TRANSLATIONS

Editorial Introduction

The following paper on tortoises in Bulgaria by Vladimir A. Beshkov was originally published in the Bulgarian Academy ofSciences in 1984. Despite its being nine years old, we have published it for three reasons: because few tortoise biologists are fluent in Bulgarian; because the paper is an important and unusually thorough one; and because the study utilized a technique that may well be applicable to othercountries undertaking nation-wide tortoise surveys. The use ofwidespread standarized questionnaire data with follow-up site visits and transects in a selected sample of localities makes it possible to obtain data, not only on the current relative abundance of tortoises, but also on past abundance, at least within human lifetimes. The methodology would obviously be of more limited applicability in areas where tortoises were highly cryptic orlived in burrows, or where human habitation was scant orabsent, orwhere there was a need to differentiate between very similar species of tortoises. The translation project derived from a meeting between James R. Buskirk and the author, Vladimir A. Beshkov, in May, 1991, at which Dr. Beshkov expressed interest in bringing his paper before a wider audience. Buskirk arranged for a Bulgarian-English professional translator to prepare a literal translation, and this was then reworked by Buskirk, with input from David Jameson and Peter Pritchard to produce the version published here.

Chelonian Conservation and Biology, 1993.1(1):53-62 €) 1993 by Chelonian Research Foundation On the Distribution, Relative Abundance and Protection of Tortoises in Bulgaria

VLADIMIR A. BESHKOV1

IInstitute ofZoology, Bulgarian Academy ofSciences, Sofia, Bulgaria

[Originally published in Bulgarian in 1984; Ekologiya (Sofiya) 14:14-34]

Translation arranged by JAMES R. BUSKIRK

ABSTRACT. - The present day distribution and relative abundance oftortoises (Testudo graeca ibera andTestudo hermanni) in Bulgariaareshown inFig. 1 and the regions where they were exterminated recently in Fig. 4. The ubiquitous reduction in tortoises' abundance is due to intensified agriculture, alterations in low-rise forests thatare turned into pastures, coniferous forests, etc., and notso much to the effects oflargeindustries,urbanizationanddirectconsumption bypeople,thelatteroccurring mostly in Plovdiv and its vicinity. During 1945 through 1959 tortoises were being collected mostly in the eastern part of the country where they used to be abundant. During 1960 through 1969 deliveriesfrom this partdiminished while deliveries from western Bulgariastarted growing steadily until 1979. Insome areas particularlyin northwestern Bulgariaand the Eastern Rhodopesjuveniles are being consumed by wild boars, thus reducing the total abundance. The protection of tortoises should be intensified by raising public awareness of their status as protected animals (under ordinance 128/1981 by the State Committee onEnvironmental Protection) and discontinuing illegal collection by poachers and tourists.

Accelerated economic development in Bulgaria, and in lations throughout the country, to investigate reasons for particular the introduction ofintensive agriculture in recent local decline or disappearance of tortoises, and to propose decades, has caused substantial alteration of both lowland scientifically sound conservation measures. and upland habitats in the country. This has resulted in negative impacts upon the distribution and abundance of METHODS most species ofBulgarian fauna. Among the forms affected are the two tortoise species, Testudo hermanni Gmelin and The data for this study were obtained by means of Testudo graeca ibera Pallas. The collection of tortoises for questionnaires distributed to all communities throughout food has also contributed to the rapid decline ofpopulations Bulgaria (with the exception ofscattered villages with fewer in some areas and their total disappearance in others. than 20 inhabitants). The questionnaires, explaining the This study was conducted jointly by the National Com­ purpose of the survey and the importance of responding, mittee for Nature Conservation and the former National solicited data pertaining to the tortoises only from the Council ofthe Fatherland Front. Its aim was to determine the territory surrounding the specific community (town or vil­ distribution and the past and present status oftortoise popu- lage) surveyed. The survey was conducted between late 54 Chelonian Conservation and Biology, Volume 1, Number 1 (1993)

EB1.2~:15 ~3 i§6 m4 ml7

Figure 1. Distribution of tortoises in Bulgaria. Region I, no tortoises in high mountainous plateaus; 2, small isolated populations up to 15-30 years ago; 3, tortoises completely extirpated; 4, low tortoise densities; 5, moderate tortoise densities; 6, relatively undisturbed tortoise populations; 7, high tortoise densities.

1976 and the end of 1979. translations ofthe original Cyrillic letters]. Category A ("no The questionnaire technique was selected after consid­ tortoises around this settlement, either now or in the past") eration ofthe following: i) Comprehensive field studies on included 786 of the responses (21.96%). Categories B, C, tortoise population densities were not possible, simply be­ and D were defined as "no tortoises found presently, but cause ofthe sheer magnitude ofthe task; and ii) The survey occurred here 30, 15, or 5 years ago, respectively". Category method was the only practical method ofgathering informa­ B included 109 responses (3.04%); Category C 265 re­ tion about past distribution and abundance of tortoises, and sponses (7.39%), and Category D 78 responses (2.17%). human use ofthe tortoises during recent decades, including Together, 452 responses (12.60%) alluded to tortoisespresent the use of tortoises for food. in the past, but no longer. The method employed did not differentiate between the Tortoise density was estimated in a given territory by two tortoise species, so the data for both are combined. The means of the question "how many tortoises would you find following considerationsjustify this approach: both species if you went out on a spring day in the best tortoise area?", chiefly occupy the lowlands and are sympatric almostevery­ responses being classified as a) probably none; b) up to 2 where they occur (Kovachev, 1912; Buresh and Tsonkov, specimens- (607 responses, 16.93%); c) between 3 and 10 1933; Beshkov, 1961), and differences in their biology are (1038 responses, 28.95%); d) between 11 and 25 (397 minor. Moreover, the factors affecting distribution and num­ responses; 11.07%); and e) more than 25 (305 responses; bers apply to both species equally. People gathering tor­ 8.50%). toises for food expressed no preference for one or the other The information obtained was plotted on a black and species, so conservation/preservation problems are identi­ white map of Bulgaria with a scale of 1:300,000, with the cal. These sociological considerations dictated ourpolicy of rivers, settlements, and boundaries of adjacent territories pooling the data for the two species. indicated. All territories giving the same category of re­ Questionnaires were circulated to 4495 settlements, sponse were denoted in the same color. In the resulting and a total of 3585 responses were received (79.75%). Of mosaic, territories of a given color (i.e., a given range of these, a total of57 gave "no answer", or included contradic­ tortoise densities) were clearly grouped, allowing conclu­ tory data, or were otherwise unusable. ' sions to be drawn about the relative density oftortoises over In 1347 cases (65.46%), respondents confirmed the wider areas. Dataprocessing and map preparation were ably presenceoftortoises; the remaining 1238 (34.53%) reported assisted by B. Vassilev, L. Stanimirova, B. Grigorov, andG. no tortoises. Responses were allocated to one of eight Petrova, to whom I extend my gratitude. categories, the first four (A, B, C, D), being the negative In order to establish an index to the reliability ofthe data ones, and the remainder (E, F, G, H) the positive ones [Ed.­ obtained in the questionnaires, we personally surveyed Thefirst8 English letters, A-H, have been substitutedforthe tortoises in 111 settlement territories - 9 in the Danubian first 8 Cyrillic letters actually used, as opposed to direct Plain, 18 in the Balkan Range region, 50 in the Thracian Chelonian Conservation and Biology, Volume 1, Number 1 (1993) 55

~------jA ~B 00000 ~D ~E ~F ~G r---l _-:-c:-= ~ 00 oOoC ~ ~ ~ ~ ~H

Figure 2. Distribution and relative numbers oftortoises in the central part ofthe Upper Thracian Plain. A="No known tortoises at present or before" territories; B = "Tortoises known up to 30 years ago"; C = "Tortoises known up to 15 years ago"; D = "Tortoises known up to 5 years ago"; E =Territories with up to 2 tortoises per day trip; F =Territories where between 3-10 tortoises can be seen per day trip; G =Territories where between 11-25 tortoises observed per day trip; H =Territories with no data on tortoises. Plain and Sredna Gora region, and 34 in the region of Rila questionnaire data, although 3 were below the lower end of and the Rhodopes. the range. Someofthe interviewees believedthatthefIgures In the 19 Category A settlements we visited, multiple given in the questionnaireoverstated the numberoftortoises interviews confIrmed the numbers obtained by the survey. that would actually be encountered. Insettlements ofCategoriesB,C, andD (12 settlements),we Twelve settlements in Category H were visited, and established, through interviews, the time of the disappear­ fIeld transects were conducted in nine of these. In seven ance ofthe last tortoises, as remembered by local people. In cases over 25 tortoises were counted, with fewer than this in 10 of the settlements most of the people interviewed con­ the remaining two. The maximum seen was 19 tortoises fIrmed the survey reports, while in 12 we found the survey in a four hour period (extrapolated to 47-48 tortoises per 10­ fIndings to be inaccurate. As regards settlements that fell hour period). Many of those interviewed again felt that the into Category E, we found that the majority of our local numbers in the questionnaires were either exaggerated or interviewees confIrmed the survey data in 27 out of 29 represented past rather than present abundance. settlements visited. The percentage ofconfIrmed responses was highest in We were not able to obtain such ground truth data in the fIrst fIve categories (93.34% of responses). The con­ even a sampleofcommunities in all ofthecategories defIned fIrmed percentage was smaller (80%) in Category F, and above. Twenty-three settlements in Category F were visited, also in Category G (77.77%). Imprecise responses were and transects were walked through ten ofthese areas, follow­ generally not seriously wrong, and at worst the "right" ing routes through the areas that the local people considered answer, as established by fIeld transects, fell into a category to have the largest tortoise populations. ThesefIeld observa­ adjacent to that reported in the questionnaire. tions and transects were conducted only on warm, sunny We found that numbers oftortoises tended to be exag­ days between April and August. The terrain was patrolled gerated in settlements with relatively high numbers of tor­ for periods of 4-6 hours, at an average speed of 4 kmJhr, toises (Categories G and H) . We did not "correct" the data counting all tortoises seen. The numbers seen were con­ obtained from the questionnaires, but only used our own verted to lO-hour equivalents by multiplication by a factor survey data to get an idea of the overall reliability of the ranging from 2.5 (for a 4-hour count) to 1.66 (for a 6-hour questionnaire responses. count). IneightcasesofCategoryF (3-1 0 tortoises reported), Information on the causes of the decline or disappear­ the number oftortoises we saw confIrmed the questionnaire ance oftortoises in a given region was elucidated by means data. In the other 13 villages in this category, we only inter­ ofquestions phrased as follows: 1. Iftortoise numbers have viewed local inhabitants. Most persons interviewed gave decreased around your village, which of the following fIgures within the range of Category F. Seventeen settle­ alternatives is the cause, in your opinion: a) Collection by ments of Category G were visited, and fIeld transects were local people for food; b) Collection by outsiders (vacation­ conducted in 10 of these; results generally confIrmed the ers, tourists, soldiers, etc.); c) Mortality as a result of use of 56 Chelonian Conservation and Biology, Volume 1, Number 1 (1993) modern agricultural machinery; d) Use of pesticides and "negative" categories (A to D). We anticipate that, ifthe rate herbicides in agriculture; e) Urban expansion and construc­ ofdestruction oftortoise population continues, territories in tion of summer cottages; f) Proximity of large industrial categories E, F, and G will progressively become allocable plants and construction sites; g) Other. 2. Do local peopleeat to the negative categories A to D and the latter, as the years tortoise nieat and eggs? a) No; b) Rarely; c) Frequently. 3. pass or memory recedes, will progressively shift from cat­ Have tortoises been gathered from the area around your egories B, C, and D to category A. village? When? 4. Is tortoise meat served in restaurants in Tortoises used to be abundant in the plains between the your village? Balkans (Stara Planina) and the Sredna Gora Mountains, as When positive responses were obtained, a second sur­ is confirmed by the travelogue ofIrchek (1899) that includes vey attempted to determine quantities oftortoises collected, the passage "a traveller arriving from the north will be who was collecting them, and their destination. Out of210 surprised by the great numbers oftortoises (Testudo graeca) questionnaires distributed, 139 responses (60.19%) were that will be seen. These have convex shells, with a pattern of obtained. Data about causes of decline and disappearance black and whitish or yellow squares, and two hands in had to be rejected in 55 cases (1.53%) as a result of clear length. These are rare to the north of the Balkans, but quite internal contradictions between the various answers given. common in Thrace." Today tortoises are rare in Thrace, and have disappeared altogether in many areas, while even in RESULTS areas where tortoises are still common, few if any reach a length of"two hands" (45-48 cm). The situation appears to Distribution and relative numbers of be similar to that in Upper Thrace in all Category A-D tortoises in Bulgaria territories in the Bulgarian plains. Wefound 43 communities to reporttortoisepopulations Current distribution of tortoises in Bulgaria is given in that fitted the criteria ofCategory E, 21 fitted Category F, 4 Fig. 1. The absence of tortoises from the high plateaus and fitted Category G, and 2 fitted Category H. These are prob­ mountains of western Bulgaria (Fig. 1, areas 1-2) is a result ably doomed populations, being isolated and including so ofthe harshclimate. Theoutlines ofthis region coincide with few individuals that it would be unlikely that a given indi­ the "Mountainous" climatic region and the "South Bulgar­ vidual could survive, find a mate, and reproduce success­ ian Moderate Continental" climatic region as defined by fully. Dimitrov (1973). Thehighest locations are in the southwest­ 464 responses are indicated on the map (Fig. 1) with the ern part ofthe country. Testudo hermanni has been reported symbol "4". For these, no tortoises were reported by 178 at altitudes of up to 1400 m on the northern slopes of communities, the breakdown by category being 44 from Belasitsa, and up to 1050 m on the northwest slopes of

Slavyanka (Buresh and Tsonkov, 1933). On southwest fac­ 110.47 ing slopes above the village ofVIahi (Blagoevgrad District), both species have been observed at altitudes ofup to 1300 m n.ll (Beshkov, 1961). 7J..44 • In the areas indicated with the figure "2" in Fig. 1, small, SA isolated tortoise populations existed up to 15-30 years ago; .18,:15 [lB these include the villages ofChepurlintsi, Kalotina, Tuden, U Gradets, Kremikovtsi, Lozen, the Kourilo quarter (Novi Iskar), Sofia District, Vidritsa and Meshtitsa (Pernik Dis­ JI,('7 : trict), and others. In regions indicated with a "1" or a "2", 30.22 Ie there were 572 communities responding to the question­ .. "/$.99 naire. : mo Tortoises have reportedly been completely eliminated li,GO in the regions indicated with a "3." These are generally low­ 18,75 lying areas with little relief (Daneva, 1973), with intensive . IE agriculture, and with a total of 358 settlements. In the 14.65 0 ~F territories corresponding to 288 of these communities, no :. 12.01 tortoises remain (Category A- 124 villages; Category B- 45 villages; Category C- 94 villages; Category D- 25 settle­ IG ments). We assume that tortoises were eliminated on lands in Category A at a time preceding the earliest memories of the current inhabitants. IH A case in point is the centerofthe Upper Thracian Plain, 1:-:::15 ~6_7 a flat, densely inhabited area with a highpercentageofarable land, and intensive agriculture for centuries (Fig. 2). The Figure 3. Percentage correlation of survey answers from catego­ mosaic of territories includes examples from all four of the ries A to H in the regions with tortoises (Fig. 1, areas 3-7). Chelonian Conservation and Biology, Volume 1, Number 1 (1993) 57

Figure 4. Distribution ofterritories where tortoise populations were entirely destroyed over the 1946-1949 period (1); ca. 1961-1964 (2); and about 1971-1974 (3). Category A, 24 from Category B, 79 from Category C, and The relatively intact tortoise populations here can be 31 from Category D. For communities that still reported attributed to several factors, including the prevailing natural tortoises, 139 corresponded to Category F, 87 to Category E, conditions, the low-impact modes of agriculture, and spe­ 32 to Category G, and 28 to Category H. cifically to Ordinance No. 1578 of the General Directorate Territories denoted by the symbol "5" gave 1962 re­ of Forestry (1970), that prohibits the taking of tortoises in sponses. Today, there are apparently no tortoises in 193 of Haskovo and Kardzhalii Districts. these territories, distributed as follows: 46 in Category A, 40 Figure 3 shows the percentage ofresponses in Catego­ in Category B, 87 in Category C, and 20 in Category D. Of ries A to H in regions where tortoises occur; the data are the remaining 1569 territories that did report tortoises, most arranged in ascending order of numbers of tortoises re­ were of Category F (762), followed by Category E (458); ported. Negative responses are presented with similar shad­ Category G (220), and finally Category H (129). ing. The major differences in the pattern of responses in the No significantdifferences were found between the 1254 various categories reflect the uneven distribution ofthe pop­ responses received from north of the Balkan Range (Stara ulations and the considerable variation in tortoise densities, Planina) and the 508 responses from south of the Balkans a result of the complex interplay between the tortoises, (Table 1). The low tortoise density in these areas is a cause alteration of their habitat by man, and other anthropogenic for concern, in that no fewer than 36.93% of the territories activities, past and present. reported no tortoises or only a few (Categories A to E), while It may be seen from Fig. 4 that the areas from which high numbers (Categories G and H) were reported by only tortoises have been entirely eliminated during the preceding 19.80%. three decades (i.e. Categories B, C, D, and A) are largely Many more tortoises occur in the upland and mountain­ located in the intensively farmed plains, but some corre­ foothill regions, indicated with a "6". A total of 204 re­ spond to open-canopy hilly areas in the high plains of sponses was received from such areas (119 from the Struma western Bulgaria (Figs. 1 and 2), where isolated small River region and 85 from the Strandzha region). Category F tortoise populations once existed. Exactly why these tor­ included the most responses (76), followed by Category G toises have disappeared is unclear, but there is no question (73), Category H (40), Category E(13), and Category D( 2). that human agency is to blame. It was reported that tortoises Tortoise populations in these areas have been relatively disappeared about 30 years earlier (i.e. 1946-49) in 3.04% of unaffected, in that human alteration of these habitats started the responding territories, about 15 years earlier in 7.39%, late and has not proceeded far. and about five years ago in 2.17%. Tortoise populations Areas denoted with a "7" - the eastern Rhodope moun­ were reported to have declined (without stated cause) in the tains and certain regions ofThrace - have the largest tortoise territories of 211 responding communities (5.88%) scat­ populations. Responses were received from 225 communi­ tered throughout the nation. ties in these areas, characterized by hills and low mountains, with marked microreliefand transitional vegetation (Bondev Causes of Decline and Disappearance of Tortoises etal., 1973). Negativeresponses (Category C) werereceived from only 5 communities. Among the positive responses, Overall, reduction or extirpation oftortoise populations most (106) corresponded to Category H, with 68 in Category in Bulgaria can be attributed to a complex set ofcauses that G, 40 in Category F, and 2 in Category E. fall into the categories of either habitat alteration or direct 58 Chelonian Conservation and Biology, Volume 1, Number 1 (1993)

q 00 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 ~ 0 , I '0 0 0 .. .0 0 0 ;'le. 0 0 0·0 0

0 0 0 : " '0 0 0 ": 0

0

Figure 5. Distribution of answers, giving causes for the fall of numbers of tortoises: (1) the cutting of forests and shrubbery; and (2) being eaten by wild boar. impact (e.g., by collection). consumption. Up to the time ofWorld War I, cheloniophagy Various forms of habitat alteration have been impli­ in Bulgaria was largely restricted to the city ofPlovdiv and cated. These include the tendency towards large monocul­ surrounding communities. Collection of tortoises subse­ ture fields, with the plowing up of the earlier field bound­ quently became especially intensive during 1941-44, when aries; use of heavy agricultural machinery; the plowing of they were exported to Germany, and with large numbers also virgin land; and destruction of shrubbery. Only rarely was sent to private restaurants in the interior of Bulgaria. The the creation of an irrigation system cited as a problem. The Mayor of the town of Chukarevo (Yambol District), esti­ burning ofstubble was also listed on several occasions as a mated that 90% ofall tortoises in the vicinity ofthis commu­ factor that harmed tortoise populations. In 1616 responses, nity werecollected between 1941 and 1944, whiletheMayor the use of chemical fertilizer was cited as a cause of the ofDrama, Yambol Districtreported that, in 1942-43, traders decline of tortoise populations, although no concrete ex­ from Plovdiv gathered tortoises in the area so intensively amples were given; we visited 73 communities that made that they reduced populations from a level where 30 to 50 this observation, but again found no unequivocal evidence could be found in one day to the current level ofperhaps 2­ that tortoise populations had been reduced by poisoning. It 3 per day. appears that the impact of pesticides and fertilizers was The distribution ofcheloniophagy in Bulgaria today is widely assumed, probably by extension of the known effect illustrated in Fig. 6. The territory of the country is divided upon other animal species, but no data were ever presented into squares measuring 20' by 20' oflongitude and latitude. to demonstrate the effect of pesticides or herbicides on In each square the intensity ofcheloniophagy is indicated by tortoise fecundity or egg mortality, so we eliminated this a pie diagram divided into sections corresponding to the factor from further discussion. three possible responses "no tortoise consumption", "rare Secondary stresses on tortoises, also contributing to tortoise consumption", and "frequent tortoise consump­ their decline or disappearance, were attributed to: i) the tion". clearing of shrubbery or scrub vegetation in favor of clear Tortoise eating was found to be affected both by local monocultural sites (coniferous tree plantations, agricultural availability of tortoises and by community traditions. land, and pastures), as indicated in Figure 5; ii) the proximity Cheloniophagy was generally unknown or rare in those of major construction projects or industrial undertakings areas where no tortoises were found. Itwas rare in the plains (cited by 55 respondents, especially those close to Zlatna of northern Bulgaria, where the local tortoise populations Panega, Eliseina, Devnya, Dimitrovgrad, Radnevo, the have been eliminated. A correlation was found between Madan mining basin in the Rhodopes, and elsewhere); and areas of high tortoise populations and the practice of iii) the establishment of holiday villages and the expansion cheloniophagy, e.g., in the eastern part of the Balkan foot­ ofexisting settlements and communities (33 responses listed hills, Stara Planina, the eastern Rhodope Mountains, these factors, 20 of which also cited factors listed under ii), Svilengrad, and Strandzha. On the otherhand, in theThracian above. The remainder came from villages close to district plain (pasardzik, Plovdiv, and Stara Zagora Districts), centers). cheloniophagy was made possible by tortoise supplies from Among the direct causes of reduction of tortoises, the distant areas of Bulgaria. Fig. 7 shows the centers of both greatest problem was the gathering of tortoises for human collection and consumption of tortoises during the period Chelonian Conservation and Biology, Volume 1, Number 1 (1993) 59

Figure 6. Distribution of cheloniophagy in Bulgaria. Percentage of correlation to answers to the question "Do the inhabitants of your village or town consume tortoise meat and eggs? 1 - No; 2 - some, rarely; 3 - frequently.

1945-1959. Thus, in Petrich and the Sandanski Plain and the foot­ A major center for tortoise consumption was the city of hills of the Malashevska Mountains, the Ograzhden Moun­ Plovdiv, including neighboring towns such as Rakovsky, tains, Pirin, and Belasitsa, intensive tortoise gathering dur­ where up to 98% ofthe inhabitants consumed tortoises quite ing the 1970's has resulted in there being no tortoises left frequently, according to information received by the Mayor with carapace lengths over 20 cm, although tortoises ofthis in 1977. Tortoises were also brought to restaurants in Sofia, size do still occur near the altitudinal limit of the species in Varna, Burgas, and Pazardzhik, etc. These were collected the mountains listed, i.e., along the forested and shrub belts primarily in eastern Bulgaria, where tortoises were still between 900 and 1300-1400 m, where tortoises have not abundant during the period in question. During the 1960's, been gathered because of their remoteness and intrinsically tortoise populations were greatly reduced by over-collecting low population density. In such localities in the Malashevska in eastern Bulgaria, and collection pressure shifted to the Mountains we found Testudo hermanni up to 34.6 cm in southwest and northwest of the country (Fig. 8). length, and Testudo graeca up to 28.5 cm[Trans/.- The sizes During the 1970's, most tortoises were gathered in the indicated appear to be erroneously transposed}. Districts of Vidin, Michailovgrad, and Blagoevgrad - the During the past two decades, there has been increasing leastaccessibleregions, still with good numbers of tortoises. use of the blood, meat, eggs, and other tortoise products for Interestingly, there was a negative correlation between tor­ supposed "cures" for cancer and leukemia. In many cases, toise abundance and cheloniophagy in the districts of tens or even hundreds of tortoises were gathered by the Kjustendil and Blagoevgrad (with the exception of the relatives ofpatients or by their "doctors." In addition, along extreme southwest of the latter). Tortoises were still abun­ the Black Sea coast and in some interior areas (including dant in these areas, but there was no local tradition of Melnik), tortoises have declined as a result ofthe subadults cheloniophagy, and indeed there was considerable prejudice being gathered for sale as pets to both national and foreign against the practice. tourists and vacationers. Elsewhere (for example at the Interviews conducted with several hundred random village ofKran, in Kardzhalii District), tortoises have been Bulgarian citizens indicated that about 35-40% of Bulgar­ utilized for such souvenirs as lamps and ash trays, a practice ians have consumed tortoises, the commonest positive re­ that continues. Furthermore, military units continue to uti­ sponse being from males who had tasted tortoise meat on a lize tortoises as food, especially during summercamp opera­ single occasion during their national service. tions. Tortoises collected are usually the larger ones (14-18 Another factor constituting an increasing stress upon cm in carapace length, usually 14-15 cm), these being easier tortoises in Bulgaria is their predation by wild boar, whose to spot. Thus, in areas that have been heavily collected over numbers have been increasing throughout the country in the past 5-10 years, most ofthe surviving tortoises are small recentdecades (Fig. 5). Forexample, we have heardfrom the (5-10cm) with only a few ofmedium size (10-18 cm). Such villages of Rabisha (Vidin District) and Daskotna (Burgas tortoises are either immature or in their first years of matu­ District) that tortoises have become scarce through boar rity. Bannikov (1951) found that maturity in Caucasus predation in these areas, and may be on their way to extirpa­ Testudo graeca occurs at 12-14 years of age, when the tion. In conversations with local people in these villages, we carapace is 16-18 cm in length. learned that tortoise predation by boars had been observed 60 Chelonian Conservation and Biology, Volume 1, Number 1 (1993)

Figure 7. Locations where tortoises were gathered, direction and transportation to consumption centers, 1945-1959. 1 - up to 200 specimens; 2 - between 200 and 2000 specimens; 3 - above 2000; 4 - unknown quantites. on many occasions, the predation being most intense upon only 1-2 days earlier, on 10 June and 22 July 1982 on rocks tortoises in the 10-12 cm range. Tortoise predation by boar below oradjacent to the nestofan eagle (Aquilla chrysaetos) in winter (especially late winter) has also been reported from in the southern part of the Kresna Gorge. Only seven the village of Gorna Louka (Michailovgrad District). It respondents implicated eagles and vultures as a factor in the occurs typically in areas with high populations of both boar reduction of tortoise populations (four from Burgas, two and tortoises, and sets in when there is an overall shortage of from Blagoevgrad, one from Gabrovo District). Others (13 other kinds of food. respondents, 0.36% of the total) mentioned crows, ravens, Other natural predators are probably insignificant, ac­ weasels, foxes, and jackals as predators upon tortoise eggs cording to both the questionnaire data and our own field and small tortoises. work. Eagles and vultures may take some tortoises, but both Figure 10 represents, in histogram form, the frequency are rare in Bulgaria, and their impact is probably limited to of the different reported causes of tortoise decline and tortoises in the immediate vicinity of the nests. We did disappearance, in areas ofdifferent overall tortoise popula­ observe the remains of 95 tortoises, some obviously eaten tion density. Percentages are referred to the total number

Figure 8. Locations where tortoises were gathered, direction and transportation to consumption centers, 1960-1969. 1 - up to 200 specimens; 2 - between 200 and 2000 specimens; 3 - above 2000; 4 - unknown quantites. Chelonian Conservation and Biology, Volume 1, Number 1 (1993) 61

/

01 ·2 • 3 . 4

Figure 9. Locations where tortoises were gathered, direction and transportation to consumption centers, 1970-1979. 1 - up to 200 specimens; 2 - between 200 and 2000 specimens; 3 - above 2000; 4 - unknown quantites.

M of responding communities that indicated that tortoises are or were present in their territories. Figure 10 yields the , following conclusions: 1) In the plains and low-lying areas !O , .., with little vertical relief, tortoises have been severely re­ , duced by contemporary agricultural practices and habitat ,, 45 alteration. This impact declines gradually as one ascends , of the , into the foothills, and is least in the low mountains , eastern Rhodope, where the rugged terrain, limited arable land, and restricted variety ofcrops (mainly tobacco) com­ bine to reduce the utilization of modern, intensive agricul­ :is " 01 , ture practices. , , , The surviving tortoise populations in the plains and , · JO ~. lowlands are small, isolated, and often almost extirpated, ,, oftortoises gathered ," and this has now reduced the numbers 25 " in these areas to a very low level; tortoise collectors, particu­ , , ill. larly from distant areas, would havelittlereason to visitthese , , , , , ~ , , , locations. On the other hand, in those areas where tortoises 20 , ·, · Iw survive in moderate to high density (such as the Struma " Valley and the slopes of adjacent mountains; the eastern IS , Rhodopes; Strandzha; and neighboring regions), tortoise ··, collectingcontinues to bea significantfactor in theirdecline. ,. · · Iv 10 · : Such gathering is conducted by collectors from other areas , · I~ ofthe county, drawn by the relative abundance oftortoises. .,· Fewertortoises are collected in the eastern Rhodopes than in Strandzha and the Struma Valley as a result of the above mentioned ban on collecting tortoises in the region of Ii IVI Kardzhalii and Haskovo, in force since 1970. ~3 ~••-. $ _, 1llIllIll4 mBlJ6 Protection Measures for Bulgarian Tortoises Figure 10. Frequency ofsurvey answers on the causes for decline and disappearance oftortoises in regions with different population The rapid declines in the numbers of tortoises and the densities. I- Introduction ofmodern methods; II - Gathering from almost complete extirpation in many places led to the insti­ people not from area; III -Gathering from local people; IV -felling gation of the year-round prohibition on collection, capture, offorests"and shrubbery; V- Eaten by wild boars; VI - Proximity of major industrial sites; VII - Expansion of settlement areas, or destruction of tortoises anywhere in the country, with a cottage zones; see also Fig. 1. fine of25 leva for each tortoise taken (Ordinance No. 128 of 62 Chelonian Conservation and Biology, Volume 1, Number 1 (1993) the Committee for the Protection ofthe Environment ofthe heavily upon medium to large specimens, and now, in such Council ofMinisters, State Gazette Issue No. 20/10, dated areas, the surviving population is still composed mostly of March 1981). This ordinance provides a sound basis for the small tortoises. The restoration ofa normal age distribution conservation of tortoises in upland or mountain terrain in in such populations will take several decades. Ofthe natural that it provides a ban on directed "take." It is much less enemies of tortoises, only wild boar constitute a serious effective in the plains and lowlands, where the problem is threat, and chiefly in northwestern Bulgaria and the eastern much more one ofhabitat destruction as a result ofthe intro­ Rhodopes. duction ofintensive agriculture. As a resultofthe ordinance, Urgent measures are necessary for the protection of tortoises are no longer served in restaurants, and large-scale Bulgarian tortoises. Such measures must include wide­ tortoise collection has now ceased in Bulgaria. Action pri­ spread promulgation of information about Ordinance No. orities now center upon wide-scale environmental educa­ 128/1981 ofthe Committee for Environmental Protection of tion, with explanation both of the protected status of tor­ the Council of Ministers, with its complete, year-round toises and also of the useless and potentially dangerous prohibition on the gathering of tortoises throughout Bul­ nature of the utilization of tortoises for folk medicines. garia; strict enforcement of anti-poaching legislation; edu­ Tortoises are known to be hosts for Salmonella (Dimov, cation of the public about the ineffectiveness of folk medi­ 1966; Koen and Mateva, 1962), although serious doubts cines derived from tortoises; control ofexportoftortoises by have been expressed regarding their serving as hosts for foreigners; and culling wild boarpopulations in areas where leptospirosis (Mateev et aI., 1961, 1962). their predation upon tortoises is intense. Attention should also be directed towards sanctions for Weenvisage no effective means ofrestoring tortoises to poachers. Frequently, motorists from Plovdiv, Pazardzhik, the plains areas, where habitat alteration by conversion to and the Stara Zagora Region, visiting regions where local agricultural lands has resulted in the destruction of tortoise people still gather tortoises for medicinal purposes, are populations. guilty of buying tortoises. Customs officials also need to LITERATURE CITED stop the export of live tortoises from Bulgaria. Finally, predation on tortoises by the increasing wild Bannikov, A.G. 1951. Materials for the knowledge of the boar populations in Vidin District, in the western part of biology of Caucasus chelonians. Uch. Zap. Mosk. Gor. Michailovgrad District, the eastern partofSmolyan District, Ped.lnst. 18:129-167. the western part of Kardzhali District, and the eastern Beshkov, V.A. 1961. Contribution to the zoogeographical Balkans needs to be addressed, and taken into account when studies ofthe herpetofauna ofBulgaria. Investigations of the Zoological Institute and Museum 10:373-380. quotas for boar culling operations are drawn up. Bondev, I., D. Jordanov, S. Kozhyxarov, andB. Kuzmanov. 1973. Botanical geographical districts. - B: Atlas of the CONCLUSIONS Peoples Republic of Bulgaria. C. GYGK.c.87 Buresh, I., and I. Tsonkov. 1933. Studies on the distribution Anthropogenic factors have caused decreases in tor­ ofreptiles and amphibians in Bulgaria and on the Balkan Peninsula. Investigations Natural Science Institute Sofia. toise populations in Bulgaria; especially serious have been 6: I-Turtles and Lizards, pp.150-207. the introduction of modern agricultural practices and the Daneva, M. 1973. Vertical segmentation ofrelief. - B. Atlas collection of tortoises for human consumption. Tortoise of the Peoples Republic of Bulgaria., GYGK.c.37. populations are most threatened in low-lying and hilly Dimitrov, D. 1973. Climatic regions. - B. Atlas of the terrain, while they remain closest to primordial population Peoples Republic of Bulgaria. C. GYGK.c.62. Dimow, I. 1966. Die Verbreitung der fakalen Salmonella­ levels in low mountainous terrain with well-developed und Arizona- Dauerausscheidung bei den freilebenden microrelief, a transitional Mediterranean climatic influence, Schildkroten Testudo graeca und Testudo hermanni. and the vegetative communities associated with these fac­ Zeitschrift fUr Med. Mikrobiol. Immunologie 152: 198­ tors. 203. The progressive disappearance of tortoises from low­ Irchek, K. 1899. Principality of Bulgaria. II - Journey to Bulgaria, pp. 942. land and plains commences with the formation of a mosaic Kovachev, B. 1912. Herpetofauna ofBulgaria. Plovdiv, pp. of areas from which the tortoises have been extirpated. 90. These regions gradually grow and merge, producing ever­ Koen, P., and M. Mateva. 1962. Rare Salmonella species larger blocks of vacated territory. Destruction reached its and wildlife from the region ofPetrich. B. Natural source peak during the early 1960's, and the regions ofwidespread of infections in Petrichko and Gotsedelchevsko. C. Bul­ garian Academy of Science, pp. 60-64. cheloniophagy generally coincide with the regions of high­ Mateev, D., D. Kuomdzhiev, and D. Stoyanov. 1961. est tortoise numbers. Major centers oftortoise consumption Leptospirosis in Burgaske region among their natural included Plovdivand adjacent towns. During the second half reservoirs. - B. Natural Source of infection in Strandzha of the 1940's and the 1950's tortoises were supplied for Mountains. C. Bulgarian Academy ofScience, pp. 21-39. consumption chiefly from the eastern part of the country. Mateev, D., D. Kuomdzhiev, and D. Stoyanov. 1962. Natu­ ral reservoirs of Leptospirosis in Petrichko and When these resources were depleted or exhausted in the Gotsedelchevsko. -B. Natural sources of infection in 1970's, supplies came mainly from northwestern and south­ Petrichko and Gotsedelchevsko. C. Bulgarian Academy western Bulgaria. Such tortoise collection impacted most of Science, pp. 33-49.