who allowed me to attend my ‘sandwich’ study sessions in France and undertake fieldwork in Kenya. I am particularly grateful to the Director General, Dr. Mzalendo Kibunjia; the Director in charge of Antiquities Sites and Monuments, Dr. Purity Kiura; the Director Human Resource and Administration, Mr Stanvas Ong’alo; the Head of Cultural Heritage Department, Dr. Joseph Mutanga, and the Corporation Secretary and Head of Legal Services, Ms Metrine Wakhungu. They all supported and facilitated my pursuit of the PhD in various ways including sharing their highly valuable insight regarding various aspects of heritage management in the country. I also thank Mr Fredrick Karanja Mirara, the former NMK’s Head of Education Department, who did not only introduce me to Mukurwe wa Nyagathanga in the early 2000s but was also very helpful when I reached to him on some points of clarifications during this research. I would also like to thank my colleagues Njuguna Gichere and Antony Maina, and the senior heritage Warden Muriithi Kibaba, who accompanied and rendered me a helping hand during my field visits at Mukurwe wa Nyagathanga. Similar gratitude goes to another colleague, Julias Juma Ogega, who was my field assistant as I visited Kit Mikayi for a preliminary survey before I iii The Challenge of Negotiating Between National and Sub-national Identities Through Heritage-making in Post- devolution Kenya: With the Example of Mukurwe wa Nyagathanga Cultural Site. David Irungu MBUTHIA - 2020 zeroed down on Mukurwe wa Nyagthanga as my case study. I also thank Ebrahim Mwangi from NMK’s Multimedia Department who, having documented the events at Mukurwe wa Nyagathanga, was very kind to help me access and select images for this thesis. I thank Gilbert Ouma Jerry who technically helped me adapt Łukasz Gaweł’s heritagization ‘Cobweb.’ My gratitude also go to Gilbert Busolo who, helped me recover a copy of my thesis when my flash disc crashed. I am also grateful to Mss Catherine Savali and Sheila Ambeyi who helped me with tracing back and aligning several references that I had misplaced. I also thank the NMK Library staff who were very helpful during the many days that I studied in the library. My gratitude is also due to Marrion Kamau, the chairperson of the Green Belt Movement (GBM), who shared with me the background of the GBM’s involvement with Mukurwe wa Nyagathanga and further insights on how the site could be developed and safeguarded. I am also highly indebted to Professor Robert Rukwaro whose great insight I have benefitted from through the many discussions we have had in the course of this research and through his published work which formed part of my key readings for Mukurwe wa Nyagathanga. I am particularly grateful to him for allowing me to use his illustrations on the proposed renovation of Mukurwe wa Nyagathanga. My thanks also go to Anne Vourc’h, the Director of Réseau des Grands Sites de France, who received me at the ‘Grands Sites de France’ office in Paris, and shared with me insights on the work of the ‘Network of Grand Sites of France’organisation. I also thank Julie Boustingorry, the Architectural and Heritage Coordinator, Pau City, who elaborated to me how the regional heritage management system works in France. I am grateful to Vincent Guichard, the Director General of Bibracte Archaeological Site, who welcomed me to the site and to his home, where I shared great moments with his family. I am also very grateful to Mathieu Guerin, the Scientific and University Cooperation Attaché at the French Embassy, who at the very critical moment of writing this thesis, offered me succinct advice and encouragement that enabled me finalize the thesis in time. I am equally grateful to the French Government for sponsoring this study and to the French Institute for Research in Africa (IFRA), and Association of France Alumni in Kenya (AFRAKEN) for financing my field studies. iv The Challenge of Negotiating Between National and Sub-national Identities Through Heritage-making in Post- devolution Kenya: With the Example of Mukurwe wa Nyagathanga Cultural Site. David Irungu MBUTHIA - 2020 I am also grateful to my fellow students especially from Kenya (Kennedy Gitu, Wycliffe Nyachoti, Joseph Akuma, and Joyce Kaguta) with whom we encouraged each other. Above all, I thank the almighty God, for the gift of life, good health, strength and the opportunity as I undertook this study. v The Challenge of Negotiating Between National and Sub-national Identities Through Heritage-making in Post- devolution Kenya: With the Example of Mukurwe wa Nyagathanga Cultural Site. David Irungu MBUTHIA - 2020 Abstract Heritage-making, also known as heritagization, is the process by which various actors assign different values to cultural identity based on specific interests. As a product of day-to-day living, heritage is created and recreated through perceptions and practices motivated by various reasons, which could be social, economic, or political. In Kenya, like in most African countries, heritagization of culture has historically been used by ethnic and other sub-national groups in the creation and maintenance of ethno-political, local, and regional identities. Heritagization has also been used by the state in the perpetual creation of Kenyan national identity and nation- statehood. Historically, the centrifugal forces that create ethno-political and local identities have been seen to pull against the centripetal force geared towards the creation of Kenyan national identity and nation-statehood. Almost sixty years after independence, realization of a unitary Kenyan identity and nationhood has been hindered by perpetual ethnic politicization and state centralization instituted partly through identity instrumentalization and heritagization. While the origins of objectification, institutionalization and politicization of ethnicity, and centralisation of the state have been attributed to the colonial period, perpetual political heritagization of ethnic identity and state ethnicization by the political elite in the post-colonial period led to ethnic animosity which culminated with the 2007/08 Post-Election Violence (PEV).