CENSUS OF INDIA, 1961 WEST BENGAL & SIKKIM Volume XVI. Part VI (6)

V!LLAGE SURVEY MONOGRAPH ON CHANDRABHAG

PROF. (Miss) BELA DUITAGUPTA Reader, Department of Political Science, University of Calcutta VlLlAGE SURVEY MONOGRAPH ON CHANDRABHAG P. R. G. 1(l2. G(N) --1,000 -

PRI~TED IN I~DIA, By TRE GE~ERAL "I\1:ANAGER, GOVERNMENT OF I~DJA PRESS, OALCUTTA A::-;D PUBLISHED By THE MANAGER OJ<' PUBI.ICATIONS, UIYIL LINES, DELRI, 1969.

Price: Rs, 4'25 paise Qr 9 sh. 11 d. or 1$ 53 cents, 1961 CENSUS PUBLICATIONS GOVERNMENT OF INDIA PUBLICATIONS Vol. XVI-West Bengal & Sikkim

[All parts will be uniform size, demy quarto 81" X ll~"]

PART I-A (i) GENllRAL REPORT (POPULATION PROGRESS) Published PART I-A (ii) GENERAL RllPOR'1 (POPULATION AND SOCIETY) " PART I-B* REPORT ON VITAL STATISTICS " PART I-C SUBSIDIARY TABLES " PART II-A GENERAL POPl:LATIO~ T ADLES " PART II-B (i) GENERAL ECONOMIC TABLES (B-1 TO H-IV) PART n-B (ii) GENERAL ECONOMIC TABLES (B-Y TO B-IX) PART H-C (i) SOCIAL AND CULTURAL TABLFS PART H-C (ii) MIGRATION TABLES (D-T TO D-UI) " PART H-C (iii) MIGRATION TABLES (D-IV TO D-YI) PART III HOUSEHOLD ECONOMIC TABLES PART IV (i) REPORT AND MAIN T,l"BLES ON HO[JSING AND ESTABLISHMENTS " PART IV (ii) SUBSIDIARY TA.BLES ON HO{lSING ANn ESTABLISHMENTS " PART V-A (ir~ TABLES ON SCHEDULED CASTES " PART V-A (ii)* T;'ALES ON SCHEDULED TRIDES " PART VI (1-21)* VILLAGE SURVEY MONOGRAPHS 5 Volumes published; t Volume in Press; The present Volume PART VII-A (i-xii)* REPORT AND TABLES ON SDRVEY OF HANDICRAFTS 4 Volumes published; 1 Volume in Press PART VII-D (1-4)* FAIRS AND FESTIVALS 2 Volumes published; 2 Volumes in Press PART VTII-A ADMINISTRATION REPORT- -ENrMFRA TrON Published (For office use only) PART VITI-B ADMINISTRATION REPORT -TABUl.ATION (For office use only) PART IX* CENSUS ATLAS In Press PART X-A (I) TABLES ON TIlE CALCUTrA TNDUSTRIAL REGION Published

PART X-A (ii) TABLES ON THE CALCUTTA [NDUSTRIAL REGION " PART X-B* ALPHABETICAL INDEX of VILLAGES 1n Press "Doe, not relate to Sikklm GOYERNMENT OF WEST BENGAL PUBLICATIONS 16 Volumes of District Census HandbOOk [Distdct Census Handbooks -Maida, West Dinajpur, Hooghly, Calcutta (Vol. II), Coach Behar, Mnrshidabad, Burdwan (Vol. II), Midnapore (Vols. I & II), Birbhum, Bankura, Darjeeling, Nadia, 24-Parganas (Vol T), Jalpaiguri and Howrah published; 1 Volume in press] Collaboration SUKCMAR SlNHA oIthe West Bengal Civil Service, Officer Oil Special Dllty, Census Office, WeST Bengal

Art.work & Photographs AR{;NABHA DATTA Artist.fllm·Photographer

Diagrams, Charts & Maps JALADHIBHUSAJ\' DASGUPTA /)rnuglttsl1l{/1/

FOREWORD

The Census in India has a long tradition of undertaking and promoting investigation on diverse aspects of the socio-economic life of the country. During 1961 Census, on the initiative of my illustrious predecessor Shri A. Mitra, a study of more than 500 villages was taken up. As far as possible these villages were chosen to represent adequately geographical, occupational and ethnic diversity. The brief account of the test of selection is furnished here.

(a) The first group of villages was so selected that each of them would contain one dominant community with one predominating occupation; for instance, fisher­ men, forest workers, jhum cultivators, potters, weavers, salt-makers, quarry workers, etc. A village should have a minimum population of 400, the optimum being 500 and 700.

(b) The second group of villages was to be of numerically prominent Scheduled Tribes of the State. Each village would represent a particular tribe. The minimum population should be 400, the optimum being 500 and 700.

(c) The third group of villages should each be of fair size, of an old and settleo character and contain variegated occupations and be, if possible, multi-ethnic in composition. By fair size was meant a population of 500 and 700 persons or more. The village should mainly depend on agriculture and be su.fficiently away from the major sources of modern communication such as the pistrict administrative head­ quarters and business centres. It should be roughly a dais journey from the above places.

The villages were to be selected with an eye to variation in terms 9f size, proximity to city and other means of modern communication, nearness to hills jungles and major rivers. Thus there was to be a regional distribution throughout the State of this category of villages. If, however, a particular district contained significant ecological variations within its area, more than one village in the district might be selected to study the special adjustments to them.

While the surveys in most of the villages were undertaken by the qualified personnel appointed by the Census Organization, in some cases reputed scholars were invited to take up projects in collaboration with the Census Organisation. I am glad that Prof. (Miss) Duttag~pta offered to take up a village in West Bengal for intensive socio-economic survey. viii

For the purpose of the survey a schedule "drawn up by the Census Organization was made available to Prof. (Miss) Duttagupta. It was. however, entirely left to her discretion to make necessary modifications in the schedule. The Social Studies Unit in the Office of the Superintendent of Census Operations, West Bengal, under the guidance of Shri S. Sinha collaborated with her in this project to a considerable extent. This report is a testimony to a useful collaboration between a government organization and private research. My thanks to Prof. (Miss) Duttagupta and the colleagues in the Census Organization who have collaborated with her in the pre­ paration of tlus monograph.

A. Chandra Sekhar Registmr GeneraL, India. PREFACE

During my stay abroad, I was constantly made to feel at different seminars on Indian Sociology held at the School of Oriental & African Studies and the London School of Economics & Political Science, that I had not seen 'village India' from within. It is indeed true; I spent mostly in towns in Bengal and in the city of Calcutta and had visited a village in East Bengal only once. My knowledge of the Indian social institutions, particularly in the village level, was thus never primary. So, on my return home in 1961, I wrote a personal letter to Sri Asok Mitra, then Registrar General, Government of India, expressing my desire to undertake a village survey w.ithin the competence of the Census department of the Government of India. Mr. Mitra was extremely kind to concede to my wishes. The present monograph is the outcome of a near-adventure request to the Registrar General in 1961.

My full-time teaching assignment at the University of Calcutta stood in the way of doing the field-work in the traditional way, i.e., in one long and single spell. Instead, I had to spread it over a period of time, doing the field-work at interval~. I started doing it during the summer holidays, May-June in 1962. I could not be at it again till January 1964 as I was taken seriously ill for months together in 1963. Since January 1964, I visited the village quite a number of times, during short holidays and week-ends. By my repeated visits I was able to develop an informal relationship with the members of the village and it helped me in establishing a rapport with the villagers. Without this rapport it is not easy to see village India from within. My work at Chandrabhag (the village under survey) had really been a pleasure, an experience too. But for this field study in the village my knowledge and conception of Indian social realities would have remained incomplete and absolutely half-done.

I sincerely thank all the people of Chandrabhag for their kind and the most ungrudging co-operation with me in my work. lowe my debt of affection specially to Sri Nishit Ghosal, Sri Deepak Banerjee and Sm. Arati Banerjee for their constant help throughout the period of survey. I will be failing in my duties if I do not offer my sincerest thanks to the authorities of the Sreekrishna Girls' Higher Secondary School for providing me with accommodation in the School quarters during the period of my survey. Last but not least, lowe my debt of gratitude to the Census department, West Bengal, in general, and to Sri S. Sinha, in particular, for helping me in different ways. Though my investigation in the village was done primarily according to the schedules supplied by the Census department, I took occasional liberty in inserting extra-schedule information whenever possible. I hope this has not marred the scientific rigour of the village study.

Bela Duttagupta

CONTENTS

vii FOREWORD ix PREFACE xi CONTENTS 1 CHAPTER I 3 The Village The setting-3. Physical aspect-3. So:1-3. Crops-4. Flora and fauna--4. Climate-5. Hi~tory-5. Population-6. Introducing Chandrabhag-9. Location-9. History-9. Neighbourhood-1I. land and soil-l1. Land-tenure-ll. Housing and household arrangement-ll. Flora and fauna-12. Extension Service-12. Communication-12. Education - 13. Health and medical facilities-l3. Water supply and sanitation-14. local Self­ Government and co-operatives-14. 15 CHAPTER II 17 People and Their Material Culture Demographic pattern-I7. Caste composition-18. Population of Chandrabhag according to caste and sex-20. Marital status-23. Residential patterns and resources of Chandrabhag-25. Buildings and dwelling houses-25. Household goods-28. Dress-29. Food-30. Family and kinship pattern-3I. Struc1ure-3I. Actual birth-35. Namakarana and Annaprasana-36. Paita or Upana_vana-37. Marriage-37. Disposal of the dead and the funeral rites-41. The commuters-42. 45 CHAPTER III 47 Economy of the Village Economic structure-47. Land-49. Cultivable land lying fallow-52. Farming of land-52. Livestock-54. Tools and implements-56. Village economy-57. Agricultural operations-58. Indebtedness at Chandrabhag-59. Reasons for mobility-67. 69 CHAPTER IV 71 Socio-Cultural Life Education and extra-mural activities-71. Primary education-71. Secondary education-72. College education-73. Community activities-75. Library- 76. Religious structure-78. Attitude to social change-81. LIST OF TABLES

Page

1 Acreagc under different crops, 1960-61 4 2 Population of tile district of Howrah with variation from 1872- 1961 6

3 Percenlage variations in populations, 1872-1961 7 4 immigration and emigration in Howrah from and outside the Stale, 1891-1951 7

5 Tolal Population of Howrah district, 1961 9 6 A vcrage distance of Chandrabhag fro111 nearest Socio-Economic Centres 13 7 Houschold and total population by castos 19

8 Chart of caste-hierarchy 19 9 Sex composition 21 10 Population at Chandrabhag by age-group 21 It Percentage of population 22 12 Distribulion of population at Chandrabhag age and caste basis 22

13 Distribution of population by marital Status (caste-wise) 24 14 House-types at Chandrabhag 26

15 Household effects. of different castc households at Chandra bhag 28

16 Brahmin 32 17 Slructure of families of different c,astes at Chandrabhag, 33 18 Mean size of the families of different castes 34

19 Cultivable landholding among different caSll'S [It Chandrabhag 51 20 Brahmins 51 21 Kayasthas 5l 22 Mahisyas 51 23 Tantis 52

24 Share-cropping and cultivat lOll 52 25 Livestock 55 xiii

Pag,

26 Agricultural products 57

27 Expenditure-pattern in some other States 59

28 Sources of credit 61

29 Households in debt at Chandrabhag caste-wise 62

30 Occupational pattern of the industrialised district of Howrah 62

31 Occupation 63

32 Diversification of occupations and their distribution among different castes at Chandrabhag 64

33 Occupational mobility of the Mahisyas 66

34 Occupational mobility of the Kayasthas 66 35 Occupational mobility of the Brahmins 66

36 West Bengal (sample villages) 67

37 Primary education 72

38 Primary education at Chandrabhag 72

39 College education 73 40 Literacy and educational standard at Chandrabhag 74

41 Members of the Gram Panchayat 75

42 Members of the Anchal Panchayat for Chandrabhag 75

ILLUSTRATIONS

Maps

1 Villages of West Bengal selected for Socio-Economic Survey Facing xvi

2 Notional map of Chandrabhag mauza in Bagnan police station 8

3 Notional map of Bagnan police station in Howrah district 8

4 Notional map of Chandrabhag (J.L. No. 90) 10

Map of Chandrabhag showing the railway and river system 48 XIV

Page

Line-Drawings and Sketches

1 Distribution of household (Community-wise) 18

2 Distribution of males and females (Community-wise) 20

3 Distribution of males and females {Age-wise) 21

4 Marital status 23

5 Landless landownen (Major castes only) 50

6 Agricultural tools and implements 56

7 Purpose of indebtedness 60 8 Number of indebt and debt-free households 61

Photographs

Sivam-Sanctum Before page 1

2 o Tempora 0 mores " 3 The Primary School " Flag-hoisting 4 " 5 Jaggery pan " 6 Betel-vine " 7 The smith in his smithy " 8 Panchayat at work " 9 Flag-hoisting " 10 A get-together " 11 A game 0 f dice ., Here lives a rich man 12 " Sunday morning 13 " 14 A pucca house .. 15 Leader of the demons-a member of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly elected by the Ioeul electorate " 16 A fishy business xv

Photographs

17 Village temples Before page 1 18 Kali the living one •• 19 Chandratala •• 20 Corn-thrashing ,. 21 Husking machine ., 22 Grocer's shop " 23 Washerman's house ., XV]

VILLAGES OF WEST BENGAL SELECTED FOR SOCIO-EC'Ol'.'OMIC SURVEY

No. VILLAGE POLICE STATION DISTRICT

Rishihat Khasmahal Dalje-eling Darjeeling (J. L. No. 12) 2 Upper Pedong in Pedong Kllasmahal Kalimpong Darjeeling (J. L. No.6) 3 Sindibong Khasmahal Kalimpong Darjeeling (J. L. No. 44)

A t Dakshin Mendabari KalcHni Ja\paiguri (J. L No. 41) 5 Tatpara Alipur Duars JaJpaiguri (J. L. No. 119) 6 Madhur Bhasa Tufanganj Cooch Behar (J. L. No. 1192) 7 Patiram Balurghat West Dinajpur (J. L. No. 187) B Kharibari Habibpur MaIda (1. 1. No. 32) 9 Bahadurpur in Paharpur Lalg01a Mur$hidabad (J. L. No.9) 10 Harharia Chak Raninagar Murshidabad (J. L. No. 58) 11 Chanda Bongaon 24-Parganas (J. 1. No. 54) 12 Chandrabhag Bagnan Howrah (J. L. No. 90) 13 Kodalia Chinsurah Hooghly (J. L. No. 12) 14 Ghatampur Polba Hooghly (J. L. No. 50) 15 Kamnara Burdwan Burdwan (J. L. No. 49) 16 Mahammadbazar Muhammad Bazar Birbhum (J. 1. No. 125) 17 Raibaghini in MlfZapur Kotalpur Bankura (1. L. No. 54) 18 Khas Jangal Midnapore Midnapore (J. L. No. 167) 19 Ashutia Bhagwanpur Midnapore (J. 1. No. 171) 20 Bhumlj Dhan Sol Binpur Midnapore (J. L. No. 780) 21 . Ghutia Ihalda Pur~llja (J. L. No. 22) WEST BENGAL 27.

VILLAGES SELECTED FOR SOCia-ECONOMIC SURVEY

~.'

SYMBOL MAIN fEATURES

~ BHUM!J ,LOCHA

® SHUTlA

® LEPCHA

8 '.. MAHAto

~ •.• ""HISVA ~5' G .... MECH.ORAON .. RASHA . ~ " NAMASUORA & REFUGEES ~ @

... NEPA.lI 'i" l" 9 RAJ54NSH) of' 0 ~ . SANTA.l ;\ 0 :(f. AWAV FROM URBAN ARH ... )Sf. NEA~ URBAN AREA

,.. IMPACt OF A COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT BLOCK. ~ if ,.- A.. ' .. CONC~-SHELL WORKERS A fISHE~MEN " SILl( WEAVE:.RS .,. D

".

z

NATIONAL. HIGHWAY 8 liP-SHU'" STATE HIGHWAY C COOCH'U!AP. r:MILWAY 1 EAST rAlUSlAN

se~LE APPROXIMATE INTERNATIONAl. BOUNDARY _._._ 16 I 0 14 32 <41 STATE: flOUNOARY ~L! !...J. r"'I r-'"'I 1"'"*1 H OfSTRICT BOUNDARY _"_. _._ Kl.OMEarsI6. 0 16 3=: 4' CI4 80 POLlCE STATION BOUNOAFlY eENGAl. ~[L~--~--••L·------~.77~------.~e'~ ______~.~~~' ______------~.O~----~,N

Sivam-Sanctum o tcmpora 0 mores

The Primary School

\. 1'lag-boisting

Jaggery pan Betel·Vine

The smith in his smithy Flag-hoisting A get·together

A game of dice Here lives a rich man

Sunday morning A pucca house

Leader of the dcmos-a member of the West Beagal Legislative Assembly elected by tile local electOirate A fishy business

Village temples Kali the living one

Chandratala Corn-thrashing

Husking machine Grocer's shop

Washennan's house CHA·PTER I THE VILLAGE

The setting

Physical aspect

Soil

Crops

Flora and fauna

Climate

History

Population

Introducing Chandrabhag Location History Neighbourhood Land and soil Land-tenure ' Housing and household arrangement Flora and fauna Extension Service Communication Education Health and medical facilities Water-supply and sanitation Local Self-Government and co-operatives 5 (P;B) Census/67

CHAPTER I THE VILLAGE

THE SETTING the thanas of Amta, Bagnan, U1uberia, Sham­ pur and Bawria. There arc a total of 847 The district of Howrah is situated in the mauzas borne on the Jurisdiction List, of which south-east of the Burdwan Division between 22° nine are uninhabited and 815 inhabited. 48' North Latitude and between 8r 23' East Chandrabhag, the village under survey belongs Longitude. According to the Surveyor General to the thana of Bagnan, in Uluberia subdivision. of India, the area of the district is 568.2 square miles, while according to the Director of Land PHYSICAL ASPFCT Records and Survey of West Bengal it is 560.1 square miles. In 1951 Census the district had The district of Howrah has an irregular tri­ a population of 1,611,373, while in the Census angular shape. bounded on two sides by great 1961 the population is 2,038:477. Barring Cal­ rivers, the apex of which lies at their confluence cutta. Howrah is the smallest district in West near the James and Mary Sands (Gad pur). Its Bengal but it holds the 6th place for the most extreme length from east tQ west is about 28 numerous population of all districts in the State. miles. and its extreme length from north to south The overall density of popufation of the district is nearly 40 miles. Hemmed in between the in 1951 was 2,877 to the square mile. The Hooghly on the east and the Rupnarayan on the rural density was 2,004, while the urban density west, and intersected by the Damodar. the per square mile was 31,465. Th~ overall den­ Howrah district consists of a flat alluvial plain. sity of population of the district in 1961 Census with a gradual flow of drainage being conse­ changed to 3,639 to the square mile. The rural quently to the SQuth and south-east. Three dis­ density of population per square mile was 2,353 tinct tracts have been formed by the peculiar and that for the urban area was 18.554. setting of the rivers in the district, viz., an east­ ern track stretching away from the Hooghly and The district is bounded in the north by its branch the Saraswati, a central tract traversed Arambag and Serampore subdivisions; on the by the Damodar and its branch the Kana Damo­ east by Barraekpore, Sadar and Diamond Har­ dar or Kansiki, and a we, tern tract consisting of bour subdivisions of the 24-Parganas and Cal­ the country between the Damodar and the Rup­ cutta; on the south by Tamluk subdivision of narayan. Tl1e upper courses of the Damodat Midnapore, and on the west partly by Tam­ and the Rupnarayan are somewhat higher than luk and Ghatal subdivisions of the latter dis­ the Hooghly; and in the intervening country are trict and partly by Arambag subdivision of numerous water-courses Or creeks. called Khals, Hooghly district. The boundaries are part­ which run dry or are very shallow in the hot ly natural and partly artificial. On the west weather, and the beds of a great many of them and south-west. the river Rupnarayan and on are now cuItivated in summer and put under the east and the south-east the river Hooghly Bora paddy. The villages are situated .at great constitute natural boundaries, while on the distances. Long embankments to protect the north. the boundary is formec1 by the Bally country from inundation is a common sight; khal and an artificial line marking the southern roads are few in number and also the number of limit of the district. vehicular traffic is extremely meagre.

The district of Howrah has two subdivisions SOIL -Sadar or Howrah and Uluberia with their headquarters at Howrah city and Uluberia. The The soil throughout the district of Howrah Sadar subdivision covers the thanas of Howrah is entirely alluvial in nature. being formed of (Bantra, Golabari, Malipanchghara), Sibpur. the deposits of the Hooghly, Damodar and Rup­ Bally, Domjur, Jagacha, Sankrai1. Jagatballavpur narayan rivers. Soil samples coHccted from and Panchla; the Uluberia subdivision has in it f-litl'erent pllrts of the lower Dilmodar Valley 14 4 CHANDRABHAG

Region collected by the Joint Committee for a should be some restriction in acreage under betel­ Diagnostic Survey of the Damodar Valley Region vine or Pan. and it should be allowed to grow on show local variations as indicated by the nature land which cannot be put to any other crop of soil profiles, differences in PH values and cultivation. The crop position of the district will chemical composition. Of every ten soil profiles be visualized from the following table: it appears that as many as six profiles show a zone of clay accumulation at a depth of 24"-36". The results of chemical analysis indicate that TABLE I the soils of the district are very low in organic matter content, ranging between 0.3 and 3 per ACREAGE UNDER DIFFERENT CROPS. 1960·61 cent. in subsoil and 0.9 per cent. in the top soii. It will, therefore, be necessary to add large Cultive- amounts of organic manure to the soil, if its Acreago Not avail- able but Crops under !>ble fo, not fertility is to be increased. The PH values in· cultivation cultivation

Regarding the fauna of the district it can be CLIMATE said that wild animals are rather scarce. The larger species are practically unrepresented as The climate of the district is generally hot there is no jungle to cover the big animals. and humid. For practical purposes the year may Occasionally, however, one or two leopards have be regarded as consisting of two seasons. the dry been reported. Foxes and wild pigs abound in season from November to May, and the wet parts of the Uluberia subdivision. Crocodiles season from June to October; but the dry are sometimes to be seen on the banks of the season may be further subdivided into the cold Hooghly and the Damodar rivers during the weather and the hot weather, and the wet season winter months. In the cold weather snipe of into the advanced south-west monsoon (June to two or three varieties are seen in abundance in September) and the retreating monsoon (Septem­ the paddy fields in Domjur. Sankrail and Jagat­ ber to October). Humidity for the whole area baUavpur area, and also in Uluberia subdivision. varies from 78°-79° in April-May to 90° in The common whistling and cotlon teal, some of August; and the temperature varies between the commoner varieties of duck are also to be 100° in May to 59° in January. Within recent found. A large variety of both poisonous and years the minimum temperature fell to as low as non-poisonous snakes are to be seen in this dis­ 44 ° in February in 1950. The district receives trict during the summer and the rainy seasons. an abundant rainfall,. but the quantity varies

I greatly. Record has it that the rainfall varied The district is rather well known for its between 25, 99, 54, 39, 66 inches in 1926, 1933, abundant supply of a large variety of fishes. 1934, 1935. 1936 respectively. Being intersticed with a few big rivers and num­ ber of Khals, Howrah has the advantage of HISTORY pisciculture as well as normal fish supply all throughout the year. The Hooghly from Howrah had been a land of storm and strife Uluberia to Diamond Harbour is noted for for centuries. It may be assumed that Howrah Tapsi or mango-fish (Polynemus paradiseus) of was inhabited long before the Christian era be­ which Walter Hamilton (1820) waxed eloquent cause of its close proximity to Tamralipti "as the best and highest flavoured fish not only (Tamluk). This great sea port of Eastern India in Bengal, but in the whole world". It 1S had very often been mentioned in the Maha­ caught with or without roes in large numbers bharata, in the old scriptures of the Jainas and from April to June; and U1uberia is a centre Buddhists and also in the Periplus of the Ery­ for its exports. Members of the carp family theran Sea. In the beginning of the 12th C. are found in almost every tank, Rui (Labeo A. D. the area, now included in the district, rohita), Mrigel (Cirrhina mrigala) and Katla was supposed to have accepted the suzerainty of (Catla ctia) spawn are reared extensively. Chodaganga, the first Ganga Kings of Orissa. At Besides these four principal fishes there are the close of the 12th century Muhammedan other varieties and they include Kharka bata dominance of the area was recorded; they took (C. reba), Bhatgan bata (Labeo bata), Kalbaus possession of Satgaon, and in all probability (L. Calbasu), Air (Mystus aor), Tangra (Mystus extended their conquest southwards as far as the vitattus), Bagha air (Bagarius bagarius), Gule mouth of the river Damodar. Tangra (Macrones gulio), Rita (Rita rita), Magur (Clarias batrachus), Singi (Heteropneustes tossi­ The first mention of any place in the district lis), Pabda (Callichrous pabda), Boal (Wallagonia by a European writer occurs in the journal of alta), Pangas (Pangasius pangasius), Silone the Venetian Casare Federici, who left an inter­ (Silonia silondia), Bacha '(Eutropiclzthys vacha), esting account of Bator as early as 1578. His lUsh (Hilsa ilisha), Phensa (Engranlis telara), account of the area is worth quoting here: "A Khoira (Gadusia chapra), Kankle (Xenentodoll good tide's rowing before you come to satgaon cancila), Gurjaoli (P. tetradactylus), Chanda you shall have a place which is called Buttor*, (Ambassis nama), Byra Chanda (Stromatous and from thence upwards. The river is very niger), Parse (Mugil parsia), Bhangore eM. Tade), Khorsula (M. Corsula), Cheng (Ophicephalus gachu), Lata (0. Punctatlls), Sole (0. stoiatus), *Bator is mentioned in Bipradasa's Manasamangal Sal (0. Marulius), Bam (Mastacembelus (1459). It was one of the villages which the armatus). Pankal (M. Pancalus), Khalse (Colisa East India Company asked from the Emoeror of Delhi in 1714-15. Apart from literary and fasciate), Plwlui (Notopterus llotopterus), Chital historical evidences, Bator has also been indicat­ (Notopterus chitala). ed in several old maps as well as in Rennell's. 6 CHANDRABHAG shallow, and little water. Every year at Buttor The Firingis conducted trade which was ori­ the make and unmake a village with houses ginally monopolized by the Portugese, it was and shops made of straw, and with all things gradually shared in by the Dutch, the English necessary to their uses, and this village standeth and the French. After an early struggle with as long as the ships. ride there, and till they the existing authority, the British was successful depart for the Indies and when they are depart­ in getting Talukdari possession of Salica (Sal· ed, every man goeth to his plot of houses and kia), Harirah (Howrah) Cassundeah (Kasundi), then setteth five on the on them, which made Ramkrissnapur, and Batter (Batore) on May 4, me to marvel. For, as I passed upto Satgaon, I 1714. The Maratha invasion of Bengal ill saw this village standing with a great number of 1741-42 is another noteworthy event in the his­ people, with the infinite number of ships and tory of the district. The Maratha cavalry under bazars, and at my return coming down with my Bhaskar Pandit swept over western Bengal, and captain of the last ship, for whom I tarried, I forced Alivardi Khan to retire precipitately from was amazed to see such a place so soon razed Burdwan to Katwa. The whole tract from and burnt and nothing left but the sign of the Akbarnagar (Rajmahal) to Midnapore and burnt housec". The same impression of Sat­ Ialeswar came, it is said, into the possession of gaon as a thriving port fed by numerous subsi­ the Maratbas. diary marts is gathered from the account of Ralph Fitch (1586). "Satagam is a fair city for Another notable event in the 18th century a city of the Moors, and very plentiful of all history of the district was the action which the things. Here is Bengala they have every day in Dutch fought in the Hooghly in 1759. Even· one place or other a great market, and they have tually the British overpowered the Dutch fleet many great boats, wherewithal they go from and made them capitulate. All these go to show place to placc and buy rice and many other that the district has a very chequered history things. This magnificent delta port seventeen which, however, has been reflected in the socio­ square miles in extent, had already reached its economic development of the district. decaying point by the time of Aini-Akbari (1596). In Sarkar Satgaon there are two Ban­ dars about half a Kos distant from each other : POPULATION The one Satgaon, the other Hugli. The latter alone pays revenue. Both are in the hands of Population of the district has shown consider­ the Firinghis". able variation from 1872 i.e., when the first

TABLE 2

POPULATION OF THE DISTRICT OF HOWRAH WITH VARIATION FROM 1872-1961

District Population Variation PopUlation Variation Population Variation Population 1061 1951·61 1051 1941-51 1941 1931-41 1931

Howrah 2,038,477 +427,104 1,611,373 +121,069 1,490,304 +391,437 l,OOg,Su7

District Variation Population Variation Population Variation Population 1921·31 1921 1911·21 lOll 1901·11 1001

Howrah +101,464 [,997,403 +53,901 943,502 +92,9815 850,514

District Variation Population Variation Population \"ol';atiou Population 1891-1901 1891 1881·91 IS81 1872·81 1872

Howrah +86,889 763,625 +128,244 635,381 +39,51() 595,865 THE VILLAGE 7 census was taken to the present day i.e., in 1961 riched by the trade they bring. The drainage Census. Even allowing for a number of changes schemes of Howrah, Barajol and Rajapuf made in the administrative boundaries and a few epi­ the thanas Domjuf and Jagatballavpur less un­ demics and natural calamities, the population healthy. The embankments in the Uluberia has shown on upward swing during the census subdivision have prevented disastrous floods and periods. The increase is chiefly due to the great facilitated the extension of cultivation, and con­ industrial activity in the metropolis of Calcutta, sequently an increase in i:he cultivated area. In in Howrah city, and along the river bank as far recent years, the influx of refugees from Palds­ south as Uluberia. The numerous mills and tan has also inflated the population figure. The other industrial concerns have attracted a large following statement shows the variation in popu­ number of the labourers from other parts of lation of the police stations and subdivision of India, and the local inhabitants have been en- the Howrah district between 1872 and 1961.

TABLE 3

PERCEN'l'AGE VARIATIONS IN POPULATIONS, 1872-1961

District 1951·61 1901·51 1921·51 1872-1921 1941·51 1931.41

Howrah +26'5 +8·1 +35·6

District 1921·31 1911-21 1901·11 1891.1901 1881·91 1872·81

IIowrah +10·2 -t 10·9 +IH +20·2

The two statements quoted above illustrate East Bengal. Howrah being an industrial dis­ the growth of population in the district of How­ trict, large numbers of agriculturists and abori­ rah. Apart from natural born popUlation of ginals immigrate to seek employment in cultiva­ the district, there had been a considerable num­ tion, in the brickfields or on railway works. ber of immigrants in the area down from 1891 That there is a steady increase of immigrants down to the present day. The population figure into the district will be evident from the follow­ for 1951 includes 61,096 displaced persons from ing table:

TABLE 4

Jr,IM1GRATION AND EMIGRATION IN HOWRAH FRo}I AND OUTSIDE THE STATE, 1891-1951

Categories 1051 104i U·31 1921 1911 ~901 1891

Actual population 1,611,373 1,490,304 I,G98,867 907,403 943,502 850,514 763,625

Immigration 201,92G 206,350 137,514 120,126 109,304 87,IG8 46,284

Emigration 6,147 3,670 3,078 3,000 8,005 325 933

Natural popUlation 1,415,594 1,287,624 964,431 871,217 842,203 763,071 718,274

Percentrlge variation -99 33-5 10·7 -iJ04 -10·3 -6,3

This picture of 'immigration and emigration are religious groups other than the Hindus, viz., helps one to understand the multiplicity of Ian- the Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists, Zoroastrians, Mus- guages and nationalities in this district. There lims, Christians. Jews, Tribal religion, nevcrthe- are also peoples of diverse religions ranging from less the Hindu constitute the majority group. animistic to the hieratic ones. Though there This will be seen in the table following. 8

NOTIONAL MAP OF REFERENCES CHANDRABHAG MAUZA District Boundary" ...... '" '" -1-1-1-1-1- IN BAGNAN POLICE STATION Subdivlsionol Boundary '" - ___ --- Pollet Station Boundary'" -,-,_,_,_,_ (NOT TO SCALE) + Mauza Boundary'" " ------Notional Highwoy'"

Metalled flood .. '

Unmctolled Rood,,' U. Railway Wilh Slolion I III I r ~ o •• _ 0 •

District Head Quart«rs Sulldivlsionol Heed Quarters'" "..-0 w Police Stalion ... Colleg...... f:} o Boys' High School,.. . ill Post OHicq .. , "A Health Centr... ..EEl Cinemo .. () Morkd .. X

L.OCATiON OF CHANDR"'BHAa"llllllllll

NOTIONAL MAP OF BAGNAN POLICE STATION IN HOWRAH DISTRICT (NOT tTO SC ALE)

0 0 G It ~ ~ !' I of'

"-

1- I,dri .. _ ,_ CA~S.UTTAr 4- ~ '') , - I ~ I..~ () ~ po.

I- " " 1\0 0 oj)

~ THE VILLAGE 9

TABLE 5 from the Railway Station to the village, one has to make a detour and the actual distance of the TOTAL POPU1A~lON OF HOWRAH DISTRICT, 1961 village from the Railway Station comes upto four and a half miles. The village is about 35 miles Percentage away from Calcutta. to the total Religion Population population History

Hindus 1,698,306 83·3 According to the claims of the older people in the village, Chandrabhag has a fairly long Sikhs 2,858 0·1 and antiquated history. The time of the estab­ Jllins 402 0·0 lishment of the village could not be ascertained. But people think and do believe that the village Buddhists 194 0·0 was existing in the Gupta period. This is, how­ ever, a tall claim. Notwithstanding, the village Zoroastrians 8 0·0 in its present location must have existed for at Muslims 333,481 16·4 least 300 years, if not more. During the early days of the British administration, Chandrabhag Christians 3,170 .0.2 was an important Nimakmahal or salt-trading Jews centre. It is rather difficult to test the truth of this legend. But its possibility cannot be ruled Other religions 63 0·0 out altogether. Naupala on the bank of the Tribal Rupnarayan is an important salt-collecting centre. It is like this: the waters of both the Non-tribal Rupnarayan and Damodar get salty during the dry months, and hence the mouths of canals Religions not st1tted joining the two rivers, (e.g., Kantapukur Khal, Karia-Birampur Khal etc) are to be closed some­ In spite of this heterogeneity of population time in October and reopened in June after the in the district, it is the Hindus who are predo­ arrival of the south-east monsoon. Salt is then minant and there are plenty of villages in the extracted from the top soils, and is collected district which have only Hindu population. from the banks of Rupnarayan especially at Chandrabhag. the mauza village under survey. Naupala. Naupala is not very far from Chan­ is one of such one-community villages in the dis­ drabhag and therefore, the possibility of the trict. latter'S being a salt-trading point cannot be sum­ marily discarded. Regarding the name of the village different stories are afloat., One story INTRODUCING CHANDRABHAG associates Chandrabhag with Chand Rai, one of the twelve famous Bhuiyans of Bengal. Location Another legend connects the name of the village with the local deities, Chandrai Kalurai, Dak­ Chandrabhag mauza* is a . middle-sized shin Rai, and Bankurarai of this area. L.S.S. village within the Chandrabhag Umon of the O'Malley in his Gazetteer of Howrah has men­ Bagnan police station, UIuberia subdivision in tioned these minor local deities. There is. to the district of Howrah. The village is easy to the east of Chandrabhag, a village called Rabi­ reach. Bagnan of South Eastern Railway is the bhag. One legend tries 10 make out that nearest Railway Station of this village. As the Chandrabhag (or the Moon portion) is the crow fiies, Chandrabhag is a little over three female counterpart of its male entity Rabibhag miles to the south of Bagnan Railway Station. (or Sun portion). This sort of belief is predomi­ But, since there is no direct road communication nant among peoples. As there are no tribal fringes at Chandrabhag Union or Bagnan ~ In India the distinction of village from another is, thana it becomes rather difficult to impute a tri­ more or less, a matter of tradition. It is one of the bal motif to the name of the village. But there functions of the Union Board to give formal recog. is a local deity called Chandra and the place of nition to the village for purposes of administration under the designation of Mauza. A mauza may be a his worship is called Chandratala. It is yet to single village or a combination of more than one establish if the resemblance between the name of village. the local deity is just coincidence or not. 10

~ '> ..~ "i ~ ../ (l' "

... do "r,;; ""6 "'1- ~.h ...... l ...... I).o~ ? ~tJJ ...... ~ .. do .. "13"......

... " ;:. " ~.... ::~.,. "'r o·.. _... '"'" "'" ~ ..; .. ~. "' ....

.. Q 1- ~i z~ , 0 06 ~o i? ' , :i '. <; e :: t.:.2J ~ > :t c ~ ~ ~ 0. 1 'i 1! :;, '" ~ "1 ~ ! ~ t0. ;;; " THE VILLAGE 11

Neighbourhood The cultivator has a long list of names for different classes of land, judged from various Chandrabhag is not an isolated village. It points of view, for they classify the soil accord­ is closely interlinked, in its socia-cultural and ing to its level, composition or yield. As economic activities, with other villages in the regards level, it is lata when below water-level neighbourhood and also with Calcutta. As it (i.e., usually Sali or paddy land), Suna when will be seen from 'the map, Bagnan Railway above water-level, and Danga at a higher level. Station is not at all far from the village. Kola­ On the highest Jevel there are Bastll, or home­ ghat, a very weU-known trading centre on the stead land, and Udbastu, or land immediately bank of the Rupnarayan. is only at a distance round the hornstead. According to composition, of 10 miles from Chandrabhag. The Bakshi­ the soil may be Bele or sandy, Entel or clayey, shampur Road runs very close by the village. Penko or muddy, Dhasa or marshy, and so The newly opened Cuttack Road (the National forth. According to the yield, the Sali and Highway) has also been beneficial to the com­ Suna lands are divided into Awal or first class, munication of the village from farflung areas. Doyam or second class, Seyam or third class, Betel leaf or Pan being thc principal export of Chaharam or fourth class and so on. The the village, local people has contact with places Suna land is used for Aus rice, while Sali lands like Madras, Andhra, Hyderabad. Delhi etc. for Aman. Aman is the main crop in this village as usual, and small quantities of Aus Chandrabhag, the village under survey, can­ are grown in Aman land before harvesting. not be accepted as a representative rural com­ There is plenty of fallow land in the district. It munity in West Bengal. Things at Chandra­ has been recorded that Chandrabhag Union con­ bhag do not show as La Metcalf says that "Vill­ sisting of ten villages, has the second highest age community remains the same". Nor is it. as acreage of fallow lands in Bagnan thana-112 Sir Henry Maine described, "the least destruc­ acres, of which 26 acres go to Mugkalyan and tible institution of a Society". It is not that 30 acres to Duani Guzarat. tightly-knit community in which everyone knows practically everyone else. Relations are far Land-tenure from direct and face-to-face. Agriculture is not the sole dependence. Most of the people of The land-tenure system in the area was until the village are service-holders in the jute mills, recently the permanently settled Zamindary factories, offices in Howrah and Calcutta and, system. With the institution of land reforms in more often than not, they commute the distance 1954 by the Government of West Bengal, per­ daily. Village-unity is only emphasized in the manently settled Zamindaries were abolished propitiation of the local deity presiding over the and taken over by the State in 1955. Share­ Chandratala, the shrine of the village god. He cropping is the usual practice with a half and is worshipped by all the villagers throughout the half share Ardha-bhag jote. Pending resurvey year. Moreover, the village is a single com­ and settlement operations necessitated by the munity village. There is no Muslim or a mem­ reversal of the position of the Zemindars vis-a­ ber of any other reljgion. Also, there are only vis tenants after the Estate Acquisition Act an hieratic castes and those belonging to the Nava­ up-to-date picture of the land-holdings of the Sakha or the functional castes from whose hands village under survey will be difficult to obtain. the Brahmin can accept water. There is no member belonging to the la/abyabaharya i.e., Housing and household arrangement Muchi, Dom etc;, in the village. Taking all this into consideration it can be said that The vUlage has a dispersed type of settle­ Chandrabhag is a type by itself. ment with nucleated arrangement of two of the major castes in the village, viz., the Brahmins Land and soil and the Mahisyas. The houses are mostly made of walls of mud with thatched roofs. The sup­ The whole of the district of Howrah is a ply of mud of this construction purpose is met dead level. The spot heights are few and far by excavating ponds or Dobas near the Bastu between. Nevertheless, the slope is from the land. Consequntly, in the village, there are al­ north to the south. The village under survey most as many Dobas as there are houses. The too, shows this characteristic feature. The mud walls usually last for at least twenty years soils are generally alluvial with poor organic if they are properly looked after; and thatched matter in them. roofs, with occassional minor repairs, last for at 12 CHANDRABHAG least for five years. But almost all the houses pay for the chemical fertilisers supplied by the in the village collapsed during the heavy flood Block Officer. After the flood of 1959, demand of 1959. After that, people are going in, more [or manuring chemical shows a declining trend. and more, for pucca structures in the village. The villagers feel that the soil of the village has There are, however, quite a few brickbuilt been deeply damaged by salty water of the flood houses, sometimes two or three storied, in the and, until and unless, a thorough chemical village. There are also a number of ringwells analysis of the soil is made it is no good using and tubewells in the village. They supply drink­ chemicals there. It might do more harm than ing water. good. This high seriousness of the village folk has, however. been treated with scant respect.

Flora and fauna Communication

There is nothing very special about the flora The village is not very difficult to reach. and fauna of Chandrabhag. Trees commonly The Bakshi-Shampur Road runs very close by available in the district are to be found in the vill­ the village. There is a regular bus-service ply­ age. They include very big Batas (Ficus Indica), ing between Bagnan Railway Station and Sham­ Asvathvas (Ficus religiosa), the mango (Magni­ pur along this road. The railway station is at a fera indica), bamboo (Bamboo), the Bel (AeRie distance of only about of four miles. A semi­ marmelos), the tamarind (Tamarindlls indica), pucca road can be used for a motor ride from the Neem (Melia azadrachta), the palm (Boro­ Calcutta to Chandrabhag. A semi-metalled ssus {labetuiformis), the Bakul (Mimusops elongi), road connects the village with Mugkalyan, a the Palash (Butea Frondosa), guava (Psidium rather prosperous village to the south. Another guayaba), Papya (Carica payaya), plantain kutcha road connects Chandrabhag with Batul (Plantoginem) and many other kinds of minor to the north. In spite of all these redeeming trees, and shrubs. Lotus is grown in abundance features, the internal communication system is in local ponds for supply to city market in Cal­ very bad. The flood of 1959 also damaged the cutta. already very poor roads and streets of the vill­ age. The road situation has not improved a bit Apart from the common varieties of domes­ since 1959. Road construction on a Sramdan tic animals like cows, buffaloes, goats, dogs, cats, basis has not been possible, consequently, roads ducks, hen etc .. there is quite good number of are all mud and dirt during the wet season. One monkeys and squirrels. Both of them are great has to trudge along a knee-deep mire during this menace to the local. orchards. Variety of birds period. In the dry season, however. it is are to be seen in the village. Some of them arc smooth-going along the roads in cycles, cycle­ of the migratory type and are usually seen with rickshaws and bullock or buffalo carts. Cycle­ the onset of the spring. rickshaws are in great demand in the village specially for the train-passengers. Sometimes Extension Service people from Chandrabhag would walk upto the nearest bus-stop Ot miles from the village) and Chandrabhag is included in the National then take the bus. It is cheap~r this way than Extension Service of the Government of West a rickshaw-ride straight from the village to the Bengal. Under the National Extention Service railway station or to a different village. The Project an N.E.S. Block was established at commuters do not. of course. use cycle-rickshaw Bagnan. A Gramsevak and a Gramsevika are so often. They have their cycles which they posted in the village to look after the extension deposit with a shop-keeper near the railway sta­ needs of the local people. Their duty is to 'make tion at Bagnan on a nominal monthly charge. people aware of the principles of community Cycle-rickshaws are also used for inter-village developmnt. The most important activity of the communication and transport. not only for carry­ N.B.S. during recent years had been the supply ing passengers but also for luggages or merchan­ of building loans, improved seeds and chemical dise. In view of a fairly high demand for cycle­ fertilisers. Though there is an awareness among rickshaws, about 40 rickshaws pullers from the villagers regarding the value of Ammonium different States, viz., Orissa. Andhra,' Madras Sulphate in increasing yields, they are rather and Bihar have rushed to the Village. conservative in their outlook. Moreover, the price charged for the fertilisers is not to the link­ Apart from two main roads interlinking ing of the villagers, nor is it in their means to Chandrabhag and other villages. numerous foot THE VILLAGE 13 tracks and balks in the paddy fields are used by and other outlying towns: Teachers are mostly the villagers for inter-village movcment. from outside. The two Free Primary Schools cater to the needs of the majority of primary age­ Postal facilities are not very happy in the group children in the area. Local teachers, village. There is no Post or Telegraph Office at both male and female, are working in the pri­ Chandrabhag. Mugkalyan, at a distance of one mary schools under the special cadre scheme of and a half miles, is the nearest post and tele­ the Government of West Bengal. Since primary graph office from Chandrabhag. Letters are, education is free but not compulsory many however, daily delivered in the village. The villagers refrain from sending their wards to the a verage distance of Chandrabhag from nearest school. Such recalcitrant guardians usually socia-economic centres will give an idea of the come from the agricultural labourer class or the village in its total environment. It will also help like. They complain of other expenses (purchase in understanding the susceptibility of the village to of books, exercise books, pencils, slates etc.) in­ social changes. In fact, proximity to socio­ volved in education, even if it is free. economic centres has, of late, made the village a sort of cultural dormitory of the cities of West There is no boys' high school in the village Bengal, specially of Calcutta. nor is there any centre for adult education. For schooling beyond the primary stage, boys of this village have to go either to Mugkalyan or to TABLE 6 Batul. both at a distance of about two miles. There is a college teaching Arts and Commerce AVERAGE DISTANCE OF CHANDRABHAG FROM upto the B.A. standard at Bagnan. Students from NEAREST SOCIO·ECONOMIC CENTRES Chandrabhag, seeking higher education, usual go to the Bagnan College. Students doing science 1 Railway Station 4t Miles courses, either for the medical or engineering 2 Block Development Office 4 Miles studies, come to U1uberia College or to Calcutta colleges. The proportion of commuters among 3 Post Office 2 Miles the students of the village is not at all negligible. 4 Co·operative Society qMiles Health and medical facilities 5 Health Centres It Miles Two qualified medical practitioners are there 6 Dispensary in the Village. One of them is a member of the 7 High School (Boys) 2 :.IIi]es Legislative Assembly, West Bengal and is eminently popular both as a doctor and as a 8 High School (Girls) Within man of great social qualities. He has a dispen­ the village 9 College (Co·education) 4 Miles sary in his house and medicines are dispensed cheap. There are also two more chemists' shop 10 Market tMile in the village where one can buy not very un­ usual medicines at a fair price. The major dis­ 11 Pucca Road I! Miles eases in the village are dysentery, enteric fever. 12 Hat 2 :.IfileB~ bronchial congestion, avitaminosis etc. Most of the villagers are not in a position to bear the 13 Bank 4t ]\files expenses of treatment of these diseases. The absence of a charitable dispensary, or of a poly­ Education clinic is sorely felt by one and all. Unfortu­ nately, nothing like that looks possible in the One Higher Secondary Multipurpose School very near future. In the Howrah District Hand­ for girls and two Free Primary Schools are locat­ book, complied after the Census of 1951. a dis­ ed within the village. The girls' school has a pensary has been shown against the name of hostel attached to it and students of both the the village of Chandrabhag. But at the time of community, the Hindus and the Muslims are the present investigation in 1962, no dispensary staying in the hostel in perfect harmony. Mus­ could be traced and the information was that lim girls are from the neighbouring villages of the dispensary, which was already tottering had Halyan. Robibhag etc. About 400 students are long since been defunct. Naturally, in even­ there in the roll of the school and quite a few of tualities like a fracture or a burn case people of them are from Calcutta. Burdwan, Berhampore Chandrabhag is compelled to come down to Cal- 14 CHANDRABHAG cutta or to Howrah General Hospital for treat­ Villagers, male and female, mostly take their ment and care. Nevertheless, the health poten­ bath in the village ponds. They wash their tial of the village, as it was reported at the time garments too, in those ponds. During the of the investigation, has improved during the seasons of cholera and small-pox a little care is recent decade. The most heartening feature is taken to keep the pon1:ls free from contamination that malaria, which used to take a heavy toll of of washing. human lives every year, has been completely eradicated. Death-rate is rather low in the Local Self-Government and co-operatives village. Water supply and sanitation The village was administered by the system of Local Self-Government which was introduced There are three sources of water supply in under the Bengal Village Self-Government Act the village, village ponds. ring wells, tube-wells. 1919. Chandrabhag is one of the ten villages in The village ponds contain, in most cases, stag­ the Union of Chandrabhag. There was a Union nant rain water and are not considered suitable Board with elected President, Vice-President, for drinking purposes. They are used for bath­ Secretary and Members to look after the local ing, washing clothes and utensils. Drinking administration. After the Panchayat Act of water is drawn mainly from the tube-wells. West Bengal 1956, the Union Board has been Some of the Dobas are used for small scaJe irri­ replaced by Gram Panchayet and Anchal Pan­ gation of vegetable gardens. chayet. The new establishment was introduced Except in the moderately well-off houses. only in 1961 and it is too early (at the time of there are very few latrines in the village. Nor investigation in 1962) to say anything about the is there any proper arrangements for the disposal functions of the Panchayet at Chandrabhag. of excreta, and domestic refuse. Male mem­ bers in poorer households usually go to the At present, there is no co-operative society in fields or in the bamboo groves to answer their the village. The villagers have become rather nature's call; for female members there is some sceptic about these organization after they (co­ sort of improvised latrines. There is no Mehtar operatives) went into liquidation following mis­ or carrier of the night soil in the village. One management and misappropriation of funds in railway sweeper from the Bagnan Railway Station the late thirties. People of Chandrabhag feel comes once a week to make necessary cleaning the necessity of having co-operative societies and sweeping in the girls' hostel attached to the again as the local Mahajans are simply exploit­ local girls' school. The sweeper, after he has ing their debtors in interest payment. The per finished his work in the bostel and the school capita indebtedness of the village is not very building, is sometimes called in by some of the negligible. As consumers' commodities are be­ well-to-do people in the village to do some clean­ coming rarer and rarer at the present moment, ing work. The school building, the attached demand for a consumers' co-operative has be­ hostel and also the houses of these well-to-do come more and more pressing. But, just now, are furnished with sanitary latrines. The nothing is going to be implemented. As a sweeper has, therefore, not to carry excreta or measure of relief, the Government has introduc­ other refuse from those places. ed modified rationing in the area. CHAPTER II PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE

Demographic pattern Caste composition Population of Chandrabhag according to caste and sex Marital status Residential patterns and resources of Chandrabhag Buildings and dwelling houses Household goods Dress Food Family and kinship pattern Structure Actual birth Namakarana and Annaprasana (Naming and the first rice-taking ceremony) Paita or Upanayana Marriage Disposal of the dead and the funeral rites (Sraddha) The commuters

CHAPTER II PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE

DEMOGRAPHIC PATTERN pitcher from Bagnan or from Calcutta. Not a single potter is there in the village. They have Chandrabhag is a mauza (Revenue unit). either left the village or have taken up some other The village is practically divided into two areas occupation following a change in the hydraulic viz., Chandrabhag and Mirjapur by a canal character of the area after the construction of called Tantikhal. Chandrabhag is to the west the D.V.C. Dam. There is no Dule-Behara of the canal while Mirjapur is to the east. So (Palanquin or litter carriers), no Dhuli (Drum­ much so, Chandrabhag may be called the 'West mer) no Sanaidar (Piper), no Dam (Burning End' and Mirjapur, the' East End '. Not only ghat or cremation ground attendant) at Chandra­ in geographical lay-out but also in population bhag. The place of the Dule-Behara's has been characteristics the two sobriquets seem justified. taken by the Ubiquitous cycle Rickshawwallas Brahmins and other high castes live in Chandra­ and Dhuli and Sanaidares are very little in bhag while lower castes, including occupational demand. During festive occasions, a J)huli and a caste people live in Mirjapur. About this Sanaidar are brought on hire from a neighbour­ peculiar distribution of popUlation, there- is a ing village. If one is a bit ostentatious, one legend in the village. It is said that about 300 gets a band party from Calcutta. Absence of a years ago, the Chatterjee families came to this Dom does, sometimes, pose a difficulty but that village from the district of Nadia. Since the too is not insurmountable as local young boys village was Mahisya dominated, the Chatterjees prove always very handy. brought a few families of the "Nava Sakha" caste and helped them settle there. These The Mahisyas are the local people of the people were given land at Mirjapur and they area. Numerically they are predominant at settled at Mirjapur. The order has not been Chandrabhag. But economically and culturally, disturbed since its inception-this is what the the Brahmins constitute the dominant caste. local people say. They own the lion's share of the land in the village; they lead in literacy and also in white­ One of the most important characteristic fea­ collar jobs. They have, thus, more or less, the tures of ChandrablJag is that it is a one commu­ characteristics of a landed ' gentry' in the nity village. There is not a single Muslim locality. The Mahisya are, traditionally, a culti­ f~mily in the ma~!-a; there are other peculiari­ vating caste but there has, of late, been a great tIeS too. The VIllage is without a barber. change in the aspirations of the Mahisyas. They There is, however, a hair-cutting saloon in the are drifting, more and more, from their occupa­ market place of the village. There is no tion of cultivation of wnite-collar and other scavenger in the village; non-Bengali Mehtars specialised jobs. from Bagnan town or from Bagnan Railway Station are hired when occasion arises. This According to 1961 Census the total number absence of scavertgers definitely tells upon the of households in Chandrabhag was 267 and the sanitation and cleanliness of the village but total population was 1,616. In the present sur­ things remain beyond one's control. There is vey of 1962-63, 216 households could be located no cobbler either in Chandrabhag. He makes with a total population 1,398. This works out his itinerary to the village usually once a week. to an average size of 6.4 per household in the Ob~ously, he is in great demand in the village, village under survey as against the census figure partIcularly among the students of the girls' of 6.0. Compared to other rural areas in West host~l ...The:e were a few potters in the village, Bengal, the family size in Chandrabhag is a bit speClahsIllg III earthen pitchers. They not only large. This rise in the average size of the supplied local needs but also exported family is rather interesting, specially in the con­ earthen pitchers to Calcutta and other adjoining text of a sizeable amount of out-migration since areas. But today, one has to buy an earthen the census was taken. From 1960 onwards, 12

5 (PB) Censlls/67 18 CHANDRABHAG

Tantubai (Weaver), one Kamar (Blacksmith). in Bengal in his Caste and Class in India. "In four Swarnakar (Goldsmith), two Dhoba Bengal the castes are divided into two main (Washerman), 12 Kumar (Potters), one Napit groups the Brahmins and the Sudras. The (Barber) families left the village in search of second class is further subdivided into four sub­ livelihood elsewhere. Construction of the classes, indicating their status as regards food D.V.C. Dams had the effect of changing the and water: character of the economy in the area; this led to an emigration of potters from the area; goldsmith (a) the Sat-Scull'a group includes such castes left the village after Gold Control Order; the as the Kayastha and Navasakha. Tantubais were not getting yarn for their looms. (b) the lalac/zaraniya Sudras "being those Economic reverses, caused by a variety of factors castes. not technically belonging to the Navasakhu led all these families to migrate from Chandra­ group from whom Brahmins and members of bhag. Apart from these. 14/15 families could higher castes can take water". not be traced. The present survey has, there­ fore. a shortfall of a few families. (c) the la/abyaharya Sudras, i.e., castes from whose hands a Brahman cannot take water. CASTE COMPOSITION Cd) Asprisya Sudra, castcs whose touch is so The caste composition of Chandrabhag is impure as to pollute even the Ganges water, and also interesting. Besides Brahmin, Kayastha hence their contact must be avoided. They are and Mahisyas. there are castes which belong to untouchables. the Navasakha group. The Navasakhas or the Naba Sayaks refer to a cluster of nine castes The population of Chandrabhag consists, from whom a Brahmin takes water. They are mainly. of Brahmins, Kayastha. lalacharaniya mostly occupational and functional castes. Muhisyas. and castes belonging to the Navasakha Since a Brahmin can take water from the hands or Navasayaka group. There is however, one of a caste people belonging to the Nava Sakha Kaivarta family belonging to the Jalahyahatrarya group, the Navasakhas, enbloc, are lalaehara­ or lal-aehal caste-group. niya. This category of lalaeharaniya castes is not. however, found outside Bengal. Ghurye Navasakhas or the new group of nine castes has given a very clear exposition of this situation have got their sanction in the Parasar Samhila.

DISTRI:BUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS (CO::ll!>1UNITY.WISE)

90 90

so

70 70

0 '".J 60 0 60 I '" '"a:> so 50 ..x 0 40 ci ;z

30 30

20 20

10 '0

There arc ten different castes at Chandra­ Bene caste are now trying to register themselves bhag viz., Brahmin, Kayastha, Mahisya, TiIi, as Gandhabaniks. An under-current of social Kaivarta, Swarnakar, Tantubai, Gandhabanik. and status mobmty could thus be felt in Chandra­ Karmakar and Dhoba. The Brahmin is at the bhag. But there is nothing unusual about it. apex at the ritual and social hierarchy and This upward or vertical mobility has been detect­ Dhoba is at the base, so far this village is con­ ed by the Census authorities as early as 1911. cerned. Many of the castes residing in the village, as per tenet of Parasar Samhita. belong TABLE 8. to the Navasakha group. Their touch does not pollute and Brahmins can take water from them. OHART OF OASTE-HIERAROHY As such, there is no segregated well or tank at Brahmin Chandrabhag. The number of households of each of the ten castes at the village is given in Kayrcstha table below : Mahisya Swarnakar

Karmakar (Bene) Tanti TABLE 7 Gandhabanik HOUSElIOW AND TOTAJ~ POPULATION BY OASTES Subarnabanik Xo. of Total Tili households population Oaste in each in each Kaivarta Dboba caste caste Regarding the social origin and social status Brahmin 59 439 of the different occupational castes, Risley has Kayastha 27 given some detailed account. But the occupa­ tional castes at Chandrabhag do not, at times. lIahisya] 93 547 fit in with the description of Risley. According Tnnti 22 Jf>3 to Risley, "Swarnakar senkra the working gold­ smith and silversmith caste of Bengal an artisan Swarnakar 8 48 group-is probably traceable to the Karmakar. Gandh!Lbanik 3 25 Swarnakars are divided into four sub-castes Brahman Deshi, Dakshin-Rahri, Khatangi, Karmakar 7 Uttar-Rahri. Their social position is low. None of the higner castes will take water from Tili 2 them". So far the Swarnakars of Chandrabhag K"ivarta 2 are concerned, they do not suffer from the dis­ abilities mentioned by Risley. Nor are they Dhoba 6 aware of any sub-caste pattern among them­ All castes] 216 1,398 selves. Also, acceptance of water from a Swarnakar is not that inauspicious as is men­ In the caste hierarchy traditionally the tioned by Risley. Brahmins come first, then the Kayasthas. But after that there is difference of opinion regarding The Tantis. the weaver cnste of Bengal, have, the status of other castes in the village. The according to Risley, "developed under the pres­ Mahisyas think that their social and ritual status sure of the natural demand for woven cloth. In is just the same as those of the Swarnakars in western Bengal Vaisnavism is the characteristic the village. It is locally believed that the pre­ belief of the caste. Viswakarma is looked upon sent Swarnakar caste in the village is not Swarna­ as the tutelary deity of the caste, and is wor­ kar per se. A group of Mahisyas who has shipped twice a year under the supervision of a taken up goldsmithy is now calling itself Purohit who chants appropriate teats". In the Swarnakar. There are at present three Gandha­ monograph on Cotton Fabrics of Benf!al Mr. N. banik families in the village. It is again, said N. Banerjee has given some description of the that the Gandhabaniks at Chandrabhag were Tanti caste. He writes, "Tanti (Bengal), or not aU Gandhabaniks originally. Thefe were Tan twa (Bihar). is the generic term for all quite a few Subarnabaniks or Sonar Bene's weavers, but the Tantis in Bengal themselveo among them. Since Gandhaballiks are suppos­ form a s(~parate caste, being one of the nine pure ed to be Qf a superior social status, people of the castes or Nabasakhas of Ballal Sen." 20 CHANDRABHAG

The Tantis of Chandrabhag show clear devia­ caste is observed at Chandrabhag. There is tions from the pattern observed by Risley. only one Kamar family at the village working Vaisnavism is not their religion at Chandrabhag. on iron. But it might take up brass and bell­ Worship of Viswakarma is not frequent there. metal work if it was needed. The caste struc­ It is true that the village Tanties and other caste ture at Chandrabhag, therefore, shows some local groups perform this Puja. This is done once a variations and it does not conform to tally with year and not twice. But the Tantis of Chandra­ the pattern depicted by Risley and Dalton. bhag do not show any special enthusiasm for the worship of Viswakarma. POPULATION OF CHANDRABHAG ACCORDING TO The Kamar or the Karmakar of Cbandra­ CASTE AND SEX bhag is Lohar Kamar and does not do the work of any other Kamar. According to Risley, there In the sex composition of the village, there are six subdivisions of the Kamar. A Lohar is a general preponderance of males over Kamar is one who works in iron; a Pitule females. This is specially the case with the Kamar works in brass; a Kansari Kamar, in higher castes in the village, viz., Brahmin, bell-metal; a Swarna Kamar works in gold; a Kayastha, Mahisya, and also Tanti. On the Ghatra Kamar is one who makes imitation fruits, other hand, the lower castes register a reverse iron figures of oWls used in the worship of trend in their sex composition. The position of Laksmi; and a Chand Kamar is the maker of the sex composition of the different castes at brass-mirrors. No such nice distinctions of the Chandrabhag is given in the table overleaf.

DISTRIBUTION OF MALES AND FEMALES (COMMUNITY.WISE)

2BO 280

260 260

240 240

220 220

200 200

IBO IBO LEGENDS

oJ> z 100 3m III 160 Sl Main FfZmale& w '"a. 140 140 u. 0

100 100

eo eo

60 60

40 40

20 20

o ~ \3-/"Qhm~n I(oyostho MohIS.)lo Tonti Swarnokor Gor'ldhcbOntlo: lo«(]I'mokor Tili PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE 21

DISTRIBUTION OF MALES AND FEMALES (AGE-WISE)

AGE-GROUPS 65+ m 61-65

56-60

51-55

46-50

41-45 I,

3&-40 31-35

26-30

21-25

16-20

II -15 6-10 II 0-5 II 120 40 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

TOTAL NO OF MALES TOTAL NO. OF FEMALES TABLE 9 TABLE 10 DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY AGE-GROUP SEX COMPOSITION Total population 1,398 No. of Total households 21(1 Ca~te households Male Female Age-group Male Female Total

0- 5 108 103 211

Brahmin 59 227 212 6---10 109 101 210

11-15 72 98 170 Kayastha 27 91 78 16-20 86 95 181

MahisYll 93 284 263 21-25 72 43 115

Tanti 22 84 69 26--80 57 38 95 31--85 41 38 79 Swamakar 8 21 27 36---40 38 3S 76

Gandhabanik 3 11 14 41--45 23 25 48

46-50 2-7 2(; 53 Karmakar 4 3 51-55 24 2b 49 Tili 1 1 56--60 27 20 47

Kaivarta 61-05 19 6 25 65+ 24 15 39 Dhoba 3 All ages 727 671 1,398 The above table may be represented in a All castes 216 727 671 different way. 2:l CHANDRABHAG

TABLE 11

PERCENTAUE O.F POPULATION

Male :Female Total ,----'----, ,_----A.. ___, Age'group Number Percontage Kumber Percentage Number Percentage

0- 5 lOS 7·72 103 7·38 211 15·10

6-15 181 12·94 199 14·23 380 27-17

16-35 256 18·31 214 15·30 470 33·61 36-55 112 ..8·01 114 8·15 2:26 16·16 56+ 70 1,5'00 41 2·93 III 7·93 All ages 727 51-98 671 47'99 ],398 99'97

The age distribution in the above table shows said that there is a comparatively high percent­ significant differences between the two sexes. age of people in the dependent and non-produc­ 42.27 per cent. of the total popUlation in the tive age-set. Since the number of adult males in age-group 0-15 consist of 21.61 per cent. the reproductive age-group is 1.6 per household, females and 20.66 per cent. males. On t.he other the economy of the village remains at a signific­ extreme, in the age-group 56 and above there antly low level. are only 2.93 per cent. females while males con­ stitute five per cent. Between the age-group 16-55. i.e., in the reproductive age-group, there The population of the village has also been are 368 males and 328 females, i.e., J6.32 per studied castewise. The following table will cent. and 23.45 per cent. respectively. From the show the population of different age-groups in point of view of economic demograpby, it can be different castes at Chandrabhag.

TABLE 12

DISTRIBUTION m' rOl'ULA1~ION AT CHANDRABHAG AGE AND CASTE BASIS

Brahmin Kayastha Mahisy» Tanti Swarnakar Gandhabanik ,.----.J---, ,.---..A..--, ,---"------, r----A...~ r~---..A.-, ,.---..A------, Age.group Male .Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male }l'emale

0- 5 26 31 11 S 52 41) 14 9 3 7

6~10 37 29 12 II) 45 39 8 10 3 3 2

11-15 25 36 10 11 28 35 5 10 3 2 2

16--20 26 40 14 S 30 32 9 9 4 4 2

21-25 20 9 7 6 28 21 13 6 3

26-30 22 16 a (> 16 14 6 2 2

31-35 15 8 3 (> 16 16 6 5 3 36--40 12 9 4 7 16 17 5 2 2 .. 41-45 7 7 4 9 10 2 3 2

46-50 9 10 2 :3 10 7 3 6 2

51-55 3 8 3 3 13 9 3 2 2

.<;11+ 25 9 12 6 21 17 10 5 2 Total 227 212 91 78 284 263 84 69 21 27 11 14 PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE 2H

TABLE 12-crmtd.

Karmakar Tili Kah'aria Dhoba All castes Percentage ,---'------, ,---'------, ,----.A.-...., ,---'---...., ,---'-----. ,----"---, Age.group Male ];'en1a,le lIIale Female J\1a,le Female 1\Iale Female Male 'Female :Male Female Total

0- 5 108 103 7·72 7-38 15·10 6-10 1 109 101 7·79 7·22 15·01 11-15 1 72 98 5·15 7·01 12·16 16-20 86 U5 (j.l5 6·7U 12·94 21-25 72 43 5·1.) 3·07 8")') 26-30 57 38 4·07 2·71 6·78 31-3;; 41 38 2·93 2·71 5·64 36-40 38 38 2·71 2·71 5·42 41--45 23 25 1·64 1·78 3·42 46-50 27 26 1·93 1'85 3·78 51-55 24 25 1·71 1·78 3-49 56+ 70 41 5·00 2·93 7·93 Total 4 3 1 1 1 3 3 727 671 51-95 47-94 99·89

NOTllS: 1. Total population-l,39g 2. Total households-216

Two very important findings transpire from MARITAL STATUS the table. It presents an idea of the number of women of the reproductive age (i.e., between soo , .~ 11-45) when this number is considered along with the factor of marital status of women in the ....~ ..... village, one gets an idea of the raising of the +'1''''+ +...... age of marriage girls in the village. Villagers +... +. r +... ++ are more conservative than the urbanites and <100 :!~: t-"'+i" early marriage of girls is an usual practice. But :t:t ..+ ...... cven in villages today, marriage of girls is post­ .,:'''./ poned to a later date and no social opprobrium :::: ... t-...+ attaches such acts. Another fact which was 5:: brought to light in the table is the number of +;..: +++f- potential school-going children i.e., the popula­ '300 :T:+ tion, male and female in the age-group 6-15. t:'-: ...+++ The number of such children is 380 of whom ~ .j-.+ ...+++ .. ++... + 181 are males and 199 females. In spite of such ++ ..+ ... +++ ...+/' LE-GENDS potentiality, education of thesc children is not '+";+; :~~! +++... :::! always aimed at. Except the upper caste guar­ ~oo :<+ dians, others would rather have their sons and +:~: +:+: :<-~ :+:+ wards as their helps in their own work, viz., ...... + ..+++ MOlq Famolrz ++ ...+ +:< agriculture, betelvine cultivation, smithy and so +... ++ :;:! !<+ - on. ++++ :~;: ::!: ;.:. ++++ MARITAL STATUS lOti !:!: :~!1 +...... + ... " flO ...,+.:+ " +1+; I ++ ..+ +... +. The classification of marital status followed 60 +-+... + +... -+01- .. "".+ ++++ here is a fivefold one-unmarried, married, widow, 40 ++..... ::~: +... ++ J widower and divorced. It was found that con­ .0 ~:~: siderable portion of the population of Chandra­ .'.+++".. ~!:: bhag are unmarried. The proportions of un­ 0 Un~orrf~d Morri~d WidowI Wldow~r Divorced married, married, widow, widowers are 56.08 per cent., 36.98 per cent., 5.57 per cent., and 5e~arotrd 24 CHANDRABHAG

1.3 per cent. respectively. There is one or two households with these widows may be very dis­ cases of desertion or separation from the hus­ tant and remote; nevertheless, the latter, being band. No case of divorced men or women was stranded, take shelter in this village. This 18 found at the village; nor .any case of judicial why there is an excess _of widows at Chandra­ separation. The excess of widows in the village bhag. The number of unmarried girls of all is to be accounted to a factor quite different from ages in all the different castes is also consider­ the normal demographic one. Many secondary able. This tends to reflect the socia-economic kins, of whom the number of widows is the condition of 'the village. Girls are not easily greatest, live in the different households at married due to an excessive demand of dowries Chandrabhag. The relation of the heads of the and other incidental expenses of marriage.

TABLE 13

DISTRlBUI'ION OF POPULATION BY MARITAL S'J'ATUS (CASTE-WISE)

Bra.hmin Kayastha. Mahisya Tanti ,--_----.A __, .------A.------, ,------'-----, ,------A.------, Marital status Male' Female Male Female Male Fomale Male Fomale

Unmarried 140 121 62 38 16] 115 56 34

Married 70 73 28 32 116 116 26 26

Widow 18 7 32 9

Widower 8 2

Divorced/Separated

Total population 227 212 91 78 284 263 84 69

Swarnakar Karmakar Gandhabanik Kaiva,rta ,------A.o--, ,--_-'-____"'_' .----'------, ,-----'-.-_, lI'larital status Male Female Male Female Malo Female Male Female

Unmarried 11 13 3 8 8

Married 10 8 3 3

Widow 6 3

Widower

Divorced/Separated

Total population 21 27 4 3 11 14 1 1

Tili Dhoba -----, ,-__A-----, Marital status Male Female Male] Female Total Percentage

Unmarried 2 783 56·08

lIbrried 517 36·98

Widow 78 5·57

Widower 19 1-36

1)ivorced/Separa ted

Total population 1 .1 3 3 1_,398 100 PEOPLE AND THEIR MA1ERIAL CULTL'RE 20

The excess of married females over married poses and this means that 12.03 per cent. of the males among the two upper, vi;::., the Brahmin dwellmg houses at Chandrabhag have brick and and the Kayastha is due to change m ~he econo­ masonry work. These constructions, arc, how­ mic set-up. The worklllg populativn of thlS ever, falfly old:sh and were built by the fathers village are mostly commuters. They work in of the present hcad~ of tne housell0lds. Some aJld around Calcutta and since, Chandrabhag is new structures with brick walls and tIle or tin easily accessible by train services, they avail of roofs have lately come into being. These new the railway facilities. 'Daily passengers' are buildings were constructed after the flood of how they are known. But, there are persons 1959 when many a house was completely razed who would not commute the distance daily. to the ground. The Block Development Office They would rather stay in cheap hotels and came forward with loan and also with a Scheme messes in the towns and cnies where tney wurk. "Build your Own Hou~e ". Loans were taken and come to visit their wives and children at the but very few of the persons takmg loan took village during the week ends. The outcome of pams to build PUCI a structures. The reasons such a situatIOn is that th.:re is an excess 01 lh..:y put forward were scarcity of b1.:ila,ng mate­ marned females over marriell males. Arr.ong rIals and the unusual delay in procunng them. lower castes in the village such variation is not Su, barring a few constrt.ct,ons, most of the observed. Ti1e gradual mcrease in the age of houses at Chandrabhag are bUIlt 011 matenals marriage of the girls at Chandrabhag is also obtained locally. The USual procedJre is to cut another significant findmg. bxcludmg female a (jug-out or doba, th..-: earth of which is used population of the age-group 0- -5 and 6-10, it is for the plinth as well as for the walls of the observed that the number of unmarried girls rooms. The mud walls uS1..ally. have thickness between ages J 1- 25, works up to 61 among of about 10 inches. Sometimes. mud is rein­ Brahmins, 15 among Kayasthas, 30 among forced with bits of straw and cowdung; some­ Mabisyas, 14 among Tantis, three among time, agam, bamboo lattices, coated inside and Swarnakar and Gandhaoaniks, and one among outside with mud, are used for walls. For roof­ Karmakar and Dhoba, respectively. In respect ing straw or hay is used. This is economical of a village like Chandrabhag, this is a significant as the owner-cultivator as well as the share s(Jcial change. croppers have their respective shares of hay at the time of distribution of corn. A share of the RESIDENTIAL PATTERNS AND RI:SUURlllS OF hay for the share cropper is not always obtamw CHANDRABHAG in thl.'! village!> of Bengdl. For angles and joists, the villagers at Chandrabhag used bamboo which Buildings and dwelling houses is readily available.

Buildings and dwelling houses are an indica­ Those who are a httle well-off, replace thatch tion of the economic position of the villagers. roof with tile and j or corrugated tin roof. in the villages of India, the structures of dwel­ About ten to twelve years ago, tiles were easily ling houses, usually, have mud walls, kutcha avai.lable in the area and could be had cheap. fioor with a plaster of mud and a thatched roof. Recently, consequent upon a change in the Another variety is houses with mud walls and natural flow of the river systems of the area, corrugated tin roof or tile roof. Pucca buildings pantile manufacture has received a severe blow. are usually rare in village except when such Whatever little pantile is produced, it is exported buildings are constructed for special purpose outside for better prices. [n this situation of like School, Block Office, Village Dispensary and scarcity of pantiles and high prices thereof. so on. Chandrabhag seems to be an exception. people at Chandrabhag stick to thatch roofs. One finds many more fJucca buildings than one more or less. Bulk import of corrugated tins can normally expect in this small village of not also is not very easy. The Midnapur Canal much of commercial importance. Apart from Reach ~o. 7 is not workworthy all throughout the multistoried buildings of the Girls Higher the year. One has to wait till the rainy season, Secondary Multipurpose School and the attached when the canal is full, for one's supply of corru­ hostel for girls, and also single storied construc­ gated tins and other building materials like tion of the Sreekrishna Pathagar or the local cement, sand etc. The difficulty works double Dublic library and the dispensary, now defunct, aged - the economic potential of a person and thlxe are twentyseven more pucca structures of communication difficulties in procuring mate all brick and masonry both one storied and rials. Brick kilns did not prove to be very suc­ IDultistoried. These are all for residential pur- cessful at Chandrabhag. All these personal and 26 CHANbRAl3HAG non-personal, economic and non-economic ed for Chandrabhag. These new comers Imd factors have been instrumental to the construc­ to be accommodated and rooms were let on tional plan of dwelling houses at Chandrabhag. monthly rentals. Room/house rents varied be­ tween l{upees twenty to Rupees forty per month. Houses at Chandrabhag are all residential It was doubtful if the refugee family was really houses. The idea of letting or sub-letting in a position to pay rentals regularly, if at all. houses on a monthly rent was absolutely foreign Households with four or more rooms were in a to the minds of the villagers at Chandrabbag. position to let out rooms. House types at Since five or six years, the question of letting Chandrabhag vary from one roomed mud thatch houses has appeared before them. In 1959, a but to multi storied brick built dwellings and refugee family from East Bengal come to stay in accommodation per household in each of the ten the village. In 1960, a Gramsevika was assign- castes will be realIsed from the table below :

TABLE 14

HOUSE.TYPES AT CliANDRABHAG

House-types Brahmin ICayasth'" Mahisye Tanti Swarnakar

jOne Room 6 (j Mud wall & thatched roof i Two Room 4, 17 2 LThree~ioro Room 8 4 5 2* 2

rOneBoom 2

:lInd wall & tiled roof ~ Two Room (} 18 1 L1'hrec/Moro Room 10 4*

rOnc Itoom G ;'rInd wall & tinned roof i Two Room 4, 3 l Three/1\'[oro Room li 4 4

rOne Room .Brick wall &. thatched roof i Two Room 2 LThreejj\Iorc Room 3

rOneRoom Brick wa'!l & tilod roof i Two Room 1 LThreejMore Hoom 1* 4 2

rOneRoom Brick wall & tinned roof i Two Room LThree/More R,oom 2

(One Storied 6 5 3 2 ) (",'."erage 4 rooms) Pucea building I Two Storied 5 5 1 L (average 6 rooms)

Others lotal households 59 27 93 22 8 PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CCLTlJRE 27

TABLE 14-colltd.

House j'Ypes Candha- Karma- Total banik kltr TiJi I(aivarta llhoba rooms

rOne Room 30

illud wall & thatched J:oof ~ Two l{oom ;;0 I l Thrcoj:.lioro Haum 61

(Ono l{OOJl1 8 I ~lud wall & tilod roof i Two Hoom vi l Threef.More Room 56

rOne Room 8 lIIud wall & tinned roof i Two r.oom 1" 20 LThree/Marc HO(Jm 50

(One Room I Brick wall & thatched roof 4 ~, Two Itoom ~ ThreejMore Ruom 9

(One Hoom I Brick wall & tiled roof ~ Two Room 2

~ Three 'lore Ho"m 21>

rOnc HOom 2

Brick wall & tinned roof ~ Two ROOlO

~Throc/More 1

(One Strmcd (),. ~ (average 4 rooms) Pueea building , l'wo Storied 06 l(avcmge 0 fOoms)

Others

Total hOu5eholds 3 1 535

*Indicates two storiOR, NOTE: Averl1ge 2-« rooms pOL household

It will also be seen from the chart that better Moreovcr, there is hdrGq any distinction be­ houses and superior type buildings belong most­ tween buildings and structures used solely for ly to the upper castes of the village. The residential purposes and those for production Brahmins have 40 Bighas 15 Cottahs for their and bUSlOCSS purposes. That the weaver keeps homestead; the Kayasthas have 12 Bighas and his handloom/Iooms in his dwelling house and 10 Cottalls whereas the Mahisyas have only 42 or in his sleeping room will be evident from the Bighas and 12 Cottahs as homestead for 93 photograph. The house shown in the photo­ households. The position of the Tantis, graph has, in fact, one big room and the loom Swarnal,mrs, Karmakars is not very happy either, is kept in one corner of it. During day the They have 13 Bi;;izas, five BiRhas and (1ne Big/zll loom is at work, at night it is the sleeping roODl. respectively for their homestead_ The end Similar is the case with the farmers and gold­ result o~ such a situation is overcrowding, smiths. The farmer, more often than not, stores 28 CHANDRABHAG his things. corn, implements etc .• in his dwelling stitute the absolute minimum of the consumption house; the Swarnakar has his small smithy in standard and each and every household at his own house. In a village like Chandrabhag, Chandrahhag possesses these two commodities. it is difficult for a goldsmith to run a separate Other consumer goods like chair, table. radio. establishment for his business which can be done bicycle, torch are mostly owned by the upper in towns. A Brahmin gentleman has also been caste families of the village. Some of these running a stationery shop in one of the rooms consumer goods have come very recently in use. of his house. Radios and transistors fall in this category. More often than not, the radios and transistors have been purchased within 5 years of the date HOUSEHOLD GOODS of interview. The extent to which semi-durable consumer goods are used also shows the direction The standard of living and the pattern of of social change. Modern households must­ consumer expenditure in rural areas will be needs be more and more streamlined consequent easily ascertained from the number of durable upon a change in the economy of the country. consumer goods in use in djfferent caste house­ Use of kerosene stove, bicycles is being gradu­ holds. The Brahmin households have the highest ally taken up by village households. The rela­ number of such durable consumer goods as they tive position of the use of consumer goods by constitute the better off section in the village. different caste households at Cliandrabhag will A mosquito-net and a hurricane lantern con- be discernible from the table below :

TABLE 15

IIOUSEROLD EFFECJl'S OF DIFFERENT CASTES AT ClIANDRABIIAG

Consumer's goods Brahmin Kayastha :Mahisya Ta.nti Swarnakaf

Bed.stead 55 24 31+1'" 1H 4+1*

Khatia 29 12 45 8 ~Hl* Chllir 45+3* 20+1* 7+12· 5+3* Table 43+1· 18+3* 3+2* 3

Mirror 59 25 82 19 :Bench 41 14 23+9· 13 Stool 50 22 39 15 JalcJwwki 58 23 80+4* 19 .5

Wall·shelf 44+1· 20 27+1'" 9+2* Mosquito-net 59+ 27+ BI+ 22+ Hurricane lantern 59+ 27+ 92 22+ Petromax 10 3 2+1* 3 Battery torch 39+3· 17 19+5* 8

Kerosene stove 26+10* 11+3* 4+2* :I Bicycle 30+8* 17+1* 5+7· 3+1* Gramophone 1

Radio 13* 7* 6· 1*

Harmonium 3 2 2

TtLnpurrt

Othors 1* PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE 29

TABLE'lS-contd. Consumer's goods Karmakar Gandha· Kaivm:_ta Tili Dhabi!. Total banik of all castes

Bed.stead 2 134

Kha#a 98

Chair 96

Table 73

Mirror 3 196

Bench 1+1* 100

Stool 2 130

Jalchowki 1+1* J93

Wall·shelf I' lOS lIIosquito.net 3+ 214 Hurricane lantern 3 215

Petromax 19

Battery torch 1" 94

Kerosene stove 59

Bicycle 1* 73

Gramophone 2

Radio 1* 28

Harmonium 8

Tanpura 1 Others

* Indicates bought within 5 years.

DRESS in favour of shirts and trousers than Dhotis and Panjabis. The older generation of both the The pattern of dress of the people of middle and the well-to-do class prefer Dhotis Chandrabhag exhibits no special characteristics. and Panjabis to shirts and trousers. They use Dhuti, Panjabi, Shirt, Banian, Fatua, Merjai are Panjabi or the upper garment usually when they the usual apparel of the menfolk at Chandra­ move out of the village, either to the place of bhag as they are in other villages of West work or on some business errand. But when Bengal. European style dresses are also in they keep in the village they would hardly put much use at Chandrabhag. But the dresses vary on their Panjabi. At best they would put on a according to the economic condition of the Genji as their upper garment. The younger people there. The peasants as Chandrabhag are group of the middle class, on the other hand. is seen mostly in their loin cloths or in a simple very particular about using an upper garment. Dlwti with no upper garment During the They do not like to be seen in bare bodies. winter they put on a shirt or use a Chadar only. They use Panjabis or shirts on top of their The middle class people use Panjabi, shirt. Genjis even when keeping in the village, when Dhoti or the European style dress. The young they move out of the village, to their places of group from the middle class families are much work Or to any other place, they dress quite 30 CHANDRABHAG spick and span, sometimes with neckties and ly, Hawaii chappals have in fact, replaced leather cravats. The very old gentlemen of the middle slippers and shoes in the country as a whole. and the well-to-do class have been found to be using Merjai, a kind of short coat with string Ornaments are not much in use at Chandra­ fastenings. During the cold season they have bhag. Women of the poor households did not also been seen 'using Balaposh, a kind of quilled scem to possess any ornament, gold or silver, at wrapper. all. In most cases, they were seen with glass bangles or with an iron bangle which stand for Apart from Dhoti another kind of apparel is the auspicious sign that her husband is living. in use much use in the villages of West Bengal Som~times again, a pair of conch-shell bangles and this is called Lungi. This apparel has a go with the iron bangle. But conch-shell bangles close resemblance with the "Sarong" of the have become very dear these days, so women of people of the South-East Asia. Lungi is cheap, the poor households use an iron bangle only. durable and very easy to handle. It is worn as a lower garment from waist downwards and in Women of the middle class families and also times of rain it can be tucked up conveniently. of the well-to-do househ'olds do not use too Most of the peasants and menfolk from the lower many ornaments. They may not use any gold class at Chandrabhag use Lunr:i all throughout ornament at all except a special kind of nose the year. Menfolk of the middle and the upper ornament which is inserted across tne septum of class also use Lungi but not when moving out the nose. ~The traditional belief is that this of the village. ornament protects the user from lJlany kinds of diseases. In the dresses of women too similar gradaJ tions in consumption and use are discernible. Women of the very well-off households were Most of the women of the poor households put seen hsing bangles, earrings and a short necklace. on a piece of Sari only. They cannot afford a No heavy gold ornaments is worn these days. blouse or a petticoat. Women from the middle School-going girls, specially the older ones, have income group also put on a piece of Sari only a craze for a ring and this is in most cases, what when they keep indoors. For outdoor move­ they. ,use at their ornaments. They have a feel­ ment they dress proper1y with chemise, blouse, ing that use of ornaments has gone out of petticoat. There is a difference of dress in fashion. Moreover, the gold control order of generations also. Teenager girls ",:,ould hardly the Govt. of India had its effects felt in the con­ agree to put a piece of Sari only. They use sumption pattern of ornament in this village. frock till tne age of twelve or thirteen since when they switch on to Saries. Thev dress fully FOOD with chemise, blouse. petticoat and Sari for out­ door movement. Indoors, they may go without What they eat at Chandrabhag is an import­ it blouse or a petticoat but they must put on a ant socio-economic index of the people ol chemise (the upper garment) before they put on Chandrabhag. The economically backward a Sari. Teenager girls of the poor families too, section fare rather ill in their consumption of use a chemise as an upper garment. food whereas the better off section of the p_opu­ lation may exhibit a touch of conspicuous con­ Small girls and small hays between the age sumption in food. But the average consump­ five to ten usually do not use any upper garment tion pattern has nothing to commend with. during summer and specially when they are not out to school or to any other errand. When Fish is in absolute demand in the village. r-:oing to the school they put on their full vest­ It is not always that fish must be bought in the ments. local market. There are plenty of ponds. tanks and dug-outs in the village. Most of them Moving about on bare feet is quite usual abound in fishes. Angling is the most impor_­ inside the village for all socia-economic groups. tant pastime of the elderly and out of work The office-goers use shoes (Oxford. Casual) at males as well as of the aged females of the time of going to the office. At home, they either villa?e. Ladies, after their midday meals would move bare-footed or use a Khamm or a wooden sit with a fishing rod for hours together. And sandal. Plimsolls or keds are also in great use thev mostly havc a Q'ood catch with a waiting of among those who have to do -a good deal of two hours. Thus, fish enter~. more often than movement from one village to another. Recent- not. in the daily menu of a villager of Charnlra. PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE 31 bhag. Apart from this, the daily consumption in the field start very early in the morning of food at Chandrabhag follows a stereotyped having soaked rice from overnight. With soak­ pattern, varying occasionally with the level .. of ed rice and onion they take their very early income of a vi1lager. The well-to-do famlhes breakfast. They may come for lunch at home eat well than the economically unsound families. or the lunch may be brought to them in the field. Tn the poor households there is usually two The midday meal is taken usually at 2 P.M. It meals, one in the early morning and the other is usually a heavy meal for the workers in the are at dusk. It is only in the middle class and field. After day's work they come back home upper class families that one can hope to see in the evening. This is their tea time. Usually, arrangements of having two principal meals and they would take a cup of tea and a small bowl­ two subsidiary meals or tiffins during a day. full of Muri (Puffed rice). Though very hungry The two principal meals are usually very heavy. they prefer to take a small quantity of food As such tiffins are very light. Sometimes, only during this period of the day. They do not tea is taken as tiffin. want to spoil their dinner at night by taking too much food at dusk or evening. The pattern of food consumption at Chand:a­ bhag is very much influenced by the exceSSive EX,cept beef and pork. hardly any restriction number of commuters from the village. They is observed about meat in the village. Chicken attend offices and other establishments at Cal­ used to be and still is a taboo of the Brahmin cutta and other subdivisional towns like Ulu­ caste. But this taboo seems to have been waived beria, Kolaghat. For these commuters food is in the case of the Brahmin males and not cooked early by the housewives. No elabora~e Brahmin females. In the vi11a)Ie food-front cooking is possible as food is to be served. In there exists therefore. a sort of "two nation" time. Office-goers having left the housewlves ideas. Tea has entered auite unware in the vil­ take to cooking rather elaborately for the whole lage. Not only is it consumed daily at home. family. School-going Ghildren usually take a there are also one or two tea stalls at Chandra­ few morsels of what had been left from the early bhag. Tea drinking is common in all households. morning dishes made for the office-goers. They rich or poor. Not a single household at take their heavy dinner after coming back from Chandrabhag was found to be an exception. the school. So, in many cases, specially in the households of the commuters the arrangement FAMILY AND KINSHIP PATTERN of meals is like this: tea in the early morning between 6 A.M. to 6-30 A.M. Breakfast-cum­ Structure lunch consisting of rice, a vegetable curry, Dal or fish or egg curry between 8-30 A.M. to 9 A.M. The two hundred and sixteen families at Lunch-cum-afternoon tiffin specially for the Cbandrabhag exhibit variations in their kinship school-going children consisting of rice, curry, structure. Tt is. thus. not lJossible to make a Dal between 4-30 P.M. to 5 P.M. Dinner at clear polar dichotomy. nuclear and 'extended' night (9-30-10 P.M.) consisting of rice, Dar, fish or 'ioint' in respect of them. The families can curry and sometimes milk. But for the non­ be classified into nuclear or simple, extended. commuter households and for households having intermediate and irregular families. A simple or no school-going children the time table is a bit nuclear familv is the unit con~isting of husbnnd different. The daily food taken by such families and wife and or witbont children. It has also is usually as fonows : been called a coniupal fl1mily. An extended or Morning (1-8 A.M.) Tea (for adult males ioint family is that in which two or more con­ usually) and a morsel iugal families. related lineallv. collatemllv or in of Mud any other wav, live in the same household. An Lunch or midday Rice, Dar, fish curry intermediate family does not fall within the con­ meal (1-2 P.M.) Ane of anv of the above two catenories, An Evening tiffin Tea, Ruti. Gur intermec1illtc familv type Clln be t'xnl!lineo bl'tter (5-6 P.M.) bv a few ex",mnles: when a wiciowed si~ter Night meal Same as in tIle lunch comes to Jive in the familv of her marrieo or dinner with occasional varia­ hrother or when a widoweo daU!!hter lives in the tions family of her father or when the mother-in-law ('Oome~ to ~t~v in thf" hou~eh()lcl of her ~()n-in-law. In the peasant households a still more differ­ Sur}) irregll18r rel:'ltive~ r

In his opinion, the presence of 'adhesions' in a TABLE 16-contd. family makes for the latter's development into an intermediate family. An' Irregular' family TYPE D is one in which a man and a woman live as hus­ No. of Total band and wife, though not wedded. Another Intermediate families households no. of category may be presented and that is family of households the 'incomplete' type. It is characterised by the absence of any married couple in it. All Childless couple with added kin 59 these different varieties with their numerous ramifications are to be seen at Chandrabhag. Conjugal family with widowed The presence of a number of families of the mother/widowed sister or mother, sister, father's mo- intermediate type just obviates the possibility of ther, wife's mother etc. 2 a rapid disintegration of the extended family system in India. The different variations in the Brother's, married sister's and kinship organisation in the family of the Brahmins married daughters' family living together 6 are given below : Total 8 59 TABLE 16

BRAHMIN TYPE E TYPE A

No. of ·Total Irregular III.llomplete family households IlO. of households

Bachelor living alone 59

Bachelor living with mother, 2 brother, sister \ Widow living alone 2 From the above tables it will be seen that nuclear or conjugal or simple families constitute Widow living with children 2 49.15 per cent. of the Brahmin households. and grand children Extended or joint families constitute 25.42 per Widower living alone cent., and intermediate and incomplete families together constitute another 25.42 per cent. In­ Widower living with children and termediate families by themselves constitute 13.44 grand children, married dau- per cent. of the Brahmin households. If the ghter intermediate families are considered with the ex­ Total 7 59 tended families, they together make up for 39 per cent. of the Brahmin households. This TYPEB means that relationship with secondary and tertiary kins is still important at Chandrabhag. Con jugal or nuclear type Though there is a preponderance of nuclear families over other types of families at Chandra­ Childless couple 2 59 bhag, it can, nevertheless, be said that the family is not totally atomised or disorganised. Couple with children 27 Also in Chandrabhag, such arrangements of leaving wife and children as in Ie Play's "Stem 29 59 Total family" are pragmatically inescapable for those TYPE C who earn money away from the village. Thus, " Joint family by choice" as one of our anthro­ Extended or Joint pologists opine, "which is based on economic Lineal generation families 9 considerations and conscious appraisal of alter­ natives, at least on the levels of expectations and Collateral i.e. brothers and their values, is something qualitatively different from families 6 the classic model of the joint family" is also Tota) 15 59 to be found in Chandrabhag. PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTuRE 33

The pattern of families and extension of kin­ that of the Brahmin. The varia Lions of the ship among castes other than the Brahmin at pattern of kinship among aiffcrellt castes may be Challdrabhag exhibit just (he sImilar (rend as discernible from the followmg table.

TABLE 17

STImCTl'RI; OJ), FAMTLTES OF DIFFEREXT CASTES AT CIIAXDRABHAG

Types of H.milios Kayastha lIIahisya f:iwarnukar ':fanti KurDlakar

Type A (Incompl~te) Bachelor living alolle 2 1 lJnchelor liVll " with mother allel 3 2 Widow livil g alono - "'idolV 1i"11 \1 it chJ!dl'cll 2 Wielow living alone \Vi,low,'r livjn~ with childrm m <1 !!fanu children 3

Type B (Nuclear or ConJII!Jitl) Uhikllesa coupk\ 1 8 1 Couple with "hiltlrell 13 38 2

Type G (E:rtmdpd or JOt 't) LinDal (3 ~ 'llN'lLiolls\ 4 7 6 Colla,teraJ~ 1 3 1 Compolll ,\ 1 1

TypeD (lntermldilltf) Childless conplo with acldfd kin 4 CUlljnga 1 family \Vi1 II widow"'l mother/widowed 3 18 4 8istl..lT. Diot lC'r'g sister, fath('r'~ mother, wife"s nt(}thPr. etc. BJ'Othcr's m~rric,l ~istcr'R and mani,,\ daughter's 4 2 1 family liVIll, together

Total households 27 93 8 22

Typps of familic:s Gandlmbanik Tili Kaivarta Dhoba Total Typp A (Incomplete) Bachelor living alone 3 Bachelor li1'ing with n101 her and 1 6 Widow living alone II Widow living with children 1 0 Widow living alone Widower living with childrf'n and grand children 4,

Typr, B (Nudfllr or GOIl)11gal) Chi1rlless coup II' 11 Couple with chilrlren 57 TrIPe 0 (Extended or Joint) Lineal (3 generations) 18 Collaterals 6 C'ODlPOUIlU 2

'l'yp~ D (lntrrmedi1{' ) Childless couple with added kin 4 Conjugal familv with widowed mother/widowed 1 2!l sister, mother's pi~ter, father's mother, wife's moth"r, etc. Brother'p married sister's and married daughter's 7 family living together

Total households 3 1 157 p (PR) C mns,'67 3 34 CHANDRABHAG

The structure of the family, among different Though the composition of the family is castes, at Cbandrabhag has undergone some changing, the power structure within the family changes no doubt. But the main trend is the of different castes of Chandrabhag has shown adjustment of the institution with the changing not a very significant change. Father is still the social situations and the economy of the village. controlling figure. Even an adult son, financially quite independent, has, normally, to accept what The size of the family among diITerent castes his father says, Education, service, marriage, at Chandrabhag also varies while the average and in other affairs the father has always a say. size of all the households at Chandrabhag is 6.4 Daughters are expected to be given in marriage persons, the mean size of the families of Brah­ early. Employment of girls is tried to be dis­ min, Kayastha. Mahisya and other ranges be­ couraged as far as possible. Nevertheless. tween 2.0 to 8.3 persons per household. The young men and women of the village are show­ mean size of the families of different castes will ing signs of independence, more and more. be seen in the table below: Quite a few boys and girls have married on their own. Since, in most of the cases, bride and TABLE 18 bridegroom belonged to the same caste. tbe MEJL~ SIZE OF THE FAMILIES OF DIFFERE:NT parents, though annoyed, did not take very un­ CASTES kindly to tbem. A girl have ber own story how she came to marry the hoy of her choice. In No. of :;\!ean No.of popuu"tion size of this casc, both the boy and girl belonged to the Caste house. in the the same caste and the same economic status. There holdij household house- had, however, been one or two cases of intercaste of .,arh raste hold marriages. After preliminary difficulties, parent Brahmin 59 43(l 7-G and sons and daughter-in-Iaws became recon­ ciled. This is a step forward to more and more K"'~'i\stha 2i 1(;9 6'3 accommodation to new ways of life. 1I1ahisya 93 547 5'9 "New ways of life" are also adopted by SWl\rnll,k"r 8 48 6'0 lower castes when they follow or try to follow Tanti 22 163 the ritual patterns and ways of life of the Brah­ 6'9 mins in the village. The Brahmins constitute Karmakn.r 7 7-0 the dominant caste by virtue of their economic, social and educational status. Many of the Ganrlhnbanik 3 2fi 8'3 castes in the viIJage have tried to change their Tili 2 2'0 social position by changing their ritual patterns, and invariably they have tried to emulate the Kaiv[lrh~ 2 2'0 Brahmins. It is all very known to everybody in Dhoba () 6'0 India that the Hindus observe a number of rituals from birth to death. The observance of The . average size of the family, excepting these rituals ensures the ritual status of a Hindu. four families of Karmakar, TiE. Kaivarta and A twice-born caste man has to perform many Dhoba where average did not work, tends to be more rituals than a Sudra or a member of the higher among higher castes, The Brahmin once-born caste. To attain status. therefore, not families being more extended in their relation­ only wealth but also an appropriate structure of ship (vide Table 17) show a high figure. The rituals is necessary. In the daily life of the mean size of the family of the Gandhabanik people at Chandrabhag, one, thus comes across appears the highest in the table, the modeJ size a series of ritual observances connected with varies according to the aggregate of members in birth, Sasthi. first rice-taking ceremony, sacred each Gandhabanik family. thread ceremony, marriage, Punarvivaha, funer­ ary right, and so on. Though the age of the The composition of the family among differ­ marriage of the girls at Chandrabhag is much ent castes at Chandrabhag is going to exhibit higher today, there remains, nevertheless, stray further changes as the people of Chandrabhag cases of prepuberty marriage. Punarvivaha is become more conscious of family planning or the ceremony which is performed when the child planned parenthood. The number of children wife attains puberty. The age of menarche in among young couples of the upper castes has al­ Bengal is usually 11.8 to 12 years. Punarvivaha ready registered a decline. ceremony takes place, usually, at hous\) of the PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE 35 parents of the girl. She is supposed to stay at The life·cycles of the villagers at Chandra· her parents' house till she has attained puberty bhag are interspersed with the following rituals and undergone the ceremony of Punarvivaha. connected with the major crises of life, namely. But this is getting fewer and fewer. birth, marriage and death; (i) Garbhadhan (Conception ceremony) (ii) Sadhbhaksana (Eating of some desired object by an expectant mother) (iii) Birth Ceremony (iv) Sashthipuja (Propitiation of the presiding deity of children on the 6th day after the birth of the child) (v) Namakarana and Annaprasana (First rice·taking and naming of the child) (vi) Paita or Upanayana (Sacred thread wearing ceremony, mainly of the twice··born castes) (vii) Marriage (viii) Sraddha (Funeral rites)

Conception ceremony, except in the case of Gram Seva Sangha with donations from the Tata the first child·birth in the family, is not properly Trust of Bombay. done. That a woman is Enceinte is known when she stops menstruating. So the Garbha· Contrary to the usual practices, the Dais at dhan or the foetus· laying ceremony is never per· Chandrabhag use a pair of sterilized scissors at formed. An Enceinte woman has. nevertheless. the time of cutting the umbilical cord during to observe quite a few do's and don'ts. These parturition. Infant mortality at birth is practi. do's and don'ts are mostly maintained by pseudo· cally nil at Chandrabhag. religious sanctions. Though the young section of the village just give a damn to these numerous After the delivery of the child the mother has strictures, they cannot also flout these restrictions to remain confined in the lying·in·room for a openly. An Enceinte woman is not allowed to period of twenty days. This twenty·day segre· go out in the evening. She must not visit the gation is for the Brahinin and the Kaysthas only. burning ghat, nor should she go by certain trees The Mahisya has thirty day segregation sanction. in the village. Among still lower castes the new mother remains totally segregated in the lying·in·room for seven At the fifth or the seventh month of preg· days. But she has to observe certain restrictions nancy, an Enceinte woman is generally fed on of touch for another three weeks. In this case with eatables of her desire or choice. Usually, social emulation becomes difficult because of the the children of the household and the children economic imperative. Women of low castes can in the neighbourhood partake of the food that rarely, if ever, afford to stay idle for consecutive has beell' offered to the Enceinte woman. This spell of days. ceremony is observed by all the different castes, high or low in the village. On the sixth day of the birth of the child, Sasthipuja or the propitiation of Sasthi, the god· ACTUAL BIRTH dess of children, is performed. Sasthipuja is performed during daytime. It is a non·hieratical During the time of confinement of the local observance, as such, no priest is required. But Dais (indigenous midwives) is sought after. All those who are well off would perform this Sasthi· the local Dais were given maternity training by puja with all gala. Normally, a senior female the late Dr. Bhupendra Ghosh Choudhury, member of the family would observe fast and father of Dr. Ranjit Roy Choudhury, the MLA. perform the worship in a Vrata (Folk ritual) from the village. So the Dais in Chandrabhag way. Stories depicting the efficacy of Sasthipuja and its neighbouring areas can very well be taken are read out and children of the neighbourhood as trained Dais or midwives. Complicated cases are fed with some toothfuls. During night, a of maternity are taken either to the Maternity pen, a bottle of ink, a few grains of paddy, a Horne at Khaiurnan, about two and a half miles lighted lamp and the twig of a tree are kept away from Chandrabhag or at Calcutta. The ready by the new·born baby in the lying· in· maternity home at Khajuman was started by the room. The belief has it that the Vidhata 36 CHANDRABHAG

Purllsha (God) would descend into the lying-in­ the washcrman or DUIIl (scavenger). But, in room and would write the future, fate and destiny these days of economic stringency, some sort of of the child in his forehead. Plenty of legends r:ltionalised feeling lb at work and the articles are about how the attendant of the lying-in-room are ritually sanctified in the most traditional pro­ had some accosting with the vidlzata Purl/s/za cess by the was,herman. A nice juxtaposition and how he was forced to change his writings indeed! If economic conditions permit, a small on the forehead of the child. Again, the mother feast for the ladies who have their husbands would say how that great man looked like as living, in the neighbourhood. A Sastlzipuja is tall as the sky, as resplendent as the sun and so also arranged for the welfare of the child. on. Mothers who claim to have seen Vidhata Purl/sha make most of the fate of their children. Namakarana and Annaprasana (Nami11g alld the first rice-taking ceremony) On the eighth day comes another ceremony, called Atkallre or Atkalai All the children of These two ceremonies, more often than not. the neighbourbood are invited and they sing take place simultancously. Allllapl'Usanu is. songs in honour of the child. Eight kinds of usually, performed on the 5th (in the case of fried pulses ('

Paita or Upanaywta Marriage IS desirable within the same caste and not outside. In spite of the legal sanction This is a very important socia-religious cere­ of SH'(lf;o{J'lI (same GOII'll) marriage, care is taken mony in the life-cycle of the Hindus. This cere­ nol to select a bride or a groom from the same mony is performed by the Brahmrn caste only Corra. Also. the restrictions of prohibited and it signifies the change of status of a man. degree is metIculously observed. After the pre­ Before e panayana there is hardly any difference liminary talks have been concluded, the elder between a Brahmin boy and a Sudra boy. It is members of the bridegroom's family come to the [J pallaYUlla which brings in the difference. With house of the bride to see her for selection. llpanayun(l one attains the status of a D}I'ija or According to the sacred texts there are various one of the twice-born. Aftcr UpaJlayana one WclYS of judgmg the suitability of a girl as a becomes eligible to discharge his social and bride. In Asvuiuyalla Grihyasutra and the religious obligations. During this Paita or ApastaIJJbha Crihyaslltf'lI we get that in order to U panayana a boy (there is no sanction of [ pa­ know the particular characteristic possessed by a nayana for a girl) has to undergo a serics of girl she was made to choose one of the several rituals. He must shave his head, keep on res­ clods of earth presented to her. They were tricted and vegetarian diet, should observe cer­ seven itl number and each possessed a particular tain regulations upto a period of one year from <.:hardcteristic. Selection or rejection of a girl the date of Upanayana. The Kayasthas, the depended upon what she had chosen. Though Mahisyas and other occupational castes do not little care is paId to this method of selecting a observe this ceremony. It is not sanctioned for bride today, a very detailed account is, neverthe­ them: social emultion of Brahminical rites docs less. taken of her physical appearance, capabili­ not obtain here. ties and attainments. Horoscopes of both the subjects (the bridegroom and the bride) are also MARRIAGE consulted. ]f the elders of the two parties have agrced the match, an auspicious day is selected Marriage rituals occupy the largest slicc in and the father or the guardian of the bride sends the life-cycle pie of Chandrabhag. The rituals, a formal letter of proposals to the fatber! again, vary according to the principlcs of Va/'lta. guardian of the bridegroom. From the day the occupational status, religious sects, and also ac­ letter of proposal is sent, the girl is regarded as cording to the principle of a particular family. betrothed and the ritual is Known as Vagdana It is true that non-Brahmin lower castes llave a or giving of words of marriage. In the villages tendency to imitate the rituals of the higher, and the semi-urban areas of India, Vagdalla is specially the Brahmin castes. This is all the a very important ritual. It usually takes place more true at Chandrabhag where tbere is a after much care and consideration. Once majority of the Brahmins, culturally and ritually. Vagdwur is complete, revocation is attended with I was told by Mahisya boys and girls that the much social censure. The father of the bride Mahisyas have, of late, taken many of the rituals may also find it difficult to arrange another and ceremonies of the Brahmins making it diffi­ match for the daughter pretty soon. cult to distinguish between. Brahmanic rituals arc also serving as a model to other lower castes. When Vagdana is complete, the parties have The major difference between a high caste to wait for suitable time of marriage. Months marriage and low caste marriage is the payment propitious for marriage in Bengal include of dowry. In a high caste marriage bridegroom­ Baisakh (April-May), .Taistha (May-June), Asar price or dowry 1S paid while in a low caste (June-July), Sravana (July-August), Agrahayan marriage one has to pay the bride-price. Also, (November-December), Mar;h (January-February), 38 CHANDRABltAG

Fa/gull (February-March). In selecting the Married women and children of the neighbour­ months of marriage some other considerations hood are invited to join in the ceremony. They are also taken into account. The eldest son or also smear turmeric paste on the body of each :he eldest daughter should not be married in other and have fun. After the ceremonial bath the month of Jaistha. Also, the month of birth of the bride, participants, excluding the bride, go of the subjects is avoided for this purpose. to Chandratala for seeking benediction of the Hence, after the Vagdana ritual, the parties have, local deity. sometimes. to wait for the auspicious month. The day of actual celebration of the marriage is On the night previous to the night of marri­ then fixed in consultation with an almanac and age a male member of the families of the bride every care is taken to select a day with the influ­ and the bridegroom go to their respective ence of the maximum number of good planets. priest's home and get some cooked nee. This is When the month and the day for celebration. called Ai Buro Bhat. This rice is taken by the have been finally settled, letter announcing bride and the bridegroom at their houses very marriage is sent by both the families of the early in the morning of the day of marriage. bride and bridegroom to relatives and friends. This is their last feed of rice as a maid and a Since the spirit of the Joint Family still lingers in bachelor. On the day of marriage, till the actual Bengal, the letter of invitation is issued in the wedding ceremony is over, the bride and the name of the eldest male member of the family bridegroom are to observe ritual fasting. and not in the name of the father of the bride or the bridegroom. In the patriarchal set-up of the In the morning of the day of marriage, the Joint family in Bengal, there is a good deal of women members (five in the bride's house and privileged superiority of the family of the bride­ nine in the bridegroom's house) observe Sasthi­ groom. The family of the bride, while sending puja. This Sasthipuja is performed with water the formal letter of wedding to the family of the brought ritually by five Eostri from a nearby bridegroom, is thus under some customary obli­ pond. The way of collecting water is also inter­ gations to send some sweets and betel leaves. esting. The seniormost of the five Eostris with The custom is not reciprocal. The ceremony of a pot on her head would take a dip in the pond pounding turmeric (Halood Kota) is the next five times and the water thus collected would be import&nt ceremony to be observed. Halood used in the Sasthipuja. Kota is performed on an auspicious day, specially specified in the Hindu almanac. On such a day Early in the afternoon, Kim or A bhyuddaika five married women, relative or non-relative, Sraddha or Briddhi Sraddha is performed. The ceremonially pound some turmeric along with actual performance of the ceremony devolves on five cowrie shells. This is pounded in a special the senior-most male member of the bride's wooden implement (Dhenki) or in a mortar and family. In this ritual he offers oblations of pestle. Religious songs are sung during the water, rice and fruit towards ancestors upto three pounding of turmeric. When turmeric hRS generations on both the sides of his father and been pounded, it is ceremonially put into an mother. The idea of this ritual is to propitiate earthen jar. Every care is taken not to pollute the souls of the forefathers so that they might this pounded turmeric. It must not be touched shower blessing on the newly wed couple. by a menstruating woman nor by anyone who Similar ritual is also performed at the house of has suffered a death in the family within a month the bridegroom. from the day of pounding of turmeric. This pounded turmeric is kept in a ritually pure state When the ritual of Abhyudaika Sraddha is for the ceremony of annointment of the subject being performed at the bride's house, the bride with turmeric. This annointing ceremony is prepared for the actual ritual of Sampradana. (Gatraharidra or Gayehalood) too, is performed Five married women make die bride bathe with on an auspicious day. This ceremony is per­ water ceremonially collected from nine or five formed entirely by women. Annointing of different households. Before her ceremonial turmeric of the bridegroom takes place first. The bath she gets her nails pared by a barber. After ceremony of the bride follows. What happens the bath she puts on a new, red bordered Sari is a bit of turmeric paste touched to the body of and sits on a new mat in a room made ritually the groom is sent to the house of the bride. pure for the occasion. She holds in her hand Along with the turmeric paste is sent a 6sh and the tender shoot of a plaintain leaf wrapped in some sweets. The bride is then smeared with a piece of cloth dyed in turmeric. The bride that paste and she has a ceremonial bath. sits in that ritually pure state till the time she is PEOPLE AND 'tHEIR MATERiAL CULTLRE au brought into the marriage-booth or Chhandna­ Aglli, M aruta, Varulla, to the gods of the tala for Sampradana. At the time of wedding Urdhalok (upper world) and to the deities of she is to put on the dress sent from the house of the Pretaluka (nether world). When his invoca­ the bridegroom. tion of the deities of ten directions has been com­ pleted, 111e bride is ceremonially given to the The marriage-booth comprises an area of four bridegroom in Sampradana. He holds the right cubits square, bounaed by four plantain saplings palm of the bride in his right palm in such a at four corners. A thread dyed in turmeric is way that the hairy side of the bride's palm lay wound round the four saplings seven times at a in the inner side of the palm of the bridegroom. height of five cubits. In the centre of the en­ The priest of the bride's family places five kinds closed area is a small dug-out, twentyone finger of fruit in their joined palms and binds them breadth square. It is filled with water. A new with a Kusa grass. He then places the joined carthen pot with a symbolic figure of Ganesh palms of the bride and the bridegroom on the painted on it is placed in the dug-out. A mouth of the earthen pot placed in the small dug­ Salgramsila r.:presenting god Na,uyan is a,so out. The person performing the ritual of placed in the place of marriage. It lS bclie"ed Sampradana now utters the following Mantra, that the Salgrumsila acts as a witness to ,he _. 1 do give away to you this girl, decked with ceremony of wedding from the beginning to the ornaments and garments after I have paid due end. Other things that are placed in the homage to god Prajapati". The bridegroom accepts the gift with an oITering to the god of Chhalldrwtala are as follows: two r I n!!s made ot Kusha grass, flower, sandal-paste, sunned rice, love. Sampradalla is followed by Subhadristi leaves of the wood-apple tree, a wInnowing fan or the auspicious exchange of glances of the pair. containing five kinds of grams (Pwchasashya). Simultaneously with 'ihis exchange of glances or five kinds of fruit, cups of curd, miJ!~, honey and looks goes on the excllange of garlands of the sugar, small figurines made from nee pastes. bride and the bridegroom. These ceremonies of M:Iiabadal (exchange of garlands) and Sublw­ dristi (auspicious exchange of glances) are, more At the appointed time, before the commencc­ often than not, attended with mirth and levity of ment of the ceremony, the bridegroom with his the participants. Sampradalla is only the half party amvcs at the huuse of the bride. Th0 of the total ceremonies of marriage. Sampra­ father of the bride receives him WIth Madhu­ dana. indeed, makes for the transfer of the bride parka. This is the highest honour that Cdn be to the Cotm of the bridegroom. But this ritual offered to a guest. After the bridegroom has transfer of the bride into the Gotra of the bride­ been duly received and honoured by the father groom does not. forthwitn, make thc marriage of the bride, he is given a silk Dhoti to put on complete and Irrevocable Vimhahoma completes and gets ready for the ceremony. The bride is tJle m:llriage ccrcmony. 1f the bridegroom now brought to the Chlwndnatala. happens to die before VivahaiJoma is performed, the bride, in spite of Sampradana, will not be When the bride has been brought to the r~ckoned a widow. Chhandnatala and the bridegroom is ready for the ceremony, the father or the guardian of the Vivahahoma/ Kusandika or KlIsumdinge (in bride asks the permiSSIOn of the father or the local parlance) is expected to be performed on guardian of the bridegroom for the commence­ the night of the wedding. But everything de­ ment of the ceremony. Gift of the girl or pends on the duration of the auspicious moments Sampradana constitutes to core of the Hindu or Lagna. If the Lagna is over, the ceremony marriage. There is an order of preference of is deferred till the next morning. Vivahahoma the relatives of the bride who can give her away or KusllmdilJge is not a single ritual; rather it in Sampradana. The most preferred relalive is is a complex of a number of rituals. The the maternal uncle of the bride. Next to him central theme of this ritual is a fire oblation. come paternal uncles, brothers, fathers, agnates, All the articles for Kusandika or Kusumdinge cognates and Sapindas follow in a descending have to be brought from the house of the bride­ order. The relative who is to perform the groom. Articles necessary for its performance Sampradalla ceremony now comc forward and include sand, wood of wild fig tree, cowdung, a requests the bridegroom to take his seat in the platter of sunned rice, pulses, clarified butter, encloped area. On assuming his seat, the bride­ curd, some parched grains, leaves of Sallli groom makes offerings to Ganesh, the god of trce, vermilion, a new pitcher, a stone success, to nine planets, to Siva, Brailma, Yama, pestle, a fiat stone, a few leaves of holy basil, a 40 CHANDRABHAG few grains of sesamum, a few myrobulan, a .. fhls 1 am. bundle of the dried pith of jate plant. Thou art that. I lea yen 1 am Kusandika or Kusumdinge I~ to start with [,hou art tile 0Jrth. Vivahahoma. In the encloseu area of the marri­ I as Saman age-booth, sand is spread on the ea~th III the A,ld thou art Rik. shape of an altar. It is one cubit square in area. Let l:S marry, The new pitcher filled wiLh wakr is placed to RaIM~ a family, the south of this altar; a new winnowing fan And hve containing a few parched grains and a few Sallli One hundred years." leaves is placed to the north of the altar. To the west of the winnowing fan a flat stone is At the end of the Clrcumaalbula tlOn of the placed. ~ow the bride and the bnuegroom sit sacrifiCIal fin:. the bnde ag"m ~teps on the flat side by side facing the fire which has been lit on stone. .Near the ~tOl1e an:: u~'aWll S0\ en big the altar of sand. They make oblations to the squares with powdered rie0 n;.xed Vv tr water. fire jointly thus making the bride's Sahadhwmilli Sometimes, instead of these squares drawe. by or a co-pcrformer of reJigious acts. This offering powdered nee-paste, seven small cart!len wares of oblations to the fire Jointly is followed by are placed bottom :lp. The bridegroom then Pamgrahana, the next importance ritual in the holds the right hanJ of th..: bride and makes her KlIsandika complex. Another ritual of this take seven steps along. over the seven squares or complex is the ritual of l,ajahoma. makes her tread on the seven earthen wares. Ibis een:mon) of Saptupadi IS an essentia! ritual When the oblation to the flre is made, in Hmdu marriage. After the cerc:nOl:y of LajaiJoma is done in her individual capacity. Sap tap adz the bridegroom make~ tne bride C'i:art In this ritual the bride makes an offering of fried some Mantras whIch mean that the hUSband 1S grains to the fire. This fried grain is poured showmg her A rlilldhati (a star III tbe constellatIOn into her hands by her brother who carnes them of the Pleides) and Dhl'llva l\ a"silL/lra or t~lC in a Syala or winnowing fan. 1t will be of some Pole star. In local custo,ll this Veriir ritual has interest to note here that the kinship term for been vulgarised anJ in marriages tuday thl: wife's brother is Sa/a In most of the Indo-Aryan bridegroom or the husband shows the sun to his languages. Though the word is in much abuse wik She has to look eastwards peepmg through today, it has its origin in the Sanskrit word an out-let specialJy deviceu by the 1I1tcrwil1lng Syalaka or Syala i.e., the person who carried the position of the !lngers of both ti;~ palms of th~ Syala or the winnowing fan for his sister during hushand. The ceremony of vrrmiiiun then takes the ceremony of Lajaholl1u. p:ace. The husbanu appJies vermilion on the parting uf the hair of the Wife either with illS After Lajahoma comes Asmakrnm(ll1a a:lOtilcr wedding ring or wiLh the raised edge of a small ritual of Klisundika. LajallOma being over, the eane basket for measuring grains. bride and the bridegroom get up from their scats and the bnde stands in front of the bridegroom. All these vanous ritual~ mak~ up the ritual Both of them then go together near the [Jat stone compic'< of Kusant!if..ll or Kuwmdil1/ie in popu­ placed to the north of the saCrIficial fire and stand lar term. It may ta,,~ p;acc on the night of there facing the north. The bridegroom then marriage or may be kept for the next morning asks the bride to tread on the stune placing her or Basi Biye. If:t is completed on the night of right foot first. She treads on the stone while marnage, Basi Biye rituab conSist only of local bridegroom recites the Mantra. and non-San~kritJc rituals like P/lkur Khela, Chal Khela. ceremonies of good omen etc. " Mount on thIS stone; The married couple must depart from the bride's Be firm like the stone, house before sunset. Before their departure Overcome thy enemies, they have to sec some good omen, .. iz.. the As you are now Salgramsila, five EnSfris (five married ladies Treading on this stone" who have their husbands living), Pllrntl /(ulI1hha (a pitcher filled With water), a pair of fish, curd Now they perform circumambulatton of fire. and image of GlIllesh. The mother of the bride Three times the bridegroom leads the bride is not to see the departure of her daurhter She round the nuptial fire and recites the following shuts herself up in a room and doe~ not come Mantra: out till the couple have gone. At tbe time of l'EOPLL AlSD lHEIR MAIGRJAI CLJLlLRl~ 41 departure the briue performs a ceremony. She nr~t night of the armal at the bndegroom's tak.es a gold coin, a pmch of earth, a few gram::. place, the couple do 110~ ~~"y togc~h.;r at mght. of l..nllust,.ed paddy and makes them out to her fl1e first l1lgl1t is called Au/rutr; wlth some mythu­ La ther telling that she is hereby repaying back logical slgl1lticance attached to it, Thcy can all she had beel) br0ught up wIth. Then the &tay togeth~r on the fourtn nIght from the dol) bridegroom pays DukshlllU {Fcc) to the prie~t 01 of marrIage, even whea the dUl..ghter-1l1-1aw the bride's L'(lUlly. He also pay::. fur the services has been cert:munially wekor.ll'j sllc Gut:s Ilot of t.1c barber, the washerman, the putter, tne bet:ome a full mcmbcr of her hJsband's ianuly carpcnter, the garlamkr and all tho~c occupa­ till tne ceremony of Paf,.a~pars(1 or BO/lbhul. tional group persons \\ho were conr.cclcJ with Before tillS cerel,:ony is performeJ ~he IS not the marriage. fhe barber perlorms the ritual expected to talo.c any food or her hLlsband\ parIng before the eeremol1lal bath of the sub­ family. She it> to take food prepared from the jects; the potter supplies ali the new earlhcn ration she has brought from her parellts. pllchers required on tile occasional of marnage; the washerman . sanctlii..:s' thl.: water of thc On the clghth or the t"nlh day of rnarnagc ceremonIal bath n[ the or,de a;ld the bride­ the couple return to the huuse of the bndc. This groom: the srruth ::.urpli~~ tac new bras> llmor IS called AshtamanJial Of [)asll/1langal. With and the cutt.;:r lDarfJun and Kalari) which the this man'mge ritu,l]& con:e to aa end. bridegroom has to hold in hl~ right hand till tll~ end of Busl Blye or the next-day marriage; the Dl::'PsnSAl or THiJ DEW \;-'U 1l!h H \tlRAl RilE::' carpenter supplle~ the new wooden scats lPlri) (Sruddlw) whu;h the couple sit on 111 the lllawage-bootn; the garlander supplies the pitch coronets which fll-: cyclc of l.fe comes to a stop in death. the bride and the nridegrooJ1l are to put on lile Clandrabhag is a single cOGll11unity village. In O(XaSlOn; the garlantlcr abo supplies th.;: 1l0\';er the dl>posal of tr.e dead. therefore, one slllgic garlands needeu III the mamage. In recognition practice IS followed, cren;ati,)I1. StIll-born babies of the services of all these persons or the nW11- l1r \er) young c.Jildr"n of about a year of age bers of the c:ommumty at the bride's place, the ar..:, usuallj, bJricd and nct cremated. Persllns bridegroom has to pay a sizeable amount. rile dying from snake-nite arc also opared cremation. amount is, usually, handed lwer to the guardian On the contrary. tl:e dead body is placed in a of the bridi! and he make::. necessary distribution plantam tree b.irge (J nd maue tn Hoat :n a mer. and disbursement tater on. The idl;!<.( is that tr.e dead hody, hke the mytholo­ gical Lakhilldar. might get back Its life. But Whell tae bnde and the briueglOom have de­ SJch a pradice is faot dying OJ!. People have parted, the 1110ther of the bride comes oat of !Jer bCCll~lC ~oo ratIOnal to accept these ligments of room and ~piJb a pitcherful l)( water ncar the ImagmatlOn. front entrance of the hou~e, wishing that the couple may have a sl11\)othe Journey. On t!1C Lleath of cither l)[ the parent, one ha~ tu ob~l;!rw a number of rU;i!s a.ld f('strictions. When the couple reach the hlJuse llf tht: bntle­ After the disposal of the dead the rnournir.g groom a series of rituals is performed. They peflod start~. The duralJon of this mourning cannot enter the house till they are ceremonially pcnod is different WIth di1ferent castes. Brah­ welcomed (Baran) by five married ladies. These min~ ha\c r.10urr.lllg of ten days. the Vaidyas ladles carry in their hands, fan, a small pitcher thirteen du}s. the Kayasthas twentyone or thirty filled WIth water, a live fish, it wrmilion box, a dayS. and other lower castes along with tHe winnowing fan COli taming /)urva grass. some \ arious occupational groups obserw Inourning unhusked paddy and a lit lamp. They welcom.; for full one month. Dunng the period of mour­ the couple and put the fish basket with a li\e ning, kins of the dead are debarred from certain fish in it in the hand of the bride. The sisters things. rhey Inllst not eat fish, meat or egg of the bridegroom then touch a pinch of honey during the period; try to avoid cohabitation, II1tO her mouth, ears and eyes. She is supposed J:lUSt not shaye. phre nails. have haIr-cut, mU5l to sce to n0 ill. speak no ill, and hear no III of lint &eat Oli a chaIr but should sit on the ground her husband's family. The mother nf the hus­ ~ hile covering it with a piece of blanket In the band then performs 'the ceremony of iron bangle t:xplry of the mourning period the mourners and conch shell bangle. She makes lhe lIeW haw hl perform Sruddha or the ceremony of briele pul on iron bangle and conch shell hangle respect o ITering. This rite of Sraddhu lS very which are the marks of good omen. On the inclusive. There arc ljulte a few kintls of 42 CHANDRABHAG

Sraddha depending on the pocket and purse of ture by contributing to the flexibility of indus­ the family in which a Sraddha is being perform­ trial-economic organisation. That the daily ed. There are Tilkanchana. Baital'ani, Sorosh journey to work ,might be tending to supersede Ekodwista. Bl'ishotswal'ga. Sorosh and Bl'ishot­ migration as a means of adjustment to change, swarga are very expensive; in the former sixteen since the lengthening commuting radius of the kinds of gifts are to be made for the satisfaction automobile has reduced the amount of migration of the departed soul, the latter includes of (a) necessary within local areas. land or money in lieu of land; (b) Ashan or a seat woven with silk; Cc) a cow or its money In the backdrop of this general situation, the equivalent; Cd) silver coin; Ce) one gold coin; (0 problem of commutation and commuters of a piece of silk Dhoti .. (g) one silk Uttariya (a big Chandrabhag is being looked into. scalf); (h) a pair of shoes; (i) bedstead. bed mat­ tress, bed linen, pillows with cases, a mosquito­ Today, about 350/400 men, women students net; (j) a brass pot; (k) a brass lamp; (1) a copper commute to their place of work and study. The platter; (m) a bell-metal container for bctellcavcs; number is important indeed! But commuta­ (n) an umbrdla; (0) a piece of sandal wood; (p) tion is not all that new in the village of Chandra­ a garland of flower; (q) a metal fruit box. In bhag. Since the middle of the last century a Brishorswarga, a cow with calves have to be minimal outflow was there. During the fiftees offered over and above the offerings mentioned of the last century, the firstever jute mill was in the list of Sorosh. The villagers at Chandra­ established at Fort Gloster in Bauria and this bhag are too poor to undertake Sorosh and had a "pull" effect even then. Moreover, the Brishotswarga rites in their funerary ceremonies. different agency houses like the Ralli Brothers. Andrew Yule, Begg Dunlop, Martin Burn spread On the day following the day of Sraddha, their lure of steady and secure jobs, both white­ resumption of fish, meat and egg-eating is done collar and non-white collar, over the villagers and this is also punctuated with a ceremony within a radius of forty miles from Calcutta. So called Matsyamukhi. On the Matsyamukhi day, these foreign super-establishments had, sinct the kins of the dead, the bier bearers, and those their very inception, made people trickle out of who assisted in the cremation of the dead are their stayput existence in the villages. Com­ invited. Three Brahmins are also to be invited mutation increased slowly but steadily with and fed on this day. growing years till it assumed its, present position. Moreover, with ever decreasing man-land ratio, As in other rituals, in funerary rites also, it becomes imperative to bring in money from lower castes are trying to emulate the Brahmin other sources. Also, to work outside the village caste and in this way try to enhance their ritual and to take up jobs not connected with land is status. This raising of the ritual status may not considered more prestigious these days. And be feasible. finally, there might be technical reasons for going to a different place for work. absence of The life cycle of the village revolves round tht courts for pleaders or mukteers for example. set pattern of the ritual structure of the sacred Commuters in Chandrabhag can be divided mto texts. There are local variations no doubt, but several categories (1) Factory workers working on the whole the influence of Sanskritisation is in the belt of Chengail. Fuleswar, Uluberia and much discernible at Chandrabhag. a Brahmin Bauria ; (2) Students studying at Uluberia, dominated village. Howrah and Calcutta (3) Office workers for offices at Howrah, Calcutta; (4) Pleaders and THE COMMUTERS Muktccrs practising at Uluberia. Commutation has become all the more easier since the intro­ The commuters constitute a new socio­ duction of electric traction in the South Eastern economic category in these days of industrialisa­ Railway of which Bagnan is one of the most tion and urbanisation when the separation of convenient stations. Both up and down trains home and work, if not inevitable, is more usual. are conveniently timed to suit all the above four A little over two decades ago Liepmann, K.K. categories of commuters. Workday at Chandra­ in her The Journey to Work (N.Y.O.U.P. 1944) bhag starts as early as half past four in the found a functional correlation in this separation morning when the housewife has to prepare food of home and work and suggested that these re­ for the faetory going inmate of the house. This current daily movements supplement migration hectic movement of the housewives of the com­ and enhance the stability of community struc- muters continue till haH-past ei,ght in the morn- PEOPLE AND TI-lEIR. MATERIAL cuLTURE: 43 ing. Nine is usually thc village-leaving time for books could be purchased second hand. In the the commuters, students and non·student work­ villages, and in Chandrabhag too, velocity of ers alike. From nine in the morning onwards circulation of old books is indeed great. This till eight in the evening the village IS female give a kind of economic dividend to the ham­ dominated. But this spell of female dominance handed parents. becomes disturbed when the factory workers have a change in the.ir shift of duty. During There is another group of workers at the duty on night shifts workers stay in the Chandrabhag who stay in the place of work dur­ village during day-time. This makes for a day­ ing weekdays and come home on weekdays. In time-night-time dIfferential in the population of the weekends, therefore, a new kind of week and Chandrabhag. weekend differential of male popplation IS evinced. These weekend visitors are mostly Commuters give a new complexion to the familymen but they leave their family in the village life. Since they are out all the six days in village, either on their own or in the care of the week, they feel a sort of' clinging' to the vill­ somebody. Sometimes, a new pattern of crypto­ age on Sundays and turn more mtently to things jointness in the family might arise due to thIS • village' during thIS respite. One has yet to situation. The allegiance of this group of discover a • could'nt careless' attitude among U1e workers who come home weekends is, by no commuters at Chandrabhag. IntegratIOn and means, less pronounced. They take special care unity of the village is thus emphasized all the to render their services in the village during the more. They are cultural catalysts too. The) l'ujas and also, if any eventuality arises. bring home news and views of the city. Com­ muting students bring the news of probable Commutation or the daily journey 10 work strikes and student unrests much carlier than may,. therefore. be considered as something nOf­ newspaper of the morrow. Commutation of so mal III thc community organization today, Onc many white collars workers has also elevated the of the serious students of human ecology opines levels of political and cultural sophistication of tha~ . the regular ~bb and flow of commumty the village. The way the girls and boys debated. activity may be VIewed as itself expressive of the manner in which they dressed, the books they community structure. According to him: read_ the magazines they subscribed to and the cultural functions they made dcmonstration of­ *" Recurrent movements, as the name indi­ all gave a clear proof of city-country symbiosis. cates, comprise all those movements that are routine and repetitive. They might also be But the separation of home and work has called functional, for it is by this type of movc­ never and nowhere been without its disful1c­ ment that the functioning of the community IS tional features. Chandrabhag is no exception to carried on. Each is an integral part in an estab­ the general rule. Apart from the possibility of lished organisation and is therefore essential to severe physiological and psychological strain upon the maintenance of the organization. Recurrent individual employees who must travel long dis­ movements lllvolve no break with the past, no tance to work, the cost of daily movement be­ disruption of an established order. They are comes telling upon the family budget. Enquiry the means by which an existing equilibrium is revealed that many a family of the commuter maintained." has to economise on many essential items. One of such item is the text book of the children. This is, more or less. true of Chandrabhag. Local school authorities are requested not to change text books frequently so much so old *A.H. Howley.Human Ecology, N.Y, 1950,

CHAPTER III ECONOMY OF THE VILLAGE

Economic structure Land Cultivable land lying fallow Farming of land Livestock Tools and implements

Village economy Agricultural operations Indebtedness at Chandrabhag

Reasons for mobility

CHAPTER III ECONOMY OF THE VILLAGE

ECONOMGC STRUCTURE from the banks of the Rupnarayan especially at Naupala. The economic structure of Chandrabhag can be well understood in the macro-geographical The Bagnan section has a population of and macro-economic perspective of Bagnan sec­ 1,23,654, the density of population per square tion of the lower Damodar area. Bagnan sec· mile being slightly over 2,000. The lands of this tion is to the south of the Amta subregion. The thana, which cover 37,979 acres, are divided meandering Rupnarayan forms its western into 1,34,873 plots, the fragmentation of land is boundary and flows through a wide bed with slightly more than the district average (Howrah sand banks. It has washed away part of the district). The average of unutilised land in this Naupala village including the western end of the section comes to only 746 acres that is to say, Cuttack Road in Howrah district, but has, on hardly two per cent. of the total area. This is the other hand. given rise to a big Char, cover­ divided into 3,255 plots. This does not wclude ing hundreds of acres of good arable land, the huge Char land, which was built in recent further north in Mellock. The Damodar, though years by the Rupnarayan in the neighbourhood a much smaller river, exerts considerable influ­ of Mellock. This remains to be utilised. In ence on agricultural activities. A number of addition there are 1,283 acres of submarginal Khals which connect thcse two rivers from cast land, which is kept fallow from time to time. to west, got silted up, rendering thousands of Of the available plots, 289 covering 9.22 acres, acres of arable land unproductive, either because are too small to be of any use but for building of water logging during the rainy season or of new houses; 688 pLots, covering 21,573 acres, draught during the dry weather. The Kanta­ are suitable for growing market garden crops as pukur Khal is a typical example of a silted up well. The number of Dobas (Dug-outs) in canal. Another Khal, the Karia-Birampur, Bagnan thana is 5,926 which has made 617 acres which flows through the Bainan and Kalyanpur of land practically useless. Of the eight Unions Unions has its mouth on Rupnarayan silted up. in Bagnan thana, Mellock on the Rupnarayan alone has about onc-half of the total idle land. The Bagnan section of the lower Damodar The greater part of the remaining idle land is area is traversed by the main line of the South found in the flood plains of the three other Eastern Railway parallel to which runs the Unions - Bagnan, Batul and Chandrabhag. metalled Cuttack Road from the east to the west. Railway communication has thus been very much Chandrabhag Union is one of the most pros­ facilitated in this area. The railway communi­ perous Unions in Bagnan thana, extending from cation has of course, changed the economy of the south of the Uluberia canal to the right bank the area profoundly. It has made people look of the Damodar River. This Union consists of more to Calcutta for their subsistence, and to 10 villages (of which Chandrabhag the village concentrate on such crops as having a ready sale under study is one), and has an area of 4,314 in Calcutta and its neighbourhood. Of the cash acres. 11 has a population of 13,881, density of crops, betel vine (Pan) is by far the most impor­ population being slightly over 2,000 per square tant, which is sent by rail from Bagnan Station mile. The conditions of Khals are far from to Calcutta and other cities of Tndia. satisfactory, except that of the Naoda HaIyan, which has been recently excavated making it The water of both the Rupnarayan and the possible to bring another 300 acres of land under Damodar get saline during the dry months, and the plough. Most of the Khals can be used hence the mouths of canals are to be closed only in the rainy season, and have to be closed sometimes in October and reopened in June after during other seasons to prevent salt water getting the arrival of the south-east monsoon. Salt is into the fields. Chandrabhag Union has the extracted from thy top soils, and is collyctcd second highest acreage of fanow land in Bagnan o :H

N

o

REFERENCES

District 80 un d ory .. '" Roads'

Railway with Station'" ~R,S ECONOMY OF THE VILLAGE 49 thana-Il2 acres, with some concentration of is released, the area has the chance of being fallow land in two villages-Duani Guzrat (40 flooded, as it happened in 1959. This flooding acres) and Mugkalyan (26 acres). While the or inundation affects the soil in two ways, first, fallow land of Duani Guzrat occurs mainly on the humus compost which is absolutely necessary the Damodar and consists of sandy Char, much for agricultural production is washed away, and of the fallow land at Mugkalyan is scattcred all second, a saline crust is left on the top layer of over the village. In recent years, land is being the soil and this is extremely prejudicial to agri­ left more and more fallow because of the fact culture. that most of the able bodied youngmen go for work to Calcutta and other industrial towns, and The change of pedological character not only those who stay back devote themselves to pan affects agricultural production but also interferes cultivation. The overall picture of economic with other occupaional patterns. Change over activities in the area is that most of the cultiva­ to other products becomes necessary. A pro­ tors share the crop with the owner of the land, cess is set whereby occupational shifts follow and hence neither the owner nor the tiller has territonal shifts. Both the processes are in much interest in the land. Many prefer to work operation in the area under study and survey. other in factories in the brick or tile field. A man is the main crop as usual, and small The' induced' change of the D.v.C. Dam quantities of Aus are grown in Aman-land be­ had also the effect of disturbing the communica­ fore harvesting the main crop. As Pan brings tion system, with its primary and derivative more profit than paddy, people are more inclined effects, in the area. Before the construction of to cultivate Pan than paddy. Khari is another the D.V.C. Dam, the Midnapore canal, joining product which is grown abundantly. Kharis are the two rivers, the Hooghly and the Rupnarayan, used for Pan Baroj. Bamboo is another produce could be used all throughout the year. Building and bamboo and Pan cultivation have adversely materials and other merchandise could be traded affected neighbouring good arable land and have in and out with Calcutta straightway. Now, been instrumental to increasing acreage of fallow with the lowering of thc level of water of land in the area. Damodar following a short-release of water at the upper reaches of the river, this possibility of In considering the economic world of the an easy-and regular supply of merchandise seems area, another factor should be taken into con­ to be ruled out. The canal is no more navigable sideration-the construction of the D.V.C.--a all throughout the year. The vegetable-growing Multiproject Dam in the upper reaches of the Char areas of the Damodar have also been river Damodar. Tne construction of this Dam adversely affected since the construction of the seriously disturbed the hydrological and pedolo­ Dam. As a result, vegetable production and gical character of the area and thereby affecting persons dependent on it ha ve been hard hit. thc nature of produce and also the set up of occupation. In this wide backdrop of natural, physical and technological changes, the economy of There are three principal river systems in the Chandrabhag, the village under survey, is to be area-the Damodar, the Rupnarayan and the studied. Since economic structure is composed Hooghly. During rainy seasons silt was collect­ of economic institutions which centre around ed naturally on the two banks of the Damodar production, distribution and consumption of in its middle reaches. The natural ebb and flow goods and services, all the different ramifications of the Hooghly and the Rupnarayan helpcd of economic activities at Chandrabhag have been maintain a normal flow of the Damodar also. delineated in this chapter. The level of subsoil water was maintained. This normal hydrological condition has been disturbed LAND by the construction of the Multi project Dam of the D.V.C. at the upper reaches of the Damodar. Next to the human population, land is pro­ Ever since the dam was built, the outflow of bably the most important of the economic water in the Damodar has become thinner, with resources available in the village. As an index the result that overflowing of the river with silt of power and prestige (relations in rural areas carrying current has become less frequent. With are dependent mostly on who owns how much a lesser supply of water in the Damodar, the land) land is socially prestigious. Any realign­ level of subsoil water has also gone down con­ ment of the rural economy and Bocial life is, siderably. Moreover, when water from the Dam therefore, impossible without a proper under-

5 (PE) Consus/67 4 50 CHANDRABHAG

standing of the man-land relationship in our whereas the total land resources of a village con­ villages. sist of the entire area of land which is held by the village popUlation, eifher for cultivation or In the Census of 1951 the total area of for some other purpose. Villagers may have Chandrabhag mauza was given as 150.70 acres land outside the village. The recorded area of i.e., about 453 Bighas. This comprised total a village, therefore, does not necessarily give a land surface of the mauza i.e., fallow land, land real picture of the land resources of a Village. under cultivation and homestead included. Normally, most of the villagers at Chandrabhag During the present survey it was found that the are without land. The Brahmins of Chandra­ Brahmins alone have 496 Bighas of land distri­ bhag are not indigenous to the area. They are buted among 59 families. This is a bit bigger immigrant from Nadia. Nevertheless they have figure than the total area of the village. This been well able to establish themselves economi­ applies to other castes as well. The apparent cally, socially and politically. Contrary to the discrepancy can be resolved if we take into expected idea that the Mahisyas (being agri­ account two different-categories in respect of land cultural and indigenous simultaneously) would in a village. One, land as recorded in official have the lion's share in landholding, the record and two, the total land resources of a Brahmins hold the largest slice of the land-pie. villager. In the official records we get that land The position of ownership and non-ownership which lies within accredited boundary of a of land at Chandrabhag will be seen in the follow­ village for purposes of revenue assessment; ing chart.

THE LANDLESS Al.'W THE LANDOWNERS PIAJOR OASTES ONLY)

NO.OC HOUSEHOLDS

BRAHMIN

MAHISYA

KAYASTHA LEGENDS

TANT!

CULTI\lAB~E L~NDOWNERS LANDLESS

SWARNAKAR

In the chart five bars have been given repre­ different households of different castes. More­ senting the land position of five principal castes over, in many cases, households may comprise in the village. The other set of five castes has been ignored here as the position of landholding two or three families having separate claims and of them is not very significant for statistical right over the land held in the name of the analyses. household. So a detailed analysis of landowner­ ship of the families of different landowning The bar chart is not enough to give an accu­ caste is necessary. A caste-wise break-down of rate picture of the nature of land ownership in the landownership position is detailed here: ECONOMY OF THE VILLAGE 51

TABLE 19

CULTIVABLE LANDHOLDING AMONG DIFFERENT CASIES AT CHANDRABHAG

Brahmin Kaya8tha llIahisya Tanti Swarnabr

Total households of each caste 59 27 93 22 8

Ko. of cultivable landowning households 38 10 38 13 4

No. of landowning households 47 12 4* 17 Ii

Total oultivable land of the landowning households 495 108 142 224 33 Bighue Bighu. Bighus Bighus Bighus

Cultinble landholding per fl1!l1ily 10·5 9 3·2 13-1 5·5

From the table it is evident that the Mahisyas TABLE 21 hold the least land per family in the village while the Tantis own most land. In the case of the KAYASTHAS Mahisyas it is true that they are getting more and more impoverished. The number of day­ Size·group of Percentage Land owne(1 holdings Households of the total ,.----.A--~ labourers has also swelled among the Mahisyas. (Bi(jhaa) owning households Biuhaa Kotlah8 But the prosperity index of the Tantis is more apparent than real. Brahmin families own 0-- 1 3·9 really large sized lands and their ownership IS diffused among different income and status groups. On the other band, most of the Tantis possess no land; only a few rich peasants hold large slice of land among themselves. There is 6-10 no !otedar in the real sense of the term among the Tantis. Actual position of landholdings of the different castes at Chandrabhag will not be 11-20 9 33·3 104 understood if the actual number of occupiers in each size group of holdings (in Bighas) is not Total 10 105 worked out. This has been done caste-wise in the following tables : TABLE 22

TABLE 20 MAHISYAS

BRAHMINS Size.group of Percentage Land oWlled holdings Households of the total ,-A__ ...... (Bighas) owning households Bighcu Kottall$ Sh,e·group of Percentage Land owned holdings Households of the total ,-----"------, (Bighas) owning households Bighas KoUahs 0-1 6 6·4 5 10

0-1 5 8·5 4 2 1!- 5 25 26·8 60

1}- 5 8 pa·5 22 10 6-10 4 34 6-10 7 1].8 62 Il-20 3 3·2 42 11-20 10 17·0 143

20+ 8 13·5 265

Total 38 64'3 496 Total 38 40'7 141 10 52 CHANDRABHAG

TABLE 23 was out of the question even at the time of in­ vestigation. To that extent, potential fallow TAJ.,\Tltl land is mucb greater than actual fallow land at Chandrabhag. Size.group of l'eroentage Land oWlled holdings HO\lseho!us of th" total ._.A. __, ,- FARMING LAND (Bighas) owning hous(·ho!uo Bighas }\_oUahs OF \}-1 At Chandrabhag. farming of land follow three distinct patterns. viz., (i) Nijchas, where 1!- 5 3 J3·(j (j 10 the cultivation of land and farming is done by 6-10 2 \H l8 the owner and members of his family (ii) Jan­ Chas or Mahindllrichas where the owner of the 11-20 4·5 20 land took help of day labourers but kept the entire organisation of land in his own hands (iii) 20 + 7 31·H 20a Bha{?chas or Bargachas where annual leasing of Total 13 59·0 247 10 land is accompanied by crop-sharing. In this crop-sharing. again. Sanja element prevail. In the practice of Sanja, a fixed amount of the pro­ A study of the above tables will show that duce is to be paid by the cultivator irrespective average size of holdings per household is 8.4 of the yield. Sanja is generally equivalent to the Bighas among the Brahmins; [1.2 among the half share between the owner and the cropper. Tantis ; 4.1 among the Kayasthas and 1.5 among the Mahisyas. This poor balding of land by the The extent of share-cropping and own culti­ Mahisyas accounts for their number of day­ vation among the different castes at Chandrabhag labourers. will be discerned from the following table.

CULTlVABLE LAND LYING FALLOW TABLE 24 In Chandrabhag there is not much land which can be said to be remaining idle or fallow. i:lHARE·CR()PPI:-;'a AXD ('Cllf[YA'rrox Land not fit for cultivation has. however, been Land used for purposes of small dug outs when a ]\0. of lIud('r LEmd house was being constructed. Or. it may put l'ast1' house· share· undor own this way that owing to the peculIar character of holds cropping cultivation the layout of houses at Chandrabhag. many a (Higha,,) (Higha,,) dug out has perforce be made for the supply of earth. Even a casual visit to Chandrabhag Brahmill 3D 444 5~ will convince one of the ubiquity of dug ouls Kay1tstha 27 \\2 Hi there. May be, quite some Bit/has of land have been turned into dug outs and this is an econo­ ~lahi8ya 93 51 [II mic waste of land. Another way of assessing Tanti 22 2IJ3 ~I the fallow land is to take into considl':ration the number of rotation of crop in the cultivable Swarnakar 8 ~8 Ii areas. At Chandrabhag. there are households who own land to the extent of less than one Tbe practice of share-cropping is quite com­ BiRha, one Bigha or one and a half Bighas. mon and it has been found in course of investi­ These small areas are not fit for cultivation on a gation that small plots of land of I /l~ Bighas share-cropping basis. Since the owners of such are given for crop-sharing. This is true even plots are engaged in some other avocations they among the Mahisyas, the traditional agricultural would engage agricultural labourer for the culti­ caste of the region. The reasons for this are vation of the plots. But this they cannot do all many; some landowners are too old, some are throughout the year. After the main crop, women, some invalid and some are otherwise ..4 man, therefore. the land remains idle. More­ engaged in business, service etc. Those who over, after the flood of 1959. most of the land follow Nijchas or own cultivation may be divid­ at Chandrabhag and also in the adjoining vill­ ed again into (i) those who use Mahindars or ages, have lost their fertility potential to a great day labourers for the purpose of cultivation and extent. Rotation of crops or double cropping (ii) those who cultivate the land by the members ECONOMY OF 'IHE VlLLAGE

of the family. Share-croppt:rs can also be classi­ The position of the Bargadar and the fied into cultivating owners and non-cultivating arrangement of the division of the produce came owners. Brahmms belong to the Litter cla~s. to be further redefined in the West Bengal Land By tr.1GltlOlI, they are supposcu not to take to Reforms Act J 955. It was obtained there that- ploughmg. Also, the Brahmins at Chandrabhag are mostly engaged in salaried emr.oyment and .. 16 (i) The produce of any lanu cultivated services outside the village. 1 or ail practical by a bargadar shall be dIVided as between barga­ purposes, therefore, they are not in d posihon to dar and the persons whose land he cultivates look after the farm management. Moreover. since Sanja sYbtcm prevalleu in Lhe Ban;u (a) in the proportio.l of 50.50. in a case arrangement, they did not uemur crop-sharing. where plough. cattle, manure and seeds nece5- It was to their advantage. A sectIOn of the ,ary for cultivation arc supplied by the person Brahmm householus may be said to belong to owmg the land the rent-rccelVlllg class. Rent-receivcrs are by definition non-cultivators. Cultivation on small (b) in the proportion of 60: 40 in all other pieces o[ land is done only by agricultural cases." laboJrers. CultivaLiun on own lJy the Brahrnil: caste and otr.er high casks has fOllowed the pas<;­ I n this Act of 1955, provision was also made lllg of the Lanu Reforms Act 1955. The Act for the registration at the share-cr()p~em to pre­ includes the rigllts given to tf10 [Ja"~'adars earhcr vent them being evicted from th~ land i.e. from by the Bargadar Act or j 950; contams provi­ share croppinp. by the owner. sion:, as 10 the Lxation of r~"enu\.' at~u lays down principles regarding distribution of 1,1OllS, con­ Since the passing of the Bengal Land Re­ solidation of holdi:Jgs and formation of CO-0pera­ fl'f1~15 Act 1955, :here lJavt: been some changes tive farming sodcties. The Act of 1950 dm:ct­ in ~he arrangements of land holding and tenancy cd that in tL.; absence of a written agreel:lent farmmg at Chandrabhag. Since the new Act between the Barr.;adar and the owner with regard i ntmJuc..:d som.:: regularity in the distribution of to the sharing of produce" (i) the bargaHur or (he share of the produce and also that it intro­ the owner, as the case may be, ,,,,tIO surpi;es an) duced measures in favour of the share-croppers. seed for growing crop ,hall be entit:ed to arl the BrahmlI1 land owner became rather appre­ amount of the proliue..: equivalent to the quantity hensive. Thev tried to resort to ' l'wn cultiva­ of the sccc.. suprlieu (ii) ,h..: nafgada. and the tion' with th~ help of hired labourers. In cases owner shall eaCl1 be entitled to one-1 hird of the where Barga was being fo110wed, the owners at balance of the produce whid: remains aftn dc­ the land trled to realise the produce of their land dncting the amount of the produce referred to dcconling to the old practice I.e., on ,( 50: 50 in para (I); Provided that the bargadar shall share, even. if the Bargadar supplied cattle, receive a greater sha~c or the b,lId:-:cc of t:w pro­ plough, seed arc other accessories. The share­ duce, if he is entItled to such gr.'atcr shart' under croppers or the Bargadars feel helpless in the a wfltten contract between 11JI11,elf "nd the situatioll. Failing to register themselves as owner or under any local cl!stom or USlll!e. Ci') share croppers. the Burgadllrs have ueveloped a the remainder of the produce left after deducting kind of insecure feeling in them. And the q;Jantitics referred to in (i) anu (ii) shall be the net result has been an increased demand dividecl between the bargad4r and th..: owner in for daily labour and also a swelling in their such proportion as would be fmr and reasonable rank. That ejectment of share-croppers has having regard to their respective contributions taki?fl place. quite liberally all over India. was !o the cost of cultivation including 1n particular reported by Prof. M. L. Dantwalla in his article the supply of plough-cattle. plough and other in the Al.ec. Economic Review. He said that agricultll~dl implements and manure and to the the number of peasants all over India. evicted cost of production or migatioll of the land ". from land in a decade or so exceeded the number evicted during a century, Ejectment of Barga­ dors has also been reported from Bengal but no The Act also had it that the Bargadar shall such '::jcctmcnt could be detected at Chandrabhag have prior ri~ht to SUi)flly agncu!~ural imple­ as people felt l:1timidated to speak out the truth. 'TIents and cattle. and also that unless the Bar/iadar neglects the fields or fails to give the The end-result has been a sure and steady share of the owner. or the OWnl'f himself wants deterioration in agricultural production in to cultivate, the Bargadar cannot be driven out. villages. The lanulord, being in a position to 54 CHANDRABHAG exploit cheap labour in his land, feels no urge, livestock resources of a village consists of all the whatsoever, towards improvement in agricultural draft, milch and other ammals which the vlllagers production. It wIll be evident from an illustra­ possess at a particular po lOt ot time. 1heir tJOn following later on, the agricultural imple­ number may vary because ot natural increase or ments used by the farmers in the village, are purc1Jase 01 gilt. Economic change may <\lso extremely dated. Since the livelihood of the attect their number i.e., if thcre has been a big landholders is assured by the present rela­ change or sIIlH over U1 the pattern of eultlvation, tions of production, they are just could'nt-care­ there might also ensue a decrease or an increase less about introducing ncw forms of agricultural in the livestock populabon. A comparative techno10gy. They are completely alicn to study of the livestock wealth at Chandrabhag is "innovation and difIusion" in agriculture. a bIt dilJicult SlllCC there hdd been no census ot livestock in the area in tne recent past. But a The attitude of the reformers and the pro­ guess not unwarranted here that the livestOCK grammes of the political parlles that rights t0 position of the vlllage has deteriorated SlOce 1959 land belong Lo the tillers of the soil till the year u1 IlIvestigation of the village in has made the non-cultivating owners of the area 1962. In the flood of 1959, loss of livestock had rather restive. They apprehend that fights to been If not considerable, moderate. Even that land may ultimately be transferred to the tillers moderate loss has not been made good because and the fate of the non-cultivating owners will of the straitened financial conditions of the people be like that of the Zemindar and the Madhl'll­ whi.;h the flood brought them to. Moreover, swattabhogis or the intermediaries. Before the shift of agriculture trom paddy to Pun has also passing of the Act of 1955, political parties were been lllstrumental in ubviatlllg the use of draft raising slogans "land to the tillers", but after­ bullock to no mean extent. Also, it is extremely wards it was found that the slogan, If put into difficult to keep milch cows at Chandrabhag. practice. will create difficulties not only for the Milch cows are expensive and also grazing big landowners but also for the small owners, grounds arc rather rare in the village. In the who pursue agriculture as a subsidiary occupa­ circulllstances, people would prefer buying milk tion. Protests against the political party, spe­ to keeping their own cows. Nevertheless, the cially the C.P.1. [C.P.l.(M) was non-existent VlUage is not without its population other than then] became very strong. Since 1he area is human. supposed to be the strong bold of the Congress party. such politico-economic slogans became At Chandrabhag, the position of livestock is the spearhead of attack of the landed gentry, the best with the Mahisyas, the traditional agri­ more or less, aligned with the ideologies of the cultural caste of West Bengal. At Chandrabhag Congress Party. Regular scuffles took place be­ the Mahlsyas constitute not only the main agri­ tween the two groups preaching antagonistic cultural caste, but also the main body of share ideologies. It bappencd round about the years croppers i.e., cultivators of land wholly unowned. 1953-54. Since then, no one is showing any re­ Since a share-cropper is expected to supply agri­ f01'lnatory zeal so far the tiller of the soil are cultural implements, draught cattle etc to the concerned. owner at the time of cultivation, the Mahisyas have fortified their livestock position much better The Land Reforms measures, by initiatillg than any other caste at Chandrabhag. The new arrangements in land-holdings and fanning, Brahmins are occupied in the tertiary occupa­ have been instrumental to a series of changes in tions: (Here tertiary is used in the same sense the village. The most significant one has been as G.D.H. Cole used in his Studies in Class the emergence of new occupation pattern and a Structure) since-touching a plough is a taboo, ncw mobility of labour. There has also been a they depend on Mahisyas for the supply of change in the occupation pattern foIiowing a labour as well as for plough, ladder, draught change the hydrological character of the area, bullock and agricultural implements. Obvious­ consequent upon the construction of the D.V.C. ly, the Mahisyas have a far better livestock posi­ Dam and it will be discussed latcr on. tion. The Kayasthas too. are similarly situated. As such, the Brahmins and the Kayasthas do not kel the need of improving the ir livestock posi­ LIVESTOCK tion. Instead of draught cattle, they would rather have milch cow and goat to get milk pure Next to land, livestock constitute the second and cheap. There is no organised poultry farm important economic assets of a village. The in the village. People keep geese and hen at ECONOMY Of THE VILLAGE

their homes; there are more geese and ducks sity for babies and weaning cl1l1dren. ::'I..rplus than nco. Since the village is Brahllllll donll­ mIlk i.e., milk left after babIes and cluldren have nated, some olltward norms (not to keep heos taken their share IS, more often than not, con­ at house) are still muintallleG. It is m,)fC SU, samed at home. Instances are not rare when beCduse ladlc5 belongmg to older gem;ratwH, surphls mIlk has been brought to the local bazar object to such I;tntl-sasi1tm.: ad~. for sell. The acute shortage of milk supply at Chan drab hag can only be solved by a thorough Castes other than thc 13ranmin, l(ayasth.t .. ad and over-all planmng of agriculture and cattle. the Mahisya, viz, the Swarnakar, Karmal\.ar, But that is a very long term proposition. Tanh, GandhabamK, lIE, Kaivarta and lJnoba have very lllsignificant hvestot:k wealth. Tbe [he local feeling, however, is that the live­ Tili and the KaIvarta pos&ess no hvcstOCK at .. J. stOI-A. pOSItion will oot be improved unless a Other caste-groups, viz., the Swarnakar, Karma­ proper pasturage is ensured and improved varie­ kar, fanti etc., possess mlich cows and they .1Y tIes 01 bullocks are brought in for better pro­ to improve the possessioi1. Milk is a ranty at geny. The livestock statistics below will indi­ the local market and milk I~ an aosolute neces- cate l,1e man-animal ratio at Chandrabhag.

TABLE 25

LIVESTOCK

All hOHS('- Mj,Gh J)c'lught })uclrs, All Castod holds cuw Luw Calves bu:toc" Goat. Pigs geese lien animals

Drahmill fig 4U 12 8 13 S tl2

l" KayasLha ~, 7 :I 4 4 l~

::IInhisya 93 41) 16 14 41 6 10 7 134

Swarnakar tl ;I .:l 2 7

rJ:anii 22 1\1 4 2 17

C(llldhuuunih 3 ;l

Karrnak.l1* 1 2 a

DllOt,a ;) 3

All.castes and all bouseholds 214 102 39 28 42 21 26 8 266

There are 266 animals in all for 214 house­ surg('on in the village. This stands in the way holds. This works up to a very lamentabl'; of good cattle breeding in the village. SJPply average 1.2 livestock for each hO~lschold. This of good stud bulls is not also ensured as there is position may pOSSIbly be corrected with the no regular cattle market in the area. I here is Cleterioration of agriculture at Chandrabhag at one cattle-hat at Harinarayanpur, an adjoining tbe present moment. The factor of change in village with a concentration of Muslim popula­ hydrological conditions has been noted, realign­ tion. This cattle-hat assembles sometimes ment of tenancy laws has also been taken into weekly, sometimes fortnightly. Since keeping of account. Both of these factors can go very well eows has become very strenuous economically, with the acute shortage in the livestock positio.1 people from Chandrabhag are not regular visitors at Chandrabhag. Intensive as well as extensive of the cattle-hat. Also, the priee of milch cows cultivation is dependent not only on manpower and stud bulls has gone very high indeed. A but also on animal potential. Improveu cattle milch eow giving one seer of milk a day is con­ depends on better varieties of bullocks; t.,nfortu­ sidered to be a rather good one and would cost nately, no artificial insemination mCusures arc something between Rs. 250 to Rs. 300 at the there at Chandrabhag. 1\or is there a veterinary least. And a stud bull or a pair of bullocks, 56 CHANDRABHAG something like Rs. 300 to Rs. 500 minimum. low the practice. The Kayasthas are ill-equip­ Absence of adequate pasturage within the vill­ ped in cattle-wealth nor do they have much need age. exorbitant price of fodder, oilcake etc., for the same. The MaJiisyas who keep cattle make one think twice before one can really can well afford to keep it on their own. purchase. Moreover, there is another disadvant­ age of cattle getting into another man's land and TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS then being put into cattle pound. Release of the cattle from the pound is not without its Man power, animal power both of them are monetary penalty. Sometimes, again, it leads to necessary for agriculture; along with them go litigation. not unoften, prolonged. All these tools and implements used for agriculture. with factors have made people chary about cattle. traditional tools no signifis;ant improvement in Rearing of cattle in share is the practice is some agriculture could be expected. villages of Bengal. The practice is like this­ H If anybody rears milch cow from the young Agricultural tools and implements used by stage. he will receive all the milk of the cow the agriculturists at Chandrabhag are extremely after its first issue and also the calf. In case of traditional. The usual implements used are goats giving birth to more than one kid, half the Lengal (Plough), Moi (Harrow), Kodali (Spade). number of kids will be taken by the man, who Kural (Axe), Kaste (Sickle) and Khurpi (Hoe). rears it. He will return the cow or goat to the Some of them are, however, to be found in non­ owner, only after it becomes ready to give the agricultural or non-farming households also, second birth. If the bullocks are reared, the viz .• Kodali. Kural, Kaste and Khurpi. They person who rears them, will realise his share by are used for spading ground for kitchen garden deducting the price of the calf from the price of or for flower garden; for felling trees as well as the grown up bullock. And the price is deter­ for choP13ing wood. for weeding out gardens and mined according to the current market rate". to cut undergrowths and Khurpis are used hoeing During qlY investigation of the village Chandra­ in an seasons of the year. The enclosed draw­ bhag no such practice came to my notice. The ings will show the pattern of the implements Brahmin land owners are too "uppish" to fol- used.

AGRICULTURAL TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS

d II II II ~ ~ H ~ !: 6

Kasle 2 Kural 3 Kodal

4 Khurpi 5 Plough 6 Moi ECONOMY OF THE VILLAGE 57

As the drawings show, the implements are smiths. The rice husking implements is to be really of the age-old type. The quality of the seen in the photograph. implements is not vcry satisfactory either. Before Independence, people could buy Birming­ A first approximation of the tools and imple­ ham, Sheffield implement parts cheap. The ments of Chandrabhag, barring draught bullocks, indigenous implement parts today have not will be about Rs. 6,000. It is not possible te come upto the satisfaction of the agriculturists. knew from the villagers hew much money they spent on the purchase of tools and implements. The way of acquiring tools and their valua­ tions too presents certain difficulties in the case VILLAGE ECONOMY of peasants or agriculturists at Chandrabhag. Generally, most of the tools and implements used Though not the sole but one of major econo­ by the agriculturists are manufactured by the mic pursuits at Chandrabhag is agriculture. village artisans with the raw materials usually Aboul 100 acres or 300 Bighas of land is for available in the village. Traditionally, there is cultivation paddy, Pan and other ancillary crops. an understanding between the cultivating peasant The area including the village Chandrabhag was and the village artisan that the former would pay a heavy rice-producing area. As it has been a portion of his produce for the services render­ noted before, paddy cultivation has received a ed by the artisans. But this sort of arrange­ set back due te a change in hydrolegical condi­ ment is dying out in the village. There are very tiens. Yield per Bigha has fallen from 10 few blacksmiths at work at Chan drab hag. The maunds per Bigha to 4-5 maunds. Naturally traditional blacksmith family is now follewing a paddy cultivation is being replaced by Pan (Betel different occupation. As a result, the peasants leaves) cultivation. The local opinion is that at Chandrabhag have te ge te the neighbeuring the ecenomy ef Chandrabhag is gradually being town (Bagnan) for the purchase of implements turned into an agricultural garden economy. as well as for repairing of the implements in case Nevertheless, the amount ef paddy harvested in of a breakdown. This implies that agriculturists the year of the investigation is not very negli­ must keep liquid money for making such pur­ gible. In this change of crop pattern the owner­ chases. This also accounts for a portion of ship of the land is to be taken into consideration. indebtedness ef the agriculturists at Chandra­ Brahmins are the highest owners of land in the bhag. Though a stock of agricultural imple­ village. Their interest in the land and its culti­ ments was not made at the time of the present vation is net primary as majerity of the Brahmin survey, it can be presumed that all the share­ heads of the househelds and other adult members cropping households and the households having are gainfully employed in governmental, commer­ their own cultivation have ploughs, harrows and cial, mercantile and other establishments. They other majer agricultural implements. All to­ do not bother so much as those whe depend gether they will work upto go plough and solely on land (the Mahisyas) on the question of harrows. The number of draught bullocks has falling output per area. The Brahmins have already been mentioned in the ·table of the Iivc­ not, thus, reverted to Pan cultivation like the stock. Mahisyas. So much so, paddy still remains the chief agricultural product of Chandrabhag. A Apart from the agricultural implements there rough approximation of the 5lgricultural produce are a few more major tools and implements, elle of Chandrabhag, during the year of investigation, weaver's loom and a few tools of the local black- is given below. TABLE 26 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS Fruit ,- .A-_____-, Casto Paddy Pan Pnlses Ramboo Cocoanut Mango Banana Lichee (Mds.) (Lea".~s) (Mds.) (Pieces)

Bra.hmin 2,446 70 250 400 4,000 200 4,000 Kayastha 1i04 15 100 400 5,000 :Mahisya 698 300,000 20 100 30 Tanti 993 50,000 Bene 40 Swarnakar 130

Total all castes 4,811 350,000 lOS 450 830 9,000 200 4,000 58 CHANDRABHAG

Most of the Brahmin families cultivate their minant crop which grows profusely almost lands on a share cropper basis. While most of evt;rywhere. Since Chandrabhag has not very the Mahisya families do their own cultivation. commendable drainage system, Aman rice of the It is quite natural that with the diminishing very line quality, that one;, gets in Midnapore return from fice cultivation, they would revert to reglOn, has a rather small yield. Aus rice is Pan economy. It is only the Mahisyas at grown on relatively higher land. A little quan­ Chandrabhag and also of the neighbouring vIll­ tIty of jute is also grown at Chandrabhag. There ages that have taken to more prospective Pan is a tendency to grow jute on Aman Jand and cultivation. Farm management and crop pattern to harvest it before rice saplings are transplanted. depend very much on the nature of Irrigation Pulses are grown, as a subsidiary crop, if local available in a particular village. At Chandra­ conctitions are favourable. Sitasal, Rupsa/, bhag, prospects of irrigation are very dim. It Kanakchur are some of the names of the five has to depend mostly on rain-water. There are varieties of Aman and Aus rice at Chandrabhag. not many Khals which can be utilised for irriga­ The average yield of rice per BigIJa used to be tion. The only one is the Talltikhal and this one eight to ten maunds before the flood in 1959. too becomes serviceable only during the rainy Since then, there has been a cOllsideflible fall in season. Apart from rain-water, most of the yield per Bigha. It is now about four to five irrigation is done from the number of tanks and maunds per Bigha. The yield could have been ponds that Chandrabhag abounds in. This better if supply of manure could be assured to difficulty of irrigation facilities has something to the villagers. There is the Block Development contribute to the agricultural shift (from paddy Office No. 11 at Bagnan which is supposed to to Pan) in recent years. It has been already supply fertilisers to the cultivators in the area. mentioned that the area (Chandrabhag and the But there are difficulties: first in the demand contiguous villages) suffered a change in soil side, the inertia of the villagers to use the new composition consequent upon a flood in the area. fangled devices of manure has to be overcome Salt water of flood left a saline deposit in the and second, in the supply side, the red tape fields. It also destroyed the natural compost delays have to be countered. The end result is potential of the area. Had irrigation facilities that the villagers would prefer to go without been effective and sound, all these temporary set chemical fertilisers and depend mostly on the backs could be made good. Owing to this change traditional things, i.e., cowdung and Dhaincha in the character of the soil, area under paddy green plants. They are also of opinion that cultivation has, of necessity, been given for Pall chemical fertilisers, though very helpful at the cultivation. Pan and Khari (a kind of reed) con­ outset, tend to damage the land in the long run. stitute the main crop of the village now. Pall is a cash crop and its cultivation is very lucra" In agricultural operations at Chandrabbag, tive. Ever since the village made a switch over the cultivation of land by Japanese method is to Pan cultivation, the price of agricultural land singularly lacking. During the time of investiga­ had gone up by leaps and bounds. Increased tion 1 asked the village cultivators about its pros­ Pan cultivation has also been prompted by the pect at Chandrabhag. They appeared rather fact that it requires no efforts on the part of the skeptic about it. They have also been given to cultivator either in land, or manure or any other understand that cultivation by the Japanese accessories. The only important thing is requir­ method is more expensive than the indigenous ed is high land. The price of Pall land is more method. Any way, no one was willing to give than Rs. 1.000 per BiRha today. Another factor the Japanese method a try. that has contributed to the increase in the price of land in the area is the construction the Haldia Apart from paddy and Pall, cultivation of Port. In view of the future development of the potato, gourd and other vegetables is very in­ area, a lot of speculation in land is rife in the significant. A very small quantity is grown but area. it has no marketable significance. It is grown mostly in the kitchen-gardens to be consumed by the individual householders. There are quite a AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS few people at Chandrabhag who trade in vege­ tables. But that vegetable is not of local origin. Though increased Pan cultivation is trying to They take advantage of the vegetable produc­ oust cultivation of paddy by and large, paddy tion, growing mainly in the flood plains of the cultivation remains, nevertheless, or important Damodar. Vegetables growing jn the Char agricultural pursuit. Aman rice is the predo" land are brought in the local market and are ECONOMY OF THE VILLAGE 59 also sent to Calcutta markets. There is no pro­ expenditure on this item. In some parts of the duction of wheat and sugar cane worth the name. country, the expenditure did hardly exceed one rupee even. Not very dissimilar pictures have The system of distribution of the local pro· been presented by the very probing studies con· duce is also intei-estmg to note here. Chanora· ducted by the Agro·Economic Research Centres bhag is easily reached by buses, trains and in different States of India. riparian vessels. Except a smaH·scale daily market to cater for local needs, there is no centre for buying and selling, on a large scale, at TABLE 27 Chandrabhag. But this difficulty of bulk buying and selling has been very much eliminated by a EXPENDITUR.lO> ATTlum IN SOME number of seasonal mal;kets (Hats) in the neigh· OTHER STATE:::; bourhood of Chandrabhag. All these Hats are held within a distance of not more than five Proportion of miles from the village. The Hat at Nuntia expenditure (about four miles from the village) is held on during the Tuesdays and Saturdays; at Dewantala (five No. uf year un Xamc of Stato villages housing miles frQIll the village) on Wednesdays and Sun· to total days; at Naul, on Mondays and Thursdays, at household Harinarayanpur once a week or fortnightly. expenditure Pan, pulses, bamboo are the main merchandisc (in percentage) sent from Chandrabhag. Rice is mostly con­ (Jujarat 1 0·7 sumed locally. The surplus, if any, is not 2 2·6 brought to the HCDt. It is sold in bulk to those :I 0'5 who do bulk buying. It is only the big land­ Rujasthall owners who have ware house type storage for rice. So they are in a position to secure better price of rice by holding its supply. Madhya Pradesh I 2 3 4 INDEBTEDNESS AT CHANDRABHAG Bihar I 10'3 2 G·4 No study of the economic structure of a vill· 3 7·3 age will be complete unless one takes into account the liabilities along with its assets. The extent of indebtedness of a village is a great index of The fact that 62 per cent. of the rural house· its economic developmental potential. holds were in debts in 1962 was a definite index of the abysmal economic insufficiency. The All· Indebtedness in the village India is prover· India Rural Debt and Investment Survey, bial-" one is born in debt, lives in debt ami dies Reserve Bank of India, 1961·62 disclosed that .in debt". In course ef the very comprehensive the incidence of debt per reporting cultivator investigation of the All·India Rural Credit Sur· and non·cultivator was Rs. 719 and Rs. 429 as vey it transpried that only four per cent. of the compared with Rs. 526 and Rs. 249 respectively sample households 'could manage to purchase in 1952. new houses while ninety per cent. of the house· holds just managed to spend on an average The micro·sociological study of Chandrabhag Rs. 75 or like per annum. A major PMt of this will also have to incorporate the debt position reported expenditure was, however, an annual of the villagers. As usual Chandrabhag is in maintenance and repair. [All·lndia Rural debt to a considerable extent. Loans are al· Credit Survey Report-Part I (Rural Families), ways to be incurred for marriage, funeral, educa­ 1957·58, Reserve Bank of India, Bombay, pp. tion, social and other expenses connected with 143 and 732]. Another study, Agricultural day to day living. The financial position be· Labour in India. Report of the Second Enquiry, came completely confounded when th~ village Vol I, pp. 126, 1956 (Ministry of Labour, Govt. was faced with a flood in 1959. About seventy. of India) revealed that labour families could five per cent. of the dwelling houses were level· spare only rupees four per family per annum led to the ground, personal effects washed away, and this constituted 0.8 per cent. of their total and the village visited by a host of diseases. 60 CHANDRABHAG

Houses had to be built, personal effects purchas­ medical advice, one has to come to Calcutta, ed and diseases fought against. All this requir­ stay, and consult doctor for hospitalization. ed money and failing to make the both ends This is a lengthy pI:ocess requiring time and meet with their slender resources, the villagers money. Ready cash, almost always, fails the irrespective of occupational positions, took to villagers. One has to take to borrowing either borrowing. Under the circumstances it is but interest-free or with interest. Loans incurred natural that the balance sheet of Chandrabhag for day to day requirements and also for medical would show a debit account. Expenses at purposes constitute the third large head for in­ marriages of daughters need also be reckoned debtedness. The pie-diagram will show the with in assessing the position of indebtedness. relative Importance of heads on which loan money is expended.

PURPOSE OF IN'DEB'rEDNESS Again, the bar diagram will show the distri­ bution of debt among different caste-groups. The majority of the households of most of the caste-groups are in debt at Chandrabhag. This. as already mentioned, is to be accounted to the fact of the flood in 1959. Replacement of per­ sonal effects has been such a trying job with the villagers that they have hardly been free of debt till now. Even when old debts are paid off, new ones have to be incurred.

The sources for the purveying of loans and credit at Chandrabhag are not really many. There are a few steady supplier of loans in the village. The Block Development Office is there to supply a special kind of loan-building loan­ to the villagers. Those, among the villagers. who are employed with the Government or in com­ mercial firms, have other sources-provident funds or the office co-operative society to take loans and advances from. Loans are also ad­ vanced by relatives or friends in the village or in LEGENDS the adjoining village. Rates of interest and F9 exigency will determine whom to go to for a L::.::::::::::: loan in case of an acute necessity. Local money-lenders usually charge an interest of four annas per rupee or 25 per cent. Sometimes, the rate is even higher 3 n.p. per rupee per month. This makes the interest rate something like forly per cent. per annum. On the other hand the rate of interest in government loans and co­ More often than not dowry has to be given in operative society loans are, usually, 61 per cent. marrying of a daughter. In the process of per annum. With the government offices and giving three to four daughters in marriage debts co-operative societies there is another advantage pile up. High price index and the inflationary of rebate in interest rate for timely repayment of spiral compel a man to go out of his way in the instalments. In spite of aU the exorbitant and day to day living. For daily household require­ usurious rate wjth the local money-lenders, vill­ ments, therefore, one has to incur multiple loans. age people, specially those who have no other Moreov~, Chandrabhag suffers seriously from a sources will borrow locally. And it is they who lack of a dispensary or a medical unit where pre­ are" born in debt, live in debt and die in debt ". liminaries of advice and medication, if not the The sources of credit and finance at Chandra­ full course of treatment, can 'be obtained. Medi­ bhag will be easily visualized from the table cines are sold rather dear. So, for an expert over leaf. ECONOMY OF THE VILLAGE (U

NUMBRR OF INDEBTED AND J)EJ3T-]<'R!';l~ HOUNEHOLDS

QO

eo

70

III o ..J 60 ~ uJ o~ 50 l: LEGEND5 40

IN OUf NO.Of OEeT~ FREE HOUSEHOLOS 30 " - 20

10

EE3I = 0 - Kolvarto DhobQ

TABLE 28 There is no Co-operative Credit Society in the village. One has to take advantage of the SOUrU]ES OF CREDIT office co-operatives in case of such loans. The No. of village money-lender is not a money-lender by Somee from which borrowecl households profession. It is a side business with him. As

Covernm(}nt office or other offices in which 8 a result, interest rate follows a monopoly model heads of the household serve and is not determined by the usual price mecha­ Blork Development Office S nism of aemand and sup~ly of the market.

ViI!l\,ge zrminda.r The extent of debt in the village is next to ViIlarrc money·lender 30 be considered. Loans include both minimal and Friend 79 maximal points. That is, people may have a Relative 17 loan of 20, 30, or 40 rupees in the minimal side Office co.operative 4 and more than Rs. 500 on the maximal side. Only cash debts have been taken into account to L1nspecificd 2 show the extent of indebtedness in the table Total 148 overleaf. 62 CHANDRABHAG

TABLE 29

HOUSEHOLDS IN DEBT AT CHANDRABHAG CAS'rEWISE Totalfamilies 216

Amount of debt Brahmin Kavss- MalJisya. Swar- Ta.nti Gandha Kforllln- Tili Kaiyar- Dhoba (Rs.) the. na,kal' Banik kBJ' ta

1- 50 :I :I H. 1 51-100 II 4, 19 :I 101-11';0 5 4 10 2 151-200 ;; 3 11 3 201-260 4 2 1 251-300 3 3 2 :;01--350 2 351-400 6 401-{i()0 4, ,. 5(1)+ 1 1 No. of households in debt 36 15 57 (\ 15 2 1 1 I Amount of indebtedness 1-1,000 2,000 1I,4005 '1,150 3,000 350 15{) W 50 Average indebtedness per 305 133 170 1111 200 175 150 40 50 household in debt

One of the heads of the households mention­ felt that if they could register their liabilities ed that he has an outstanding debt of Rs. 4,000. more than their assets they would be spared the The figure seems to be rather inflated and 1 governmental guillotin. The gentleman referred have reasons to consider it so, When I reached to above might also have done the same thing. the village and expressed my desire to make a He is only a small pleader and he is most un­ house to house survey of the Socio-Economic likely to get such a heavy amount as loan either condition of the people there, the news was from money-lenders or from any other source. received with some reservations and people, I also believe that majority of the households mainly of the middle and upper middle classes, gave an inftated picture of their indebtedness repeatedly enquired of me jf my survey has got and the reason is the same as that of the petty anything to do with income tax measures. They pleader.

TABLE 30

OCCUPATIONAL PATTERN OF THE INDUSTRJAJ~ISED DISTRICT OF HOWRAH

Agricul. Urban Working tura} population population labourer !IS per- as per· as per- centage of oentnge of Agl'icul- centl1ge of Total Urban total Working total tur&J working Cultivs- District population population population p(lpulatlo{l population h.bourer population tion Howra.h 2,038,471 825,092 40'4 629,619 31'4 GO,ClO2 9'5 89,841'.

Agricul- tural Agricul- lI>bourer turJ>I &s per- (7+9) as centago of percentage 12 a. Manufac- 14 as Trade 16111 total of working Household pereontoge tuting percontage and psrcentage District popu1aj,ion population industries of 5 popula.tion of 6 commerce oUi 14'3 23'S 20,387 3'2 221,095 30'0 76,ti!lO 12'0 ECONOMY OF THE VILLAGE 63

This steady but incipient urbanisation pro­ Before the construction of the D.V.C., Mjdna­ cess had its effects on the occupational structure pur Canal Reach No. 7 was boat worthy all in the remote villages as well. Chandrabhag throughout the year. Not only that its flow has too, is not an exception to this general process been arrested but its silt deposit too has been of social change. "Status seekers" could not affected very much. Pottery industry which was be satisfied with the traditional and "ascripted" rather well known in the area is now non-exis­ positions. A state of fluidity in occupation tent. There were 56 pan tile units, they too had could be discernible as early as the middle of to withdraw. The potter class has completely the last century. White-collar mobility came in withdrawn from the area. The fisherman caste as a matter of course with the development of too has found it difficult to pursue its traditional trade, commerce and industries. The lower occupation. The enclosed map will show the occupational groups and the agriculturist did not geographical position of the village and the river show much flare for occupational mobility in system of the area. general. In recent years, with the construction of the D.V.C. and its control of the flow of the Damodar the lower sections of the community have been caught in the swirl of occupational A cursory glance at the table below will changes too. But for the engineering endeavour, show the extent of shift from traditional occupa­ most of them would not have moved out of their tions by the heads of households of different traditional occupational niche. caste.

TABLE 31

OCCUJ'A'l'JON No. of housoholds exclusively Head of No. 0f householdS following householcls No. of r- -- __.A.. ___ ---. pursuit nO. with Casto 'l'raditionaloooupation housoholds Main SubSidiary other thon employment casto occupation

Brahmin Priost:~ 1\9 0 4~ 7+4 femalo heads of house' hold

Kayastha Seriba 27 12 6 7+2 female heacls , Mahisya Agric\11ture 93 30 25 24 6

Gandhabanik Spice dealer :1 2

Kar""akar JUaeksmith

Swarnakar Goldsmith 9 6 2

Tanti Weaver 22 17 4

Kaivarta Fisherman

Till Oilpre.ser

Dhob" WashermRn All castes 217 55 27 97 28

The table shows that there has been move­ new occupations wIllch the castes have adopted ment away from the traditional occupations even at Chandrabhag. From the table over leaf an in a village, more or less argiculturally oriented. idea of ramification of occupations among But the table gives no idea at all of the different different caste will be clear. 64 CHANDRABHAG

TABLE 32

TABLE SHOWING DIVERSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION AMONG DIFFERENT CASTES AT CHANDRABHAQ

Cultivation Arts and Grafts Caste heads of households r---- A ____ ._...... ,,------____A ______--.. Rice Other than rice Mechanical Jewecllcry Match making Carpentry

Brahmin Mahisya 22 8 3 Kayastha Tanti 4 2 Swarnakar Karmakar Gandhabanik

Kaivarta Dhoba

Trade and Co;nmeroe~ Caste heads of households r------..A...------______-, Grocer shop St1ttionery shop Cloth shop Chemist shop Sweetmeat shop Tea shop

Brahmin 1 Mahisya 1 1 Kayastha Tanti Swarnakar Karmaka,r Gandhabanik Tili Kaivarta Dhoba

P,rofession Caste heads of honseholds r------A Teacher Kaviraj Doctor Compounder Pleader CaRte occupation

:&ahmin 2 5 Mahisya 1 KaIYastha Tanti 1 Swarnakar 6 Karma,kar Gandhabanik TiJi Kaivarta Dhoba ECONOMY OF THE VILLAGE 65

TABLE 32-contd.

Service Caste heads of h0uEeholds (-'------_----A. Domcstio labour Agricultural NOll·agrIoultural White.collar Transport labour labour job!offioe work

Brahmin 25 5 Mahisya 25 II Kayastha 16

Tanti 2 4 Swarnakar

Karmakar

Gandhabanil<; 2 Tili

Kaivarta

Dhoba

Unem.plo,yed{ Business Caste heads of households Sundry work Retired wholesale! Total Remarks retail

Brahmin 1 7 2 55 4 female heads of household excluded

Mahisya 3 12 90 3 female heads 'of household excludod

Kayastha 5 2 26 1 fcmaJe hoad of household Tanti 4 Ul

Swarnakar 9 Karmakar

Gandhabanik 3 Tili

Kaivana 1 Dhoba

The table shows that castes have not infre­ the son but. fill now. the sons are mostly follow­ quently taken up occupation other than their ing father's occupation viz. agriculture and allied own. Shifts in occupations between two genera­ activities. A relative picture of the shifts in the tions. i.e., between the present head of the house­ occupations of two generations among the three hold and his father was, already in progress dur­ major castes at Chandrabhag will be seen in the ing the last 3 or 4 decades. But this shift in following tables. The figures in the cells along occupation has been different in respect of differ­ the 'diagonal Oeft to right) on the tables indicate ent castes at Chandrabhag. The Mahisyas at Chandrabhag had neen the agricultural class. the number of sons (the present heads of the They are retaining these characteristics in their households) who followed the same occupation occupations. Tliere have been some normal as that of the father. They may be termed as shifts in the occupation between the father and occupationally immobile sons.

5 (PB) CO:15:15!67 5 66 CHANDRABHAG

TABLE 33 OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY OF lHE MAHISYAS

Heads of the houscholdl! t>,r sons Fathers of the head of the .. ----.-A- , household or fathers Agri- Pan Arts Business, Service Day 1I1iscella- Total culture cultiva. snd trade and labourer neous tion crafts commerce.

AgrioultUl'e 46 4, 4 5 S 10 77 Pan oultivation 2 2 4 Arts a.nd crafts Business, trade a.nd commerce 9 4 2 "16 Service 10 2 3 3 19 I)!>y labourer 22 I 20 45 Miscellaneous 1 1: 2 Total 90 7 7 13 12 32 2 163

NOTES: (i) Of the father purouing business, 2 sona are unemployed. (ii) Of tho scrvioo.holding father's" I BOn is unemployed.

TABLE 34

OCCY:PATIONAL MOBILITY OF THE KAYASTHAS

Heads of the houselwlds and siblings ______.___, .. A' Agri. Pan cul- Arts Business Profession Service Misce· Total culture tivation !laneous

Cultivation 2 2 4 Arts and crafts Business, trade &nd commerco 3 2 • 6 Profession 1 '2 Service 16 I 17 34 Miscellaneous Total 22 1 2 21 -56

TABLE 3,'

OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY OF THE BRAHMINS

Oocupations of heads of household or sons

OC(l.Ipation of father ---"- ~------. Agri. Pan Arts .Business, Traditiona) Profe. Service rotal culture culti· and trade and occupa- s~ion vation crafts ce>mmotce tion

Agliculture 15 ". 1 4 9 29. Art! and crafts 2- I 1 4 Bulliness, .trade and commerce 3, o. 3 6 Traditional oooupation .7 -1 ' t 2 14 Profession :I 1 2 6 Service . . 28, 3 25 57 Total ~8' ~ '" ..~ 2 9 4 1 42 116 ECONOMY OF THE VILLAGE 67

REASONS FOR MOBILITY engaged as daily labourer, than otherwise. Work. on a daily basis. is more lucrative and has Though occupation-mobility between genera­ more freedom. Daily labQurers, whether agri­ _tions was inevitable consequent upon a change cultural or not, can go to a different village, if a in the economic development of the country for better rate with more amenities is ensured. Day the last few decades, nevertheless, questions were labourers constitute the most mobile portion of put to the subjects about the reasons of their the working population of Chandrabhag. They shifts in occupation or occupational-mobility. would move within a radius of ten miles, some­ In most of the cases, the persons involved were times more, in ex-harvest seasons. The rate of themselves not very sure about the reasons of wages o~ a daily labourer, ranges between their change of occupations. But, on pressing, Rs. 2.50 to Rs. 3. Average daily wage rates for they gave some reasons for such shifts. Lack of field labourer (man) in West Bengal is as follows alternatives was the predominant cause for the as found i-\} West Bengal Sample Villages occupationally immobile sons. For those who C/O. Studies in Economics of Farm Manage­ made conscious choice for a change in their ment 1954-55 (Ministry of Food & Agriculture occupation from that of their fathers, loss of Govt. of India). land on father's death through either partition or transfer, desire for better financial assign­ TABLE 36 ments, desire for an intellectual pursuit, aspira­ tion for a secure job and income, adventurism, WEST BENGAL (SAMPLE VILLAGES) physical inability or incompatibility with the old District occupation-all these and several other factors Months ,...... ~~..A.~,__I played their part. The underlying note had al­ Hooghly 24-Parganaa ways been a demand for ready money to meet the growing commitments of the households in Rs. P. Rs. P. recent periods. The occupational shifts today, July 1 61 1 53 as distinguished from that of the heads of the present household, discussed above. show a August 1 65 1 64 greater mobility in the backdrop of India's pre­ September 1 63 1 60 sent take-off economy. October 1 53 1 39 It is true that industrialisation of the country as a whole has opened many new avenues of November 1 49 1 36 employment and people of Chandrabhag have December 63 50 not lagged behind in taking their opportunities. Still. a large section of the people. denuded of January 1 57 1 48 land and deprived of the opportunities of share­ February I 53 1 30 cropping, came to be reduced to day labourers and agricultural labourers. The distinction is March 1 44 I 21 not very strict and rigid. Agricultural labourers April 1 40 1 20 become' day labourers in ex-harvest months and day labourers too become agricultural labourers in May 1 40 1 42 harvest months. It depends usually. three classes of agricultural labourer / day labourer are found June 1 73 65 in the village. One class consists of labourers engaged on daily charge basis (Jan); the second Compared to 1954-55 rates in Bengal, the rate consists of those who are in some kind of debtor­ of wages in 1962 at Chandrabhag does not look creditor relation with the owner of the land. very promising. The increase in price index has May be, they had to take loans from the owner automatically cancelled in the increase in wage of the land and they agreed to some kind of rate. The daily labourer is supplied with his implicit contract that they would serve for the midday meal and Biri. Daily labourers, not owner till the loan is repaid (Nagare); and the working in fields, also demand tea and snacks. third consists of those who stay with the owners They also demand higher wages than those who of the land as regular members of the house­ work on field. hold (Mahindar). Agricultural labourer on a NaRal e basis People would, if they can help, like to be swelled its rank after the flood of 1959 J,oans

5A 68 CHANDRABHAG had to be made to build houses, replace personal and others. This is an expensive proposition. effects. to meet the bill of doctors and so on. So. Mahindars are not in rage at Chandrabhag. As a method of repaying loans, quite a few people accepted Nagare. Of course, it is the Economically. it is difficult to categorize most indigent section of people who accepted Chandrabhag. Agricultural pursuit is definitely a this practice. They included those who had no predominant feature of the village. Employ­ land. those who were not very mobile. and those ment in tertiary occupations is no less significant who were unable to take up any factory work. and this is borne out by the number of com­ Nagare worker has to work on a fixed rate of muters from the village. Strangely enough. there daily wage till the debt is paid. ~n ...... is no industry. (craft or any other indigenous months. however, they are free to find out some industry) in the village. There is a husking unit other employment. As the debtor does not pay only. Only two stationery shops. not really any interest to the cr.editor. the latter can ask the worth the name. are somehow serving as a stand­ former to do any odd job for him, e.g .• clearing by to the daily needs of the growing demands overgrowth in the yards of the household. mak­ in the village. A very small cloth shop and a ing faggot. pruning trees, and so on. One meal tea-stall are maintained in the bazar area. is supplied by the employer but that too depends whether the Nagare is doing work in the field or Considering all this. Chandrabhag cannot casual work like making faggot etc. But supply claim to have a viable economy. With the in­ of Biri and matches is a must. troduction of electric traction in South Eastern Railways time taken for reaching Calcutta and its industrial belt has been further shortend. Mahindars are not many at Chandrabhag. This. in turn. has made for fresh and fresh com­ Only one Mahisya family (the Adaks) is well cap­ muters from Chandrabhag to these areas. And able of keeping Mahindars. They are engaged these commuters always prefer to buy things from annually and they stay with the employer. The Calcutta market. Chandrabhag is in all proba­ employer is, therefore. under obligations to look bility, going to be a dormitory of Calcutta and after the Mahindar for food. clothing. medicine Howrah conurbation in near future. CHAPTER IV SOCIa-CULTURAL LIFE

Education and extra-mural activities Primary education Secondary education College education Community activities The library Religious structure Attitude to social change

CHAPTER IV S'OCIO-CULTURAL LIFE

EIDUCATION AND EXTRA-MURAL ACTIVITIES total males and 24.8 per cent. of the total females at Chandrabhag are educated. This blanket Chandrabhag has a long-standing tradition statistics gives us a rather blurred picture of the of education. About one hundred years ago a levels of enlightenment of the population of Normal School was at work in the village and it Chandrabhag. It also fails to answer the ques­ was established and run under a joint enterprise tions "Who goes to school"? "Has caste any­ of the Mahisyas and the Brahmins. That the thing to do with education"? and "ls woman village had a sophisticated cultural background to be eaucated along with man"? is evident from the fact that as early as 1859, Sri Jogendra Nath Chaftopadhyaya, a local In the present chapter, educational structure gentleman, had his 'Yfitings published in the of Chandrabhag has been broken into three sub­ Samb(ld Pravakar, the renowned journal of the structures, viz., primary, secondary and college Lute Iswar Chandra Gupta, Sri Chattopadhyaya education. Then a castewise classification of published a novel called Nilambari also. In the illiterates, semi-literates, literates and educated background of such an erudite atmosphere a has been tried. century ago, it is only natural to conclude that Chandrabhag has an educational basis, more or For entry into the primary school six is the less, integrated. ideal and normal age and school-leaving, spe­ cially secondary school-leaving age is 18. The The existence of the Guru Training School number of school-going children, both male and is also a positive indicator of this integrated base. female, therefore, works upto 584-of whom 287 But, like other parts of India and other countries are males and 297 are females. From the edu­ of the world, education at Chandrabhag was at cational matrix, castes like Tili, Dhoba and the hands of a few philanthropic and well mean­ Kaivarta are automatically dropped. These ing persons of the vilIage. The scope of educa­ castes do not either have boys and girls of this tion was' thus limited. Today, with changed age-group or have people who are otherwise socia-economic pattern, education has to orient gainfully employed. A number of married itself with the existing educational system of the females belonging _to the .above age-group are country. The need for primary, secondary, also excluded from the educational matrix. secondary multipurpose, college and tcchnical education is widely feIt now. The primary PRIMARY EDUCATION school for girls which started about forty years ago, is now transformed into a higher second­ There are two primary schools at ChanJira­ ary mUltipurpose school. The necessity of bhag mauza, one is at Chandrabhag proper and adult education, for both males and females is, the other is at Mirzapur. The primary school slowly but steadily, being realised. Moreover, at Chandrabhag unit of the mauza is about 60 alienation from land and land-oriented ec.momy, years old whereas the primary school at Mirza­ the· ever increasing monetisation of the same pur came into being only in 1961. At the time have made people run after white-collar and/or of "investigafion both the schools seemed well technical-supervisory jobs. As a preparation for responded to.. But local opinion is rather sceptic. it, education in technical schools and colleges is To. them, thj~ primary enthusiasm for education gradually getting a priority among the village is iv-st like aneophytes' zeal and is sure to sub­ peGPle. According to· the Census of 1961, the side. In fact. the student population of the number of. educated males and females at Mirzapur Primary Scnool showed it decline in Chandrabhag is 604 and 402 respectively, making roll strength in course of four years from its in­ a population of 1,006 educated males and ception. The reason for such depopulation of females .. out of the total population of 1,616. the school at the Mirzapur unit of Chandrabhag Such a situation means that 37.4 per cent. of the mauza lies in the fact that Mirzapur is inhabited 72 CHANDRABHAG mostly by occupational caste groups and and 96 females could be distributed among Mahisya. These occupation-group peoples are different castes in the following way. not very keen in keeping their sons at school. The fathers. specially the agriculturist father. TABLE 38 would rather have their grown-up sons as the father's help instead of a swotter at school. PRIMARY 1!;DUCATION AT CHANDRABHAG Further. for households. hovering between pro­ StUdents School-going verty and starvation, free primary education was Caste ..------"----. not an incentive enough for sending the children Malo Female to the school. Books are to be purchased, Brahmin 23 25 slates. pencils. wearing apparels bought. These Kayastha 10 15 cost quite a few quids. On the otherhand. if the children do not go to the school they could Mahisya 42 41 well utilise their time gainfully. collecting Tanti 10 11 faggots. dry leaves. cow-dung. arum roots and Swarnakar 2 4 many other such daily necessities for home con­ Castes 87 96 sumption as well as for sale. It is really a diffi­ TO!'l1 no. of boys 181 cult choice before the poor villager whether or .n the arJe'fJToup not to send the child to the school. Neverthe­ less. boys and girls have come for primary edu­ Tota 1 no. of girls 201 cation at the primary school of Mirzapur. The in the age·group primary school at the Chandrabhag unit has a Percentage of total (6-16) 48.0% '7.7% regular inflow of students throughout the year. age-group of children This regularity of attendance at the primary school at Chandrabhag is due to the fact that the The percentage 48.0 and 47_7 for primary student population comes mainly from upper school-going boys and girls respectively is not a caste families of the village. i.e .• from the Brah­ very bright one. The reasons for this low per­ min. the Kayastha and the well-to-do Mahisyas. centage of primary education at Chandrabhag are mainly socio-economic. As it has already Though 6-10 is the proper age-group for been mentioned that though primary education primary school-goers. some relaxation has been is free of tuition fees. one has, nonetheless. to made in the age in view of the rural set-up. The make provision for books. exercise books. slates. age-limit has been raised to 15 of this age-group, pencils etc. The guardians are not, in most of i.e .. 6-15, there are 181 males and 201 females cases, in a position to assure a regular supply of belonging to all castes at Chandrabhag. The these articles for their wards. Moreover, chil­ detailed composition is given below: dren are to be clad with a modicum of clothing before they could be sent to the school. Most TABLE 37 of the guardians consider it as one of the greatest obstacles for sending their children to the school. PRIMARY EDUCATION Very few heads of the households at Chandra­ Male Female bhag are well able to bear the cost of garments Age.group Caste and dresses for their children. The guardians 6-15 Brahmin 62 65 also apprehend that education will ultimately Kayastha 22 27 alienate their children from them. They will Mahisya 73 74, become a "declassed" entity. So it is better Tanti 13 20 not to educate them. This conservative outlook Swarnakar 4 6 is gradually disappearing. With the spread of industries and various research plants there has Gandhabanik 4 6 been a shift in the opinion of the villagers. Tili Kaivarta "'. SECONDARY EDUCATION Dhoba 1 6-15 All castes 181 201 For secondary education Chandrabhag has only the Sreekrishna Higher Secondary Multi­ At the time of the surveys of the primary purpose for girls. The school. with permission school-going population at Chandrabhag mauza, to teach education of the secondary level, came 87 were males and 96 females. These 87 maleg into being in 1920. It was housed in a premise SOCTO-CULTURAL LIFE 73 other than the present one. Today the school College, pure and simple. Students wishing to has been affiliated to teach in more than one study Science will have to go either to Tamluk or streams. The school has a very imposing bUilding to Midnapur or to Calcutta. About 25 boys and and it was made possible only through the muni­ girls from Chandrabhag are receiving education ficence of a local gentleman. Later on, grants­ at different colleges mentioned above. But most in-aid was secured from the Board of the Secon­ of them go to Bagnan College which is only four dary Education, West Bengal. There were 350 miles away from the village. In the college edu­ gjrls on the rolls of the school, at the time of cation also, the Brahmins occupy the best posi­ investigation. Except thirty boarders (the school tion. Twelve boys and four girls of the Brahmin has an attached hostel for girls) there are 320 caste are attached to colleges. The number of students, being recruits from adjoining villages of boys and girls receiving college education may Chandrabhag and Chandrabhag proper. There be seen in the following table. is another school at Mugkalyan, so girls from Mugkalyan (though an adjoining village of TABLE 39 Chandrabhag) do not attend Sreekrishna Girls' School at Chandrabhag. At the time of investi­ (,OLLEGE EDU(,ATlON gation, there were 14 lady teachers attached to , _____ColIrgc·going.A. _____ students , the school. One lady teacher and two male Casto teachers were locally recruited; the rest came 1(ale Female Total from outside. One of the lady teachers came from Lueknow, one from Gauhati and the others Brahmin 12 4 16 from various districts of West Bengal, including Kayastha 3 3 Calcutta. ?lfahiRya 2 2

In spite of a fairly constant demand for a Ta,nti 3 3 high Of higher secondary multipurpose school for boys, there is, unfortunately none at Chandra­ Caste 20 4 24 bhag. Boys have to attend one of the two higher secondary schools in the adjoining vill­ Apart from these institutions for general ages. There is one higher sec,ondary multi­ - education, there is also a music school called purpose school at Mugkalyan and the Mahakali Bhupendra Sangit Academy at Chandrabhag. It Higher Secondary Multipurpose School at BantuI. came into being in 19'59 and is flourishing. The former was established in 1866 and the About 20 girls of this village receive lessons in latter, in 1892. About 100 boys from Chandra­ classical music, modern and Tagore songs. The bhag are receiving secondary education spread teachers of this academy are not local people. over from class V to class XI. Of these hundred They come from Calcutta twice a week. The boys receiving secondary education 42 comes local M.L.A., Dr. Ranjit Ghosh Chowdhury, a from the Brahmin caste, 17 from the Kayasthas, very affable young man has very kindly vacated 24 from the Mahisyas and the rest from other one room in h1S house for the music academy to castes like Tanti, Swarnakar, Gandhabanik etc. function wen. Among the secondary school-going boys there is a preference for Science course over Humanities Some girls from Chandrabhag have taken group. Young boys are mostly aspirant after pains to learn decorative embroidery at the Usha Technical jobs. They have a " German Embroidery Training School, Bagnan. These Dream ". Some of the boys from Chandrabhag girls are mostly attached to the Social Educa­ have already been successful in going over to tion Centre. They in their turn vouch to render Germany for higher education. service to others.

COLLEGE EDUCATION From what has been said above, the defini­ tion of education as "an induction into the Guardians of Chandrabhag do not lag learner culture" does not seem to be properly behind in giving their wards higher education in justified. As Chandrabhag is gradually moving colleges. There are two colleges in the areas, away from the agricultural economy, demand one at Bagnan and the other at Uluberia. Roth for prestige-status-Iaden education is steadily of them are First Grade Colleges and were estab­ growing. The total position of literacy, illiteracy, lished in the fifties. But there is one serious college education, school education etc., can be limitation with both of them-they are Arts visualised from the table overleat

5 (P13) Census/S7 6 74 CHANDRABHAG

TABLE 40

LITERACY AND EDUCATIONAL STANDARD A'r CHANDRABHAG Brahmin Kayasthlt Mahisya ,---.J---.., ,.------'------. r---"------. Malo Fomalo :Malo FemaJe Malo Female

Literate (can rrad fIlHI sign name) 78 74 28 101 Hi Oompletely iltitefute 13 I 4 4~ 134 Reading Primary 23 l!5 10 1(, 42 41 Class V 4 6 2 3 li Class VI 13 11 7 2 Class VII 4 5 ~ 2 Olass vm 8 0 5 3 Class IX ;) :1 5 3 3 Olass X 4 1 Class XI 0 6 2 N(m·l'fIatric (1\ppcared but CQuid not pas,) 3S (I 19 3 S. F.jMatriculaiion 39 S S 4 Higher Sccond.ry 1.'> 2 :1 Reading P. U. ~ 1 I. A. II .~ 3 4 B.A., B.Se., ROom. 9 2 a B.A., B.T., B.L. 2 M.A., 1r.Sc., :r.r.Com., M.B. ;) Read upto Primary Standard 7 8 4 5 15' Read upto Class X 3 1 R€ad upto B.A. ..

Tanti Swarnakar Total r-- _A-. __---, ,--..A..----, .. -----"------, Male Female Male Female lfalo Fornal,!

Literate (can read und ~igll name) 10 4 4 ~ Completely illiterate 8 18 5 9 Reading Primary B 10 6 8 Class V 3 2 4 ~ Class VI 4 2 3 1 Class VII 4 Class VIII 3 Class IX 2 Class X Class XI Non·:r.1{1tric (appeared but coulr! not paBs) S.F./11atriculation 4 Higher Secondary Reading P.U. 3 LA. B.A., B.So., B.Com. B.A., B.T., B.t ){.A., Ir.Sc., Y.Com., M.B. Read u]lto Primary Standard 6 3 lkari Ullto Glass X Rearl upt(J 13.1\. SOCIO·CULTURAL LIFE 75

It is evident from the above table that higher from Kayastha and Mahisya castes. The education has come to Chandrabhag. But edu­ Adhyaksha of the Gram Panchayat a BrahmiR cation at Chandrabhag is far from the ideal of by caste, while the Upadhyaksha is a Mahisya . ., practice and theoretical study combined ". "Practice and theoretical study", as Dr. A. E. TABLE 41 Morgan, Chairman of the U.S. Tennessee Trust and Member of the Government of India Uni· MEMBERS OF THE GRA!Jl PANOHAYAP versities Commission, 1949, observed, h are like Kame Position Caste the blades of a pair of scissors. Neither blade is good for cutting by itself. but they cut by 1 :-lhri .1ibHudhan Mukherjee Adhyaksila Brahmin being in contact with cach other. Conventional ~ " ~antosh Kumar Das Upadhyalcska Mahisya education, by and large, was like scissors with only one blade. that of theoretical education". 3 " t5allkar Ch. Chatta- The need for a technical school is sorely felt at padhyaya l\Iemner llrahimin Chandrabhag. There are plenty of young boys 4 " Bharat Chandra" at the village who do not show any aptitude for academic studies. Had there been an institute [, .. Balaram BandopadhyayKrishna­ munal hazards. Both the Adhyaksha and mohan Banerjee (cd) 1840 Upadhyaksha are aware of the needs of the vill­ age. A move has already been made toward (v) IITC'Til ~fi5~tYf -by "W

wings, athletic, dramatic, SOCIal anti recreational Chandrabhag people, it appears, are getting and literary. There is an annual sports meet of more and more music-minded. Two schools, the club and it is performed in all grandeur. excluslVely for music 10 the village. prove the Friendly football matches are played between love for music there. Of the two, one is very Chandrabhag eleven and the players of other new but the other is about eight years old. The villages. A very significant feature of the older one, called Bhupendra Sangit Sikshakendra, annual sports is this that not only the young was started in 1958 and was having its music boys and girls but also the Adibasi n nball boys classes at the house of the present M.L.A. from and girls join freely in the sports. They are the village. Modern as well as classical music also encouraged by special prizes. are taught there. Classes are held, usually, on Saturday evenings and SWlday mornings by Srccial celebrations like Rabindra iUY£lflIi. music teachers coming from Calcutta. Tagofc? SllI'ut Smrili iT djapan, F j vckllnanda Salavarshiki songs too arc in great demand in the village. Udjapan are taken up by the social and recrea­ The fees charged at the Bhupendra Sangl! tional wing of the Youth Welfare and Recreation Sikshakt'ndra for music lessons is rupees ten a Club. Dramatic performances are also there, month. Considering the financial standard of but they are rather infrequent. There is 111) the village, the fee seems a bit high but guar­ regular team of amateur actors in the village, dians of prospective briJcs would bear it without nor there is any regular stage. During Durga much demur. Rec~ntly, u.Jolher Dance Music and Kali Plljus local boys and girls. sometimes. Aeademy called Mllt"chhunu ( "1~-;j1 ) has been stage a drama; but there is no regularity in it. started at Bagnan. reaching otddnce is an There is usually no great fuss over local boys add.::d attraction. Since girls know that a good and girls taking roles in the same drama. This dancer is appreciated, they arc inli.ating, more is definitely a 5lreak of heterodoxy in an and more, th.: roll strength of Murchllna. orthodox, Brahmin dominated village. MlIrclzTznna is abo run by artists coming from ('alcutta. The htcrary wing of the Y. W. & R. Club encourages variouf> literary activilies by the vill­ There arc quite a few aspirants 111 music 111 agers at Chandrabhag and also by others. Guest lh, vlllage. They come to Calcutta during lhe speakers consisting of University teachers. week-ends to get music lessons at repulable music litterateurs, are often invited to speak on popular schools like Gitabitall and! or Dak~hini. Girls subjects. Essay competition, debate competi­ of Chandrabhag who have sh(lwn some proti­ tion are also arrangcd by the Club. ciency in music or in dance arc orten invited as guest artist. at the cultural functions in a neigh­ However well-meaning the Youth Welfare bouring village. They feel, obviously, flattered and Recreation Club mIght have been, it could at this quick recognition of their merit. not make any arrangement for the elderly ladies in the village. Chandrabhag Social Education Centre for women fulfils, to some extent, t!;tt: Other community activities include ohserv­ needs of women in the \'iUage. it was establish­ ance of 23rd January Of the Birth Day of Netaji ed in 1957 with a lucal lady at its charge. !n Subh<.lR Chandra Bose, 26th January, the Repub­ the beginning, response was no! very good but lic Day and 15th August, 'the Independence Day. at the present moment there is quite a sizeable Military Drill, Saluting the National Flag, March number of participants in the centre. The Past. these are the items which are included in particlpants are given lessor.s in tailoring, embroi­ the celebration. Almost all the members of the dery and needJe work, cane-work, and also VIllage men. women and children, particirate in lessons in 3 R's. The centre has no buildll1g of the celebration. its own and has, necessarily, to be housed in the building of the library. Naturally, the centre One of the mo~t important community aetl­ has to adjust its activities with the working hours \- itles of the village is the community dinner of the library, i.e., the centre opens during the exclusively for the Tadics ('If the village. This time of the day when the library remains closed. community dinner usually takes place on the Usually, the library is open from 8-30 A.M. to full-moon day of the month of Blzadra (August­ !2 noon and from 7 P.M. to 10-30 P.M. 1he September). The reason of this observance is social education centre works from 2 P.M. to unknown. Since it is performed every year wltll 5-30 P.M. Most of the housewives are free dur­ all its sanctity, it serves as a great cementing ing the. period. bond among the women-folk of the village. 78 CHANDRABHAG

RELIGIOUS STRUCTURE established by the Chattcrjees of the vi1la!:\~ about two hundred and fifty years ago. Though Chandrabhag has legion gods and goddesses, the temples are in an absolutely dilapidated condi­ both of the hieratic and non-hieratic order. The tIOn now, the worship however, has not been presiding deity of the village is Chandrai having given up. The responsibility of worshipping his abode at Chandra tala, under an old, banyan devolves, by rota, on tne prescnl scions of the tree. There is no anthropomorphic figure of Chatterjee, the founding father of the temples. Chandrai, but as is usual with all village godlings. There is a beliel among the local people of the a few biggish pebbles. besmirched with ver­ village that the Siva diety is very living ( ~~15 ) milion, constitute the daily Chandrabhag may and it is only for him that the pea pIc of the also be called the village of Siva, temples as there village are able to withstand adverse SOCIal and are thirteen Siva tempks in the village. In spite economic onslaughts. There is also a Kali of this multiplicity of Siva temples in the village, temple in the village. The annual Kali Puja is people cannot be called to be belonging to the heid in this temple. The annual worship of Saiva sect, in the formal sense of the term. Nor Durga, Laksmi, Sarasl1'ati, Jagatdlllltri, the prin­ do they belong exclusively to either Siva or cipal deities of the Hindu pantheon is performed Bishl111 or Sakli cults. Most of the villagers are on a community basis. The worship of Saktas but in their domestic pantheon they wor­ Saraswati, the goddess of learning. is, however, ship Narayan, in all his various forms viz., the special preserve of the students of the vill­ Narayan. Sridhar, Janardan, and Damodara, age. It is held in aH the schools, secondary and and Lliksmi. the consort of Narayan. The usual primary, of the village. Besides, the local com­ symbol of Narayan or Vishnu is a black, roun­ munity centre has, ot late, been rather active in dish stone. It is called the Salagralll Sila and performing the worship of Saraswali. Another is very sacred indeed; LakslIli is represented Puja is of great attraction to the elderly and the by a small clay or brass anthropomorphic young alike is the worship of ViswaTwl'lIla, the figurine. This anthropomorphic figure is model­ presiding deity of arts and crafts. On tht: Pllja­ led, more often than not. according to the des­ day, kite-flying constitutes one of the most im­ cription of Laksmi given in the Sashtras, the portant festive item. Hundreds of kites are to sacred texts of the Hindus. In the SkandaplIran be seen in the sky on the Puja day. Children and we find this description of the goddess Laksmi. the elderly people alike enjoy this kite-flying. f~$['IT ~'lt~ m'ft~ ~~$[Sf~"!>7~ Besides the annual worship of the selected 15'1lt, f~"Im, ?"~f1\ '811\'i C~1'11jtHinduism. c'ifnp!~t~ H~'G]t~ PrG?!C'1f1 ?!ftrf%\'it:I there are irregular, non-recurrent worship of various gods and goddesses connected with local f~C7'ifCBRt\3t$ftfit.n:r I customs, traditions and usages. In accounting Brass idols are also used for Sridhar. Damodar, for the worship of these lesser godlings one has Gadadhar. to take into account the geographical situation of the area, viz., the district of Howrah. Besides these gods of the hieratic order of the Hindu pantheon, there are lesser gods and One of the local gods of Cliandrabhag and goddesses, mostly belonging to the shrine of the of the district of Howrah is Dakshinrai, his folk. This folk pantheon includes Manasa, image is rather pcculiar- -a warrior seated on a Chandi. Ghantakarna, ftu Thakur, Dharma tiger. This shows that Dakshinrai is considered Thakur, Sitala, Dakshin Rai, Panchananda as the deity of the tiger. There is another deity Thakur. Moreover, there are a number cf -Kalurai and he is supposed to be presiding pseudo religious festivals and fairs in the village. god of the crocodile. Though at the present These festivals ,li1d fairs are good media of inter­ moment anthropomorphic images of Dakshinl'ai village communications and are also a great and Kalurai are not to be found in abundance in economic aid. the district, their influence dies hard. They are worshipped being embodied in a pebble or stone It is difficult, from what we have known of along with other gods and goddesses of the the village. to disavow the intense religious over­ Hindu pantheon. This preponderance of the tone in the social structure of the village. The tiger deity and the crocodile deity may be due to thirteen Siva temples are but proofs of the the fact that the tiger and other wild animals religiosity of their founders. The temples were abounded in the district is not very remote past. SOClO·CULTURAL LIFE 79

The worship of the Llger and the crocodile may "Ifor ~"! flfe'f, C"lt.,-!'$!" ;;5t~1 i5ln1' Y\t$[ C

'lil ~!~ 1~

of a complex network of various association and tea was a luxury for the majority of the house­ institutions within the agrarian society having holds. But, today, during the present investiga­ close links with and being shaped by urban in­ tion, it was found that 98 per cent of ttl~ house­ fluences ". holds take tea. It is the most popular beverage in the village. The villagers also gave a lOgIC Chandrabhag, a small village in West Bengal for their preference of tea to any other drink. has definitely been caught in the plexus of the ., You don't have to eat -much if you take a glass changes indicated above. Along with the econo­ of strong tea". By strong tea they meant the mic survey, a social survey in the pattern of an infusion in which tea has been brewed for a opinion survey was -also taken up. The object longer time than usual. Such an infusion has of this opinion survey was to ascertain the aware­ more tannin content in it and it makes one feel ness of the villagers belonging to different caste­ less hungry. - groups about social legislations in the country, caste prejudice, laws of tenancy legisla-tion, com­ Not only tea, villagers now seem to have dis­ munity development projects and so on and their covered another addiction and that is liquor. It reaction to governmental activities. It was found is said that there are many secret breweries, that the villagers are mostly aware of the social specially in the quarter of the Mahisyas and legislations that have recently been passed in other low castes, at Mirzapur unit of Chandra­ India. They are critical of the policy of the bhag mauza. Drinking and seIling of this coun­ Government regarding the construction of multi­ try-liquor are equally strong at Mirzapur. They purpose hydel projects like the D.V.C. The do not feel any qualm of conscience, whatso­ villagers are also not in one with thc Government ever. regarding its land reform measures. This oppo­ sition comes, however, from the landowning Demand for education is another important classes and not from the landless classes. social change. Education of girls is no longer The villagers are critical also of the Community considered as instrumental to widowhood. The Development measures and the Block Offices. age of marriage of girls has risen conside;-1bly. About the Gram Sevak and the Gram Sel'ika the Late marriage of boys and girls is now a rule villagers have taken a very neutral attitude. rather than excep60n. Dowry has remained in These are all very significant changes for a vill­ spite of all efforts by the philanthropic bodies age like Chandrabhag. Normally, villagers in and governmental legislation. other areas of India are not always quite aware of social legislations and what is going on in the Caste also dies hard among the villagers of society. They would rather co-operate with thc Chandrabhag. Caste has two major props-com­ authorities that be in the village. Chandrabhag mensality and comnubium. Commensality or seems to be an exception and this is due to the interdining is less rigid now with the viJiagers fact that, for the last hundred years, Chandra­ than comnubium (the rule of marriage). At the bhag had been exposed to some extraneous in­ time of investigation, all the different caste fluences. Chandrabhag had maintained a close groups expressed the opinion that they would liaison with Calcutta, tne most important metro­ prefer to marry within their respective castes. politan city of India. It has already been noted None of the Brahmin households showed any that a village litterateur published a poem in thc feeling of relaxation about caste rules. The Sambad Pravakar as early as 1859. There was Mahisyas gave the opinion that caste was divine­ also a gentleman in the village who was a ly ordained and therefore should be maintained. student of the Presidency College as early as "Just imagine, mc a Mahisya marrying the 1892. He graduated from the college in 1896. Babu's daughter" Babu's daughter means bride For the last hundred years Brahmins and Kayas­ from a high caste family, Only one Kayastha thas of this village have taken up jobs in the families out of 27 families expressed in his agency houses and big mercantile establish­ opinion of caste that regulations of castc were ments, educated their children in the proper way quite immaterial to him. while leaving their families back at the village. They served as reference groups to the other Except Kaivarta, Tili, Karmakar and Dhoba. members of the village and the "demonstration all other caste peoples are ,aware of social legis­ effect" played its due role. lations in India. About 97 per cent. of the Brahmin households, were aware of the Hindu There has been change in the food-habit, Marriage Bill, the recent changes in the law of clothing, footwear and so on. Fifty years ago, adoption and succession. But Brahmins seemed SOCIO-CULroRAL iIFE 83 very very reluctant to give married daughters a gradually getting hold of the young couples at portion of the family property. The Kayastha Chandrabhag. Trim living is also expressed in households too were conversant with the items the way the housewives dress, the names they of social legislations that have been recently pass­ give their ehildren to, and in attending functions ed in India. Out of a total of 27 households like Rabindrajayanti or Saratjayanti. These are heads of 22 Kayastba households knew that occasions of sombre celebration; nevertheless, there had been a change in the law of inheritance songs of Tagore have appeal to the village ladies. by the Hindus, change in the law of adoption At the time of investigation, names of two and also in the law of succession and inheritance. children at a Mahisya household appeared very A more or less conservative outlook was mam­ unusual vis-a-vis the names of their slblings with fested in the conversation with some of the mem­ old fashioned names. The unusual names were bers of Kayastha caste. Rajarshi and Devarshi. When asked where did the housewife get those names ?-the reply was The Mahisyas and the other ancillary castes "why. do I not listen to the radio? You know, have also exhibited a sort of conservatism in we have got a transistor set and everyday we their dealing of the caste question. While they listen to it from 12-30 p.m. to '3 p.m." are in the village, they are not very willing to flout any of the caste regulations. When ques­ Transistor sets had been. so to say, ubiquit­ tioned what would they do if their sons married ous. In a small village like Chandrabhag there in different castes. they replied that such a are about 30 radios, transistor sets and crystal situation is to be tolerated. A son cannot be sets. They are no decorations, villagers listen to forsaken or given up. The Mahisyas and other radios avidJy and the daily radio news kcep occupational castes showed a bit of liberalism them aware of local and international happen­ regarding the question of inheritance of father's ings. property by the daughter, married or otherwlse. The village public library also serves a pur­ .• If the law is like that then we must have to veyor of news and views about things concerning follow it "-this is how they answered the query. the village and the country as a whole. Quite a The villagers showed genuine interest about the few news-papers, specially Bengali newspaper problem of family planning. Ten to fifteen are subscribed by the villager. The library years ago any discussion on this subject would keeps English dailies published from Calcutta. have been impossible. Today, housewives ex­ pressed eagerness to control family. But they To take an overall picture of the village, it were Iiandicapped by the absence of proper can be said that the fundamental character of family planning clinic. Sixty per cent. of house­ the village community is fast changing into wives at Chandrabhag also expressed the feeling something new. The changes have followed the that some one should explain < things' to them methods which sociologists like Sims mentioned before they go in for birth control. At present. viz., the Persuasive method Oi) Demonstrative there are many social and religio-psychologicai method (iii) the Compulsory method (iv) the predispositions against the policy of birth control. Method of social pressure (v) the Contract The willingness of the housewives to acceed to mt:thod and the Educational method. the idea of family planning is a tremendous social change. Chandrabhag is, as it was noted during in­ vestigation, not a static village. It has been Menfolk too are painfully aware of the neces­ kept lively and vivacious by continuous flow of sity of planned parenthood. Fewer issues and new ideas and institutions. some borrowed, some greater spacing of them is the most conspicuous indigenous. Easy access to Calcutta has sup­ feature with the modem parents at Chandra­ plied the village this elan and the contributions bhag. They are also aware that bringing up of of the commuting public is no less significant. children is more onerous than what it was before. Had they showed escapism instead of feeling The enlightened. commuting section of the males some oneness. Chanrdabnag would have been of Chandrabhag need no tutoring <.tbout family reduced to a fossilized existence long ago. In planning. It is only for the less privileged sec­ their enthusiasm to find out < glory that was tion that a clinic of family planning is neces­ Howrah' they are also turning their attention to sary. Of course. there is a great antipathy for this small village. Of this small group of sterilization among the males of this section. < revivalists', Sri Tarapada Santra will be remembered with affection and gratitude by one The idea of trim living with a small family is and all.

GMGlPC-S17-fi (PB) ('<.>06u8/67-27.8.09-1,000.

LIST OF AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF GOVERNMENT OF [NDIA PUBLICATIONS ( as on 17 February, ]964)

AG ARTAJ,A-J,axnli Bhonda, Books & Sclentlflc Sales (Rest.) BHOFAL- MlltA- 1 Superiutendent, State Government Press 1 National Book House, Jeonl Mandl (Reg.) 2 Lyall Book Depot, Mohd. Din Bldg., Sultania ROM (Reg.) Wadhawa & Co., 46, Civil Lines • (Reg.) 3 Dellte Books, Opp. Bhopal 'falkies (Re't.) Banwari Lal Jain, Puullshers, Moti Katra (Rest.) BnUBANESWAR-Ekamra Vidyabhaban, Eastern Tower, English Book Depot, Sadar Bazar, Agra Cantt. (Rest.) Room No.3 (Rest.) AHMADNAGAR-V.'f. Jorakar, Prop., Rama Genera 1 Siores, BIJAPUR-Shri D. V. Deshpande, Recognised Law Bookscll· Navi Path. • • • • • • • (Rest.) ers, Prop., Vinod Book Depot, Near Shiralshetll CMwk (Hest.) AHMEDABAD- BIKANER-Bhandani Bros. (Rcst.) 1 Balgovlnd K ub er Dass & Co., Gandhi Road • (Reg.) BII,ASllPUR- Sharma Book Stall, Sadar Bazar • (Rest.) Chandra Kant Chiman Lal Vora, Gandhi Road (Reg.) 3 New Order Book Co., 1ml. Bridge (neg.) BOllfBAY- 4 Mahajan Bro•. , Opp. Rhadia Police Gat. (ltest. ) 1 Supdt., Printing and Stationery, Queens Road S~stu Kltab Gnar, Near RcllefTalkle8, PattilUr Kuva, 2 Charles Lambert and CO.,101, Mahatma Gandhi Road (Reg.) (Reg.) Relief Road 3 Co-operator's Book Depot, 5/32, Ahmed Sailor Bldg., AJMElI- Dadar • • . (Reg.) 1 Book.Land, 663, Madar Gate (Reg.) Current Book HOUse, Maruti Lane, Raghunath Dadaji St. (Reg.) 2 ltajputana Book House, Station Road. (Reg.) Current Technical Literature Co. P. Ltd., IndlaHouse, 1st Floor (Reg.) 3 Law Book House, 271, Hathi Bhata (Reg.) 6 International BOOk ROll." Ltd., 9, Mh Lane, M.O. Road (Reg.) , Vljay Bro•• , Kutchery Road (Rest.) 7 Lakkonl Book Depot, Oirgaum • (Reg.) 5 Krishna Bros., Kutchery Road (Rest.) S lllpce. Agencies, 24, Bhangwadi, Kall-adevl . (Reg.) ALIGARH-Frlend,' Book House, Muslim University ~larket (Reg.) 9 P. P. li. Book Slnll, 190·B, Khetwadi Main Road (Rpg.) ALLAHABAD 10 New Book Co., 188-190, Dr. Dad.ullai Naorojl Road (Reg.) 1 Superintendent, Printing & Stationery, U.P. 11 Popular Book Depot, Lamlngtou Road (Beg.) 2 Kltablstan, 17·A, Kamia Nehru Road. (Reg.) 12 Sunder D.s Glan Chand,601, Girgallnl Ro"d, Near Prin· cess Street • . . • • . . • (Reg.) Law Book Co., Sardar Patel:Marg, P. Box 4 • (Reg.) 13 D. B. Taraporewal. Sons and Co. (1') Ltd .• 210, Dr. 4 Rani NaralnLai BeniYadho,2·A, KatraRoad (Reg.) Dadabh.1 Naoroj! Road (Reg.) 5 Universal Book Co.,20, M.G. Road (Reg.) 14 Thacker and Co., Rampart Row . (Reg.) 6 The University Book Agency (of LahOre), Elgin Road (Reg.) 15 N. M. Tripathil'rivate Ltd., Prince.a Street • (Reg.) 7 Wadh.wa & Co.,23, M.G. Marg (Rest.) 16 The KothariBook Depot, King Edward Road (Reg.) 8 Bharat Law HOllse, 15, ~[ahatnla Gandhi Marg (Rest.) 17 P. H. Rama R'.ri'hna and Sons,147, Rajaram Bhuvan, 9 Ram Naraln Lal Beni Prashad, 2-A, Kalra Road (Rest.) Shiv"jl P~rk Road No.5. (Rest.) 18 C. Jamnadas and Co., Booksellers, 146·C,l'rineess St. (Reg.) A~IBALA- 19 Indo Nath and Co., A·6, Danlat Nagar Borivll (Reg.) 1 English Book Depot, Anlbala Cantt. (Reg.) 20 Millerva Book Shop, Shop No. 1/80, N. Subhaa Road (Reg.) Z Seth Law House,8719, Railway Road, Amhal. Cautt. (Rest.) 21 Academic Book Co. ,Association Building, GirgaUnl ROad (Rest.) UiRITSAR- 22 Dominion Publlshers, 23, Bell Building, Sir P.M. Road • (Rest.) 1 The Law Book Agency, G. T. Road, Putllgarh (Reg.) 23 Bombay National RIstory Society, 91, waikeshwar ltoad (Rest.) Z S. Gupta, Agent, Government Pllbllcation" Near P.O. 24 Dowamadeo and Co. ,16, Naziria BuUdiug, BallllJ'd ESjate (Res!.) Majith Mandi • (Reg.) 25 Asian Trading Co., 310, the Miraball. P.B.1505 (Rest.) 3 Anlar Nath & Sons, Near P.O. MajiLh Mandl (Reg.) CALCUTTA- ANAND- 1 Vljaya Store" Station Road (Rest.) Chatterjee and Co., 3/1, Bach.ram Chatterjee Lnne (Rag.) 2 Char to Book Stall, Tnlei Sadan, Stn. lload (Rest.) Dase Gupta and Co. Ltd., M/3, College Street (Reg.) Rlndn Library, 69·A, Bol.ram De Street ASANSOL-D. N. Roy & II. K. Roy, Bool".lIers, Atwal (Re•. ) Building . Otest.) S.li. Lahidand Co. Privote Ltd., College Street (P.eg.) M C. Sarkarand Sons Private Ltd.,H. Bankim Chatterjee B.\NOALORE- Street (neg.) 1 The Bang.lore Legal Practitioner Co·op. Society LI

CHANDIGARH_ J'MWZllPUR_Ellgli,,, fiook Depot, 78, Jhoke Road (Reg.) I Supdt., Govt. Printing and Stationery, PunjlLb. GA URATI. -Moksbada Pustakalnya it Nar.ln Mal"~ (R.) P.B. No. 2027, Ahata Kedara, Chawallan Road. • (Reg.) JAIPUR~- Book'Well, 4, Sant NnrankariColony, P.B.1560. (Reg.) 1 Government Printing and Statiouery DeparlmeDI,llajas' 7 ImpertalPublishing Co., 3, Fat' Bazar, Daryaganj (Reg.) than. 8 Metropolitan Book Co., 1, Falz Ba7M (Reg.) BhnratLaw Rouse, Book,ellers & Publlshers,Opp.Prem Publication Centre, Sub,lmandi . (Reg.) Prakash Cln ema (Reg,) 10 Youngman & Co., Nai Sarak (Reg.) Garg Book Co., Tripolia Bazar (Reg.) 11 Indian Army Book Depot, 3, Daryaganj (Reg.) 4, VaniMandir, Sawai :Mansingh HighwflY (Reg.) 12 All India Educational Supply Co., Shri Ram Buildings, 5 Kaly.n Mal &. Sons, Tripolia Bazar (Reg.) Jawabar Nagar (ReRt.) 6 Popular Book Depol, Chaura Rastn (Rest.) 13 DhanwantMerllcal & Law Book House, 1522, LajpntRal Krishna Book Depot, Chauraltasta (Rest.) Market • (Rest.) 8 Dominion Law Depot, 5hah Building, P.B. No. 2R (Rest.) 14 University Book House, 15, U. B. Ballgalore Road, JAbINAGAH· ·Sw.desbi Yastu Bbandar Jawahar Nagar (Rest.) meg.) 15 Law Literature House, 2646, Balilllnrall (Rest.) J AMSHEDPUR- 16 Summer Brothers, P.O. Birla Lilies (ReBt.) Amar Kita b Ghar, Diagonal Road, P.B. 78 (Reg.) 17 Universal Book & Stationery Co., 16, NetaJI 8ubhash Gupta Store', Dhatkiolih (Reg.) Marg (Reg.) Sanyal lJro'., Booksellers & :S-e,,' Agents, Blst.pur 18 B. Nath & Bros., 3808, Charaklmwalan (Chowr; Bazar) (Rest.) Market . (Rest.) ID Rajkamal Prakushan P. Ltd.,B, Fatz Bazar. (Reg.) .TA W ALAPUR-Snhyo~ nook Depot (Rest.) 20 Premier Book Co.,Prlnters,Publishers& Booksellera,NlLi JHUNJllUNU- Sarak (RcRt.) 1 Shashl Kumar Saral Cbond (Rest.) 21 Universal Book Trader', 80, GoRllnl. IIl.rket (Reg.) 2 Ka.pram PrakaAhall Pr.SRran, l/~u, NamdM NI"a., 22 Tech. & Commercial Book Coy., 75, Gokb.l. lfark.t (Rest.) Azad ~[.rg (R.) 23 Saini I,aw Publl'hiIlg Co .. 1416, Chablg.Ill, Ea,hroerc JODHPUII· Qate • (Rest.) 1 Dwarka DasRathi, Wholesale Rook.. nd New" Agent, _ (Reg.) 24 G.M. Ahuja, Booksener' & st.flollero, 309, Nehru Bazar (Rest.) 2 Kltab'Ghar, 801at1 Gat. (Reg,) 25 Sat Narain & Sons,3IU, Mohd.Allllazar, IIrori Gate (Reg.) 3 Cbopra Brothers, Tripoli. Bazar . (Reg.) 20 KltabMabal(WholesaleDiv.)P.Ltd.,28,FaizBazar. (Reg.) JULLUNDUR- 27 Ilindu Sallitya Sansar, Nai Saral, (Rest.) Razoorin Bros., Mai HiraH Gate • (Rest.) 28 Munsh! Ram AInnohar Lal, Oriental Bookseller, & PubJi- ,hers,P.B.1l65,NaISarak . . • _ _ (Rest.) 2 Jain Genera] Bouse, Bazar Bansauwnla (Reg.) ~ University Pllbllsbers, Railway Road 29 K.L. Seth, Suppliers of Law, Commercial Tech. Books, (Rest.) ShlLntlNagar, Ganeshpura • _ • • • (Rest.) KANPUR- Ad.reb Publishing Service, GA/lO, Ansari Road. (Rest.) 30 AdvanI& Co., P. Box. 100, The Mall (Ileg.) 2 Sabltya Niketan, Shreadhnnand Park DHANBAD- (Reg.) 1 Ismag Co-operative Stores Ltd., P.O. Indian School of Tbe Universal Book Stall, The Mall (Reg.) )Unes (Reg.) Raj Corporation, Raj House, P.B. 200, Chowk (Rest.) New Sketch Press, Post Box 26 • (Reat.) KARUR-Shrl V. Nagaraja Rao, 26, Srlnlvasapnram (Re,t.) KODARMA-The Bh.gwati Press, P.O. Jhumri Tilalya, Dt. DJIARWAR- Il"".rlba~h (Reg.) 1 The Agricultural College Consumers Co·op. Society (Rest.) KOLHAPUR-M.harashtra Granth Bhand.r, 11ahadwar Road (!lest.) 2 R~me'hr.ya Book Depot, Subha. Rond • (Rest.) KOTA-Kota Book Depot • Itarnatakaya Sahltya Mandlra of PublisherS lind Book- (Reot.) seller!. KUMTA-S.V. Kamat, Booksellers &: Stationers(N. Kanar.) (Reg.) 1lo11NA.KULAlI- LUOKNOW- 1 Pal & Co., Cloth Bazar Road (Rest.) 1 800chna Sahltya Depot (State Book Depot) 2 South India Tmders, 010. Oonstltutional Journal , (Reg.) ~ Balkrjsbna Vool< Co. Ud., HazratganJ,', (Reg.) ( iii )

LrrCKNOW-cantd. NEW DlIT,RI- contd. l1ritish "Book IJepot, 84, J1B.z:rat~aTlj (Reg.) Empire Book Depot, 278, AliganJ ~ltcg. , .. Ram Ad,"uni,lIazratr:ranj, ?13.154 (lleg.) EngliSh Book Store" 7-L, Connaught Cirrus, l'.O.Il. a28 (Ueg.) fI Universal Publishers (P.) Ltd., Ha!.) i\A TIA RANPt; R, _Chandra llh.tala Pn.tak Bhand.r, Court Itoad (Resl.) NANDED- SECUNDEl~A.BAD- _llindu,tall 11iary Puhllsh"". Market Book Centre, College Law Oeot:ral Books, Station Street (Reg.) Road (Rest.) ;lILCRA-H, -Sllri Nwhitto Seu, Nar.irpalli lJindusthan General Storo,;~ PapN & Stntiflnery (Rest.) 1\[erchants, p. B. No. 51. . (Rr't.) smLA, 3 Banloy Book Agency. VazirahM 01.e'I.) 1 Supdt., 'Ffimacho PradeSh Govt. !'fEW DEL'HI- 2 )1!nef\'~. Book Shop, The 'Iall ltet!.) :l 'l'h Book nepot, 70. The Mall (Reg. Arnrit 'Book CO' I Oonoaugbt Circus (]tCg.) "'.w ~ Bhawani & Sons, 8 F. Conn~uqht Place (Reg.) ~INN ~R-Rhrl N. N . .Jnkhadi, A~ent, Times of India, Slnnar (NaAik) Central NeW' Agency, ~3IPO, Connall~ht Olrcus (Re~.) (ReAt.) iv )

S lIn, La N G- S~\~~w.r Subramanyam 452. Reve"lle nrlv. Ajlt. fl, New york ~7 The Officcr·!n·Chargc, Assam (lOVI. B.D. Chapl. Bookstall, P.B. No.1 (lte.t.) The .ProprIetor, Book Centre, Lak::;}lml Mnnsons, 40, The Mall, Lahore (PakIstan) SONEPAT-Unlted Book Agency (Reg.) SRINAGAR-The Kashmir Book.hop, RORideney I(oool (Reg.) 8URAT-Shrl Gajanan Pustakalaya, Tower Road (Reg.) 'rIRUCHIRAPALLI- On S. and R. Ba,is K.lp.nal.'ublishers, WO'inr. (Reg.) ~ S. Krishnaswami & Co., 35, Sub!>a"h Chand.r Ease Road (Reg.) 1 The Head Olerk, GoVI. Book Depot, Ahmedabud 3 Palamt.ppo Bros. (Rest.) 2 The Asstt. Director, Extension Centre, Knplle,,'.r nond. l3clgium TIUVANDRUM- The Employment Officer, Employment Exchange, Dbar 1 International Bool' Depot, Maill Road (Reg.) Tf~d~;~~' Director, Footwear Extension Centre Polo oround No.1, 2 Reddear Press & Book Depot, P.B. No.4 (Rest.) 5 The O.l./C., Extension Centre, Club llo.d. Mu,Mfarrur TUTlCORIN-Sbri K. Thiagarojan, 10·C, French Cbap,,1 Road (Rest.) 6 The Director, Indian Bu,eau of Mines, Govt of India, Ministry of UDAIPUR- Mines & Fuel, Nogpur 1 J agillsh &; Co., InSide Suraj.pole • (ReS!.) 7 The Asstt. Director, IndUStrial Extension Cenlrr, NadiR,I (Gular.t) 2 Book Centre, 1>!aharana, Bhopal Consumers Co·op. 8 The Head Clerk, PhotoziDcographlc Pres5, P, Fjn!lnre ]{OlH}, l'oona Soolety Ltd. (]lest.) Govt. Printing & Stationery, Rajl