The Vol 3 Suppl A 2019

Ecological ISSN 2515-1967 A peer-reviewed journal Citizen www.ecologicalcitizen.net

CONFRONTING HUMAN SUPREMACY IN DEFENCE OF THE EARTH

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Aims Copyright Cover photo 1 Advancing ecological knowledge The copyright of the content belongs to A protester at an Extinction 2 Championing Earth-centred action the authors, artists and photographers, Rebellion gathering at 3 Inspiring ecocentric citizenship unless otherwise stated. However, there is Blackfriars Bridge, London, 4 Promoting ecocentrism in political debates no limit on printing or distribution of PDFs UK, in November 2018. 5 Nurturing an ecocentric lexicon downloaded from the website. Julia Hawkins Content alerts Translations Sign up for alerts at: We invite individuals wishing to translate www.ecologicalcitizen.net/#signup pieces into other languages, helping enable the Journal to reach a wider audience, to contact Social media us at: www.ecologicalcitizen.net/contact.html. Follow the Journal on Twitter: www.twitter.com/EcolCitizen A note on terminology Like the Journal on Facebook: Because of the extent to which some non- www.facebook.com/TheEcologicalCitizen ecocentric terms are embedded in the English language, it is sometimes necessary Editorial opinions for a sentence to deviate from a perfectly Opinions expressed in the Journal do not ecocentric grounding. The ‘natural world’ necessarily reflect those of each member of and ‘environment’, for instance, both split the Editorial Board. humans from the rest of nature but in some cases are very difficult to avoid without Advertising creating overly complex phrases. For usage No money is received for the placement of notes relating to terms such as these, when advertisements in the Journal. they appear in the Journal, along with other language considerations, please visit: Finances www.ecologicalcitizen.net/lexicon.html. The Journal is run with minimal costs by a staff of volunteers. The small costs that do Typesetting exist are covered by small, unrestricted, The Journal is typeset in Merriweather private donations. There are no charges for and Merriweather Sans, both of which are publication and no fees to access any of the typefaces with an Open Font Licence that content. have been designed by Eben Sorkin.

“Unless the new forms of community extend beyond

the traditional humanistic bounds to include the

community of Nature, the game is up.”

Stan Rowe

2 The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 www.ecologicalcitizen.net Contents

The Ecological Citizen | Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 For a listing of Friends of the Editorial Journal, please The biodiversity crisis must be placed front and centre 5 see page 12 Joe Gray and Eileen Crist Long articles The silence of the humpback whale 7 Kathleen Dean Moore The green world 13 Tim Hogan Snapshot Addressing global insect meltdown 23 Michael J Samways Long articles Restoring the living ocean: The time is now 27 Eileen Crist ‘Making hay’: A conditional defence on ecocentric grounds of various co-created habitats 43 Joe Gray Snapshot Sensory pollution and the biodiversity crisis 55 Kirsten M Parris Special feature The thin green line: Scientists must do more to limit the toll of burgeoning infrastructure on nature and society 59 William Laurance Long article Beyond the North American Wildlife Conservation Model and towards Earth rights 67 Anja Heister Snapshots How biodiversity is both impacted by and a solution for climate change 75 Thomas E Lovejoy The unnoticed collapse of big freshwater animals 77 Brandon Keim Long articles The endangered phenomenon of animal migration, and the dissonance between doing science and achieving conservation 79 Joel Berger Nature needs half: Implications for population, consumption and inequality in the ‘other half’ 87 Greg Mikkelson Excerpt Excerpted chapters from On Beauty: Douglas R. Tompkins—aesthetics and activism 93 Tom Butler and Sandra Lubarsky Reflection In defence of tears 101 Simon Leadbeater Photos

Book review The full-page photos Thinking and walking with The Sonoran Desert: A literary field guide 104 were taken by Joe Gray Louise Boscacci (with zero air miles).

The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 3 Editorial Board www.ecologicalcitizen.net

Editor-in-Chief Oussou Lio Appolinaire Vanja Palmers Patrick Curry Practitioner of Earth Jurisprudence Buddhist Teacher promoting Animal Rights Writer and Scholar Avrankou, Benin Lucerne, Switzerland London, UK María Valeria Berros Alessandro Pelizzon Researcher in Rights of Nature Researcher in Earth-Centred Law Santa Fe, Argentina Lismore, NSW, Australia Associate Editors David Blackwell John J Piccolo Eileen Crist Educator and Nature-lover Associate Professor in Writer and Teacher Halifax, NS, Canada Environmental and Life Sciences Blacksburg, VA, USA Susana Borràs Pentinat Karlstad, Sweden Adam Dickerson Lecturer in Public International Law Coyote Alberto Ruz Buenfil Writer and Gardener Tarragona, Spain Environmental and Social Activist Gundaroo, NSW, Australia Tom Butler Huehuecoyotl Ecovillage, Mexico Joe Gray Writer and Activist Vandana Shiva Field Naturalist and Eco-activist Huntington, VT, USA Scholar and Environmental Activist St Albans, UK Nigel Cooper Delhi, India Ian Whyte Chaplain and Biologist Steve Szeghi Field Naturalist Cambridge, UK Professor of Economics Ottawa, ON, Canada Paul Cryer Wilmington, OH, USA Conservationist Bron Taylor Hillcrest, South Africa Professor of Religion, Nature Art Editor Cormac Cullinan and Environmental Ethics Stephanie Moran Environmental Attorney and Author Gainesville, FL, USA Artist and Librarian Cape Town, South Africa Andrew Walton London, UK John Davis Bioregionalist Wildways Trekker Birmingham, UK Poetry Editor Westport, NY, USA Haydn Washington Victor Postnikov Alan Watson Featherstone Environmental Scientist Poet, Essayist and Translator Founder and Visionary – Trees for Life and Activist Kiev, Ukraine Findhorn, UK Sydney, NSW, Australia Mumta Ito Rachel Waters Consulting Editors Lawyer, Zoologist and Academic and Advocacy Journalist Sandy Irvine Founder – Nature’s Rights Brooklyn, NY, USA Political Activist Forres, UK Fiona Wilton Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK Marjolein Kok Programme Coordinator Ted Mosquin Environmental Activist and Researcher – Gaia Foundation Naturalist Utrecht, the Netherlands Colombia/Uruguay Lanark, ON, Canada Helen Kopnina Doug Woodard Environmental Anthropologist Environmentalist Publicity Advisor Leiden, the Netherlands St Catharines, ON, Canada Monica Carroll Joseph Lambert George Wuerthner Writer Researcher in Earth Jurisprudence Photographer, Author and Activist Canberra, ACT, Australia Brighton, UK Bend, OR, USA Sandra Lubarsky Peter Jingcheng Xu Art Advisor Scholar in Sustainability Researcher in Literature Salomón Bazbaz Lapidus Flagstaff, AZ, USA Beijing, China Director – Cumbre Tajín Festival Michelle Maloney Mersha Yilma Papantla de Olarte, Mexico Lawyer and National Practitioner of Earth Jurisprudence Convenor of AELA Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Editorial Advisors Brisbane, QLD, Australia Suzanne York David Abram Alexandra Marcelino Director – Transition Earth Cultural Ecologist and Geophilosopher Jurist in Environmental Law San Francisco, CA, USA Upper Rio Grande Valley, NM, USA Lisbon, Portugal Melinda Alfano Maria Carolina Negrini Graduate in Water Resources Lawyer New York, NY, USA São Paolo, Brazil

4 The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 www.ecologicalcitizen.net EDITORIAL

The biodiversity crisis must be placed front and centre

he world’s increasing awakening other human obstacle courses). It needs to Joe Gray and to the climate crisis, and a rising be added, however, that if anthropogenic Eileen Crist Tclimate movement in its wake, are emissions continue to climb unabated, encouraging shifts. At the same time, it triggering positive feedbacks that catapult About the authors is discouraging and even maddening that Earth into a ‘hothouse state’, then all bets Joe and Eileen are co- anthropogenic climate change (hereafter are off for most complex life (Steffen et al., editors of this special issue just climate change) is typically framed as 2018; McKibben, 2019). on the biodiversity crisis. the major ecological and social emergency. Even so, we should not let our critical This all-too-prevalent diagnosis is both faculties be foiled by continuing to Joe is a field naturalist in St Albans, UK, with obfuscating and invalid. It is obfuscating frame a really big symptom – climate an MSc in Forestry from because when the horror-fascination with change – as the major problem we face. Bangor University and an climate change monopolizes attention, it Climatic upheaval is a side effect of the MA in Zoology from the often dims awareness of the extinction actual problem of human expansionism University of Cambridge. crisis that is accelerating on multiple within the ecosphere: ceaseless growth He is a Fellow of the Royal Entomological Society fronts – extinction of species and on the consumptive, demographic and a Knowledge Network subspecies, extinction of wild populations and technological-infrastructural fronts. Expert for the United and numbers of individuals, extinction of Such growth is allowed to continue by a Nations’ Harmony with genetic variation, and mass extinction (see shared tacit gestalt that human planetary Nature programme. Ceballos et al. [2017]). What’s more, when ascendancy is somehow ordained and that attention is directed toward the extinction humans hold the authority of ‘eminent Eileen has been teaching at Virginia Tech in the crisis, the cognition-engulfing spectre of domain’ over the Earth. Should climate Department of Science and climate change encourages the perception change be addressed with resolve in the Technology in Society since that climatic upheaval is to blame. This near future, by means of technological 1997. She has written and is simply false: “the enemies of old” – and behavioural shifts, then a dangerous co-edited numerous papers agriculture and killing – are the major direct symptom will become manageable, leaving and books, with her work focusing on biodiversity causes of the biodiversity crisis (Maxwell et the establishment of human empire loss and destruction of al., 2016). undisputed. In this historical moment, wild places, along with Climate change is exacerbating that wherein the awakening of a collective pathways to halt these crisis specifically because of its synergistic awareness of humanity’s overreach is trends. Eileen lives in conjunction with the habitat destruction, at our fingertips, we must not miss the Blacksburg, VA, USA. the habitat fragmentation and the wildlife opportunity to look hard and look long at Citation killing that have already sapped biological nature’s occupation and its irreversible Gray J and Crist E (2019) The diversity. Rapid climate change is pelting impoverishment of life as we know it. This biodiversity crisis must be wild species and wild places that are haemorrhaging of biological abundance placed front and centre. The already severely compromised by other and diversity is not just occurring but Ecological Citizen 3(Suppl A): blows – blows that continue to be operative accelerating – and it would be even if the 5–6. and continue to be overriding. In other by-product of burning fossil fuels did not Keywords words, life might have been able to handle happen to amplify the greenhouse effect on Agriculture; a certain degree of climate change were it planet Earth. anthropocentrism; not for both its beleaguered condition and, All told, the coming years are arguably biodiversity; climate in the case of terrestrial organisms, the the most significant in human history, change; sixth mass impermeability of the landscape (due to with nothing less than the fate of the Earth extinction industrial agriculture, infrastructures, and and humanity at stake. The destruction of

The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 5 EDITORIAL www.ecologicalcitizen.net

A bird’s-eye view of the stark contrast between life’s variety, complexity, and abundances of many crucial topics covered. We thank forest and agricultural – the biodiversity crisis – is on course each of the authors for contributing their land near Rio Branco in to be a tragedy of scale that ushers in a viewpoints and areas of expertise to the Brazil (photo: Kate Evans/ depauperate and desolate era. Much of the issue. In bringing this collection of writings CIFOR [CC BY 2.0; https:// manifold beauty of the current radiation together, we have strived to present a creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/]). of life with which we share Earth is global picture wherever possible and being rapidly erased. This is an unfolding give space to many voices. What has been ecocide that remains an enormous (albeit especially heartening about stewarding the invisible) injustice to the non-human world issue to publication is seeing authors not and bodes a bleak future for human life just dwell on problems but offer solutions and self-understanding. That humanity to the crisis, some of which are already has yet to comprehend the ethical and beginning to unfold. It is clear that we existential gravity of the biodiversity know what the problems are, in the main, crisis reveals the blindsiding bankruptcy and have practical solutions available. The of human supremacy – and of the mostly battle for the Earth’s future will be one, “The battle for unquestioned ‘right’ of human dominance first and foremost, of political will, mass the Earth’s future within, and domination over, the natural mobilization, and the emergence of a new will be one, first world. There is an ever-more-urgent need human consciousness and identity. n and foremost, of to awaken society and policy-makers to life’s devastation, to the ongoing inequity References political will, mass toward the more-than-human world Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR and Dirzo R (2017) Biological mobilization, and the and to the imperative to end biodiversity annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass extinction signaled by vertebrate population losses and collapse in our time. emergence of a new declines. PNAS 114: E6089–E6096. This special issue of The Ecological Citizen human consciousness Maxwell SL, Fuller RA, Brooks TM and Watson JE explores many of the major facets of the and identity.” (2016). Biodiversity: The ravages of guns, nets and biodiversity crisis – from the effects bulldozers. Nature 536: 143–5. of sensory pollution to the decline of McKibben B (2019) Falter: Has the human game begun to insects and the extinction of large-scale play itself out? Henry Holt and Company, New York, migrations, and from the freshwater NY, USA.

biodiversity crisis and plundering of the Steffen W, Rockström J, Richardson K et al. (2018) oceans to the perils of infrastructure Trajectories of the Earth system in the Anthropocene. development. Climate change is but one PNAS 115: 8252–9.

6 The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 www.ecologicalcitizen.net LONG ARTICLE

The silence of the humpback whale

Humpback whale populations are declining in many parts of the world, entailing the loss of Kathleen both their ecological functions and their magnificent music. This is not just an environmental crisis, but a moral catastrophe. The fate of the whales is a tragic loss for humans, who take Dean Moore

pleasure in seeing them and hearing their songs. Far more significant on a moral scale, the About the author whales’ fate is unjust, a violation of our duty to protect innocent beings from undeserved Kathleen is a philosopher, suffering, in violation of their rights. It is profane, a violation of our duty of reverence. And writer and environmental it is cruel, a violation of our duty of compassion. How much of Earth’s legacy of beautiful activist who lives in lives are we are willing to trade away, in order to maintain an unmerited and unsustainable Oregon, USA. way of life? Citation Moore KD (2019) The silence remember Songs of the Humpback Whale. wolves. An elephant trumpeting? – that’s of the humpback whale. The This was the sensational 1970 recording what it sounded like, but no mastodons had Ecological Citizen 3(Suppl A): Iof humpback whalesong that brought stomped these beaches for 10,000 years. 7–11. whales into the hearts of people around the Nothing we had ever heard matched the Keywords world. As the whales courted in Hawaiian magnitude of that bleating. A ruckus of bays, their plaints were almost operatic in thunks and splashings sounded from the Animal ethics; ecological ethics; intrinsic value; their drama, their lust, the lyricism of their inlet, and then the night returned to its rights of nature; water songs. Friends gave us the LP when our gentle swash. In the morning, we saw a daughter was born, so we could rock her distant pod of humpbacks, spouting clouds to sleep to the whispers and whoops of the of sunlight. whales. As graduate students just moved That, we learned, was the feeding call of to town with a new baby, we had nothing the humpback whale. in the house but a mattress on the floor, Although they are probably the very same a record player, and a load of firewood for whales that sing in Hawaii, the humpbacks the stove. The forest smell of the damp oak, of south-east Alaska add a different call to the music of the whales, the warm, gently their repertoire when they migrate back breathing weight of a new baby on my chest to northern feeding grounds. All violin – this was what the world was created to music in the Hawaiian bays, on the feeding be, I believed, nothing less or more. The grounds in Alaska, whales trumpet. The baby slept soundly, dreaming maybe of cacophony is part of their feeding ritual, rising and falling on a gentle swell, lulled unique to the south-east. A member of a by the music of the great whales. pod circles deep, blowing bubbles the size Thirty years later, we moved to a cabin of beach balls. The bubbles form a sort of on the edge of a cove in south-east Alaska. cylinder, encircling a school of herring. That first day, the sun finally dropped Other whales swim below, herding the below the mountains, leaving a pink glaze herring into a tight ball. A whale sounds the on the water. We slept to the wash of signal – that magnificent screech – and, waves in the rockwrack. But not for long. jaws agape, all the whales drive powerfully A sudden call jolted us awake – a long, upward through the panicked fish. They drawn-out squeal. Did you hear that? What go so fast, they breach the surface, sailing in god’s name? A wolf howling? – it might half a body’s length into the sky. Water have been, but there were no wolves on the streams from the baleen curtains that hold island and the sound was chestier than the herring in their maws. Gulls scream as

The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 7 The silence of the humpback whale www.ecologicalcitizen.net

whales fall back onto the water with all the whales have died, one would expect a plague grace of a school bus falling off a cliff. of dead whales washing up on beaches, but When we are out fishing, we usually hear there were none. That might make sense; exhaling whales before we see the cloud of an emaciated whale may sink quickly, and breath. One returning whale in our inlet then the pressures of the deep sea may hold rasped heavily every time he inhaled or the carcass on the sea-bottom, a banquet exhaled. People could identify him from for the hungry ocean. Another plausible miles across the water. ‘Growler’, they scenario is that whales, unable to store No one knows what called him. Other whales exhaled in long enough fat on the feeding grounds, set off “ breaths that sounded exactly like someone for Hawaii nonetheless – and don’t make it. will happen next was dragging an ice chest across the deck of Whale numbers are down in Hawaii as well to the humpback a boat. But the most beautifully breathing as up north. No one knows what will happen whale populations, whales were the silent ones in fog on the next to the humpback whale populations, but the trends – the far side of the inlet. When they exhaled, but the trends – the rising temperatures a cloud of silver glitter formed over their of the water, the falling populations of rising temperatures curled backs and silently disappeared. One feed-fish and zooplankton – draw a jagged of the water, the morning in Freshwater Bay, we glimpsed a falling line on graphs. falling populations whale that was sleeping, a big lump floating What exactly would be the nature of the of feed-fish and so close to the surface that we were glad not wrong, if we were to let whale-song slip to have hit it. The whale’s great bulk rose away, or worse, propel it into oblivion? zooplankton – draw with the inhalation, sank on the exhale, There are a number of words to use, human a jagged falling line quietly, slowly, snoring on the swell. beings being prodigious inventors of on graphs.” This is the music of the humpback whales varieties of wrong-doing. If Inuit people in Alaska. have forty words for ‘snow’, as I am told, The humpback whale population in how many words does the western world south-east Alaska had been abundant and have for ‘wrong’? I can think of five big growing at about five per cent per year ones. Tragedy. Injustice. Profanity. Cruelty. (Neilson et al, 2018). Until five years ago. Disrespect. By now, the numbers are down nearly 60%. Lots of things happened in that time. 1. Tragedy A perfect storm of ocean events shifted When I look out my window now, the inlet prey availability and quality – global is flat as silver-plate, dinged here and warming, powerful El Niño conditions, an there by a merganser or loon. I watch for unprecedented “blob” of warm water in whale-spouts; although I can see five miles the Gulf of Alaska, harmful algal blooms. across the inlet and even farther in both A concurrent mass die-off of seabirds directions, I do not find them. That is a true signalled widespread prey shortages. loss. Seeing whales makes me glad. So much Whales in south-east Alaska were visibly larger than I am (a floating school bus), so thin, and even the zooplankton were mysterious in their underwater travels (the skinny, measuring lower levels of lipids. great migrations), so ponderously clever Glacier Bay and adjacent waters in Icy Strait in their lifeways (the underwater nursing usually nurture about ten new humpback calves), so beautiful in their shining dives calves every summer. Last year, there was (the waterfalls from lifting flukes), so oddly one calf, and it disappeared. Most likely wonderful (the stalked eyeballs that allow it died and, too thin to float, sank to the them to see into their own mouths), so full bottom of the bay. Imagine the music of a of life (the triumphant roar) – they lift me dead calf, the scurrying crabs and clicking out of myself and invite me into something shrimp, the swish of hagfish, the rasp of far greater than my paltry concerns, into shark skin against the small flayed body. the infinitude of evolution and the great No one knows if the whales have shifted mysteries of beautiful life. Simply to be in feeding grounds, following dwindling view of that is a joy, and when once I had bait fish, or if they have died. If that many the chance to move in close to a whale and

8 The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 www.ecologicalcitizen.net The silence of the humpback whale

breathe in the whale’s exhalation, I was substance, the kinship of common overjoyed (until I learned about the bacteria origins, the kinship of interdependence, in the exhaled breath). and – perhaps disastrously – the kinship I’m not alone. In our inlet, tourists on the of a common fate. There are no natural tour-boat Island Song line the rails in bright hierarchies of deserving in this planet- raincoats, holding long-lensed cameras. wide family. If we and whales have evolved They cheer when a whale spouts, a rejoicing as interdependent and equally remarkable we can hear a mile across the water. The parts of a morally worthy whole, then we scene makes me think of photos of sailors acknowledge also the moral unity of all returning to port after the war – that eager, life. So, a planetary argument by analogy that glad, that crowded at the ship’s rail. unfolds: Just as humans ascribe intrinsic This is a mystery in itself, why humans are value to themselves, value beyond their drawn so strongly to the great mammals, usefulness to others, so the rest of creation as strongly as they might be drawn to home too has intrinsic value. Just as humans after a war – but it seems to be so. grant legal and moral consideration to “Steeped in self- This joy is part of the instrumental value their own interests, so the interests of all glorifying narratives of whales, their worth as means to human others are worthy of consideration. And of human superiority ends. It is a value, but utterly egocentric just as humans grant themselves rights over the rest of and insulting, when you think about it, that protect their most necessary interests, to imagine that the value of the whales so the rest of creation too has the right to the natural world, is primarily their value to us. Imagine protection of their essential interests. intoxicated by the long evolutionary journey of whales, Industrial-age humans have been seemingly limitless dragging themselves onto the muddy slow to realize that all members of the power to turn nature shore, stalking the swamps on dog-like Earth community have rights. Steeped legs, swinging elongated heads, and then in self-glorifying narratives of human to human uses, finally splashing back into salty water, superiority over the rest of the natural blinkered by short- their feet sucking mud, their mouthparts world, intoxicated by seemingly limitless term self-interest, maybe mumbling like crabs, the air electric power to turn nature to human uses, humans have chosen with thunderstorms maybe and erupting blinkered by short-term self-interest, to reserve rights for volcanoes. Imagine the slow movement humans have chosen to reserve rights of their nostrils to the top of their backs for themselves. However, the narrative themselves.” and the transformation of a tail into those of human exceptionalism is increasingly splendid flukes, black tulips of the sea. challenged by a notable convergence of Imagine the evolution of that hulking religious, indigenous, ecological and grace. And where did the baleen come evolutionary insights. We understand now from, and over how many million years, that not only human beings, but other living the feathery filters stuck with krill? And beings, species, ecological communities, the songs: how many generations taught landscape formations and waters, have how many generations to sing songs so interconnected interests. Humans are compelling that they outsold the Monkees? morally obliged to recognize and to weigh To what end? That I would smile at night to these interests in decisions that impact hear them howl? That’s all? nature. That is to say, other-than-human Let us grant the terrible sadness we would members of the Earth community also feel if the whales disappeared. Let us grant have rights, and those rights count. the tragic unfolding of human folly. But Accordingly, the Universal Declaration let’s reason past our own selfish interests. of the Rights of Mother Earth and other Apart from these, what exactly is wrong legal and moral documents around the with letting whales slip into oblivion? world encode nature’s rights as a “common standard of achievement.” The rights 2. Injustice include, among many others, the right to With the whales and all of Earth’s life and to exist; the right to regenerate its beings, we share the kinship of common biocapacity and to continue its vital cycles

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and processes free from human disruptions; endlessly creative world that we must save, the right to be free from contamination, the lyric voices that we must hear, the pollution, and toxic or radioactive waste; wonder that we must preserve. and the right to maintain its identity and Every extinction, every suffering, every integrity as a distinct, self-regulating, and destruction, is a profanity, a failure of interrelated being. reverence. It is a violence we cannot even Damage to the whales – whether by begin to measure because we have only “Damage to the overfishing their food species, acidifying the sorriest understanding of the world’s the very water they swim in, degrading multitude of lives. The world is a mystery whales – whether by the zooplankton they feed on, warming of infinite and intrinsic value. overfishing their food the water (the list is long) – violates their species, acidifying rights. And it is a particularly pernicious 4. Cruelty the very water they violation, because the whales are the very None of us can directly experience the pain definition of innocent, having done nothing or sorrow felt by another creature. We infer swim in, degrading to deserve this cruelty. it from cries and pleas, and from analogy to the zooplankton they what we ourselves would feel. The sorrow of feed on, warming 3. Profanity a mother whale, faithfully nursing her calf the water (the list Let me tell you about one day a dozen years through the watery nights, but too starved is long) – violates ago – a special day, but not a unique day. herself to provide the nutrients to keep The whales had been feeding in the inlet, the little one alive – what agony is this? It their rights. ” but they were resting now on the glaze of might be less than you or I would feel, but the sea, and our boat rested some distance it might as likely be more, the breaking of away. There were many whales. They all a great whale’s heart. One might argue that sucked bright day into their lungs, blew a whale doesn’t have the mental capacity – it out with the sound of a rockslide. Then the consciousness or self-awareness – to there was silence except for the whispers grieve. One might argue that she doesn’t of murrelets and the flicks of the fins of remember pain – a merciful amnesia. But wounded fish. Already, the sea had melted these would be arguments from ignorance; the rough water, skinning it with silver. we just don’t know. But we can imagine. Gulls swayed on the swell, and even the If there are any limits to permissible sacrilegious gulls were silent. human behaviour, then surely cruelty to A whale folded its back, slowly unfolded, innocent creatures is beyond the pale. Pain and levered its flukes into the air. The tail inflicted as an unseen and unintended stood like a black jib, streaming water, then consequence of activities aimed at other, sank as the whale dived to a seam below maybe admirable, goals; pain inflicted as the reach of the sun. Water slipped into the a foreseen but discounted consequence of space the whale had pressed on the sea. One other activities; pain inflicted knowingly by one, other whales raised their flukes and and intentionally as part of a business plan dove. The gulls, still silent, waited. They to drive up corporate profits – here is an knew that in their own time, the whales escalating scale of shameful behaviour. would begin the hunt again. The water rose As we think about the extinction crisis, and fell in meditative breath. as we count down the numbers, as we I don’t want to say that moment felt like calculate the rate of ecosystem collapse, a spiritual experience, because I don’t want it is essential to remember that the crisis to default to human comparisons, but it felt shimmers with suffering. That makes it not somehow sanctified. That moment, and just an environmental crisis, but a moral those whales, were irreplaceable, essential, catastrophe. beautiful and fearsome, astonishing, beyond human understanding, generative, 5. Disrespect wonderful. If this is the language of the A great whale is a wondrous thing. It sacred, then let us use those words. This is astonishing, from the Latin, tonus, to is the sanctity that we must protect, the be struck, as if by lightning – radical

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amazement, to see such a creature, so with life – tiny starfish, algae like orange tuned to the flashing fish and the dark paint, crust-of-bread sponges, porcelain sea. It is beautiful, the glistening blue- crabs disguised as pebbles, decorator black back decorated with barnacles, crabs disguised as seaweed, fish disguised studded with scars from cookie-cutter as rays of light. The moving tide was noisy, sharks, a mammoth animal, but graceful the harsh inhale and groan. Scritching as flowing water. It is knowing, as elders claws and bubbling jaws, a constant plop are knowing, having seen the world’s plop as seawater dripped off globules and “As consequences of cruelty and promise. It is magnificent tentacles and who knows what. Behind the same creativity, beyond human measure, slowly folding and me, I could hear my grandsons calling to we human beings unfolding through time. It is roaring grand. each other, “Guys! Come. Look and see.” It is eager for on-going life. It is a trembling And then, out in the inlet, a humpback have obligations consciousness, a manifestation of the mind whale began to roar. to honour the of the universe. Never have I heard as complete a Earth’s beings and It is worthy – that’s the word. It is repudiation of the idea that human beings the processes that excellent. And so it must continue. And are the only wondrous beings, that we are created them, to the thought that we humans might in charge, that we are the point of the whole trade the humpback whale, for what? thing. Each being is worthy. Each fractal celebrate and protect The profligate burning of oil and gas? layer is necessary, all the lives the theme, them until the end Profits from a reckless herring fishery? all the lives the variations. The planet is of time.” A failure to imagine a sustainable still crammed with lives of urgent striving, way to live on Earth? Greed, pure and crawling over each other, burrowing into simple? That is moral monstrosity on a every crack, floating on the seas. The fate cosmic scale. It’s time for a new global of these lives is not a matter of indifference conversation about the true worth of the or of economic expediency. These lives are world’s great diversity of lives – not in the irreplaceable consequence of planetary the pinched terms of human financial or creativity over four billion years. As emotional interests, but in terms of the consequences of the same creativity, we ‘great journey of the universe’ toward an human beings have obligations to honour abundance of ongoing life. the Earth’s beings and the processes that created them, to celebrate and protect * * * * * them until the end of time. n Last year, under gathering clouds, I knelt References beside a tide-pool. Maybe you have done Neilson J, Gabriele C and Taylor-Thomas L (2018) Recent the same. Blue mussels paved the rocks, Declines in Humpback Whales in Glacier Bay & Icy Strait – cutting my hand when I turned a stone. Is Their Heyday Over? Available at https://is.gd/9AVuII The bottom of the stone was slathered (accessed June 2019).

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12 The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 www.ecologicalcitizen.net LONG ARTICLE

The green world

In many ways, plants are fundamentally different from other kingdoms in the domain of life. Tim Hogan Through photosynthesis, with its absorption of carbon dioxide and release of oxygen, plants serve as the lungs of planet Earth. As organisms capable of synthesizing their own food About the author from inorganic substances, they are the basis for food webs upon our blue-green planet. Tim is Collections Manager From this wondrous arising, the miracle of life moves forth. Diverse forests, grasslands, of Botany at University of Colorado Boulder’s Museum deserts, tundra, wetlands, and waterways blanket the Earth, providing refuge for untold of Natural History, Boulder, realms of biodiversity from molecules to species to bioregions and biomes. Vascular plant CO, USA. numbers total over 400,000 taxa, with 20% threatened with extinction. Along with the twin spectres of climate chaos and species extinctions, vast numbers of individual plants Citation and animals are being extirpated beyond our ability to comprehend the losses. The green Hogan T (2019) The green world is being razed by agricultural expansion and deforestation, as well as from wildfires, world. The Ecological Citizen 3(Suppl A): 13–21. industrial agriculture, and indiscriminate use of biocides. Along with immediate steps to reduce human numbers and its attendant consumption, the best conservation science tells Keywords us setting aside half the Earth for the preservation of wild nature is crucial if humanity and Biodiversity; climate the more-than-human world is to make it through this plight of our own making. change; conservation; sixth mass extinction Canto LXXXI Within a fraction of a second, it returns to its Pull down thy vanity, it is not man previous energy state. All life on this planet Made courage, or made order, or made grace, is dependent upon the energy momentarily Pull down thy vanity, I say pull down. gained by the electron. Photosynthesis is the Learn of the green world what can be thy place. vital link between the physical and biological Ezra Pound world […] ‘What drives life is a little current, kept up by the sunshine,’ (Nobel laureate Albert Szent-Györgyi)” (Raven and Curtis, ll of life is a miracle of existence, 1981). with each organism having its own Through respiration, animals breathe in A unique qualities and attributes, oxygen to release the energy from the food Darwin’s “endless forms most beautiful we eat and exhale carbon dioxide as a waste and most wonderful.” Yet no being exists product; plants absorb immense quantities independently. Ecology and evolution provide of carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, ample evidence of species interconnecting and release oxygen as a waste product. There to form mutualistic relationships and is more than just metaphor at play in the communities. This interdependence can perception that the green world serves as the be viewed as webs of connectivity, or as an lungs of planet Earth (Jabr, 2019). ecological pyramid emphasizing trophic What of the green world here in the early levels, serving as a metaphor for the flow of decades of the 21st century? From the Arctic energy through ecosystems. tundra and the realm of circumboreal Fundamental to such an ecological view conifer forests, to the tropics with their vast lies the world of plants, the green of the leaf, rainforests, mangroves and other habitats of and the marvel of photosynthesis. “When prolific diversity, the vegetation of the Earth, a particle of light strikes a molecule of like so much else, is under assault from chlorophyll, an electron is jolted out of the expanding human economies and the crush molecule and raised to a higher energy level. of our numbers.

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Vegetation, as the collective assemblage paper goes to press, found that 571 species of plants in the landscape, is distinct from had been extirpated since the beginning of the flora of an area. The latter, in its most the Industrial Revolution, with the caveat elemental sense, is a list of the plant species that the true number is likely to be much occurring there. The basic unit of a flora is higher (Humphreys et al., 2019). Researchers the species; the basic unit of vegetation is said the extinction rate was 500 times the community or association. Implicit in the greater now than before 1750, and this term plant community are such attributes number is also likely to be an underestimate as soil type, moisture regime, microclimate, (Carrington, 2019). slope, aspect, elevation, temperature and Extinctions in plant species are difficult disturbance history. In other words, an to assess compared to most animals. integrator of factors defining qualities of Extinction is an absolute term, meaning no habitat. individuals remain alive (RGB Kew, 2016). The species diversity of the world’s Proving an absence is a fool’s errand in field flowering plants is being extirpated to biology, no matter the level of searching; the extent that fully one in five (20%) of this is true for animals as well as for plants. the estimated 390,000 vascular plants are For plants however, there can be long threatened with extinction (RBG Kew, 2016). extinction lag times influenced by numerous Another study, released from Kew as this factors. Species–area curves describe the relationship between the area of a habitat and the number of species found within that area. These are not as effective in predicting populations of stationary plants as compared to mobile animals owing to the influence of features such as spatial scales and patch structure. More intrinsic factors affecting lag times include long-lived seed banks in the soil, the longevity of woody plants, particularly in the tropics, and the numerous ways plants can reproduce themselves through asexual means or self-fertilization (Cronk, 2016). One botanist’s account of tropical species loss is as follows (Tripp, 2016):

Ruellia speciosa is, true to its epithet, a beautiful species. And one of my favorites. I could probably write a short story about this one, about watching for hours the hummingbirds fawn over it in a deep fissure on top of a mountain overlooking Ciudad Oaxaca […] about its wonderfully pungent odor […] about the population mutants that produce the strangest internal floral accessory structures. Well, best just to read all about it in the taxonomic revision of Ruellia. I owe a great deal of gratitude to Salvador Acosta for leading me to this population in 2005, which represents the only time I’ve seen this species alive in the field. I have searched and searched for many other populations, based on localities from

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“Before addressing some of the major threats to the green world and the biota it sustains, let us concede that without an immediate start to lowering human numbers and their attendant historical herbarium records, but all such animal numbers are extirpated beyond consumption, there attempts were unsuccessful. our ability to comprehend the full scope of is little hope of the losses (Ceballos et al., 2017; Hallmann Update as of January 2016: I returned to the et al., 2017). Here, the emphasis is not on building a sustainable above locality some 10 years after I first species extinction, an attendant horror to and just society, let visited it. The population has now been extirpation, but rather the decimation of alone restoring a extirpated from housing development. Not individual beings on such a scale as to be truly world with room for all stories have a happy ending. horrific in its implications for the fabric of life on Earth: in short, the loss of wild nature’s wildness to play an * * * * * abundance and the cumulative impacts this unbounded role.” There is an old saying in conservation about has on food webs, biogeochemical cycles and “saving the last of the least, and the best of energy paths linked to that abundance. One the rest.” The ‘least’ are those species on the scientist involved in some of the referenced precipice of extinction and being lost forever. studies listed the top three threats to The ‘rest’ are those populations and habitats biodiversity as “habitat loss, habitat loss, and with a chance of being saved. They provide a habitat loss.” source of diversity to build upon in the hope Before addressing some of the major threats of restoring a small park, a large county, or a to the green world and the biota it sustains, vast reach of native prairie, forested uplands let us concede that without an immediate or alpine mountains where genuine rewilding start to lowering human numbers and their can proceed. attendant consumption, there is little hope As readers of this journal are keenly of building a sustainable and just society, aware, one of the most pressing ecological let alone restoring a world with room for concerns of the 21st century is the extinction wildness to play an unbounded role. The late Al and extirpation of species across the planet. Bartlett, a physics professor at the University Normally staid scientists and journals are of Colorado, gave what would prove to become speaking of ‘ecocide’, ‘biological annihilation’ a celebrated talk on exponential growth. It and ‘ecological Armageddon’, as plant and was titled Arithmetic, Population and Energy:

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Sustainability 101, and was presented over 1700 again, we come back to interdependence, times. He would often end his presentation but this time with the awareness that the with a simple question. “Can you think of any complexity it engenders can determine the problem in any area of human endeavor on dynamics of ecological ruin as much as it can any scale, whose long-term solution is in any beget ecological integrity and beauty. way aided, assisted, or advanced by further Another study reports that 27% of the increases in population, locally, nationally, total loss of forests worldwide between or globally?” (Bartlett, 2013). In looking at 2001 and 2015 was due to industrial-scale some of the most troubling threats to the farming and ranching (Curtis et al., 2018). green world, the answer is clearly no. Most of this permanent land use change A 2016 analysis in the journal Nature (deforestation) occurred in the tropics. Large lists two of the greatest threats to species swathes of Amazonia have been converted A 2016 analysis in “ diversity as: one, agricultural expansion, to cattle ranches and soybean farms, while the journal Nature which includes food, fibre, fuel and livestock South-East Asian forests have been converted lists two of the production; and, two, over-exploitation, to palm oil plantations. The remaining greatest threats to which includes deforestation, hunting and areas maintained the same land use over species diversity fishing (Maxwell et al., 2016). The authors 15 years; in those areas, loss was attributed are aware that assigning categories to to forestry (26%), shifting agriculture (24%) as: one, agricultural threats may be more of a distraction than and wildfire (23%). These latter effects may expansion, which an exercise in clarification, pointing out that represent an erosion of the integrity of includes food, fibre, more than 80% of the species included in habitats, but not a permanent loss of wild fuel and livestock their analysis are affected by a combination nature. This analysis was driven, in part, of agriculture and over-exploitation. They to assess the effectiveness of corporate production; and, two, suggest that a better understanding of commitments to zero deforestation in over-exploitation, how threats act “additively, synergistically their supply chain by 2020. The conclusion which includes or antagonistically” is needed to more was that the rate of commodity-driven deforestation, effectively evaluate the conservation costs of deforestation has not declined (Curtis human impacts (Maxwell et al., 2016). Once et al., 2018). hunting and fishing.”

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Moist tropical deforestation is perhaps the greatest concern in the 21st century for terrestrial habitat and species loss, but its contemporary prevalence should not obscure the historical despoilment of vast tracts of the Earth’s surface. Reliable figures are disturbingly difficult to pin down, but it appears that over 50% of the planet’s land area has been converted to human- dominated use. Recent reports go as high as 75% (IPBES, 2019). According to Hoekstra et al. (2005: 24): “Habitat loss has been most extensive in tropical dry forests (69% converted in SE Asia); temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, temperate grasslands and savannahs (>50% lost in North America); and the majority of Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrub.” From these areas major civilizations emerged – Eastern/ rice, New World/corn and Western/wheat – and were largely defined by the impacts of agriculture and the spread of metropolitan centres. The loss of species across these biologically rich, continental-scaled biomes is a disquieting reproach to our human tenure on planet Earth.

* * * * * Even in the absence of climate disruption, the green Earth would be in a world of hurt. While anthropogenic climate upheaval exacerbates virtually all ecological impacts, there are some effects more directly linked to the new climate regime. As a resident severity and low seed availability further of western North America, and more compromise post-fire regeneration. Davis precisely the Southern Rockies bioregion, et al. (2019: 1) have noted: “At dry sites I have witnessed a host of fires far outside across our study region, seasonal to annual the range of natural variability over the climate conditions over the past 20 years past 40 years. According to a Colorado have crossed these thresholds, such that State University assessment, “wildfires in conditions have become increasingly Colorado destroyed less than 100,000 acres unsuitable for regeneration”. per decade over the 1960s and the 1970s. While such studies concentrate on low- For the 1980s and 1990s, the total was over elevation sites, there are other reports 200,000 acres per decade. For the 2000s, focusing on forests at higher altitudes and the total [has been over] 1,000,000 acres” latitudes (Harvey, 2016). These emphasize (Wikipedia, 2019). a significant decrease in regeneration in We appear to be moving into a ‘state- the 21st century, pointing to moisture shift’ where low-elevation forested sites deficits and, to a lesser degree, distance to consisting of ponderosa pine and Douglas seed source. The vegetation these sites will fir are crossing climatic thresholds support in the future range from reduction in involving, for example, soil moisture and forest density and extent, to compensatory maximum surface temperatures. High fire increases from lower-montane and upper-

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of 35 days at the RMBL site (Langlois, 2014). Their studies bring to mind the old caveat about nature not being more complicated than we think, but more complicated than we can think; nature rarely if ever proceeds in a straight line. Cardona et al. (2014: 4916) have commented: “A diversity of species- level phenological shifts contributes to altered co-flowering patterns within the community, a redistribution of floral abundance across the season, and an expansion of the flowering season. These results demonstrate the substantial reshaping of ecological communities that can be attributed to shifts in phenology.”

* * * * * Documenting state shifts from forests to shrub-lands in the wake of wildfires, the treeline species. Further scientific research reshaping of communities as a result of may be needed, but savvy naturalists and phenological shifts attributable to climate the intimacy of those who have lived for change, or the decline of insect populations generations in a particular place also have due to expanding agriculture impacts a role to play in this work (Noss et al., 2012; all point to the loss, if not extinction, of Turner, 2014). ecological interactions. In some cases In recent years, phenology, the study of these can be ascribed to out-of-kilter food- the seasonal timing of life’s processes, has web interactions (Sanders et al., 2018), in experienced a revival in the light of climate others to the direct or secondary mortality woes. Concerns over plant–pollinator resulting from insecticides and herbicides dynamics have been among the most (Gassmann et al., 2014; Hladik et al., 2018). studied systems in looking at disruptions of In the case of disruptions from pesticides, ecological interactions (Memmot et al., 2007). often associated with genetically modified An interesting side to the story involves crops, we see the serious impact of Henry David Thoreau and his efforts to map industrial agriculture with its practice the seasonal patterns of Concord’s natural of fence-row to fence-row cultivation. history. Richard Primack and his colleagues While concern over health impacts from have looked at this in some detail, providing consuming GMO foods may be warranted, those of us with a life-long affection for the the ecological effects of producing these sage of Concord with another story to tell foods upon soils, watershed and biota are of ol’ Henry traipsing for miles to find the seldom given the attention they deserve. earliest blooms of the season (Primack and Along with a humane and ecologically just Miller-Rushing, 2012). reduction in global population, an urgent Here in the Southern Rockies of Colorado, transformation away from industrial at the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory agriculture is imperative if the richness (RMBL), David Inouye and his students have and variety of life on our blue–green pursued phenological studies to previously planet is to make it through the 21st unheard levels of detail after 40 years of century. Sustainable agriculture systems work. Tucked away in their Elk Mountain rooted in ecological practices mimicking redoubt, they have built a dataset of some natural processes must be embraced and, 2 million individual flowers from 121 over time, put into place worldwide. Such species, establishing that since the 1970s the an agroecology would not only produce wild-flower season has extended an average healthier food, it would support wildlife,

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restore the quality of soils and water, and if the twin spectres of the sixth mass sequester carbon from the atmosphere extinction and climate chaos are to be (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2019). averted. This is also the enduring message Nevertheless, even more is called for from the traditions of indigenous people if the aspirations of this journal and the around the planet, as well as the coyote readers who come to it are to be realized. wisdom of a gifted 16-year-old girl The Ecological Citizen’s mission statement from Sweden and the rebellion of young declares its commitment to “address activists she has spawned (Turner, 2014; the central issue of our time: to halt Dodd et al., 2019). and reverse our current ecocidal course In researching this paper I was charmed and create an ecological civilization.” to discover that, as early as 1972, Eugene Organizations such as the Wildlands Odum, the author of my first ecology Network, Nature Needs Half and Half textbook, published research concluding: Earth are spearheading these visions, “It would be prudent for planners providing support for myriad grassroots everywhere to strive to preserve 50% groups doing the hard work on the of the total environment as natural ground (Foreman, 2004; Wilson, 2016; environment” (Odum and Odum, 1972). https://natureneedshalf.org). Twenty years later, Reed Noss, another of As audacious as proposals to secure half my ecological mentors, came to the same the planet as biodiversity preserves may conclusion, publishing his findings in once have sounded, the best conservation Wild Earth. Then, a further 20 years on he science tells us this is what is necessary co-authored a seminal paper on the topic

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in Conservation Biology (Noss, 1992; Noss and civilization where it is possible to live et al., 2012). without regret” (Lopez, 1989: 178). Most recently, in ‘A Global Deal for Nature I would like to suggest to my neighbours [GDN]: Guiding principles, milestones, and – and are we not all neighbours? – that we targets’, Eric Dinerstein and his colleagues begin to view these lands as a commons. (2019: 1) map out “a time-bound, science- Not the commons of tragedy on which driven plan to save the diversity and individuals pursue their singular ends, but abundance of life on Earth. Pairing the GDN rather a multispecies commons of sharing and the Paris Climate Agreement [to] avoid and cooperation. A bestowal upon which catastrophic climate change, conserve the citizenry as a whole has come to an species, and secure essential ecosystem agreement as to what is best for the plant and services.” With the help of social media, animal communities that flourish here, and millions of people around the planet were for those of us who are fortunate enough to alerted to the GDN’s release and downloaded share it with this more-than-human-world. “We need to the plan. Even as I write these words, the This can become the context in which we revivify our UN Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem restore, and begin to make reparation, with Services has been released by IPBES (2019). these lands and with each other. covenant with The dire findings reported in this document In the end, we need the solace and calm the natural only amplify the need for urgent action. of wild nature to be whole. To be held by the world. gaze of a wild animal, to be nourished by a ” * * * * * quiet trail. And beauty, beauty most of all, is As a denizen of western North America, I essential. n have been blessed with the endowment of * * * * * public lands, lands serving as a geography of hope for our democracy. I cut my For the Children conservation teeth on visions of the Great Plains restored to a buffalo commons and of The rising hills, the slopes, the Rocky Mountains serving as a continental of statistics corridor for large mammals. More recently, lie before us. in conjunction with a floristic survey of a The steep climb natural area in Boulder County, Colorado, I of everything, going up, assessed the county as a whole to determine up, as we all the extent of protected lands in the region. It go down. turns out over 60% of these lands are under some form of protection as city or county In the next century open space, state parks, US Forests Service or the one beyond that, lands, statutory wilderness areas or national they say, park. This is in a county of 740 square miles are valleys, pastures, (1920 km 2) with a population of 325,000 we can meet there in peace people. if we make it. I am fortunate to live in a place where those who came before us had the foresight To climb these coming crests to recognize the beauty of these lands and one word to you, to worked to set aside relatively large parcels for you and your children: their natural values. In recent years, we seem to have lost that spirit, forgetting we each stay together, need to lighten our steps if their ecological learn the flowers, integrity is to survive. We need to revivify our go light covenant with the natural world, to embrace an ethic of membership and stewardship, Gary Snyder (1974) and, in the words of Barry Lopez, rediscover * * * * * that spot “between the extremes of nature

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References IPBES (2019) Introducing IPBES’ 2019 Global Assessment Bartlett A (2013) Arithmetic, Population and Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Service. Available Energy: Sustainability 101 (talk). Available at at https://is.gd/65QxsE (accessed June 2019). https://is.gd/kuhG8o (accessed June 2019). Jabr F (2019) The Earth is just as alive as you are. Cardona PJ, Iler AM and Inouye DW (2014) Shifts in Scientists once ridiculed the idea of a living planet. flowering phenology reshape a subalpine plant Not anymore. New York Times, 20 April. Available at community. Proceedings of the National Academy of https://is.gd/ficSrY (accessed June 2019). Sciences 111: 4916–21. Langlois K (2014) Zen and the art of wildflower Carrington D (2019) ‘Frightening’ number of plant science. High Country News, 2 September. Available extinctions found in global survey. The Guardian, at https://is.gd/oA0d2C (accessed June 2019). 10 June. Available at https://is.gd/MbTnVw (accessed Lopez B (1989) Crossing Open Ground. Random House, June 2019). New York, NY, USA. Ceballos G, Ehrlich P and Dirzo R (2017) Biological In the end, we Maxwell SL, Fuller RA, Brooks TM and Watson JE “ annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass extinction (2016) Biodiversity: The Ravages of guns, nets, and need the solace and signaled by vertebrate population losses. Proceedings bulldozers. Nature 536: 143–5. of the National Academy of Sciences 114: E6089–E6096. calm of wild nature Memmott J, Craze PG, Waser NM and Price MV (2007) Cronk Q (2016) Plant extinctions take time. Science 353: to be whole. To be Global warming and the disruption of plant– 4 4 6–7. pollinator interactions. Ecology Letters 19: 710–17. held by the gaze of Curtis PG, Slay CM, Harris NL et al. (2018) Classifying Noss RF (1992) The Wildlands Project: Land drivers of global forest loss. Science 361: 1108–11. a wild animal, to be conservation strategy. Wild Earth (Special Issue): Davis KT, Dobrowski SZ, Higuera PE et al. (2019) Wildfires 10–25. nourished by a quiet and climate change push low-elevation forests across Noss RF, Dobson AP, Baldwin R et al. (2012) Bolder trail. And beauty, a critical climate threshold for tree regeneration. thinking for conservation. Conservation Biology 26: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116: beauty most of all, is 1–4. 6193–8. essential. Dinerstein E, Vynne C, Sala E et al. (2019) A Global Odum E and Odum H (1972) Natural areas as ” Deal for Nature: Guiding principles, milestones, and necessary components of man’s total environment. targets. Science Advances 5: eaaw2869. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 37: 178–89. Dodd V, Gayle D and Busby M (2019) Humanity is at a crossroads, Greta Thunberg tells Extinction Primack RB and Miller-Rushing AJ (2012) Uncovering, Rebellion. The Guardian, 21 April. Available at collecting, and analyzing records to investigate the https://is.gd/MuLM21 (accessed June 2019). ecological impacts of climate change: A template Foreman D (2004) Rewilding North America: A vision from Thoreau’s Concord. BioScience 62: 170–81. for conservation in the 21st century. Island Press, Raven P and Curtis H (1981) Biology of Plants. Worth Washington, DC, USA. Publishers, New York, NY, USA. Gassmann AJ, Petzold-Maxwell JL, Clifton EH et al. (2014) RBG Kew (2016) State of the World’s Plants 2016. Field-evolved resistance by western corn rootworm Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK. Available at to multiple Bacillus thuringiensis toxins intransgenic https://is.gd/AuQsdg (accessed June 2019). maize. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Sanders D, Thébault E, Kehoe R and van Veen F 111: 5141–6. (2018) Trophic redundancy reduces vulnerability Hallmann CA, Sorg M, Jongejans E et al. (2017) More than to extinction cascades. Proceedings of the National 75 percent decline over 27 years in total flying insect Academy of Sciences 115: 2419–24. biomass in protected areas. PLoS ONE 12: e0185809. Snyder G (1974) Turtle Island. New Directions, New Harvey BJ, Donato DC, Turner MG (2016) High and dry: York, NY, USA. post-fire tree seedling establishment in subalpine Tripp E (2016) Ruellia speciosa. The Tripp Report. forests decreases with post-fire drought and large Available at https://is.gd/L4kA0h (accessed June stand-replacing burn patches. Global Ecology and 2019). Biogeography 25: 655–669. Turner N (2014) Ancient Pathways, Ancestral Knowledge: Hladik ML, Corsi SR, Kolpin DW et al. (2018) Year-round Ethnobotany and ecological wisdom of indigenous presence of neonicotinoid insecticides in tributaries peoples of Northwestern North America. McGill- to the Great Lakes, USA. Environmental Pollution 235: Queen’s University Press, Montreal, QC, Canada. 1022–9. Union of Concerned Scientists (2019) Toward Healthy Hoekstra JM, Boucher TM, Ricketts TH and Roberts C Food and Farms. Available at https://is.gd/U9si18 (2005) Confronting a biome crisis: global disparities (accessed June 2019). of habitat loss and protection. Ecology Letters 8: 23–9. Humphreys AH, Govaerts R, Ficinski SZ, et al. (2019) Wikipedia (2019) List of Colorado wildfires. Available at Global dataset shows geography and life form predict https://is.gd/qruFsT (accessed June 2019). modern plant extinction and rediscovery. Nature Wilson EO (2016) Half-Earth: Our planet’s fight for life. Ecology & Evolution s41559-019-0906-2 Liveright Publishing Corporation, New York, NY, USA

The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 21 Minstrel bug nymphs in an organic garden in the Cévennes, France www.ecologicalcitizen.net SNAPSHOT

Addressing global insect meltdown

nsect diversity is enormous, with the 1870s (Swinton, 1880), and has become Michael J possibly 5–8 million extant species. concerning since the 1950s, but today it Samways IMost of these remain undiscovered, with is alarming. This could be the start of the only just over a 1 million species described largest global meltdown of insects – species About the author (Adler and Foottit, 2017). Many more await and individuals – since the Cretaceous, 66 Michael is Distinguished discovery, while many previously unknown million years ago. Professor in the Department species are being revealed through genetic of Conservation Ecology & studies. This huge insect variety means Perceptions Entomology at Stellenbosch countless ecological interactions, from Many of the scientific and management University, South Africa. herbivory and pollination to predation tools are in place to halt, and in some Citation and parasitism. Importantly, insects locations reverse, this precipitous insect Samways MJ (2019) are a vital component of terrestrial food decline (Samways, 2015). The fundamental Addressing global insect webs, meaning essential food items for issue facing us is to improve our overall meltdown. The Ecological many birds, small mammals, lizards and appreciation and valuation of insects, Citizen 3(Suppl A): 23–6. amphibians, as well as for each other. and then have the will to stop the decline Keywords As insects are small and often hidden (Simaika and Samways, 2018). While Agriculture; biodiversity; among plants, in crevices, or below ground, human-induced climate change has its conservation; intrinsic we do not easily relate to them. It is mostly deniers, global insect meltdown is shrouded value; sixth mass extinction the large, benign and charismatic species, in ignorance more than denial. It is now such as butterflies, dragonflies and crucial that more people become aware of grasshoppers, to which we relate. In short, what is happening to insects, which, besides while we value the few, we underappreciate having intrinsic value in terms of their vast the many. Yet it is this ‘many’ that not only diversity and evolutionary legacy, are also grace the planet, but also support a vast essential for life as we know it, as well as number of life functions that we rarely see, for our survival (Losey and Vaughan, 2006). and so do not value. This unseen majority is A third of our food crops, especially those apparent in swifts, martins and swallows of high nutritional value, require insect wheeling for hours, catching insect food on pollinators. Moreover, most flowering the wing. At any one time, there are trillions plants depend on insect pollinators. The of insects circulating in the air, known global decline in insect pollinators has as ‘bioflows’, creating an intrinsically indeed been a shock, stimulating much important dynamic ecological tapestry, needed action for recovery for all insects where essential nutrients for ecosystems (Habel et al., 2019). There is a growing are continually circulated (Hu et al., 2016). realization that not only humans, but Current concern is not just about the also much of the fabric of terrestrial life, decline in insect species (Sánchez-Bayo depends on the ‘services’ of insects. and Wyckhuys, 2019), but also their abundances (Hallmann et al., 2017), Reasons for insect decline through fragmentation and attrition of The reasons for human-driven insect insect populations globally (Samways, decline are many and diverse. Loss of natural 2019). Put simply, insects are not as habitat, attrition of remaining habitat abundant or diverse as in the recent past. fragments, and agricultural intensification Insect decline was already recognized in are the greatest threats to insects in most

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parts of the world (Gerlach et al., 2012). populations. In some areas, this extra help Natural forests, wetlands and grasslands is physically improving conditions for have been converted to plantations, insects through habitat restoration. Citizen grazing lands and croplands, making these science for young learners is also a great areas often depauperate in insects. This opportunity, not least because they are large-scale onslaught on environmental receptive to actions that improve their own conditions has resulted in collateral damage future (Saunders et al., 2018). to insects. There has been little appreciation A move away from agricultural that these small animals rejuvenate and intensification to ecological intensification till the soil, enable the survival of flowering (where all natural ecological integrity plants, support innumerable fauna that are and ecosystem function and resilience is higher in the food chain, and, through some maintained) is now crucial (Garibaldi et of them being predatory or parasitic, are an al., 2019). This approach views insect and effective alternative to the use of generally other diversity of life forms as requiring “A move away harmful pesticides. Their homes in the form space. Yet this is not any space, but rather from agricultural of indigenous microhabitats are being taken quality space in terms of allowing for a away in a matter of just a few years. greater proportion of natural or semi-wild intensification In addition, the use of heavy machinery, habitat relative to areas of production. to ecological nitrogenous fertilizers, pesticides and Providing abundant protected areas of intensification (where overly intense grazing, as well as pollution, natural habitat, contiguous with cultivated all natural ecological has further impacted insects. Many of lands, thus plays a major role in this integrity and these compounded impacts are adversely approach. Also important are networks of synergistic, each producing increasingly conservation corridors (Figure 1; Samways ecosystem function antagonistic impacts alongside the others. and Pryke, 2016). At the smaller spatial and resilience is Additionally, climate change has emerged scale, improvements for insect life can maintained) is now as an extra impact, producing, in concert be fostered by planting insect-friendly crucial.” with landscape fragmentation, a ‘deadly strips of vegetation between crop rows anthropogenic cocktail’ (Travis, 2003). (Figure 2). This practice is associated with Increasing human demands and the approach known as ‘integrated pest incursions are also adding pressure on management’, where there is maximal use freshwater ecologies, whether through of natural enemies for injurious insects over-abstraction of water, or pollution of and thus less reliance on pesticides. rivers, lakes, and other water bodies with Natural or semi-natural vegetation can pesticides, nitrogenous compounds and also provide refuges and nectar resources heavy metals (Darwall et al., 2012). In and for these natural enemies, as well as for around towns and cities, there are two pollinators (Winter et al., 2018). This shift other impacts adversely affecting insects: to a more sensitive ecological approach artificial lighting, which disorients and also necessitates a shift in human affects the survival of night-flying insects perception and values, to take on board such as moths (Longcore et al., 2015), and a sustainable future for biodiversity and roadkill from increased traffic density agriculture, beyond immediate commercial and speed (Martin et al., 2018). Except in profitability. rare cases, these impacts are proving to be In an urban environment, greenspace in extremely challenging to address. the form of urban parks and eco-friendly gardens is playing a major role in insect How to help insects protection (Guenat et al., 2019). However, Firstly, we need to assess how insect the issue of artificial lighting of urban species and their populations are faring. areas is still a great challenge. There are While such assessments require scientific some technical ways to reduce the impacts validation, citizen science is now playing of light pollution, such as moving away a vitally important role by providing more from white to a softer light (Somers- eyes and hands to record changes in insect Yeats et al., 2013) and reducing roadkill

24 The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 www.ecologicalcitizen.net Addressing global insect meltdown

Figure 1. Large, remnant, high-quality conservation corridors, such as this one among plantation blocks, play a major role in conserving insects in a changing world. through improvement in the structure options are available for insects to move and naturalness of roadside vegetation across the landscape, as they did before (Skórka et al., 2013) and implementation of industrialization and widespread habitat insect flight deflectors for their protection fragmentation. This means that we (Skórka et al., 2015). However, globally there must always consider ways to improve is limited motivation for implementing functional connectivity across the such actions, given so many other social landscape, especially for maintaining perspectives and priorities among urban high levels of intact populations and their planners. dynamics across the landscape. Inevitably, River protection ideally must consider the we will see distinct insect winners and whole catchment, and must also include losers in this rapidly changing world, conservation of the riparian corridor, as depending on the traits of species on many aquatic insects require both good the one hand, and the extent and degree water conditions and a healthy river margin of the challenges that they face on the (Dalzochio et al., 2018). Ponds are also other. While we are losing species and playing a major role in insect conservation, populations, some insect species are especially when they are well-vegetated, already genetically adapting to the new unpolluted, and functionally well connected conditions. What is now required is raising (Hill et al., 2018). awareness about the plight of insects and their importance to the natural The future functioning of the planet, and providing Global climate change will be less them with as many opportunities for severe on insect populations when survival as possible. n

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Hill MJ, Hassall C, Oertli B et al. (2018) New policy directions for global pond conservation. Conservation Letters 11: e12447.

Hu G, Lim KS, Horvitz N et al. (2016) Mass seasonal bioflows of high-flying insect migrants. Science 354: 1584–87.

Longcore T, Aldern HL, Eggers JF et al. (2015) Tuning the white light spectrum of light emitting diode lamps to reduce attraction of nocturnal arthropods. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 370: 20140125.

Losey JE and Vaughan M (2006) The economic value of ecological services provided by insects. BioScience 56: 311–23.

Martin AE, Graham SL, Henry M et al. (2018) Flying insect abundance declines with increasing road traffic. Insect Conservation and Diversity 11: 608–13.

Samways MJ (2015) Future-proofing insect diversity. Current Opinion in Insect Science 12: 71–8.

Samways MJ (2019) Insect Conservation: A global synthesis. CABI, Wallingford, UK.

Samways MJ and Pryke JS (2016) Large-scale Figure 2. At a small spatial scale, inter-rows between crop lines (here vines) ecological networks do work in an ecologically provide essential stepping stone habitats for insects across the landscape. complex biodiversity hotspot. Ambio 45: 161–72. References Sánchez-Bayo F and Wyckhuys KA (2019) Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers. Adler PH and Foottit RG (2017) Introduction. In: Foottit Biological Conservation 232: 8–27. RG and Adler PH, eds. Insect Biodiversity: Science and society, Volume 1 (2nd edition). Wiley Blackwell, Saunders ME, Roger E, Geary WL et al. (2018) Citizen Hoboken, NJ, USA: 1–7. science in schools: Engaging students in research on urban habitat for pollinators. Austral Ecology 43: Dalzochio MS, Périco E, Renner S and Sahlén G 635–42. (2018) Effect of tree plantations on the functional composition of Odonata species in the highlands of Simaika JP and Samways MJ (2018) Insect conservation southern Brazil. Hydrobiologia 808: 283–300. psychology. Journal of Insect Conservation 22: 635- 42. Darwall W, Seddon M, Clausnitzer V and Cumberlidge, N (2012) Freshwater invertebrate life. In: Collen B, Skórka P, Lenda M, Moroń D et al. (2013) Factors Böhm M, Kemp R and Baillie JE, eds. Spineless: Status affecting road mortality and the suitability of road and trends of the world’s invertebrates. Zoological verges for butterflies. Biological Conservation 159: Society of London, London, UK: 26–33. 148–57. Garibaldi LA, Pérez-Méndez N, Garratt MP et al. Skórka P, Lenda M, Moroń D et al. (2015) Biodiversity (2019) Policies for ecological intensification of crop collision blackspots in Poland: Separation causality production. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 34: 154–66. from stochasticity in roadkills of butterflies. Biological Conservation 187: 154–63. Gerlach J, Hoffman Black S, Hochkirch A et al. (2012) Terrestrial invertebrate life. In: Collen B, Böhm M, Somers-Yeates R, Hodgson D, McGregor PK et al. (2013) Kemp R and Baillie JE, eds. Spineless: Status and trends Shedding light on moths: shorter wavelengths of the world’s invertebrates. Zoological Society of attract noctuids more than geometrids. Biology London, London, UK: 46–57. Letters 9: 20130376. Guenat S, Kunin WE, Dougill AJ and Dallimer M (2019) Swinton AH (1880) Insect Variety: Its propagation and Effects of urbanisation and management practices distribution. Cassell, Petter Galpin & Co, London, on pollinators in tropical Africa. Journal of Applied UK. Ecology 56: 214–24. Travis JM (2003) Climate change and habitat Habel JC, Samways MJ and Schmitt T (2019) Mitigating destruction: a deadly anthropogenic cocktail. the precipitous decline of terrestrial European Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences insects: Requirements for a new strategy. Biodiversity 270: 4 67–7 3 .

and Conservation 28: 1343–60. Winter S, Bauer T, Strauss P et al. (2018) Effects of Hallmann CA, Sorg M, Jongejans E et al. (2017) More than vegetation management intensity on biodiversity 75 percent decline over 27 years in total flying insect and ecosystem services in vineyards: A meta- biomass in protected areas. PLoS ONE 12: e0185809. analysis. Journal of Applied Ecology 55: 2484–95.

26 The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 www.ecologicalcitizen.net LONG ARTICLE

Restoring the living ocean: The time is now

The first part of this two-part essay looks at the destruction that industrial fishing has Eileen Crist unleashed on the global ocean. Human beings have forgotten the living abundance that the seas once harboured. A conglomerate of anthropocentric concepts, mega machines, About the author international fishing fleets and consumerist oblivion has laid waste to that abundance, and Eileen has been teaching brought extinction, death and suffering to marine beings. The subject matter of part two at Virginia Tech in the Department of Science and is deep-sea mining, which is under preparation for commercial launching. Like industrial Technology in Society since fishing, it must be stopped. What is at stake at this historic moment is not only the fate of 1997. She has written and the living ocean, but who we are and who we choose to be as humanity on this planet. co-edited numerous papers and books, with her work Part 1: Sweet delight as if massively destroying ecosystems focusing on biodiversity were the most normal thing ever devised. loss and destruction of wild places, along with pathways and endless night The global fishing industry operates more to halt these trends. Eileen vessels than there are numbers of fish left to lives in Blacksburg, VA, USA. he global ocean is imperilled. be caught, while the incalculable numbers What remains of marine life of slaughtered bystanders are labelled ‘by- Citation abundance, a tiny fraction of catch’ as if they are killed by mistake. Crist E (2019) Restoring the T living ocean: The time is now. what once was, continues to be afflicted This onslaught on virtually the entire The Ecological Citizen 3(Suppl by industrial fishing, anthropogenic ocean rests on its presumed rightful A): 27–41. starvations and diseases, rapid climate conversion into an all-you-can-eat buffet change and acidification, and all manner of for global consumers, cushioned with Keywords pollution such as sewage, garbage, oil spills, nomenclature like fisheries, fish stock, Biodiversity; human and fertilizer and pesticide runoff(Danson, seafood and by-catch to moor the normality supremacy; protected 2011). Persistent organic pollutants have of that buffet in the human mind. Industrial areas; sixth mass extinction; water infiltrated the ocean so that the bodies of fishing additionally depends on rezoning some top predators meet the definition of the ocean’s places as either nation-owned toxic waste (Whitty, 2011: 118). And what to (economic exclusive zones) or humanity’s say of the spectre of gigantic amounts of commonwealth (the high seas [also known plastic, decomposing but not biodegrading, as ‘the Area’]), thus institutionalizing killing millions of marine animals every human ownership of the ocean – and year, and entering the worldwide food web? further befuddling the human mind. (Law and Thompson, 2014; Mooney, 2014). Industrial fishing also relies on a plunder- Of the multiple threats to the ocean, enabling international regime of ‘maximum industrial fishing has caused and continues sustainable yields’, flags of convenience, to cause the greatest devastation. In the odd government subsidies, developing nations 150 years of its history, and especially since (corrupt and non-corrupt) selling fishing 1950, industrial fishing by an international rights to developed nations (unscrupulous cadre has perpetrated an egregious assault and not), and lax-to-non-existent law on fish – indeed, on all marine life and enforcement against illegal fishing practices habitats. Along with industrial agriculture, by both authorized and poaching vessels. industrial fishing constitutes Exhibit A of What suffers is not only the living ocean the human-supremacist mode of operation: whose very existence in the cosmos is as both exercise biome-scale appropriation and close to the miraculous as human beings extraction, with blithe matter-of-factness, can experience. What suffers is the human –

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human identity – degraded to user, usurper submarines and cables. A ‘serviceable’ big and petty criminal in the community of life. body of water, in other words. Ignorance about both the ecological history and current state of the ocean is Abundance rampant. The seas have become destitute Which is exactly what the ocean is not. of “their once great abundance of whales, Everything about the ocean – including walruses, sea cows, seals, dolphins, sea its delicious scent, which is also fading turtles, sharks, rays, and large fish” (Upton, 2013) – flows from its polyphony (Jackson, 2005: 29). The immense shoals of of life. The ocean is a life-creating and small fish – known as prey or forage fish life-proliferating crucible, the place where because they feed a diverse and large cast of life itself likely emerged, and whose deep “Ignorance about predators – are also in precipitous decline. past lingers in our intimate fluids of sweat, both the ecological It strains the imagination to countenance blood, and tears (Helmreich, 2010). Until history and current the destruction of marine life that has recently, the seas teemed with beings state of the ocean occurred: to learn from archaeological data, from the microscopic phytoplankton eyewitness and first-hand accounts e.g. ( and zooplankton (the bottom of the food is rampant. ” fishing or whaling logbooks), and historical web, now threatened) to billions of prey marine ecology about the cornucopia fish, billions of carnivorous big fish, and of marine life, most especially prior to millions of whales whose carcasses and when industrial fishing commenced on a dung returned to marine life – including to global scale (Schrope, 2006; Roberts, 2007). the abyssal biota – food to feed them. As true Marine biologist Callum Roberts writes of the ocean as it is of the land, “the world is that “before 20th century industrial fishing the sphere of superabundance. Heaven and took off, European seas seethed with life” Earth contrive to drip sweet dew. Contrary (2007: 128); these were seas that had already to the command of man, it drips evenly been long assailed by fishing – we might over all species” (Cafard, 2017: 70). try to imagine what that life-seething Abundance fed abundance and bred was like in places more untouched. On a abundance, and fish often graced with long global scale today, in the words of marine lives grew to be really big. (Fish typically researchers Ransom Myers and Boris continue to grow as they become older. Worm, “everywhere you go, in every ocean Bigger fish lay more eggs, so bigness is basin, hotspots of life are only relics of what a vital source of marine abundance.) In was once there” (Myers and Worm, 2005). The Unnatural History of the Seas,1 Callum Without willingness to open to the Roberts reports that 30-foot great white understanding of what has been lost, sharks were compared to whales and 20- humanity will remain incapable of aspiring foot sharks (rare these days) were common to the restoration of life-filled seas. when, for example, the Europeans arrived Instead, people will settle for the large- at the islands, shores and seas of the New scale replacement of wild fish with factory- World (Roberts, 2007). Erstwhile numbers farmed fish, while seas suffer bulldozed and sizes of all fish are legendary – not continental shelves and seamounts, massive only the cod who fed people for centuries, defaunation and extinctions, offshore but also the tuna, marlin, sturgeon, salmon and deep-sea mining, jellyfish population and swordfish to name some others. explosions, and the disappearance of coral Cod could reach three feet, and their reefs and coastal wetlands. Humanity is extravagant numbers were compared with in danger of capitulating to the human grains of sand; imagine the numbers of takeover of the ocean that is leading to the fish they fed on. The average swordfish its ontological reduction into a ‘protein’ today has dropped to less than half the size factory, a desalinizing solution to the it was 100 years ago (Danson, 2011: 104), freshwater crisis, a fossil-fuel and mineral meaning that swordfish live under the extraction domain, and a global transit perpetual shadow of being hunted so their zone for container ships, nuclear-armed odds of living long are slim.

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Indeed marine animals do not get to live towards former and not that distant Edens as long, eat as heartily and grow as big as of the seas is not some nostalgic pastime: It they did when the seas overflowed with is about nurturing a yearning towards who life, and feeding was not a competition or a we need to become to restore and inhabit struggle with scarcity, but an extravaganza that rich lifeworld again. of more-than-plenty to go around. Coastal The food web of the ocean belied the seas were bursting with enormous diversity classic pyramid structure of profusion and numbers of beings, and wildlife of microorganisms, followed by prolific spectacles could be witnessed from shore plant life and small critters, topped by (Roberts, 2007). What beauty there was to lesser numbers of mid-sized predators, bruise the eyes when the Caribbean was and finally capped by few large predators graced with coral reefs, forested with sea at the web’s apex. Rather than being meadows, and dwelled in by innumerable triangular, the ocean’s food web displayed groupers, reef sharks, moray eels, rays, abundance at every trophic tier (Jackson, parrotfish, seals, sea turtles, and rainbows 2005). The plankton and krill; prey fish like of all sorts and sizes of tropical fish herring, sand eels, sardines, menhaden (Figure 1). Only ten per cent of the original and anchovetas; the larger fish such as coral-reef Caribbean habitat remains today. mackerel, cod, haddock, pollock and Imagining the Mediterranean in the early sturgeon; the even bigger ones, like sharks, Holocene is nearly impossible, for it is a sea swordfish and tuna; the sea turtles and that has been subject to human exploitation the seabirds; the mammals, such as seals, for millennia. To grope in the mind’s eye manatees, dolphins, porpoises and whales;

Figure 1. A sea turtle photographed off Curaçao in the Caribbean Sea in 2012 (photo: Laszlo Ilyes [CC BY 2.0;https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/]).

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and the habitat-building oysters, mussels, the awesomeness of the living world; it sponges, clams and reefs. Numbers of is the real ground to build human life and species, population masses, extravagant inhabitation. sizes and marine wildlife spectacles were Experiencing the numinous quality of as unbounded as the seas are wide and deep. non-human awareness is blissful. That An intimate and rich conversation some might dismiss such a statement as primordially bonds marine and terrestrial romantic does not undo the fact that a clear life. Clouds forming over the seas with the human being encountering the numinous help of oceanic microorganisms bring rain quality of non-human awareness feels to the land, and rain loosens nutrients from bliss – subtle or elating, commonplace or rocks that flow back to the sea via rivers. The sublime. Indigenous peoples, who were ocean’s bounty was also brought inland by conscious of the nexus of perceiving- anadromous fish (Waldman, 2010; Jackson the-numinous and experiencing-bliss, et al., 2011). Rivers of fish might be pursued participated in the living world’s creativity, inland by their predators, like porpoises abundance, multiplicity and reciprocity. swimming up Britain’s Thames and sharks Along with bears, eagles and trees, they into North America’s James River. The also welcomed and ate the migrating fish. salmon, shad, whitefish, sturgeon and And the fish always returned, in numbers others brought nutrients to the terrestrial that “stretched capacity to believe,” animals, trees and soil. Eels went the other surging onward, seeming to reverse the way, bringing gifts of the land to the seas. river’s flow, spawning prodigiously, more Thus is the natural world knit into a higher- than enough to sustain the forest and its order pattern of intelligence through life’s beings, more than enough to recreate their strivings, sensory pleasures, evolved own abundance (Roberts, 2007: 49; Vickers interfaces, whole-weaving multiplicities and McClenachan, 2011: 128). “For millennia, and mutual feasts. Western civilization Stories of fish-filled seas and rivers, and Wetiko endeavoured to keep of fecund ecotones where ocean and land More than enough to keep the First People meet, teach us that our life-science ideas in gratitude (House, 1999). Not so for itself in the dark about ‘cooperation versus competition’ and members of a culture raised on a credo of about non-human ‘mutualism versus struggle for survival’, Homo sapiens’ superlative stature. As Native minds, for they while exhibiting some limited erudition, American writer Jack Forbes expounds have represented a do not hold a candle to life’s phenomena about the Wetiko psychosis, supremacist themselves, which are creative, fecund, individuals and societies destroy in order cardinal threat to myriad and relational, including relations to devour the life of those considered human arrogance.” between different species of mind. beneath them, whether non-human or For millennia, Western civilization human (Forbes, 2008). The belief of being endeavoured to keep itself in the dark exceptional – ensouled, rational, self- about non-human minds, for they have aware, technological or what-have-you – represented a cardinal threat to human makes it easy to turn others into just trees, arrogance. When we awaken (as is dawning just fish, just rivers, just meat, or, until not today) to the pervasiveness of forms of too long ago, just savages. awareness on this planet, we surface into The fish runs of Europe were wrecked by awe. When we awaken, we see ourselves fishing, dams and industry in the medieval seen from non-human standpoints – and period, all but silencing one of the planet’s recognize that we have always been seen. sea–land conversations (Roberts, 2007). We acknowledge that we do not want to be Europeans turned to their fish-abounding seen as tyrant-zombies to be feared and coasts, and, after overfishing them, avoided, but rather as mindful, curious continued fishing further and further beings who might even evoke awe in them. afield. Eventually, they came to the New Awe is not epiphenomenal sentimentality. World for its fish – and for its whales, It is a state of grounded being that reflects walruses, seals, seabirds, sea turtles and

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Figure 2. Plastic pollution on a beach in Ghana in 2018 (photo: Muntaka Chasant [CC BY-SA 4.0; https://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-sa/4.0/]). sea otters. Thus, ‘civilized’ rapaciousness of the human spirit – is key to redeeming towards the natural world kept rehearsing that history through the liberation of all itself, except that the destruction of the Earthlings from the physical cruelty and New World was more horrific because of mental decay of supremacist creeds. its speed, scale and brutality. By the early By the end of the 19th century, whaling modern period, Wetiko markets targeting was a global business. Today, even with a oblivious consumers were devouring the moratorium, the vast majority of whales marine life of the New World as flesh, eggs, are gone. Where once they sought us, now oils, pelts, fur and feather commodities many humans seek to be near them. We (Mowat, 1996). must restore a world in which they thrive Over the course of centuries and again and we can mutually meet. Every life accelerating in the 18th through the 20th, meeting is a meeting of minds, and in the the whale people – called “fisheries” – meeting of minds lies one of the greatest were serially decimated, population after joys of being alive. Therefore, still-whaling population, place after place, and species nations must stand down today. The whales after species. Wherever seafarers found are experiencing suffering enough – what unexploited whale pods, the numbers with anthropogenic starvations and were staggering. The whales came to see disease, ship collisions, entanglements those seafarers, crowding around the ship in fishing gear, noise pollution and the vessels; they were slaughtered in response. scourge of plastic waste (Figure 2). One Yet those whalers were not murderers – hundred thousand small whales, dolphins, they were brainwashed by a sociocultural and porpoises are deliberately slaughtered setup of human supremacy, and thus every year, by an international cast of stripped of the desire (the human birthright) offenders, for meat, bait or body parts to see, be seen by and communicate with (Altherr and Hodgins, 2018). Whales are non-humans. To learn this missive from washing up emaciated and with their history – of the internal connection stomachs full of plastic and garbage. In between the devastation of the non- one example, a sperm whale beached in human realm and the pitiable contraction 2012 was found to have in their stomach

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30 square metres of tarpaulin, 4.5 metres of the industrial-fishing complex (Golden et long hose, a 9-metre plastic rope and two al., 2016). Along with other marine beings, flower pots.2 Yet a few centuries ago, sperm fish are being exterminated at every whales were a million strong and schools ecological tier of the ocean, with shoddy of them numbered 600 to 700 (Whitty, accountability on that (legal, shady and 2011: 167; Roberts, 2007: 93). Now, with illegal) appropriation (Pauly and Zeller, just a fraction of sperm whales left, and 2016). The majority of ‘fish stock’ and behemoth-sized males scarce, if a family of ‘fisheries’ – jargon that warps living seas females and their children run into hungry into human warehouses – are so exploited killer whales – themselves suffering that the trend in biomass across species is “From an from toxic pollutants, food insecurity, sliding downhill (Gjerde et al., 2013: 540). exuberance of and starvations – there may follow an Only 10 percent of the historical populations life the ocean has agonizing ripping of flesh: the protection of big fish remain (Myers and Worm, 2005). that numbers and sizes of sperm whales All the entitled taking is emptying the become unsafe for offered against killer-whale predation are seas of the livelihood of marine animals. its residents, yet gone (Whitty, 2011). Vacuuming the herring, menhaden, the public seems The standard answer to industrial fishing anchovies, sardines and other small fish buffered from decimations of “fish stocks” has been to is taking its toll on seabirds, sea lions, “‘move on’ down the food web, toward penguins, dolphins and whales, among that knowledge, deeper waters, and to other areas or regions others. On California’s coast, sea lions and society keeps up the of the world” (Sumaila and Pauly, 2011: 25). their pups have recently experienced famine pretense of seafood That historical pattern continues, even as (Steinmetz, 2014). Arctic terns, puffins, as ‘health food’, and global fish catch peaked over two decades albatrosses, and other seabirds are taking the mainstream ago. Today, industrial fishing fleets from nosedives in their numbers (van Dooren, China, European nation-states, Chile, 2014: chapter 1). Seabird populations have observes silence Indonesia, Canada, the US, India, Thailand, declined by 70% overall since 1970. With about the plight of South Korea and Vietnam, to name some krill opined a ‘sustainable fishery’ – for such the sea’s beings.” players, are rushing to extract the fish consumer niceties as aquaculture feed and of their own seas, of the high seas, of health supplements – how can whales find Africa’s coasts, of any places fish are left sufficient sustenance to make a comeback? to extract. The fishing methods – trawling (Since the 1970s, krill populations have (super-trawlers can reach the length of 1.5 declined by 80% [Taylor, 2018].) Plastic American football fields), long-line fishing bags strangle the digestive tracts of sea (with thousands of baited hooks), and turtles who mistake them for jellyfish. All purse-seine netting (which can be more species of sea turtles are endangered from than 6000 feet in length and 600 feet in multiple pressures (see Crist [2019: 137–9]). depth) – are expedient at mass killing. One Over a million seabirds, 100,000 marine fishing tactic exploits the predilection of mammals and uncountable fish die yearly fish and other marine creatures to gather in the North Pacific from eating plastic or around floating objects in the open sea. getting ensnared in it (Casey, 2010). From Buoys called ‘fish aggregating devices’ an exuberance of life the ocean has become (FADs), often equipped with sonar and unsafe for its residents, yet the public seems GPS, are strewn across the ocean to lure buffered from that knowledge, society fish into their vicinity before the fishing keeps up the pretense of seafood as ‘health vessels arrive. In the western and central food’, and the mainstream observes silence Pacific Ocean alone, there are more than about the plight of the sea’s beings, thus 50,000 FADs legally sited (Urbina, 2019: 65). breathing new meaning into the adage All around, the industrial-fishing machine Silence = Death. has become ‘High-Tech Wetiko’. People of developing nations, who rely Reality versus normality on fish from artisanal fishers, are robbed It is amazing to watch how Dr Seuss of both livelihood and nourishment by captivates the minds of children with so

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many interdimensional flower-animal- wonders they have taken to vandalizing: beings in enchanted landscapes filled its mountains. with colourful structures that protrude, Earth’s seamounts jut out of ocean intrude and levitate. We inhabit a world depths forming majestic peaks, gorges and that makes Dr Seuss’s creativity a dreamy valleys. Life has set up house on them, of plagiarism of its creatures, their antics, course. Deep-sea coral lives there, some of their peregrinations and their makings it hundreds and even thousands of years of worlds. We are members of a living old. Fish who have evolved abilities to planet that also enchants children, before withstand extreme conditions of pressure they grow into the brainwash that Earth and cold also live there. Trans-oceanic is human property composed of natural travellers like tuna, sharks and sea turtles resources, providing maximum yields of, make stopovers. These are places dwelled among other things, cheap seafood. Cheap in by some of Earth’s strangest, most long- seafood that can be eaten by the global lived children. They are oases of gorgeous consumer class – which recently passed life. Here come the trawlers with their the half point of the global population military gear and yawning steel mouths (Kharas and Hamel, 2018) – in any amount, to desecrate the mounts, extract the fish at any time, and with much enthusiasm for and discard the by-catch. It is horror-genre “Trawlers all its ostensible micronutrients. Yet the material turned into a reality show in the should have been counsel deserves stating that the days when ongoing staging of human supremacy decommissioned eating fish was good for human fitness on Earth. are receding in the rearview mirror, while The people who eat the fish live ‘light- long ago, their the currently unknown repercussions of years’ away from the continental shelves, parts recycled into ingesting microplastics are undergoing a high seas and seamounts and know little something useful.” mammoth ‘experimental trial’. about them. Certainly not about the sea Where submerged continents extend out mounts’ Seuss-like corals, sea fans and fish towards ocean depths, they form once-life- who are older than their grandmothers. prolific continental shelves: In rampages Nor any of the cool science stories about of demolitions, industrial trawlers have those habitats and their endemism, or gouged out marine beings and shattered evolutionary tales from coruscating their three-dimensional, life-created stardust to the magic of creatures who habitats. Rolling hills filled with fish, make their own light. The fish suddenly mussels, oysters, crabs, anemones, appear in the supermarket. Some of them tubeworms and sponges, among others, living near Australia and New Zealand have been smashed and levelled, while used to be called ‘slime heads’, but were leafy glades and sea forests have been renamed ‘orange roughy’ for better turned to muddy flats. “Today,” writes marketing appeal (Kurlansk y, 2011). Some Roberts, “there is hardly a scrap of suitable of them dwelling in the Southern Ocean, bottom in the world that has not felt the called ‘toothfish’, were renamed ‘Chilean scrape of a trawl.” As a result, where there sea bass’ for its exotic ring (Urbina, 2019). once were “rich, complex, and productive Having suffered the fleeting reduction habitats,” what predominates is “gravel, into being-flesh,3 and predictable ‘fishery sand, and mud” (Roberts, 2007: 156). “Each collapses’, what fragment of real life of our year,” writes Ted Danson, “the world’s fleet slime head and toothfish cousins remains, of bottom trawlers disturbs a seabed area and of so many others who have suffered twice the size of the contiguous United and are suffering the same fate (Dreifus, States” (2011: 82). Trawlers should have 2002; Victorero et al., 2018)? been decommissioned long ago, their parts It is not necessary to Question Reality in recycled into something useful. Quite whose cosmic play we are enmeshed, even to the contrary, however, having fished as we are denied metaphysical knowledge of out the relatively accessible waters of what lies beyond it. Questioning Normality, continental shelves, there are other ocean however, is good. For example, the octopus

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on the menu. If you give an octopus in an be treated unjustly. A resource does not aquarium a ball, she will bounce it against create exquisite worlds nor look you in the the walls to pass the time. It is good also eye. It can be ‘harvested unsustainably’ to question the mass-produced shrimp, or, unwanted, thrown overboard like spooned into one another on the mass- trash. A resource can be ‘depleted’ and produced plastic cocktail trays. For every may even ‘collapse’. When such things pound of shrimp, 10 pounds of sea life are happen to the resource, earnest calls thrown overboard dead and dying (by- entreat more sustainable harvesting (or catch); tens of thousands of sea turtles farming). The problem with this ostensible are killed yearly by commercial shrimp corrective to the serial depletion of fish is trawls in the Gulf of Mexico (by-catch); that, as a solution, it will never retrieve and mangrove ecologies are deforested the primordial condition of free seas of for shrimp aquaculture (Danson, 2011; abundant, creative and ocean-churning “The industrial- Keledjian et al., 2014). Let’s question the life. The intent of ‘fisheries management’ fishing regime has parade of fish species featured in lines is not to restore such living waters, but like Filet-O-Fish and look into the labour to make maximal taking from the ocean remodelled the ocean conditions that deliver cheap fish (Urbina, pantry sustainable. “The goal of fisheries into a scrumptious 2019). And: Do you really want to eat the management,” in official speak, “is to food jar from which factory-farmed, dyed-pink, wild-fish-fed, optimize society’s total benefit from the to extract cheap habitat-polluting, soon-to-be-GM salmon? use of natural resources” (Nielsen, 1976: 15). “Think about that slab of tuna in the deli A telling exercise would be to deconstruct fish for the global case as bushmeat,’’ urges marine biologist virtually every word in this sentence to consumer class. Sylvia Earle (2003). More to the point, think discern how the real is denatured into the This regime will be about that slab of tuna as a crime.4 Question normal. allowed to destroy the restaurant grouper that may well not From living artwork composed by a 5 the living ocean as be a grouper – or worse, actually is. The plenum of beings and phenomena – with swordfish steak: Can we not let them be? The dramatic, life-sustaining reverberations long as we continue tasty scallops? Along with half of the total throughout the whole Earth system to think, without fish catch, they come from trawling, which (including, notably, the air we breathe) explicitly thinking it, (it bears repeating) is among the most base – the industrial-fishing regime has that industrial fishing assaults on nature ever orchestrated. With remodelled the ocean into a scrumptious undiscriminating violence, in a matter food jar from which to extract cheap fish is normal. ” of hours, trawlers devastate what it took for the global consumer class. This regime the natural world hundreds or thousands will be allowed to destroy the living ocean of years to create. (The silt clouds that as long as we continue to think, without trawlers stir underwater can show up on explicitly thinking it, that industrial satellite images.) What about the lobsters? fishing is normal. They are still plentiful, because their predators have been decimated. Lobsters Cosmic wealth were once so beneath polite-society food, We can choose the real over the normal by they were fed to convicts and slaves and giving the ocean back its freedom, thus used for fertilizer. Lobsters have had a enabling the restitution of its abundant status ‘upgrade’ because in certain places life. Despite a frequent incrimination of they are all that is left. When lobsters lived climate change as cause of sea-life trouble, out their natural lifespans, they might industrial fishing is the chief driver of grow to 20 pounds. marine biodiversity destruction (Pitcher It is good to Question Normality for all the and Cheung, 2013: 510; McCauley et al., above reasons. It is especially important 2015). To underscore this, consider coral to question the normality of calling sea reefs, which are directly imperilled by life ‘marine resources for harvesting’. climate change and acidification. Yet today, A resource does not feel, think or know coral reef areas that are strictly protected pleasure. It cannot die, starve, suffer or from fishing (and pollution) are faring

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better than those not so protected (Roberts plastic production and use. “What we are et al., 2017). This means that in order to witnessing in the global ocean,” states have a shot at preserving the world’s coral scientist Marcus Eriksen, “is a growing reefs, we must strictly protect them right threat of toxin-laden microplastics cycling now. Indeed, restoring oceanic life requires through the entire marine ecosystem” bold action. Captain Paul Watson calls for (quoted in Mooney [2014]). Ending a 50-year moratorium on all commercial ocean pollution also means embracing fishing “to give the ocean time to repair agroecological food production and phasing itself” (Watson, 2018: 152). Given the out industrial agriculture with its estuary- In order to have a devastated condition of marine life, and killing fertilizer and pesticide run-off, and “ an ocean heading towards mass extinction its hefty contribution to climate upheaval. shot at preserving and decimations of wild fish, this is a self- In the medium-to-longer term, we the world’s coral evidently rational proposal. Is it too much must work towards humanely lowering reefs, we must to hope that some leaders might have our global population considerably in strictly protect them sufficient clarity to hear it, and sufficient order to support the substantial lowering courage to attempt its implementation? of fish consumption and to enable the right now.” At the very least, we must immediately deindustrialization of all food production establish a vast ocean-wide network of (Crist, 2019). Even as it is an ecocentric marine protected areas. This can begin imperative today, in a downsized future with an international agreement to stop people can also opt for eating fish sparingly, all fishing in the high seas. By prohibiting so that the cosmic wealth of marine life is legal fishing in the high seas, illegal preserved. The choice of eating no fish is fishing vessels would become more readily also prudent – especially where people are detectable, making law enforcement easier. not dependent on fish for basic nourishment Along with networked protected areas – to avoid the infliction of unnecessary along the world’s coasts, estuaries and suffering. As author Jonathan Safran Foer islands, full high-seas protection would states (2009: 193): “No fish gets a good enable the renewal of marine life: research death. Not a single one. You never have reveals that ecological revival follows in to wonder if the fish on your plate had to strictly protected marine areas (Warne, suffer. It did.” 2007: Roberts et al., 2017). In a world of globally trading billions, the We must end the mass extermination mass consumption of fish equals the mass enterprise of industrial fishing with its extermination of beings and ecologies that collateral slaying of whales, dolphins, we, and our descendants, might explore and sharks, sea turtles and seabirds, among witness instead of eating without restraint. innumerable others (Keledjian et al., 2014). “The great majority of sea species are badly Indeed, artisanal and subsistence fishers depleted,” Jackson rues. “But they still agitated for the abolition of trawling exist. If people actually went away, most almost as soon as it was invented (Roberts, could recover” (quoted in Weisman [2007: 2007: chapter 10). Calls to ban trawling 266]). We do not literally have to go away. have continued but been derailed by the Just lay the weapons down. In exchange, fishing industry (Rabesandratana, 2013). we will feast our eyes and minds with the At this eleventh hour, humanity must find pleasures of life’s marvels, encountering the wisdom and the mettle to dismantle all forms of awareness unlike our own, and industrial-fishing weapons, starting with bathing the fire of our sight in the colour trawling (Danson, 2011; Keledjian et al., and dance of diverse sea animals and plants. 2014; Rabesandratana, 2013). We will behold the living ocean, which For a life-filled ocean to return we must has the distinction, in all time and space, also stop polluting it at all point sources, of resembling nothing other than itself. and reverse, to the greatest extent possible, Creating a global culture that valorizes the pollution already plaguing it. This the arts of snorkelling and scuba diving requires, among other measures, ending (practised mindfully), as much as it values

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the gifts of education and healthcare for that ocean pollution is an extremely urgent all – that is a culture worthy of the highest problem is blind. A civilization incapable of aspirations of the human. choosing to be in love with the ocean does not deserve our respect. We must disidentify Coda human being from this civilization and Before this option can open to our collective evolve it to a higher octave. n consciousness the worldview of human distinction – and its nature-mutilating and mind-numbing framework of “natural Part 2: Leave it in the ocean! resources” – must be jettisoned. For now, that worldview and its idioms shape how Halt plans for deep-sea mining many people think, are conditioned to think, about the seas. Humanity’s entitlement over new chapter of Earth pillage is in Ours is the long- the Earth is distilled in language deployed the works: the commercial venture “ to reason with. For example: “Common- of deep-sea mining. The deep overdue time to put A pool fish stocks are often open-access, and sea, over 200 meters below sea level and down the warring fishing effort can push stock levels beyond comprising roughly 65% of Earth’s surface, weapons against maximum sustainable yield. In those cases, is being encroached on by nation-states Earth, scale back price increases lead to reduced seafood and industries slavering over “mind- production” (Smith et al., 2010: 784). boggling quantities of untapped resources” humanity’s presence, (Actually, price increases can fuel hunting (Mengerink et al., 2014: 696). cease our invasions down creatures to [regional, commercial into the natural world or global] extinction, as happened to The setup and withdraw from California’s sea otters and abalones and Deep-sea mining has gotten quietly under large-scale portions is happening today to bluefin tuna.) Back way since the turn of the century. The to the language: “Common-pool,” “fish International Seabed Authority (ISA), a of the ecosphere. ” stocks,” “open-access,” “fishing effort,” United-Nations-created body of 168 states, “stock levels,” “maximum sustainable has already conceded 29 exploratory mining yield,” “price increases,” “seafood contracts for the high seas covering over production” – none of this anthropocentric 1.2 million square miles (Wedding et al., babble has anything to do with marine life: 2015; IUCN, 2018). Additionally, nation- It is resource-contortionist vocabulary states and corporations have brokered deals twisting the ocean into a human manor. for mining national waters. For example, Before our eyes and under our watch Papua New Guinea has given permission stretches the endless night of marine to Canadian company Nautilus Minerals life decimations and extinctions, with to mine deep-sea sulphide deposits off its the global ocean turned into a natural- coast for copper and gold (Davidson and resources-for-harvesting and fish-factory- Doherty, 2017).6 farm domain, as well as garbage dump, There is no doubt about the obscenity mining frontier, ship lane terrain and of the unfolding enterprise of deep-sea ‘carbon sink’. Alternatively stretches the mining, nor about its significance. Ours sweet delight of a life-filled ocean we can is the long-overdue time to put down the restore, preserve, commune with, and warring weapons against Earth, scale back imbibe with body, senses and mind. humanity’s presence, cease our invasions A civilization that chooses endless night into the natural world and withdraw from over sweet delight slumbers. A civilization large-scale portions of the ecosphere. Yet that orchestrates the pretension that what do we see? A human-supremacist industrial fishing is normal, and that the coalition of nation-states and corporations abolition of industrial fishing is radical, preparing to deal out more death in lacks judgement. A civilization that treats exchange for ‘natural resources’. the seas like a human food pantry is a It’s never been a matter of whether deep- hungry ghost. A civilization that cannot see sea mining should proceed. Just a well-

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planned, technologically ready raid about is the outrage of a political-economic to be fast-tracked into business as usual. It human-supremacist posse that has the is blithely dubbed “the new gold rush” (e.g. gall, at this historical moment, to introduce The Economist, 2017), as though we don’t a new chapter of Earth desecration – in know how depraved the old one was. The the name of servicing a ‘green economy’ new venture is not only for gold but also to boot (Carrington, 2017; The Economist, for other metals and minerals like silver, 2017). copper, cobalt, nickel, manganese, zinc, rare earths and yttrium. Filching this stuff Humanity’s common heritage – not from Earth’s seas is deemed necessary In 1982, UNCLOS declared the seas beyond for making ever more cell phones, iPads, national jurisdiction – the high seas or PCs, Kindles, batteries, LED bulbs, flat- ‘the Area’ – “the common heritage of The destruction screen TVs, fuel cells, wind turbines and mankind.” Let’s bring that one up to speed “ so on, not to mention “essential parts with current language-use decorum. of life forms and of advanced military technology,” like UNCLOS surely meant “the common habitats that missile guidance, laser targeting and radar heritage of humankind,” as contemporary commercial deep- surveillance (Kato, 2017). reports are rectifying (see, e.g., Jaeckel sea mining will cause Piling on the cheap cliché of “the new et al. [2017]). That one raises virtually no will be enormous and gold rush,” the deep sea is being called eyebrows. On the contrary, it is avowed “the last resource frontier.” That “resource a principle – one “generally understood irreparable in human frontier” is neither. The deep sea is filled to require access and benefit-sharing timescales.” with beautiful life, amazing adaptations, arrangements, especially for developing abiding mystery, primordial being. There are [nation]-states” (Jaeckel et al., 2017: 150). millions of species in the deep sea, Earth’s The common heritage of humankind largest biome, yet we know next to nothing raises the dutiful mandate to ensure that about its biodiversity (University of Oxford, “financial and other economic benefits” 2017; www.savethehighseas.org). The places of deep-sea mining “will be equitably targeted for violation – hydrothermal vents shared among all states” (Kim, 2017: for sulphides, seamounts for cobalt and the 135). “UNCLOS recognizes,” as echoed in abyssal seabed for polymetallic nodules another anthropocentric skin-deep hoopla – are life-abundant and largely life- for justice, “the right of all states to access created (Vanreusel et al., 2016; Van Dover marine living resources in ABNJs [areas et al., 2018). All harbour a great diversity of beyond national jurisdiction]” (Danovaro endemic and mostly unknown species, yet et al., 2017: 453). they are currently being wrecked by mining How is it that calling the high seas “the machinery – even before commercial deep- common heritage of humankind” pulls sea mining ‘regulations’ are in place. the wool over so many eyes? An ancient The destruction of life forms and habitats living landscape, pre-existing Homo that commercial deep-sea mining will sapiens by millions of years – humanity’s cause will be enormous and irreparable common heritage? In response to the in human timescales (Koslow, 2007; Van species- and habitat-demolishing spectre Dover et al, 2017; Niner et al., 2018). Given of industrial-scale deep-sea mining, the extensive endemism of living beings well-meaning scientists and analysts in the targeted areas, exploratory mining engaged with this topic are scrambling for has almost certainly already caused damage control couched in environmental extinctions. Commercial deep-sea mining pleas: for ‘preservation reference zones’, will cause many more – the kind EO Wilson ‘remediation obligations’, ‘balancing trade- calls anonymous extinctions since most offs’, ‘environmental impact assessments’, deep-sea species are unknown (Wilson ‘mitigation strategies’, ‘baseline data’, 1999: 243). In addition to the outrage of ‘holistic management of deep-sea use’ this impending assault on life poised to and so on and so forth. The very political- quicken the sixth mass extinction, there economic establishment that is destroying

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the Earth and endangering so much of of Shawnee Chief Tecumseh (quoted in humanity seems to have successfully Waters [1972: 278]). whipped a host of experts into submission as it gears up for a united-front gold rush The ecocentric response on the last resource frontier. Not only must deep-sea mining and Indeed, that establishment is con- current projects be immediately halted, summately skilled at procuring near- but today’s crisis of life in the global ocean universal compliance to its ecosphere- calls for placing the high seas off limits to wrecking dictates by means of a two-tiered all extractive activity: for fish, fossil fuels, mode of operation: one discursive, the and metals and minerals. We must rename other operational. The discursive one is the Area ‘the common heritage of all life’ to the long-standing appropriation of planet reflect what it actually is. Human presence Earth as human property, enabling the in the high seas can be limited to the embezzlement of all geographical space lightest of touches, for the elevated purpose for human exploitation, use, control of witnessing, learning about and teaching and management. For the high seas, our children the marvels with whom we this indoctrination spins out in their share the ecosphere. With the high seas ‘declaration’ as the common heritage of designated a marine protected area (MPA), humankind. People hesitate to call out marine-life abundance will rebound and be such pompous drivel for fear of being able to cope (and help humanity cope) with dismissed as foolish, idealistic or radical. climatic upheaval and ocean acidification Most choose instead to defer to official (see Roberts et al. [2017]). Coastal seas and “Human presence in discourse, and do their best to make the continental shelves (critically endangered the high seas can be seemingly ‘inevitable’ deep-sea mining a and endangered, respectively [Jackson, limited to the lightest little less destructive. The second strategy 2008]) are also in urgent need of robust of touches, for the by which the human-supremacist regime MPA networks. Ocean protection levels can secures near-universal submission is thus achieve upwards of 80%. elevated purpose operational: Just do it. Exactly what has Along with setting vast areas of the of witnessing, been orchestrated with deep-sea mining: ocean free, we must turn the spotlight on learning about and it is underway; most states are already the high-tech industry – the one poised teaching our children involved (now or in principle) given the to most benefit (if profiteering counts ISA’s international composition; the as ‘benefit’) from deep-sea mining. The the marvels with technologies are developed and being high-tech industry needs to change whom we share the tested; and the regulations to dress it all fundamentally and clean up its act, rather ecosphere.” up as ‘sustainable’ are being ironed out. than trying to buy another century’s worth The cognitive schema of Earth-ownership of time for its wasteful, dollar-hungry and the operational schema of Earth- workings. First, engineering, investing looting work together. Planetary ownership and public policy must focus resolutely authorizes getting an operational head- on recycling metals and minerals (Teske, start, which subsequently invites more: 2017). Even though recycling potential for after all, it has already begun, certain materials connected with deep-sea mining players are currently more involved than is high, actual recycled contents remain others, and, when it comes to politically low; for example, less that one per cent of correct Earth-ravaging, everyone in the rare earths are recycled (Kim, 2017: 135–6). posse needs to get a turn. To mirror the The focus of turning an extraction industry vulgarity of deep-sea mining and its into a recycling one will give Earth a rest, squalid creep: spitting into the soup is while forcing governments and industry the surest way to ensure you get to eat to quit dumping their e-waste on the it. How fitting for a species-killing and disempowered – human and non-human. habitat-destroying political-economic Second, the high-tech industry must global regime, which is “never contented put an end to the profligate production but always encroaching,” in the words of ever-more devices, to be replaced by

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ever-more new lines. (The same applies Notes for the production of other commodities 1 This is a must-read work about the history of like cars and appliances.) Instead, the human impact on the ocean. high-tech industry – calling here on any 2 See the video It’s a Plastic World, which is available at https://is.gd/xYe4Um. conscientious leadership therein – needs an immediate paradigm shift toward 3 For critical explorations of the reduction of animals to meat, see Plumwood (2013) and the durable: stuff must be made well, Calarco (2014). made to last, and made to use not flaunt 4 Something that Jeremy Jackson does (see, e.g., (McKibben, 2008). Devices can indeed be https://is.gd/qJY3SE). long-lasting, made to be repairable if they 5 Seafood fraud is apparently common (see Danson “One last response malfunction, and only upgraded when [2011]). to the spectre of hugely meaningful increases in efficiency, 6 Fortunately, that relationship has run into deep-sea mining is or changes in energy sourcing, warrant political and economic controversy, forestalling ‘new generations’. Finally, civil society or derailing mining plans, though Nautilus to raise a question: has to figure out how to create a culture of Minerals continues to hold the deep-sea mining If this planned Earth sharing this stuff. licence from the government of Papua New Guinea (The Economist, 2018; Heffernan, 2019). violation does not One last response to the spectre of deep- reveal the imperative sea mining is to raise a question: If this References planned Earth violation does not reveal to achieve a lower Altherr S and Hodgins N (2018) Small Cetaceans, Big the imperative to achieve a lower global Problems: A global review of the impacts of hunting on global population, population, what does? The global middle small whales, dolphins and porpoises. Available at what does?.” class – the clientele of high-tech products https://is.gd/b55M40 (accessed October 2019).

– is growing rapidly. The middle-class Cafard M (2017) Lightning Storm Mind: Pre-ancientist population is projected to reach 5 billion meditations. Autonomedia, Williamsburg, NY, USA. before mid-century (Kharas, 2017). All Calarco M (2014) Being toward meat: Anthropocentrism, these people are expected to want cell indistinction, and veganism. Dialectical Anthropology phones, PCs, flat-screen TVs, hybrid cars, 38: 415–29. solar panels and so on. Making materials Carrington D (2017) Is deep sea mining vital for a recyclable, durable and shareable is critical, greener future – even if it destroys ecosystems? The but it will only get us so far. Design changes Guardian, 4 June. Available at https://is.gd/D7h90r and behavioural shifts will not offset (accessed October 2019). the commodity-supply surges that the Casey S (2010) Garbage in, garbage out. Conservation growing global middle-class population Magazine 11: 13–19. portends. Therefore, we must ramp up Crist E, Mora C and Engelman R (2017) The interaction of without further delay the human-rights human population, food production, and biodiversity protection. Science 356: 260–4. campaigns – for women’s equality, state of the art family planning, and comprehensive Crist E (2019) Abundant Earth: Toward an ecological civilization. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, sexuality education for all – that will steer USA. the human population towards a ballpark figure of 2 billion (Engelman, 2016; Kaidbey Danovaro R, Aguzzi J, Fanelli E et al. (2017) An ecosystem-based deep-ocean strategy. Science 355: and Engelman, 2017; Crist et al., 2017: Crist, 452–4. 2019). Danson T (2011) Oceana: Our endangered ocean and what We cohabit living Earth with countless we can do to save it. Rodale, New York, NY, USA. Earthlings we know and more we have still Davidson H and Doherty B (2017) Troubled Papua to meet. Are we awake yet? n New Guinea deep-sea mine faces environmental challenge. The Guardian, 11 December. Available at Acknowledgements https://is.gd/1iTv8z (accessed October 2019). I would like to thank Richard Rich, Ian Whyte and Dreifus C (2002) A conversation with Callum Roberts: A Joe Gray for their helpful comments on an earlier biologist decries the ‘strip-mining’ of the deep sea. draft. A longer version of part two was published The New York Times, 5 March. on The Rewilding Institute’s blog in the summer of 2019, with the title “Something Wicked this Way Earle S (2003) Our Oceans, Ourselves (interview with Comes: the Menace of Deep-Sea Mining.” Sylvia Earle). Wild Earth 12: 23.

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The Economist (2017) Deep-sea mining could transform Kharas H (2017) The Unprecedented Expansion of the the globe. Available at https://is.gd/XmtML2 Global Middle Class: An update. (Working Paper (accessed October 2019). 100), Global Economy and Development at

The Economist (2018) A high-profile deep-sea mining Brookings, Washington, DC, USA. Available at company is struggling. The Economist, 6 December. https://is.gd/AlE5X6 (accessed October 2019). Available at https://is.gd/u3otMS (accessed October Kharas H and Hamel K (2018) A global tipping point: Half 2019). the world is now middle class or wealthier. Brookings, 27 September. Available at https://is.gd/6m2qvx Engelman R (2016) Nine population strategies to stop (accessed October 2019). short of 9 billion. In: Washington H and Twomey P, eds. A Future Beyond Growth: Towards a steady state Kim RE (2017) Should deep seabed mining be allowed? economy. Routledge, London, UK: 32–42. Marine Policy 82: 13 4–7.

Heffernan O (2019) Deep-sea dilemma. Nature 571: Koslow T (2007) The Silent Deep: The discovery, ecology, “We must 465–8. and conservation of the deep sea. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, USA. immediately establish Foer JS (2009) Eating Animals. Little, Brown and Kurlansky M (2011) World Without Fish. Workman a vast ocean-wide Company, New York, NY, USA. Publishing Company, New York, NY, USA. Forbes J (2008) Columbus and Other Cannibals. Seven network of marine Stories, New York, NY, USA. Law KL and Thompson R (2014) Microplastics in the seas. Science 345: 144–5. protected areas. Gjerde K, Currie D, Wowk K and Sack K (2013) Ocean This can begin with in Peril: Reforming the management of global ocean McCauley D, Pinsky ML, Palumbi SR et al. (2015) Marine living resources in areas beyond national jurisdiction, defaunation: Animal loss in the global ocean. Science an international Marine Pollution Bulletin 74: 540–51. 347: 1255641.

agreement to stop Golden CD, Allison EH, Cheung WW et al. (2016) McKibben, B (2008). Deep Economy: The Wealth of all fishing in the Nutrition: Fall in fish catch threatens human health. Communities and the Durable Future. St. Martin’s Nature 534: 317–20. Griffin. high seas. ” Helmreich S (2010) Human nature at sea. Anthropology Mengerink KJ, Van Dover CL, Ardron J et al. (2014) A call Now 2: 49–60. for deep-ocean stewardship. Science 344: 696–8.

House F (1999) Totem Salmon: Life lessons from another Mooney C (2014) Good job, humans: The oceans now species. Beacon Press, Boston, MA, USA. contain 5 trillion pieces of floating plastic. The Washington Post, 10 December. IUCN (2018) Draft mining regulations insufficient to Mowat F (1996) Sea of Slaughter. Mariner Books, New protect the deep sea – IUCN report. Available at York, NY, USA. https://is.gd/Pb5lwe (accessed October 2019). Myers R and Worm B (2005) Extinction, survival or Jackson J (2005) When ecological pyramids were upside recovery of large predatory fishes. PNAS 360: 13-20. down. In: Estes JA, ed. Whales, Whaling, and Ocean Ecosystems. University of California Press, Berkeley, Nielsen L (1976) The evolution of fisheries management CA, USA: 27–37. philosophy. Marine Fisheries Review (December): 15- 23. Jackson J (2008) Ecological extinction and evolution in the brave new ocean. PNAS 105: 11458–65. Niner HJ, Ardron JA, Escobar EG et al. (2018) Deep- sea mining with no net loss of biodiversity—an Jackson J, Alexander K, and Sala E eds (2011) Shifting impossible aim. Frontiers in Marine Science 5: 53. Baselines: The past and future of ocean fisheries. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA. Pauly D and Zeller D (2016) Catch reconstructions reveal that global marine fisheries catches are higher Jaeckel A, Gjerde KM and Ardron JA (2017) Conserving than reported and declining. Nature Communications the common heritage of humankind – options for 7: 10244. the deep-seabed mining regime. Marine Policy 78: 150–7. Pitcher T and Cheung W (2013) Fisheries: Hope or despair? Marine Pollution Bulletin 74: 506–16. Kaidbey M and Engelman R (2017) Our bodies, our future: Expanding comprehensive sexuality Plumwood V (2013) Being prey. Reprinted in: Gruen L, education. In: The Worldwatch Institute, ed. EarthEd: Jamieson D and Schlottmann C, eds. Reflecting on Rethinking education on a changing planet. Island Press, Nature. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Washington, DC, USA. Rabesandratana T (2013) European deep-sea trawling Kato Y (2017) Deep-sea mud in the Pacific Ocean as a new ban sinks. Science, 10 December. Available at https:// mineral resource for rare-earth elements [presentation]. is.gd/LKSgoV (accessed October 2019). Available at https://is.gd/knne2T (accessed October Roberts C (2007) The Unnatural History of the Sea. Island 2019). Press, Washington, DC, USA.

Keledjian A, Enticknap B, Cano-Stocco D et al. (2014) Roberts C, O’Leary BC, McCauley DJ et al. (2017) Marine Wasted Catch: Unsolved problems in US fisheries. Oceana, reserves can mitigate and promote adaptation to Washington, DC, USA. climate change. PNAS 114: 6167–7 5 .

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Schrope M (2006) The real sea change. Nature 443: Van Dover C, Arnaud-Haond S, Gianni M et al. (2018) 622–4. Scientific rationale and international obligations for Smith MD, Roheim CA, Crowder LB et al. (2010) protection of active hydrothermal vent ecosystems Sustainability and global seafood. Science 327: from deep-sea mining. Marine Policy 90: 20–8. 784–6. Vanreusel A (2016) Threatened by mining, polymetallic Steinmetz K (2014) Sea lions are starving to death – nodules are required to preserve abyssal epifauna. and we don’t know why. TIME, 13 May. Available at Scientific Reports 6: 26808. https://is.gd/DxOBJp (accessed October 2019). Vickers D and McClenachan L (2011) History and context: Reflections from Newfoundland. In: Jackson At this eleventh Sumaila UR and Pauly D (2011) The “march of folly” in “ J, Alexander K and Sala E, eds. Shifting Baselines: global fisheries. In: Jackson J, Alexander K and Sala hour, humanity must The past and future of ocean fisheries. Island Press, E, eds. Shifting Baselines: The past and future of ocean find the wisdom Washington, DC, USA: 115–33. fisheries. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA: 21–32. Victorero L, Watling L, Deng Palomares ML and and the mettle Taylor M (2018). Krill fishing poses serious threat to Nouvian C (2018) Out of sight but within reach: a Antarctic ecosystem, report warns. The Guardian, to dismantle all global history of bottom-trawled deep-sea fisheries 13 March. Available at https://is.gd/JYiLuQ (accessed from >400m depth. Frontiers in Marine Science 5: 98. industrial-fishing October 2019). Waldman J (2010) The natural world vanishes: How weapons, starting Teske S (2017) Renewable Energy and Deep-sea Mining: species cease to matter. Yale Environment 360, 8 April. Supply, demand and scenarios. Institute for Sustainable with trawling. Available at https://is.gd/4lHHN6 (accessed October ” Futures. Available at https://is.gd/zK8W8D (accessed 2019). October 2019). Warne K (2007) The global fish crisis: Blue haven. University of Oxford (2017) Shocking gaps in National Geographic (April): 70–81. basic knowledge of deep sea life. Available at https://is.gd/SDk1eq (accessed October 2019). Waters F (1972) The Book of the Hopi. Penguin Books, New York, NY, USA. Upton J (2013) Vanishing ocean smell could also Watson P (2018) Interview with Captain Paul Watson. mean fewer clouds. Grist, 28 August. Available at The Ecological Citizen 1: 152–3. https://is.gd/QoYU26 (accessed October 2019). Wedding LM, Reiter SM, Smith CR et al. (2015) Managing Urbina I (2019) The Outlaw Ocean: Journeys across the mining of the deep seabed. Science 349: 144–5. last untamed frontier. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, NY, USA. Weisman A (2007) The World Without Us. St. Martin’s Press, New York, NY, USA. van Dooren T (2014) Flight Ways: Life and loss at the edge of extinction. Columbia University Press, New Whitty J (2011) Deep Blue Home: An intimate ecology of our York, NY, USA. Van Dover C, Ardron JA, Escobar E et wild ocean. Mariner Books, New York, NY, USA. al. (2017) Biodiversity loss from deep-sea mining. Wilson EO (1999) The Diversity of Life. Harvard University Nature Geoscience 10: 464–5. Press, Cambridge, MA, USA.

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The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 41 Greater flamingos in a nature reserve in the Camargue, France www.ecologicalcitizen.net LONG ARTICLE

‘Making hay’: A conditional defence on ecocentric grounds of various co-created habitats

This article begins with an argument and delimiting conditions for the place of certain traditional Joe Gray anthropogenic, or ‘co-created’, habitats within ecocentrically minded conservation. Next, four examples of such co-created habitats are explored: lowland meadows, heathland, coppiced About the author woodland and old orchards. The examples are drawn from the lowlands of Great Britain but Joe is a field naturalist and their discussion has geographically broader implications. Such habitats, it is argued, have a eco-activist based in St Albans, UK. place within an ecosphere that elsewhere evidences a major stepping back of humans; within this wider context, they can act as ‘reservoirs’ from which biodiversity can radiate again once Citation the time comes. In other words, they represent a means of widening the bottleneck through Gray J (2019) ‘Making hay’: which life is passing. They also offer not only a liberation from the destructive nature of A conditional defence on approaches to land management forged by industrialism but also a roadmap for a revival of ecocentric grounds of various forgotten skills in a future culture of simplicity and creativity. co-created habitats. The Ecological Citizen 3(Suppl A): 43–54. t was the right book at the right time. wildlife too is this: Ecocentrism calls for all When I read Keeping the Wild (Wuerthner land to be returned to a self-willed state, free Keywords Iet al., 2014) shortly after it was published, of major human intervention, except where Biodiversity; co-created I was nearing the completion of a personal humans have their homes or are managing habitats; conservation journey to ecocentrism.1 This anthology land to produce the most essential of goods, brought together new and republished such as food.3 As Batavia and Nelson (2016) writings that emphatically defended the have noted: protected-areas movement against the attacks of Anthropocene boosters.2 At the This position is characteristic of what same time, it provided a deliciously radical ethicists call “natural law theory,” in challenge to the things I was beginning which what is “natural” is right and to loathe in my life in a small city set in a ought to be. [This is] often used to justify a human-dominated landscape. I’m almost “hands-off” approach to management or certain that I will never read a book that nonintervention. influences me more strongly. In regard to Earth’s biodiversity crisis – I reject this outlook’s inherent human– the focus of this special issue – the message nature dualism, but in doing so I’m from that anthology and subsequent mindful of the potential trap that is set related pieces is a compelling one. For the when humans are rolled into the concept sake of wildlife, wild places, and ecological of ‘natural’ applied here. The poisoning of processes, we need to protect all remaining a river, say, would thus become ethically intact ecosystems (e.g. Watson et al., 2018), acceptable. On the one hand, then, not all and we must also scale back the negative human interventions in a landscape can be impacts of modern human society on considered good just because humans are the ecosphere (Crist, 2019), opening up part of nature. opportunities for ecological rebounding. On the other hand, it seems perverse from As coherent as this is, though, a dangerous an ecological perspective to automatically caricature of ecocentrism can emerge from judge human intervention in landscapes such a grand vision. The caricature, which, as necessarily bad, when examples abound if taken seriously, will harm not just the of non-human species, from African ecocentric worldview’s credibility but elephants to yellow meadow ants, shaping

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habitats and engineering ecosystems. For even in conservation areas, set aside for just as these ants – to use the example nature protection, humans take a lead of the smaller of those creatures – build in evolutionary processes, with limited mounds with altered soil properties that understanding of the results. provide biodiversity-enriching micro- niches (Boots and Clipson, 2013), there are Responding to this warning, I proposed, well-known and cherished examples of with Patrick Curry, the concept of human interventions that, in a similar way, conservation “exit strategies” (Gray can benefit biodiversity, at least on a local and Curry, 2015).4 In short, this involves or regional scale. drawing up intervention plans for protected Hay meadows provide one example of areas that still meet the short-term, often such an opportunity, hence the wordplay urgent, needs of wildlife (e.g. through in this piece’s title. Later, I will consider in placing bird boxes), while also including a Evolution and “ detail these and several other instances of longer-term vision to allow these needs to other unguided traditional anthropogenic habitats that I be met without human direction (by letting ecological dynamic feel can have a place within ecocentrically trees – using the same example – reach processes are minded conservation. As will be seen, maturity and senescence so that nesting ethically good in their changing economic circumstances mean holes abound). In areas where agents of that the human interest in these habitats major disturbance, such as wild free- own right, as well has shifted away from production, opening roaming bovines, have been extirpated, as being unrivalled up opportunities for an alternative focus. reintroductions of ecologically similar life in their creation Before this, I will offer a tentative set forms will be necessary for conservation of complexity and of conditions to delimit my support for exit strategies to be fully realized. The traditional anthropogenic habitats within empirical examples discussed later are diversity, and we the framework of ecocentrism. drawn from the context of Great Britain, should be neither In proposing these conditions, I must and so it is pertinent to mention that the quelling nor stress that I am not clearing an intellectual aurochs – the wild ancestor of domestic guiding them on a path towards treating the Earth as a global cattle – was extirpated from this island, garden (rambunctious or otherwise). First, owing to habitat loss and other factors, at grand scale. ” on a pragmatic note, ecospheric ecology some point between 2000 and 3500 years is far too complex for us to hope for ago (Wright, 2013). anything approaching universal success By raising here the ecological in determining positive, gardening-type importance of lost agents of disturbance, conservation interventions, even if the I have looped back to the subject vast financial resources necessary for such of traditional anthropogenic habitats: gardening were channelled in its direction. human interventions, as will be discussed Secondly, on a philosophical level, evolution in the empirical examples, are of a greater and other unguided ecological dynamic significance as biodiversity-enhancing processes are ethically good in their own disturbance processes in light of our right, as well as being unrivalled in their ancestors’ extirpation of certain other creation of complexity and diversity, and habitat shapers. we should be neither quelling nor guiding them on a grand scale. To do so would be to An ecocentric delimitation of behave not as a “plain citizen and member” traditional anthropogenic habitats of the “land-community,” in Aldo Leopold’s Immediately below, I present four indelible wording (Leopold, 1968: 204). conditions that delimit my support for On the subject of grand interference in traditional anthropogenic habitats within evolution specifically, Christof Schenck ecocentrically minded conservation. The (2015: 100) cautioned: first three refer to individual sites, while the last relates to such sites en bloc. I offer Human-directed conservation is changing this as an unofficial addendum to Keeping species in the long run. This means that the Wild and a counter to the dangerous

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potential caricaturing of ecocentrism that Example habitats I mentioned earlier. Lowland meadows n Quality: Such sites should be more At temperate latitudes, grassland typically biodiverse than they might otherwise occurs in places that are too dry or too be – over a short or long time frame – if far above sea level for trees to dominate interventions ceased. The biodiversity (Rackham, 1994), or where there is considered in this qualitative reckoning sustained pressure from herbivores. Great should comprise native species and long- Britain is mostly low lying and relatively established non-invasive alien species. wet and its land thus tends to a forested “Opportunities for Species that are rare, especially on a global state. Non-anthropogenic fires play only a reducing human scale, should be given greater weighting in minimal role in the island’s ecology, while intervention in considerations. the challenges to tree establishment – the long term n Focus: The focus of the interventions and prospects for grassland – presented without a negative should be supporting biodiversity for by free-roaming grazers have lessened biodiversity’s sake. Material goods that are in recent millennia through the decline overall impact available and non-material instrumental and extirpation of the aurochs (Vera, on biodiversity 6 values that can be derived (including 2000), among other factors. Under these should be pursued spiritual pleasure and preservation of conditions, humans equipped with scythes if they present cultural heritage) should be celebrated, emerged as significant agents of species- but they should never be key drivers. rich grassland, in the form of meadows themselves.” n Future: Opportunities for reducing (Figure 1). human intervention in the long term For the two millennia between their without a negative overall impact on “pre-Roman origins and post-Medieval biodiversity should be pursued if they demise,” meadows were “a key component present themselves. of traditional farming and were often more n Extent: Taken as a whole, these sites valued than any other land” (Peterken, should not dominate on a landscape scale. 2013: 119). They allowed farmers to exploit – Rather, they should be set within a wider typically on soils that were neither strongly landscape that evidences a major stepping acidic nor strongly calcareous – the flush of back of Homo sapiens. growth that comes in spring and summer in order to remove plant material that could This set of conditions is intended as a be prepared and stored, as hay, to provide skeleton for future work. I will leave the winter fodder for domestic animals. philosophers to pick at the bones, but in the Farmers would have been well aware that hope that at least something will remain, I the scything prevented the encroachment will press on with real-life cases of what can of scrub and the establishment of mature be called co-created habitats.4 When I walk in these habitats, I’m aware of the presence of human hand, but my experience is of a place overwhelmingly dominated by non- human life. This is a good balance when one considers humans as plain citizens. The examples are all habitats that I can get to on foot from my home near the River Ver, a chalk stream that cuts a minor incision in the geologically diverse hunk of rock known as Great Britain. They are not unique, though, to my local area or this medium-sized Atlantic island. And there will be different co-created habitats in other places to which the argument I am making may apply. Figure 1. Wild flowers and grasses in a lowland meadow.

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trees, a development that would have been rather than generating income (Peterken, very difficult for them to reverse in a time 2013). In other words, hay as a product is with no chainsaws or heavy machinery. not the primary purpose. This means that What they would not have known, though, the focus for humans in this example of co- is that this removal of matter counteracted creation can be on supporting favourable the deposition of nutrients from the excreta conditions for a range of wild grasses of winter-grazing domestic animals and and flowers and the other life that they from the atmosphere, keeping fertility at sustain, rather than on maximizing yield a ‘Goldilocks level’ that gave many plant or palatability of hay. species a chance to thrive and stopped There seem to be as many theories runaway species from dominating. This, in for what the best practice is in meadow The outcry against turn, supported a richness and abundance conservation as there are people with “ of insects and other life forms. a view on the subject, and efforts to the plummeting of In modern agriculture, farmers have synthesize scientific evidence have not meadows was slow tended towards specialization, external given clear answers (Tälle et al., 2018). A in coming.” inputs and monoculture, and more profitable broadly supported overall approach would land uses than meadows have emerged (with be a single late annual hay cut, allowing some combination of drainage, ploughing, plants to set seed and insects to complete re-seeding, herbicides and nutrient appli- their life cycles, and avoiding disturbance cations being used to adopt them). Under of ground-nesting birds (Peterken, 2013). these conditions, the total area of species- This would preferably be performed not rich meadows in Great Britain has declined with a mechanical mower but by a team of by 97% since the 1930s (Plantlife, 2018); a scythers (see Kingsnorth [2012]), as this is major contributor to the steep downward less destructive to the life of the meadow. trend was the need, during the Second World The fodder will be of very poor quality – War, to bring more land under the plough for formerly, late-cut hay would have been growing cereals on a suddenly isolated, and used as bedding for animals. As mentioned densely populated, island. Despite the scale above, though, this is not a major issue in of the loss of this habitat, it went relatively a conservation context, and the material unnoticed for a long time. As Trevor Dines, still has potential uses within an ecological Botanical Specialist at the charity Plantlife, culture and economy, such as in insulating observed (Plantlife, 2018): the walls of eco-friendly buildings. There are, however, a couple of more significant People tie themselves to trees as the caveats. The first applies to a restoration chainsaws arrive, but nobody lies down context, in which earlier and more frequent amongst meadow buttercups in protest at hay cutting may be needed over a number the ploughing up of ancient meadows. of years in order to counteract the legacy of nutrient applications and the resulting The outcry against the plummeting of species-poor grassland. The second is that meadows was slow in coming: calls for a major change from existing practices their conservation only began to mount in may make conditions unfavourable for the the late 1960s (Peterken, 2013). While losses species that a meadow currently supports continued, the efforts of the early advocates (Buglife, 2019b), and the plants and other and their followers has helped some life forms for which the altered meadow meadows to emerge through the bottleneck might be suitable may be slow to colonize as nature reserves, and hobbyist purchases it or never find it (e.g. Woodcock et al., have also played a role in stemming the 2012). As Aldo Leopold wrote in his journal: decline. The finances have changed to “To keep every cog and wheel is the such an extent from those of traditional first precaution of intelligent tinkering” agriculture, however, that removing hay (Leopold, 1993: 146). A compromise might is now something that can cost money, or be to adopt a more heterogeneous approach, rely on the goodwill of volunteer scythers, in which existing practices are maintained

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in only a part of the meadow (personal communication with Ian Carle). Further heterogeneity will result from so-called aftermath grazing, in which domestic animals feed on the meadow in winter. In a conservation context, this can be done with a low density of grazing animals, very high welfare standards and a prudent approach to medication; the dung alone can support many species (Laurence, 1954).7

The role of lowland meadows in supporting biodiversity As George Peterken (2013: 219) has noted: “Meadows are paradoxical. They are amazingly diverse at a small scale, but [they] contribute little to regional diversity, because their constituent species have been drawn from various habitats, and most still inhabit versions of those habitats or scraps of meadow-like vegetation.” In Figure 2. The grass-bug Megaloceroea recticornis, one of many insects that can other words, their role is not so much in be very abundant in meadows (photographed at Chorleywood Common, UK). helping save threatened species as it is in supporting an ethic of bio-proportionality, in which both diversity and abundance matter deeply (Mathews, 2016). Just as the leaf litter of mature woodland teems with springtails and other invertebrates, one only need examine a handful of flowers or a few grass seed-heads to get a sense of the tremendous abundance of life that is to be found in meadows (Figure 2).

Heathland Heathland is unploughed, open or semi- open land on which plants in the group called heaths grow, the most common of which is ling (also known as heather). Beyond heaths, the characteristic flora of this habitat includes bracken, as well as shrubs such as gorse (Figure 3). As Oliver Rackham summarized – slightly underestimating, perhaps, the openness of a landscape in which aurochs roamed (Vera, 2000) – heathlands are “composed entirely of wild plants, yet they would hardly exist without past and continuing human activities” (Rackham, 1994: 130). This is the essence of a co-created habitat. Heathland soil is typically acidic, sandy and nutrient poor and was unsuitable for traditional farming. In the Middle Ages, Figure 3. A gorse shieldbug on gorse, a typical heathland shrub.

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Figure 4. Wild-roaming ponies contribute to the open areas of acid grassland in the New Forest, UK.

heathlands were nevertheless used for of developers. All told, around 85% of Great many purposes. Gorse was removed for Britain’s heathland has been lost over a fuel as it produced an efficient hot blaze for span of 150 years (Wildlife Trusts, 2019). ovens and home-heating fires. Ling served As with meadows, many surviving as both a fuel and a low-grade thatch. examples of heathland are now nature And bracken was used as a fuel, as litter reserves, where a chief concern is that the for livestock, as thatch, as an ingredient habitat will quickly scrub over and develop in potash (for glassmaking, soaps and into secondary woodland without removal detergents), and also for a range of minor of some plant growth. As is the case with functions from contraception to rain- open grassland, discussed in the previous making. Traditional heathland products and following sections, a relevant factor fell out of common usage in the 19th here is the extirpation of the aurochs and century – although there is potential for a the resulting shift in ecological dynamics revival of some uses within an ecological to favour closed-canopy conditions. In culture and economy. Furthermore, the New Forest National Park – a large farming technology that arose in the matrix of woodland, bog and heathland agricultural revolution made it possible – the grazing of wild-roaming ponies to cultivate previously uneconomic land (Figure 4) and other mammals keeps such as heathlands (Rackham, 1994). In the significant areas open, but other 20th century, the decline was exacerbated heathlands generally receive less by the timber industry’s fad for planting attention from grazers. Some combination non-native conifers and the intervention of rotational cutting, scraping of the

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soil surface and controlled burning may be undertaken on heathlands to offer a heterogeneous habitat with a multitude of niches (Buglife, 2019a). An important goal for conservationists in removing plant material is to prevent a build-up of nitrogen from atmospheric deposition, which would work against an established plant community that thrives in nutrient- poor conditions. As with meadows, there are many different viewpoints on what the optimum approach might be.

The role of heathland in supporting biodiversity Heathlands, while providing a home for many common species, also support a number of threatened species. These include birds like nightjars, stone-curlews and Dartford warblers (Figure 5), reptiles such as smooth snakes (Figure 6), and many Figure 5. A Dartford warbler on heathland (photo: James West [CC BY-NC-ND 2.0; rare invertebrates (Rackham, 1994; Buglife; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/]).

Figure 6. A smooth snake on heathland (photo: Paul Ritchie [CC BY-NC-ND 2.0; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/]).

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Coppiced woodland Coppiced woodland comprises a co-created series of compartments felled in different years to create a heterogeneous patchwork of growth stages; there are also typically present some large trees with single trunks that are not cut as part of the cycle. In the long-established practice of coppicing, trees are cut to their base, or stool, and new growth sprouts from dormant buds.8 Coppicing and regrowth (Figure 8), which probably evolved as a response to damage by large herbivores, also greatly extends the longevity of individual trees – in the case of common ash from, perhaps, two centuries to eight (Rackham, 2012). An active coppicing cycle involves stools being re-coppiced before the stems have become too difficult for a woodcutter to chop Figure 7. A sandy bank on Oxshott Heath, UK, which is used by many species of using a simple hand tool. Coppiced stems solitary bees and wasps for nest construction. can be used for fuel, including as charcoal, and also in traditional craft-making; 2019a). Regarding the last of these, the they could be a welcome item in a future hard-packed sandy banks that can be found ecological culture and economy. Indeed, for on heathlands (Figure 7) are invaluable traditional woodcutters, the coppicing cycle for the nest construction of many solitary gave a steady supply of essential materials. bees and wasps (Buglife; 2019a). And, As an accidental consequence, it also kept more broadly, as Oliver Rackham (1994: glades as shifting but ever-present features 146) cautioned, heathland is a “special of woods, supporting a range of heat- responsibility” of Great Britain, since “the loving animals and light-loving plants. The Dutch, Danes and Swedes have been even animals track the shifting openness, while more single-minded in destroying their the plants thrive periodically within each heaths, and most of what is left in Europe compartment for a period of two or three is ours.” years (Rackham, 2012), before bramble and coppice regrowth shade them out. A changing economy and new technology saw traditional woodland practices generally either replaced by modern commercial forestry operations or abandoned, so that between 1900 and 1970 there was an estimated ten-fold decline in the area of actively coppiced woodland in Great Britain (Fuller and Warren, 1993). Coppicing does continue, though, on many nature reserves and in some woods owned by hobbyists or individuals striving for green self-sufficiency.

The role of coppiced woodland in supporting biodiversity Figure 8. Regrowth after coppicing in Stanmer Park Great Wood, UK (photo: Woodland openings, such as those that Dominic Alves [CC BY 2.0; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/]). occur with coppicing, can be hotspots

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for a range of flora and fauna. They are generally sheltered, may have dead wood present, offer a great nectar resource, and typically have soils that have not been subjected to fertilizers. These openings are especially important for rare wild flowers like wood vetch, crested cow-wheat and oxlip (Figure 9), as well as insects such as woodland-dwelling fritillary butterflies (Fuller and Warren, 1993). Nightingales are among the threatened birds that may benefit from the dense understory that develops after the open phase of the cycle. The hazel dormouse (Figure 10), another threatened species, also benefits from the structure of coppiced woodland, and its decline has been linked to the reduction in coppicing (Mammal Society, 2019).

Old orchards Many of the considerations raised in the section on lowland meadows apply to old orchards, because they can be a haven for wild grasses and flowers, but there is also something distinct about them from the three habitat types discussed above: Figure 9. Oxlip in Hayley Wood, UK, a woodland where coppicing is practised.

Figure 10. A hazel dormouse, a species that can benefit from the structure of coppiced woodland (photo: Frank Vassen [CC BY 2.0; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/]).

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are now nature reserves. The fruit picked each year may be eaten fresh or used for making juices, alcoholic beverages and food products. These items represent a bounty that can be enjoyed by local residents in harmony with the needs of other species and, like products from coppiced stems, should be an essential component of a future ecological culture and economy. In addition, the abundant windfall apples that are left on the ground provide sustenance for birds and other life forms. Moreover, since yield is not a concern on nature reserves, Figure 11. Old apple trees in an orchard in Highfield Park, UK. there is no motivation to use insecticides and life-destroying ‘tree washes’. domesticated species – namely, fruit trees – form a significant portion of the biomass The role of old orchards in (Figure 11). Importantly, many decades of supporting biodiversity nurturing the fruit trees of old orchards has Old orchards abound in common species, seen them live through maturity to develop and are thus refuges for abundance, but senescent features such as decaying they also support certain threatened branches and rot holes, which are essential invertebrates, such as the noble chafer to the life cycle of many invertebrates. (People’s Trust for Endangered Species, These, in turn, provide food for bats and 2019; Figure 12). The larval stage of this other wildlife. beetle feeds on rotting heartwood within As with the habitat types discussed above, live trunks and branches, favouring mature changing technologies and economic fruit trees. Another threatened species circumstances have driven a steep decline that depends on rotting heartwood and is in orchards, and many surviving examples associated with this habitat is the orchard tooth fungus, while the old bark of the fruit trees provides a substrate for a plethora of lichens and bryophytes (People’s Trust for Endangered Species, 2019).

Role within a future ecological culture and economy A recurring theme in the examples of co- created habitats has been their potential role in a future ecological culture and economy. Significantly, each has cultural heritage predating the watershed of the industrial revolution. Each was thus born in an era of simple tools, such as handsaws, scythes and rakes, rather than great machines. And each offers not only a liberation from the destructive nature of approaches to land management forged by industrialism but also a roadmap for the “revival” of “forgotten skills” that Victor Postnikov (2018: 148) has called Figure 12. A noble chafer, a beetle associated with old orchards (photo: for in his vision for a culture of simplicity gailhampshire [CC BY 2.0; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/]). and creativity. Similarly, the co-created

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habitats discussed represent pieces in the that retains a strong human presence puzzle for John Michael Greer’s (2009) during a protracted collapse. vision of an ‘ecotechnic’ future. In addition to the benefits of co-created Closing remark habitats for non-humans and humans that At a time when the conservation movement have been described above, it should be is struggling for traction on a greased mentioned that these places also offer great slope, I believe that we should see the types scope for fostering connections with nature of co-created habitat that I have discussed – through immersion, learning, working, – tempered by my proposed delimiting participating and simply breathing – conditions – as a gift. We know that they including in people who may not have been can offer broad benefits for non-human lucky enough to have previously had such life, especially when they are not being ‘nature exposure’ in their lives.9 These driven by narrowly focused human needs, “Co-created connections are essential, I believe, if an and, along with protected wild areas, they habitats can serve ecological culture is to become widely represent an additional effective means of as ‘reservoirs’ from established. widening the bottleneck through which life is passing. n which biodiversity The wider landscape context can radiate again As I note in the ‘Extent’ condition of my Acknowledgement once the time delimitation, traditional anthropogenic I am very grateful to Eileen Crist and Chris Gibson comes. habitats should be set within an ecosphere for their constructive comments on this article. ” that evidences a major stepping back of humans. As part of this stepping back, our Notes agricultural practices must be re-shaped 1 I describe this mental journey in Gray (2017). to support and mesh harmoniously with 2 In this piece, I have side-stepped the term non-human life, rather than obliterating it, ‘wilderness’ and the ongoing debate on its reality and we must greatly reduce our plundering and relevance. To properly dissect the various of aquatic life. Extractivism must be arguments would require an article in its own right, and: (a) I doubt I’d do the task justice; (b) there is superseded by a circular material economy. already an excellent examination of the topic from And independently of reforestation efforts an ecocentric perspective in Crist (2019: 113–36). – for which only a ‘one-time carbon win’ is 3 This caricature is propagated by conservationists available in any honest accounting system who seek to discredit all intervention-based (Rackham, 2012) – we must dramatically conservation, as Christof Schenck (2015) seems reduce our release of gases contributing to to do in Protecting the Wild, the generally stellar follow-up volume to Keeping the Wild. climate breakdown. At this wider scale, then, traditional 4 Up till this point, I have used somewhat technical language in order to help set the ideas within human-shaped habitats – like human the broader literature, and I have drawn terms settlements and ecological agriculture – from the lexicons of conservation and wildlife should form relatively small patches within ecology, which have been shaped by human– a greater rewilded landscape. But this nature dualism and anthropocentrism. A word does mean that their role is insignificant. I have used particularly often is ‘intervention’, favouring it over more domineering alternatives First, co-created habitats are unique such as ‘management’ and ‘stewardship’. The and thus complement the variety within term ‘intervention’ fails, though, to erode that a wider rewilded landscape. Secondly, dualism and fully support ecocentrism. I am thus they can serve as ‘reservoirs’ from which grateful to Eileen Crist, co-editor of the present biodiversity can radiate again once the special issue, for suggesting an alternative: co- time comes. Thirdly, they are an insurance creation. policy. On this last point, I believe that 5 A lighter alternative to conservation ‘exit strategies’ has been proposed by Shefferson et al. ecocentrically minded conservationists (2018): “Conservation biologists should incorporate must be realistic about the chances of evolutionary prediction into management planning achieving large-scale rewilding and keep to prevent the evolutionary domestication of the options open for biodiversity in a landscape species that they are trying to protect.”

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6 The extinction of the wild boar and local Leopold A (1968) A Sand County Almanac – and Sketches extirpations of red deer would also have been Here and There. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, significant for ecological dynamics. Countering USA.

this somewhat in recent decades has been the Leopold L, ed (1993) Round River: From the Journals of Aldo increasing populations of several species of Leopold. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA. wild deer. Mammal Society (2019) Dormouse – Muscardinus 7 For readers who are against the idea of using avellanarius. Available at https://is.gd/p4MSnX domestic animals, it should be noted that (accessed July 2019). scything alone is adequate for humans to fulfil Mathews F (2016) From biodiversity-based conservation their part in co-creation. to an ethic of bio-proportionality. Biological 8 I am aware that some readers will be against Conservation 200: 140–8. the idea of repeatedly cutting trees back to their stools, but I would challenge them to offer People’s Trust for Endangered Species (2019) Discover greener alternatives to the materials that are your orchard wildlife. Available at https://is.gd/1V276k taken from the wood and also stress that some (accessed July 2019). “At a time when wood removal is needed, in any case, in order Peterken G (2013) Meadows. British Wildlife Publishing, the conservation for the shifting glades to persist. Additionally, Gillingham (Dorset), UK. I would refer these readers to my set of movement is Plantlife (2018) Devastation of meadows endangers flower conditions that delimit such habitats within favourites like wild strawberry, ragged robin and harebell. struggling for ecocentrically minded conservation. Available at https://is.gd/0bjDw1 (accessed July 2019). traction on a greased 9 Conversely, there is a need to guard against Postnikov V (2019) Limited civilization based on beauty excessive recreational pressure on such (a vision). The Ecological Citizen 2: 147–8. slope, I believe that habitats. Horse riding and motorcycle use can Rackham O (1994) The Illustrated History of the we should see the be very detrimental to heathlands, to give one Countryside. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, UK. examples (Buglife, 2019a). types of co-created Rackham O (2012) Woodlands. Collins, London, UK. habitat that I have References Schenck C (2015) Rewilding Europe. In: Wuerthner G, Crist E and Butler T, eds. Protecting the Wild: Parks discussed as a gift. Batavia C and Nelson MP (2016) Conceptual ambiguities ” and wilderness, the foundation for conservation. Island and practical challenges of ecological forestry: A critical Press, Washington, DC, USA: 96–104. review. Journal of Forestry 114: 572–81. Shefferson RP, Mason CM, Kellett KM et al. (2018) Boots B and Clipson N (2013) Linking ecosystem The evolutionary impacts of conservation actions. modification by the yellow meadow ant Lasius( flavus) to Population Ecology 60: 49–59. microbial assemblages in different soil environments. European Journal of Soil Biology 55: 100–6. Tälle M, Deák B, Poschlod P et al. (2018) Similar effects of different mowing frequencies on the conservation Buglife (2019a) Lowland heathland. Available at value of semi‑natural grasslands in Europe. https://is.gd/GNyrJj (accessed July 2019). Biodiversity and Conservation 27: 2 45 1–7 5 . Buglife (2019b) Lowland meadows. Available at Vera FV (2000) Grazing Ecology and Forest History. https://is.gd/VLtHHj (accessed July 2019). Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing. Crist E (2019) Abundant Earth: Toward an ecological Watson JE, Venter O, Lee J et al. (2018) Protect the last civilization. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, of the wild: Global conservation policy must stop USA. the disappearance of Earth’s few intact ecosystems. Fuller RJ and Warren MS (1993) Coppiced Woodlands: Their Nature 563: 27–30. management for wildlife (2nd edition). Joint Nature Wildlife Trusts (2019) Heathland and moorland. Available Conservation Committee, Peterborough, UK. at https://is.gd/ZblFfe (accessed July 2019). Gray J (2017) A journey to Earth-centredness. The Woodcock BA, Bullock JM, Mortimer SR et al. (2012) Ecological Citizen 1(Suppl A): 38–41. Identifying time lags in the restoration of grassland Gray J and Curry P (2015) Does conservation need an exit butterfly communities: A multi-site assessment. strategy? The case for minimal management. ECOS 36: Biological Conservation 155: 50–8. 28–32. Wright E (2013) The history of the European aurochs Greer JM (2009) The Ecotechnic Future: Envisioning a Post- (Bos primigenius) from the Middle Pleistocene to Peak World. New Society Publishers, Gabriola, BC, its extinction: an archaeological investigation of its Canada. evolution, morphological variability and response to Kingsnorth P (2012) Why every permaculturist should human exploitation (thesis). University of Sheffield, own a scythe. Permaculture, 30 April. Available at Sheffield, UK. https://is.gd/BYsynG (accessed July 2019). Wuerthner G, Crist E and Butler T, eds (2014) Keeping the Laurence BR (1954) The larval inhabitants of cow pats. Wild: Against the domestication of Earth. Island Press, Journal of Animal Ecology 23: 234–60. Washington, DC, USA.

54 The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 www.ecologicalcitizen.net SNAPSHOT

Sensory pollution and the biodiversity crisis

magine you are a female frog on a from a nearby highway. What was once a Kirsten warm spring night in the year 1719. In communication distance of a kilometre or M Parris Ithe distance, you can hear a chorus of more has been reduced by a factor of ten male frogs calling at a wetland, calling to – you need to be much closer to be sure About the author you through the darkness. You like that of what you’re hearing, to be sure that the Kirsten is an Associate sound – these chaps sound like the right chaps who are calling are the right chaps Professor of Urban chaps for you. The only light comes from for you. Although it is night time, light is Ecology at the University the stars, white and shiny, far above. You all around, reflecting down from the sky of Melbourne, Australia, set off towards the sound, hopping across and shining directly from street lamps and the Leader of the National Environmental uneven ground, making steady progress. that march away into the distance. There Science Program’s When you arrive, the chorus is loud are no stars to be seen. When you arrive Research Hub for Clean and insistent with hundreds of voices, at the wetland, there are fewer voices Air and Urban Landscapes overlapping and urgent. You move around but they still overlap each other in their (CAUL). slowly, listening hard; it’s only possible urgency. With a constant, low rumble of Citation to distinguish a few individual voices at urban noise in the background, it is easier Parris KM (2019) Sensory a time. Eventually you make your choice for you to hear the higher-pitched voices pollution and the biodiversity – a fellow with a low-pitched, energetic in the chorus, which tend to belong to crisis. The Ecological Citizen call. He sounds like he’s got the resources, smaller males. Do these squeaky fellows 3(Suppl A): 55–7. the stamina and the experience to be have the resources and experience to be a a high-quality father to your children. good father to your children? Eventually Keywords You make contact with that lucky fellow, you make a choice, and as a pair you and Biodiversity; conservation; sensory pollution; urban make your intentions known. He climbs your selected partner position yourselves ecology; water on your back in a close embrace and as a at the edge of the wetland. You deposit pair you position yourselves at the edge hundreds of eggs into the water; he of the wetland. You deposit hundreds of fertilizes them as best he can, although his eggs into the water; he fertilizes them. sperm count is significantly lower than And then you say goodbye to your instant that of his ancestors from 300 years ago. family, confident that most of your eggs The wetland has an urbanized watershed will hatch to become strong and healthy and contains a vast array of chemical tadpoles. Not all of them will make it to pollutants: heavy metals, pesticides, the next life stage, and fewer will make it antibacterial agents and traces of to adulthood. But the water is clean and human pharmaceuticals. Even at low well vegetated, and your tiny children concentrations, these substances can are already equipped with the chemical impact on the survival of your children – and behavioural defences they’ll need to directly through increased mortality, and avoid predators and make their own way indirectly through behavioural changes in the world. that will leave them more susceptible to Imagine now you are a female frog on a predation. How can you be confident that warm spring night in the year 2019. In the they will make it to the next life stage, distance, a chorus of male frogs is calling and then on into adulthood? at a wetland, calling to you through the This scenario is just one of millions semi-darkness. But it’s difficult for you that play out every day in human-altered to hear them over the sound of traffic environments; it highlights only a few

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Amphibians are among the many organisms vulnerable of the ecological impacts of sensory and changes the spectral properties of to the negative effects of pollution. Sensory pollutants – including nocturnal light, with far-reaching impacts sensory pollution (pictured anthropogenic noise, artificial light at on the physiology, behaviour, ecology and are European common night and chemical contaminants – disrupt evolution of animals and plants (Longcore frogs [Rana temporaria]). the sensory processes of wildlife across and Rich, 2004; Gaston et al., 2013). Globally, the evolutionary spectrum (Halfwerk its effects are expected to increase further and Slabbekoorn, 2015). Anthropogenic with the move from sodium lamps to cool- noise impairs hearing and acoustic white light-emitting diode (LED) lamps communication in groups as diverse as for roadway lighting (Gaston et al., 2015). insects, fish, frogs, birds and mammals, Chemical pollutants disrupt olfaction impacting behaviour, reproductive success (smell), including chemical communication and the detection of predators and prey between individuals of the same species (Parris, 2015; Shannon et al., 2016). Artificial and the olfactory detection of predators light at night disrupts natural photoperiods (Lürling and Scheffer, 2007). Many chemical

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pollutants also act as endocrine disrupters, Acknowledgements affecting invertebrates and vertebrates This work was supported by the Clean Air and Urban alike with significant consequences for Landscapes Hub of the Australian Government’s development, behaviour and fitness National Environmental Science Program. (Clotfelter et al., 2004; Hayes et al., 2011). However, the combined effects of the References myriad sensory pollutants experienced Clotfelter ED, Bell AM and Levering KR (2004) “Reducing the by wildlife remain poorly understood The role of animal behaviour in the study of ecological impacts (Halfwerk and Slabbekoorn, 2015; Hale et endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Animal Behaviour 68: 6 6 5–76 . of sensory pollution al., 2017). Reducing the ecological impacts of Gaston KJ, Bennie J, Davies TW and Hopkins J is conceptually (2013) The ecological impacts of nighttime light sensory pollution is conceptually simple simple but will pollution: A mechanistic appraisal. Biological but will take a coordinated effort between Reviews 88: 912–27. take a coordinated policy-makers, land managers, urban Gaston KJ, Visser ME and Hölker F (2015) The effort between planners and the general public. Legislation biological impacts of artificial light at night: The policy-makers, land to protect people from excessive urban research challenge. Philosophical Transactions of noise (including road-traffic and air-traffic the Royal Society B 370: 20140133. managers, urban noise) should be extended to protect other Hale R, Piggott JJ and Swearer SE (2017) Describing planners and the species and their acoustic environments, and understanding behavioral responses to general public. particularly threatened species and multiple stressors and multiple stimuli. Ecology ” those that rely heavily on acoustic and Evolution 7: 38–47. communication (Parris, 2015). Detailed Hale R, Swearer SE, Sievers M and Coleman R (2019) guidelines for reducing light pollution are Balancing biodiversity outcomes and pollution management in urban stormwater treatment available from the International Dark Sky wetlands. Journal of Environmental Management Association (www.darksky.org); the general 233: 3 02–7. principles are to reduce the duration and Halfwerk W and Slabbekoorn H (2015) Pollution brightness of artificial lights, ensure that going multimodal: The complex impact of the lights are targeted where they are needed human-altered sensory environment on animal and shielded to prevent upward glow, and perception and performance. Biology Letters 11: to avoid lights with a predominance of 20141051. energy in the blue portion of the spectrum Hayes TB, Anderson LL, Beasley VR et al. (2011) (Longcore et al., 2018). Mitigating the Demasculinization and feminization of male gonads by atrazine: Consistent effects across ecological impacts of chemical pollution vertebrate classes. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry in agricultural and urban areas will and Molecular Biology 127: 64–7 3 . require the protection of wildlife from Longcore T and Rich C (2004) Ecological light chemical contaminants that already exist pollution. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment in the environment, removal of these 2: 191–8. contaminants where feasible, and a much Longcore T, Rodríguez A, Witherington B et al. (2018) greater effort to prevent further additions Rapid assessment of lamp spectrum to quantify to terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecological effects of light at night. Journal of ecosystems. Ensuring that unpolluted Experimental Zoology 2018: 1–11. habitats are available for and attractive Lürling M and Scheffer M (2007) Info-disruption: to wildlife will also be crucial (e.g., by Pollution and the transfer of chemical information ensuring urban wetlands intended for between organisms. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 22: 374–9. biodiversity do not receive storm-water run-off, and by discouraging wildlife Parris KM (2015) Ecological impacts of road noise and options for mitigation. In: van der Ree R, Smith DJ from using polluted wetlands [Hale et al., and Grilo C, eds. Handbook of Road Ecology. John 2019]). It is also worth remembering that Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, USA: 151–8. a quieter, darker and cleaner environment Shannon G, McKenna MF, Angeloni LM et al. (2016) A will bring substantial benefits for human synthesis of two decades of research documenting health and well-being – for we, after all, the effects of noise on wildlife. Biological Reviews are wildlife too. n 91: 982–1005.

The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 57 A European green lizard in a nature reserve in the Crau, France www.ecologicalcitizen.net SPECIAL FEATURE

The thin green line: Scientists must do more to limit the toll of burgeoning infrastructure on nature and society

iven its wide-ranging and transforma- projects are foolhardy. Our immediate goal William tive impacts, the global explosion should be halting projects that will have Laurance Gof built infrastructure is arguably the greatest costs for nature and marginal the most urgent environmental threat benefits for humanity. About the author today (Laurance et al., 2014; Laurance and The effort to advance smart, sustainable William is a distinguished Arrea, 2017; Laurance, 2018b). This tsunami infrastructure transcends scientific disciplines professor and Director of of infrastructure has many contributing – linking engineering and environmental the Centre for Tropical factors, including human overpopulation sciences to governance and economics. Environmental and and the short-term thinking that arises from However, for many reasons, scientists Sustainability Science at James Cook University in consumptive growth-oriented economies. have struggled to provide urgently Cairns, QLD, Australia. He The consequences will be many, from needed guidance and leadership. Some also founded and directs massive loss and degradation of wildlife scientists are swayed by promises of ALERT (the Alliance of habitat to increasing pressures on the global sweeping socio-economic benefits for host Leading Environmental climate, and they will reverberate across nations, or assume that environmental Researchers & Thinkers; www.alert-conservation.org) nearly every sector of society. impact assessments or promised mitigation – an international science- China’s Belt & Road Initiative, Africa’s measures provide reasonable safeguards advocacy group that reaches ‘development corridors’ and other world- against project risks. Others are daunted 15 million readers annually. changing ventures are unleashing a by complex environmental, economic tidal wave of new transportation and and socio-political elements of large Citation energy projects, extractive industries developments, or are being pressured or Laurance W (2019) The thin green line: Scientists must and land-use change. More and improved drowned out by project proponents. Some do more to limit the toll of infrastructure is unquestionably a vital find it all too depressing, and essentially burgeoning infrastructure component of humanity’s pursuit of give up (Laurance, 2018b). on nature and society. The economic and social development – with The perils of poor decisions are underscored Ecological Citizen 3(Suppl A): estimates for needed investments of by the stunning pace of infrastructure 59–65. US$3–5 trillion per year (Zarfl et al., 2015) expansion. Globally, paved roads are Keywords – but ongoing ventures vary greatly in expected to increase by 25 million km in Biodiversity; climate their risks and rewards. Here, I argue that length by 2050 – enough to encircle the Earth change; conservation; many proposed projects have such striking more than 600 times (Laurance et al., 2014; sixth mass extinction; hazards that they should never have left see Figure 1). At least 3700 major hydropower sustainable development the drawing board. projects are planned or underway ( Z a r fl My approach is pragmatic. Some level et al., 2015). Mining, fossil-fuel and other of development is inevitable and urgently extractive projects currently threaten needed, especially in poorer nations. nearly 1 million km2 of intact tropical But there is still a dire need to challenge forest (Grantham and Tibaldeschi, 2018). many proposed infrastructure projects China’s Belt & Road is projected to cost from environmental, economic, social, US$8 trillion and will include over 7000 financial, political and other perspectives. infrastructure and extractive-industry One need not invoke ecological ethics (e.g. projects that will span much of the world Curr y, 2018) or reverence for the Earth and (Ascensão et al., 2018). If completed as biodiversity to arrive at such conclusions. planned, Africa’s massive development Hard numbers and rational cost–benefit corridors (Laurance et al., 2015) and South arguments reveal that many proposed America’s Initiative for the Integration

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Figure 1. Rainforest in the Congo Basin being destroyed for a Chinese-funded road construction project (photo by William Laurance).

inequitable or environmentally destructive of Regional Infrastructure will criss-cross (Flyvbjerg, 2009; Laurance, 2018a). entire continents while slicing through remaining wilderness and hundreds of The repercussions of ill-advised protected areas. In addition to their many developments can be astonishing. direct impacts, such schemes also indirectly In Malaysia, for example, escalating intensify illegal or unplanned road- national debt, soaring project costs and building, deforestation, mining, poaching corruption have forced the cancellation and land speculation (Laurance et al., 2014; of over US$40 billion in ongoing Belt & Alamgir et al., 2017). Road projects financed by Chinese loans (Laurance, 2018c). If completed, these Why are we failing? projects would have led to staggering After decades of work in this realm, I environmental degradation. The scale of believe the general failure of scientists to alleged bribery and misappropriation – provide coherent views on infrastructure including the arrest of Malaysia’s former can be linked to several factors. One Prime Minister, Najib Razak – beggars is ambivalence around the notion that belief. Comparable scandals have led to ‘development is good’. In fact, much the collapse of dozens of planned mega- development is ‘bad’ – in the sense of being dams in Brazilian Amazonia, spurred wasteful, inefficient, financially risky, economic disarray in Pakistan and Sri

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Lanka, and provoked open warfare in in deforestation. Independent analyses Papua New Guinea (Laurance, 2018c). suggest it will provoke a dramatic The reluctance of many scientists to acceleration of forest loss – by an engage in development controversies – additional 5-39 million hectares by mid- which can be complex, time-consuming century (Ritter et al., 2017). Similarly, and personally confronting – also the provincial government of North promotes poor decisions on infrastructure. Sumatra, Indonesia, formally approved It might be tempting for researchers to the environmental impact assessment assume that environmental and social for a hydropower project that would cut non-governmental organizations (NGOs) across the scarce remaining habitat of the provide an adequate safety net for critically endangered Tapanuli orangutan Scientists can decision-making. In fact, most NGOs are (Pongo tapanuliensis), a species which “ overwhelmed, especially in the technically numbers only 800 living individuals (see also be plagued complex realm of major infrastructure Figure 2). My colleagues and I found the by anxieties ventures (Laurance, 2018b). assessment to be rife with inaccuracies around political Scientists can also be plagued by and misrepresentations, which ALERT appropriateness. anxieties around political appropriateness. reported to Indonesian President Joko ” For instance, in seven years of co- Widodo (ALERT, 2018), and has been chairing the Conservation Committee vigorously challenged by an NGO lawsuit. of the Association for Tropical Biology Finally, some scientists who attempt and Conservation, I found a recurring to engage in development issues are impediment was agonized doubts by pressured, paid off or attacked by project certain members as to whether a scientific advocates. Project proponents long ago organization should take public positions learned the strategy of hiring leading on environmental issues, often involving experts to force their silence or complicity. new infrastructure, in developing nations. Principles of financial and professional Some argued that only researchers transparency that help govern the from the affected countries were in a behaviour of researchers must appear morally defensible position to voice quaint to some project proponents. In their reservations. With nine-tenths of 2001, a research team I led (Laurance et all infrastructure slated for developing al., 2001) was so stridently criticized by nations – which harbour most of the advocates of the dramatic expansion of world’s mega-biodiverse tropical and Amazonian roads and dams that one of subtropical ecosystems – such arguments, Brazil’s leading newspapers ultimately though clearly well intentioned, seem slammed the campaign for ‘attacking naive and disempowering. the messenger’. Some suffer a far worse Scientists must avoid a dangerous fate. Globally, around 200 environmental perception that environmental impact advocates and park guards are murdered assessments and recommended mitigation each year (Global Witness, 2018). measures provide adequate safeguards. They rarely do (Laurance and Salt, 2018). Strategies and solutions Most assessments are short-term and The global infrastructure tsunami is myopic in nature and systematically advancing so rapidly that there is no time biased toward project approval – partly for pie-in-the-sky solutions. The most because the project proponent must urgent priority is to halt, or at least delay, pay for the assessment and thereby has ill-advised infrastructure projects, ideally manifold means to influence its outcome. before they gain political and financial For example, the environmental impact momentum. This can be a fraught goal assessment for Brazil’s 900-km-long as most infrastructure proponents strive BR-319 Highway, which is slicing into to do the opposite, railroading projects the heart of Amazonia, concluded that through the approvals process before their the project would cause no net increase risks can be fully exposed and publicly

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Figure 2. The Tapanuli orangutan is the world’s rarest great ape and is being imperilled by a Chinese-funded hydropower project in Sumatra, Indonesia (photos by Sumatran Orangutan Conservation Programme).

debated. One must realize, however, strikingly from the status quo (Laurance, that large-scale projects have relatively 2018b). Prevailing strategies for ‘greening’ high rates of attrition. Delaying tactics planned infrastructure are varied, but they can be effective because corporate and rarely involve halting projects entirely. The government advocates of projects operate emphasis, typically, is on adjusting projects under tight time constraints – such as to make them more benign and publicly annual profit statements and limited palatable (Alamgir et al., 2017). Examples terms of political office(Laurance, 2018a). of such measures include construction of Opposing ill-advised projects is not at fish-ladders for hydro-dams and of wildlife all ‘anti-development’ but rather pro- underpasses, overpasses and rope-bridges smart development (Alamgir et al., 2017; for highways, to help maintain vestiges Laurance, 2018c). All nations have finite of animal movement. But such measures assets available for construction and are often expensive and of uncertain maintenance of infrastructure. Monies benefit (Corlatti et al., 2009), especially that are borrowed for new projects must be for species of high conservation concern. repaid with interest; natural resources that They also fail to counter the many indirect are squandered might not be recuperable; impacts of projects – such as illegal and failed projects typically have heavily deforestation, encroachment and poaching intertwined financial, social, political and (see Figure 3) – which are frequently their environmental costs. For instance, a project most dangerous consequences (Alamgir et that increases wildfires and air pollution, or al., 2017; Laurance and Arrea, 2017). landslides and flood risk, has – alongside Thus, I argue, the most essential environmental liability – major financial, element of greening is screening out bad political and reputational burdens. projects. But how does one decide which Actively working to halt risky or ill- projects to eye most critically? In fact, planned infrastructure projects differs we know enough now to identify broad

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categories of projects whose rewards can In promoting ecologically non-destruc- be swamped by their risks. A good example tive infrastructure, tactics and messaging is infrastructure planned for high-rainfall are crucial (Laurance, 2018a). The most or steep environments, typical of many effective strategies will incorporate areas in the tropics. Here, engineering many angles, focusing as much on the and long-term maintenance costs can be financial, social, economic and political prohibitively high, as are risks of disasters risks of projects as on their environmental such as flooding, fires and broad-scale impacts. Above all, scientists must accept erosion (Alamgir et al., 2017). A second and embrace the view that each nation has category includes projects in remote a fully sovereign right to determine its own locales (Laurance et al., 2014), such as those development priorities and trajectories. intended to integrate frontier communities An upshot of sovereignty, however, is into cash economies or expand large-scale that few decision-makers are adequately electrification. Such projects generally trained to see the many shoals of risk on have modest per capita benefits and arrays which infrastructure ventures can easily of important environmental, social and founder (Laurance, 2018c). Compounding economic hazards. Globally, trillions of dollars are currently being invested in projects in steep, remote or rain-drenched environments (Laurance et al., 2015; Alamgir et al., 2017; Ascensão et al., 2018; Laurance, 2018c). Proactive approaches for environmental and social planning, such as ‘global road mapping’ (Laurance et al., 2014), can further identify high-danger zones for new infrastructure. One such area is the Leuser Ecosystem in northern Sumatra, Indonesia, the last place on Earth where Asia’s megafauna (rhinos, tigers, orangutans and elephants) still persists. Here, the need for large, unbroken areas of high-quality habitat cannot be overstated. Other examples include geopolitically sensitive areas, such as segments of the India–China, Peru–Brazil and Indonesia– Papua New Guinea borders (Laurance, 2019), where infrastructure is being driven by territorial or nationalistic ambitions rather than plausible cost– benefit arguments. Other factors – such as unstable governments, land-ownership conflicts and fluctuating prices for export commodities at the heart of big projects – can create major risks for infrastructure (Laurance, 2018c). In sub-Saharan Africa, a quantitative comparison of the potential agricultural benefits and environmental costs of 33 massive development corridors suggested that all but six were marginal Figure 3. The author examining a forest elephant slaughtered by poachers in or inadvisable (Laurance et al., 2015; see the Congo Basin. The elephant’s face had been hacked off to extract its valuable Figure 4). ivory tusks (photo by Mahmoud Mahmoud).

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urgent opportunities are to influence its many financiers outside China, as well as the roughly 130 host nations worldwide where new projects will be located. “In the many arenas Given their magnitude and myriad risks, it where infrastructure is in the best interests of nations, financiers projects are debated, and the public to view investments for infrastructure both conservatively and experts ready to critically. In my view, an ideal conceptual grapple with real- model for evaluating infrastructure world challenges Inadvisable proposals is a Darwinian struggle, with could play a pivotally Marginal projects that survive transparent cost– Advisable benefit assessments prevailing, whereas important role. ” those with weaker prospects are delayed, diminished or driven extinct. Beyond all else, smart, sustainable infrastructure will require convincing and credible Figure 4. Most of the 33 massive ‘development arguments – from scientists, economists corridors’ proposed or underway in sub-Saharan Africa are poorly justified when evaluated using and technical experts. In the many arenas transparent cost–benefit criteria (after Laurance where infrastructure projects are debated, et al., 2015). experts ready to grapple with real- world challenges could play a pivotally this is an absence of self-regulation by important role. project advocates, who often stand to gain financially from major ventures, How you can help and behave accordingly. In the People’s Please follow ALERT’s efforts to promote Republic of China – overwhelmingly the smart infrastructure and development biggest driver of new infrastructure – the (www.facebook.com/ALERTconserv) and public almost never sees reports critical receive free updates to become involved of the Belt & Road because of overt or (www.alert-conservation.org). We need tacit media censorship (Laurance, 2018c). your help. Bad projects thrive in the Beyond this, China has no history of shadows, and it makes an enormous corporate transparency and no political difference if we can shine a bright light on will to halt corrupt overseas business ill-advised development. n practices. According to Transparency International, “There have been no References investigations or charges ever laid in Alamgir M, Campbell MJ, Sloan S et al. (2017) Economic, China against its companies, citizens, or socio-political and environmental risks of road residents for foreign corrupt practices” development in the tropics. Current Biology 27: (Dell, 2018; emphasis added). Despite R1130–40. its incessant greenwashing to obscure ALERT (2018) Tapanuli Orangutan: A follow-up letter reality, China’s prevailing approaches to Indonesian president Joko Widodo. Available at are a formula for promoting bad business https://is.gd/2AWWO6 (accessed February 2019). practices, social abuses, environmental Ascensão F, Fahrig L, Clevenger AP et al. (2018) crimes and predatory development. Environmental challenges for the Belt and Road Thus, efforts to green and screen the Initiative. Nature Sustainability 1: 206–9.

tsunami of China-funded projects appear Corlatti L, Hackländer K and Frey-Roos F (2009) Ability especially challenging, although some of wildlife overpasses to provide connectivity and Chinese enterprises, facing growing prevent genetic isolation. Conservation Biology 23: scrutiny, are showing interest in social 548–56. and environmental safeguards (Ascensão Curry P (2018) Ecological Ethics: An introduction (updated et al., 2018). For the Belt & Road, the most 2nd edition). Polity, Cambridge, UK.

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Dell G (2018) Time for China to step up to global anti- 360, 17 January. Available at https://is.gd/8X5UTR corruption responsibilities. Voices for Transparency, (accessed February 2019). 19 October. Available at https://is.gd/Bin4Jf (accessed Laurance WF and Arrea IB (2017) Roads to riches or February 2019). ruin? Science 358: 442–4. Flyvbjerg B (2009) Survival of the unfittest: why the Laurance WF and Salt D (2018) Environmental worst infrastructure gets built—and what we can do impact assessments aren’t protecting the about it. Oxford Reviews of Economic Policy 25: 344–67. environment. Ensia, 6 December. Available at Global Witness (2018) At What Cost? Available at https://is.gd/uWjvkA (accessed February 2019). https://is.gd/G8IFM5 (accessed February 2019). Laurance WF, Clements GR, Sloan S et al. (2014) A Grantham H and Tibaldeschi P (2018) Assessing the global strategy for road building. Nature 513: 229– Potential Threat of Extractive Industries to Tropical Intact 32. Forest Landscapes. WWF-Norge, Oslo, Norway. Available Laurance WF, Cochrane MA, Bergen S et al. (2001) The at https://is.gd/XTjsdU (accessed February 2019). future of the Brazilian Amazon. Science 291: 438–9. Laurance WF (2018a) Conservation and the global Laurance WF, Sloan S, Weng L and Sayer JA (2015) infrastructure tsunami: Disclose, debate, delay! Trends Estimating the environmental costs of Africa’s in Ecology & Evolution 33: 5 6 8–7 1 . massive “development corridors”. Current Biology Laurance WF (2018b) If you can’t build well, then build 25: 3202–8. nothing at all. Nature 563: 295. Ritter CD, McCrate G, Nilsson RH et al. (2017) Laurance W (2018c) Is the global era of massive Environmental impact assessment in Brazilian infrastructure projects coming to an end? Amazonia: Challenges and prospects to assess Yale Environment 360, 10 July. Available at biodiversity. Biological Conservation 206: 161–8. https://is.gd/rvC5qB (accessed February 2019). Zarfl C, Lumsdon AE, Berlekamp Jet al. (2015) A global Laurance WF (2019) A highway megaproject tears at the boom in hydropower dam construction. Aquatic heart of New Guinea’s rainforest. Yale Environment Sciences 77: 161–7 0 .

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The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 65 A coypu, France www.ecologicalcitizen.net LONG ARTICLE

Beyond the North American Wildlife Conservation Model and towards Earth rights

For nearly 150 years, the view of wild animals as ‘renewable natural resources’ and ‘property’ Anja Heister to be managed, controlled and used has dominated wildlife management and conservation in the US. The North American Wildlife Conservation Model is the driver of this strong About the author anthropocentric and utilitarian stance, which has not only led to an annual killing spree Anja is a campaigner for where millions of wild animals lose their lives to hunters and trappers nationwide but has wildlife rights and lives in Missoula, MT, USA. also resulted in a staggering spiral of plant and animal extinctions globally. This article examines the worldview of the North American Wildlife Conservation Model and its dangers, Citation and it points out the need for compassion for all Earthlings and for the embrace of Earth Heister A (2019) Beyond the rights. The author also provides steps everyone interested in changing the paradigm of North American Wildlife lethal management of wild animals can take to help accelerate the transition. Conservation Model and towards Earth rights. The Ecological Citizen 3(Suppl A): n a sunny winter day more than a their favourite animal species (and hunting 67–74 . decade ago, my partner and I came opportunities) disappear. Ideas and actions Oacross a pine marten hanging by a taken by these early recreational hunters to Keywords front arm from a leghold trap on the limb stem the decline of certain ‘game’ species, Animal ethics; of a tree in the woods. After we freed her such as elk, deer and antelope, caused anthropocentrism; from the trap, she limped away and then by market hunters developed over time biodiversity; conservation; stopped, turned around and gave us a long into principles. These were collectively rights of nature look, perhaps of thanks. This traumatic described as the North American Wildlife experience set me on my path of inquiry Conservation Model in 2001 (Geist et al., into what makes this cruelty against wild 2001). animals possible and still legal. My journey Some of the early ‘sport’ hunters, including led me to the little-known North American Theodore Roosevelt, George Bird Grinnell Wildlife Conservation Model. Along the and Gifford Pinchot, also spearheaded the way, I was dumbfounded to learn that our establishment of national parks and wildlife releasing the poor pine marten was illegal refuges. They led the historic transition – that creature was property of the trapper. from unmitigated slaughter of wild animals An invisible force with powerful, received to regulated hunting, fishing and trapping. beliefs, the North American Wildlife However, by replacing commercial hunting Conservation Model (hereinafter, the with the concept of sport hunting, early Model) has been directing wildlife-related recreational hunters succeeded in conserving policies, regulations and laws, and shaping wild animals for human use, and at the also how society relates to wild animals same time preserving methods to exploit and nature. Owing to similar temporal them: hunting and trapping. and social circumstances in the US and Strikingly, today, a growing sector of the Canada, the Model conceptually includes American public is shifting its beliefs about both countries. Its history reaches back to wild animals and increasingly embracing the 1800s, a time when European settlers mutualism, an egalitarian ideology that mercilessly slaughtered wild animals for views non-human animals, including commerce, driving several animal species wild individuals, as if they were members to extinction or near extinction. This also of an extended family, deserving rights led to a conflict with another group – the and care. This was one of the findings by a wealthy, urban ‘sport’ hunters, who saw recent US report that surveyed public and

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“The United States Department of Agriculture’s Wildlife Services agency relies heavily on leghold traps and strangulation snares among other indiscriminate Figure 1. Raccoon skins at the North American Fur Auction in Stoughton, WI, USA (photo: Wisconsin devices in their Department of Natural Resources [CC BY-ND 2.0; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/2.0/]). annual slaughter governmental staff’s attitudes towards control, wildlife killing machine” (Predator of millions of wild wild animals and showed that mutualists Defense, 2014) – relies heavily on leghold animals under the (35%) have now outpaced traditionalists traps and strangulation snares among guise of livestock (28%), who believe that non-human other indiscriminate devices in their annual protection.” animals should be used for the benefit slaughter of millions of wild animals under of humans (Manfredo et al., 2018). Yet at the guise of livestock protection. The federal the same time, the relationship between agency killed more than 2.3 million wild humans and non-human animals conveyed animals in 2017, down from 4.4 million by the Model, and reflected in federal and animals in 2013 [United States Department state fish and wildlife agencies’ policies, of Agriculture, 2019]). Given the task of remains firmly locked in the historic grip conservation to curb society’s destructive of anthropocentrism tethered to strong relation to the more-than-human world, it utilitarianism. The Model’s approach is disturbing to see the acceptance – and – which has no consideration for the even promotion – of the Model’s tenets intrinsic value of non-human animals by certain conservationists. Unwittingly – is responsible for legitimizing an perhaps, they are thus legitimizing another annual killing of millions of individual strand of destruction – the recreational wild animals. It has been estimated that killing of wild animals. hunters in the US alone kill between 100 Nevertheless, state and federal wildlife and 200 million animals annually, the agencies, most hunting organizations, majority for ‘recreation’ (Bekoff and Pierce, and even professional wildlife 2017). In addition, trappers kill between 6 associations such as The Wildlife Society, and 21 million wild fur-bearing animals promote and defend the Model. The annually (Figure 1; White et al., 2010). Congressional Sportsmen’s Foundation Furthermore, the United States Department (CSF; www.congressionalsportsmen.org), a of Agriculture’s Wildlife Services agency body based in Washington, DC, is perhaps – a body that one documentary rightly the Model’s most powerful lobbying force. exposed as an “unaccountable, out-of- Together with partners, including the

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National Rifle Association, the Sportsmen’s describe the concept of “fair chase” and Alliance, and the Safari Club International, rejection of frivolous and wasteful killing. CSF applies high-pressure political 5 “Wildlife is considered an international influence in protecting their interests in resource”: Many wildlife species are hunting, angling, shooting and the trapping of international importance (see, for of wild animals. This has been exemplified example, the transnational Migratory Bird by two main supporters, who stated: “the Act established between Canada and the Model has ensured that hunters are a force USA in 1916), and management of wildlife to be reckoned with, despite representing is an issue of international concern. only about 6 percent of the North American 6 “Science is the proper tool to discharge population (13.7 million hunters in the US in wildlife policy”: The implementation of 2011)” (Mahoney and Jackson, 2013: 454).1 policies, such as hunting and trapping Indeed, the pro-hunting and trapping seasons or protection of endangered industry comes out in full swing whenever species, should have a scientific basis at a the public attempts to curtail recreational certain level. hunting and trapping or governmental 7 “Democracy of hunting is standard”: lethal management of predators. Aldo Leopold called this idea the Nevertheless, several national and state- “democracy of sport” (Meine, 1988: 169), focused organizations fight either through reflecting the Model’s inherent focus on legal challenges or through grassroots hunting as a democratic process, where efforts, including ballot initiatives against everyone has a right (i.e. access to), and a the cruelties involved in the recreational responsibility for, wildlife. killing of wild animals. Examples include the Center for Biological Diversity, The Model’s detrimental impact on “The Model is one WildEarth Guardians and Footloose society: Reflecting and reinforcing of many forces that anthropocentrism Montana. The last of these, of which I am have historically a co-founder, is a non-profit organization The Model is one of many forces that created and continue based in Missoula, MT, that promotes trap- have historically created and continue to free public lands. maintain the human–nature dichotomy to maintain the and a strong hierarchy. Because the Model’s human–nature The Model’s seven tenets priority is the (lethal) use of wild animals, dichotomy and a The seven tenets of the Model are as follows its tenets are a moral structuring of the strong hierarchy. (The Wildlife Society and the Boone and relationship between humans and non- ” Crockett Club, 2012): humans. Here, humans are considered 1 “Wildlife resources are a public trust”: subjects with moral value (they matter), Wildlife is a common resource and held in while non-human animals are assigned an trust by the government for the benefit of inferior status as public or private ‘property’, present and future human generations. or as a ‘natural resource’ (tenets #1, #2, #3, 2 “Markets for game are eliminated”: #5 and #6). The tenets describe acceptable Historic markets for game species were purposes for killing animals (#4), and also eliminated; trapping for fur and markets claim the right of humans to kill animals for for animal pelts are exempted.2 sport touted in the ‘democracy of hunting’ 3 “Allocation of wildlife is by law”: (#7). Underlying such a strong sense of ‘Surplus’3 of wildlife is allocated to the entitlement to decide over wild animals’ public for consumption by law, not by lives and deaths are certain widely shared the market, land ownership or special beliefs: “that the Earth belongs to humanity; privileges. that the planet consists in resources for 4 “Wildlife can be killed only for a the betterment of people; and that human legitimate purpose”: This principle beings are ‘obviously’ superior to all other legitimizes killing wildlife for “food, species” (Crist, 2017: 62). According to this fur, self-defense or property protection” perspective, humans are not perceived as (Geist et al., 2001: 178), and then goes on to a part of nature, but, instead, our species

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is arbitrarily elevated into a realm deemed and societies of wolves in Denali National separate from, outside of and above Park, captured non-human individuality by nature. This is a worldview with disastrous pointing out that every wolf is embedded consequences, as it is playing out globally in in a net of relationships within and outside the unprecedented extinction crisis. their families, and thus every wolf is not The Model’s clear-cut separation between only an individual but essential (Haber and humans and wild animals demands a Holleman, 2013). In the same vein, a group strong hierarchical view of the world (scala of conservationists and animal ethicists naturae) in order to justify its grand-scale recently urged for conservation strategies exploitation of wild animals for ‘recreation to include concern for collectives and and use’. This is also a moral scaling that individual animals, “particularly for those justifies the non-vital desires of hunters who possess sophisticated capacities for and trappers, while demoting the vital and emotion, consciousness and sociality” basic needs and interests of wild animals (Wallach et al., 2018: 1). With the rise of staying alive, unharmed by humans. “ Animals as ‘natural resources’ of sport hunting Let us take a closer look at how the Model ontologizes wild animals for use. First, it With the rise of sport hunting legitimized legitimized through directs its focus on the ecological collective, through the Model came the displacement the Model came the not the individual animal. Second, it of wild animals, along with natural displacement of wild downgrades the status of wild animals to entities such as trees, plants, soil, water animals, along with ‘natural renewable resources’. And third, it and rocks into a legally defined category categorizes wild animals as property. of natural resources. The added epithet natural entities such of ‘renewable’ turned animals into a as trees, plants, soil, The Model’s view of the whole resource that “with wise management, water and rocks into The Model’s allegiance is to the collective can be perpetuated indefinitely for the a legally defined – the ecosystem, the animal species and enjoyment of present and future [human] population. In this sense, the individual generations” (Bolen and Robinson, 2003: category of natural animal has no moral worth because the 3). And while humans are bestowed with resources.” individual essentially does not exist. the right to manage (control, manipulate The message here is that the individual and kill), wild animals are denied what they animal is expendable, interchangeable share with us – biological kinship, self-will and “only valuable insofar as it carries the and independence, autonomy and self- genetic coding to perpetuate the species, determination, sentience and cognition, which in turn is by evolution adapted to and species-specific culture and morality. its surroundings and helps to perpetuate This outdated view of fellow creatures is no the healthy functioning of the ecosystem” longer congruent with scientific and ethical (Mallory, 2001: 69). Focusing on abstract advancements (Singer, 1975; Midgley, 1979; constructs ensures that the individual Regan, 1985; Adams, 1990), both of which animal conveniently vanishes into the mist are aligned in urging us to change our view of the species or population and that he or she of non-human animals – wild and domestic can be sacrificed for the greater good of the – from objects to subjects, sentient beings whole or for the experience of the individual with lives, rights, interests and needs like sport hunter (Kheel, 2008). This view ignores humans. “Science is confirming the obvious: non-human nature’s intrinsic standing and other animals hear, see, and smell with their value. It utterly dismisses compassion and ears, eyes and noses; are frightened when respect for the lives of individual animals. they have reason for fright and feel happy It denies that they are good for their own when they appear happy” (Safina, 2015: 23). sake and therefore ought to be protected. Of And not only that, but scientific discoveries course, this view is far from being universal now include the existence of sentience within the conservation community. For in taxa other than mammals, including example, the late biologist Gordon Haber, octopuses, reptiles and fish. In addition to who spent 40 years documenting the lives widespread cognition, moral behaviour as

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well as personality differences exist among and naturalist Henry Beston (1956: 25), non-human individuals of many animal who described our fellow creatures so species (Bekoff and Pierce, 2017). All such beautifully: “they are not brethren, they recent findings point to the same: Life is one are not underlings, they are other nations and experienced by all. caught with ourselves in the net of life From rats chirping (laughing) when and time.” tickled and bees dancing to polar bears sliding down a snowy hill for fun, there The Model’s promotion of is no longer any doubt that biodiversity aggression, violence and cruelty consists of bodies and minds. This is to wild animals is detrimental to “The Model’s further supported by the 2012 Cambridge society’s efforts to increase pro- disconnect between social behaviours Declaration on Consciousness (Dvorsk y, human and non- 2012). Sentience obviously gives an animal Reflective of the global destruction of human animals an advantage in survival and did not arise de nature caused by a separation between novo in humans but developed from species humanity and more-than-human nature, breeds abuse, cruelty already equipped with emotions and the the Model’s disconnect between human and and violence against capability of suffering both from physical non-human animals breeds abuse, cruelty wild animals.” pain and from fear, anxiety and stress and violence against wild animals. Nowhere (Rollin, 1998). Thus, the Model’s focus on is this more apparent than in trapping human interests that seemingly outweigh wild animals for their fur or just for ‘fun’. animals’ sentience is morally bankrupt Trapping is clearly an act of violence and its view of wildlife individuals as non- against unsuspecting and defenceless wild sentient natural renewable resources is animals, who are lured into a baited snare, scientifically unsound.4 leghold or conibear trap. Common injuries include broken teeth and broken bones, and Animals as ‘human property’ psychological and physiological trauma. In The Model continues to rely on the archaic such desperate situations it is common for ancient principle of Roman common a trapped animal to chew off his or her foot law, which classifies animals as ‘things’. or twist off an entire limb to escape the pain Accordingly, all wild animals in the US are and panic (trappers call this “a wring-off”). either public human property, owned by the Trappers commonly kill a trapped animal nation’s citizenry and held in trust by state by stomping, strangling or beating him wildlife agencies for present and future or her to death, by shooting, by poisoning, human generations, or become private by chemical injection or by drowning. For property when physically immobilized by example, the Trapper Education Manual a human with a license to kill, via bullet, encourages inexperienced trappers to use hook, arrow, trap or snare. With that, submersion techniques and recommends the Model has cast an all-encompassing that trappers who are underage or otherwise net over wild animals, granting them no not legally permitted to carry a firearm protecting from abuse, torture and death. “strike smaller furbearers such as raccoon, Unsurprisingly, states’ animal cruelty opossum, and fox hard at the base of the skull laws exempt the practices of hunting and with a heavy wooden or metal tool to kill or trapping. In practical terms, this means, render them unconscious” (International for example, that when a bobcat gets caught Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies, in a snare or trap, he or she transitions 2005: 98). This manual then instructs from public ‘property’ to the trapper’s such trappers: “Placing your foot over private ‘property’ and, as such, is entirely the head and chest area and compressing at the trapper’s mercy. As I mentioned at these organs will lead to death.” There is the start of this article, anyone finding no mandate as to how a trapped animal and releasing a trapped animal can be should be killed ‘humanely’, nor is there fined for illegal interference. Contrast the monitoring of, let alone a charge, for these Model’s perspective with that of writer crimes in the woods. No thought is given

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to the death by starvation of offspring of wild animals for ‘recreation’ in the 21st animal mothers killed in traps. century, disguised as a ‘conservation Trapping’s inherent callousness and lack tool’ that controls populations and funds of empathy for wild animals has been a conservation efforts (contentions that have cause for great societal concern in the US both been discredited [Baker, 1985; Smith since at least the turn of the 20th century. and Molde, 2014; Murray, 2017]), are most Indeed, no fewer than 450 anti-trapping certainly part of the legacy of the Model. At bills were introduced in state legislatures or a time when close to 1500 vertebrates and in the US Congress between 1901 and 1982 invertebrates are listed as either endangered The Model’s “ (Gentile, 1987). The link between animal or threatened with extinction (U.S. Fish & obsolete and crassly cruelty, domestic violence and murder Wildlife Service, 2019), and a warning has anthropocentric has long been established (Phillips, 2014). been published of the imminent extinction construction of wild However, I believe that there also needs of 1 million species (IPBES, 2019), killing to be more research into links between animals for fun and trophies continues animals hampers the killing of wild animals and human to be rampant in the world, perpetuated societal efforts to aggression, including violence against and glorified by such notorious trophy- increase empathy humans and other crimes. This is critically hunting organizations as the Safari Club and compassion for important since studies have shown that International (a partner organization of the belief in human superiority over animals Boone and Crockett Club). With partnerships all beings. ” is associated with greater prejudice against like this has come a global, powerful and human outgroups, such as immigrants and wealthy lobbying force in support of killing other minorities, and vice versa (Kymlicka for conservation that is not only culturally and Donaldson, 2014). ingrained but also legally and politically Notably, the Model is silent on the issues entrenched and sheltered. Wild animals of lack of empathy and absolving animal are caught in the net cast between hunters, cruelty. It is entirely out of kilter, if not governmental wildlife agencies and policy- undermining of, the mandate to address makers, with the segment of the public who the most pressing threats to the integrity are against hunting and trapping being of our planet – human population growth, excluded. However, while the lobbying force habitat loss and fragmentation, global may be with wildlife killers, the national climate change. The Model’s obsolete and and international public is increasingly crassly anthropocentric construction of objecting to the recreational killing of wild wild animals hampers societal efforts to animals, as shown by the overwhelming increase empathy and compassion for all global outrage over the killing of Cecil the beings. lion shot by an American trophy hunter (Bekoff, 2018). From anthropocentrism I think that, with leadership from a to Earth Rights conservation community that recommits to While the Model originated in the US and intrinsic valuation in order to help transform Canada, its ideas and practices, particularly our relationship with nature (Piccolo et the view of wild animals as mere trophies, al., 2018), now is the time to inspire people have spread globally. In fact, one of the nationally and globally towards more Model’s early pioneers, President Theodore ecocentric values. As Manfredo et al. (2018) Roosevelt, founded in 1887 the Boone and have shown, a growing sector of the American Crockett Club, which is an organization public is shifting its value orientation from that measures, scores and tracks ‘big game’ utilitarianism to mutualism, which involves animals killed through any legal means in love and empathy for wildlife individuals North America. In 1909, Roosevelt went on characterized by trust and the desire for a safari expedition to East Africa, which a mutually respectful relationship with ended with more than 11,000 wild animals wild animals. People with a mutualistic shot, including elephants and lions (Pollak, orientation are “less likely to support actions 2012). Global trophy hunting and killing resulting in death or harm to wildlife”

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and “are more likely to engage in welfare state’s legislature, where all too often enhancing behaviors for individual wildlife, bills detrimental to wild animals are and more likely to view wildlife in human being passed. Consider running for office terms” (Teel and Manfredo, 2010: 130). to promote wildlife- and Earth-friendly I applaud Thomas Berry’s approach in policies and vote for legislators who our goal to overcome our ingrained sense champion these. Bring attention to the of superiority when he proposed that plight of wild animals by writing letters “the Earth is a communion of subjects, to your local newspaper. If you belong to and that rights originate where the a congregation, the peace movement, or universe originates and not from human any social justice, political or conservation jurisprudence” (Cullinan, 2003: 108). This organization, question them on their stance “This revival of means “we cannot claim that humans on wildlife individuals (you’ll be surprised). a long-standing have human rights without conceding that You can also join an Earth rights group sensibility of other members of the Earth Community or a Community Environmental Legal also have rights” (Cullinan, 2003: 108). For Defense Fund chapter, or support the Earth interconnectedness this to happen, nature and its non-human Law Center. And you can make a profound with the more- denizens need to be released from their difference for all animals, domestic and than-human world legally enshrined property status. Instead, wild, and for the health of the planet more also presents an the more-than-human world must be broadly, by switching to a vegan diet. n recognized as having rights to exist, persist opportunity to and flourish, with people having a moral Notes strengthen our 1 In 2016, the number of hunters was 11.5 million, obligation and authority to enforce nature’s potential for healing compared with 86 million bird watchers and rights on behalf of ecologies and their photographers (U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, what we’ve torn denizens. This enormous transformation 2016). apart.” of our relationship with nature has been 2 This is just one of many contradictions within taken up by the rights of nature movement the Model. (Sólon, 2018) and associated legal initiatives 3 In a wildlife management context, the term (e.g. Earth Law Center, 2019), which provide ‘surplus’ refers to the manipulation of animal us with a much-needed holistic ethical and populations through lethal means, when an legal framework that re-embeds humans “accelerated growth rate provides a surplus of animals beyond the number required for into the ecological context and gives replacing the losses—a surplus that may be nature a voice. This spiritual and practical, harvested by hunters or other predators” (Bolen justice-based vision of Earth democracy has and Robinson, 2003: 185). already begun to shape a crucial egalitarian 4 This is against the backdrop as Curry (2018) and relationship with the more-than-human Gray (2018) have argued, that sentience is not world. For example, in 2008 Ecuador included essential to an individual having intrinsic value rights of nature in its new Constitution and moral standing – agency and interests do not require sentience but do qualify for value and and, more recently, the Maori tribe in New standing. Zealand achieved the legal recognition of a large river as an ancestor with legal References personhood. This revival of a long-standing Adams CJ (1990) The Sexual Politics of Meat: A feminist- sensibility of interconnectedness with the vegetarian critical theory. Continuum International Pub more-than-human world also presents an Group, New York, NY, USA. opportunity to strengthen our potential for Baker R (1985) The American Hunting Myth. Vantage Press, healing what we’ve torn apart. Survival, and New York, NY, USA. hopefully flourishing, in a much-depleted Bekoff M (2018) Cecil the Lion: His life, death, and effects world profoundly depends on the awakening on conservation: An interview with Andrew Loveridge, of love and respect. author of Lion Hearted, who knew Cecil well. Available at https://is.gd/CeZ94q (accessed July 2019). Ways forward Bekoff M and Pierce J (2017) The Animals’ Agenda: One way in which you can effect change Freedom, compassion, and coexistence in the human age. is to get involved in your country’s or Beacon Press, Boston, MA, USA.

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Beston H (1956) The Outermost House: A year of life on the Murray CK (2017) The lion’s share? On the economic great beach of Cape Cod. Viking, New York, NY, USA. benefits of trophy hunting (a report for the Humane

Bolen EG and Robinson W (2003) Wildlife Ecology and Society International, prepared by Economists Management. Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, at Large, Melbourne, VIC, Australia). Available at NJ, USA. https://is.gd/8Db3Es (accessed July 2019).

Crist E (2017) The affliction of human supremacy. The Phillips A (2014) Understanding the Link Between Ecological Citizen 1: 61–4. Violence to Animals and People: A guidebook for criminal justice professionals. Available at https://is.gd/WuAo3p Cullinan C (2003) Wild Law: A manifesto for earth justice. (accessed July 2019). Green Books, Totnes, UK. Piccolo JJ, Washington H, Kopnina H and Taylor B (2018) Curry P (2018) Ecological Ethics: An introduction (revised Why conservation scientists should re-embrace their 2nd edition). Polity Press, Cambridge, UK. ecocentric roots. Conservation Biology 32: 959–61. Dvorsky G (2012) Prominent scientists sign declaration Pollak M (2012) Roosevelt’s Elephant. New York Times, that animals have conscious awareness, just like us. 26 October. Available at https://is.gd/zaktCE Survival, and Available at https://is.gd/8jcR2v (accessed July 2019). “ (accessed July 2019). Earth Law Center (2019) What is Earth Law? Available at hopefully flourishing, Predator Defense (2014) EXPOSED: USDA’s secret war on https://is.gd/IXKtw1 (accessed July 2019). in a much-depleted wildlife. Available at https://is.gd/c1NCa8 (accessed Geist V, Mahoney PS and Organ JF (2001) Why hunting July 2019). world profoundly has defined the North American model of wildlife Regan T (1985) The Case for Animal Rights. University of depends on the conservation. In: 66th Transactions of The North American California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference: 175–85. awakening of love Rollin BE (1998) The Unheeded Cry: Animal consciousness, Gentile JR (1987) The evolution of anti-trapping sentiment animal pain and science. Iowa State University Press, and respect. ” in the United States: A review and commentary. Wildlife Ames, IA, USA. Society Bulletin 15: 490–503. Safina C (2015)Beyond Words: What animals think and feel. Gray J (2018) Green fidelity and the grand finesse: Henry Holt and Company, New York, NY, USA. Stepping stones to the ‘Pacocene’. The Ecological Citizen Singer P (1975) Animal Liberation: A new ethics for our 1: 121–9. treatment of animals. Avon Books, New York, USA. Haber G and Holleman M (2013) Among Wolves: Gordon Smith ME and DA Molde (2014) Wildlife Conservation Haber’s insights of Alaska’s most misunderstood & Management Funding in the U.S. Nevadans for animal. University of Alaska Press, Fairbanks, AK, USA. Responsible Wildlife Management, NV, USA. Available IPBES (2019) Introducing IPBES’ 2019 Global Assessment at https://is.gd/TuQdU5 (accessed July 2019). Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Service. Available at Sólon P (2018) The rights of mother earth. In: https://is.gd/65QxsE (accessed July 2019). Satgar V, ed. The Climate Crisis: South African and global International Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies democratic eco-socialist alternatives. Wits University (2005) Trapper Educational Manual. Available at Press, Johannesburg, South Africa: 107–30. https://is.gd/giz6YJ (accessed July 2019). Teel TL and Manfredo MJ (2010) Understanding the Kheel M (2008) Nature Ethics: An ecofeminist perspective. diversity of public interests in wildlife conservation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Lanham, MD, USA. Conservation Biology 24: 128–39. Kymlicka W and Donaldson S (2014) Animal rights, The Wildlife Society and the Boone and Crockett multiculturalism, and the Left. Journal of Social Club (2012)The North American Model of Wildlife Philosophy 54: 116–18. Conservation (Technical Review 12-4). The Wildlife Mahoney S and Jackson J (2013) Enshrining hunting as Society, Bethesda, MA, USA. a foundation for conservation—the North American United States Department of Agriculture (2019) Program Model. International Journal of Environmental Studies 70: Data Reports. Available at https://is.gd/Jt8RWe 448–59. (accessed July 2019) Mallory C (2001) Acts of objectification, ecofeminism, and U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (2016) National Survey of the ecological narrative. Ethics and the Environment 6: Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation. 59–89. Available at https://is.gd/ZzrkdZ (accessed July 2019). Manfredo MJ, Sullivan L, Don Carlos AW et al. (2018) U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (2019) Environmental America’s Wildlife Values: The social context of wildlife Conservation Online System: Listed animals. Available at management in the U.S. Colorado State University, Fort https://is.gd/KxvzdA (accessed July 2019). Collins, CO, USA. Available at https://is.gd/7VjKgz Wallach AD, Bekoff M, Batavia C et al. (2018) (accessed July 2019). Summoning compassion to address the challenges of Meine C (1988) Aldo Leopold: His life and work. University of conservation. Conservation Biology 32: 1255-65. Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, USA. White BH, Brown C and Decker T (2010) New guidelines Midgley M (1979) Beast and Man: The roots of human nature. for furbearer trapping: Science improves an age-old Harvester Press, Brighton, UK. pursuit. The Wildlife Professional 32: 6 6-7 1 .

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How biodiversity is both impacted by and a solution for climate change

he field of climate change biology geographic distributions are changing Thomas E has changed a lot over the years. It as species move to track their required Lovejoy Tbegan in one sense in 1987 with a conditions, among other things moving conference at the Smithsonian funded by upward in altitude or poleward (northward About the author the National Science Foundation, although in the northern hemisphere), tracking their Thomas is a professor in there was a 1985 conversation with Stephen preferred conditions. Marine organisms the Environmental Science Schneider when I inquired how what I seem to be changing in distribution even and Policy department at studied (biological diversity) fitted with more rapidly than terrestrial ones. George Mason University his focus (climate change). Steve later Decoupling events are also occurring (Fairfax, VA, USA) and a Senior Fellow at the United characterized that as a eureka moment. when one member of a pair of closely Nations Foundation. The conference ultimately turned into synchronized species depends on the 1992 book Global Warming and Biological temperature for its cycle, while the other Citation Diversity (Peters and Lovejoy, 1992). At that uses day length. An example would be the Lovejoy T (2019) How point one could mostly just try to project snowshoe hare, which changes its pelage biodiversity is both impacted by and a solution for climate from changes engendered by past climate from winter white to summer brown using a change. The Ecological Citizen change to the current day and future. relatively immutable response to day length, 3: 75–6. By 2005, Lee Hannah and I produced as opposed to the vegetation it inhabits, a new volume titled Climate Change which loses its white snow cover earlier Keywords and Biodiversity (Lovejoy and Hannah, in the spring. Another example is that of Biodiversity; climate 2005), and at this point one could see the migratory organisms (e.g. birds), which may change; conservation; fingerprints of climate change virtually arrive in their summering grounds after the sixth mass extinction everywhere. spring flush of key food supplies. Yet there was only one mention of ocean Organisms moving upward will run acidification in that volume. Only during out of upslope opportunities, in what has that very year (long after the book had gone been termed an ‘elevator to extinction’. to press) had that suddenly become noticed, Sea level rise is imperilling some species. even though in the end it was a matter of The first extinction from sea level rise is simple high-school chemistry – that some a mammal, the Bramble Cay melomys, a of the CO2 absorbed by the oceans was small rodent that was native to a single altering the acidity of the oceans. Today the Australian island (clearly, island species oceans on average are about 0.1 of a pH unit face a particular challenge). The salt more acid: in absolute terms that is 30% marsh sparrow in eastern North America more acid than in pre-industrial times. is vulnerable as it must nest successfully Now we are in 2019 and Lee Hannah and between two spring tides. The key deer of I have produced a completely new book – the Florida Keys will only have a future if Biodiversity and Climate Change: Transforming translocated elsewhere. the Biosphere (Lovejoy and Hannah, 2019). Basically, these individual cases are only It hadn’t taken long for us to realize that minor adjustments in the fabric of life. so much had changed since the previous Nonetheless, it is a statistically robust volume that there was no point in a revision: finding that nature is responding to climate a completely new book was in order. change anywhere it is studied. Changes in the annual cycles of plants and What is more worrying is what things animals are ubiquitous. More importantly, will be like looking ahead.

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We know that glaciers came and went levels of 415 to below 350 parts per million. in the past with little apparent loss of Use of fossil fuels – actually the remains biodiversity. What is different today is of ancient ecosystems and photosynthesis that as species attempt to track their – should stop immediately, but that would required conditions, they mostly must do only halt further rise in carbon dioxide so in highly fragmented landscapes, which concentrations in the atmosphere. have essentially become obstacle courses Largely overlooked is the immense for dispersing organisms. That challenge amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can be alleviated if we restore natural from destroyed and degraded nature. It connections in landscapes. Restoring is shocking that it is roughly equal to the riparian vegetation is a good place to start carbon that remains in extant nature – but obviously not sufficient. about 450 to 500 billion tons of carbon (Erb It is also clear from past climate change et al., 2018). Ecosystem restoration has events that as climate shifts increase, the potential to pull enormous amounts individual species move each in their of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere own direction and at their own velocity. and convert it to living organisms and Ecosystems essentially disassemble, and ecosystems (Lovejoy and Hannah, 2018). new assemblages take place which are If we stopped fossil fuel emissions this hard to imagine in advance. instant, ecosystem restoration could bring This relates to abrupt changes in us back to 350 parts per million through ecosystems that can occur when some sequestration in living ecosystems of particular aspect of biology proves more 143 billion tons of carbon. sensitive than climate or vegetation To do something of that scale is References modelling can forecast. For example, not impossible. It basically requires Berger J, Hartway C, Gruzdev muskoxen are today raising underweight recognizing that we inhabit a living planet A and Johnson M (2018) calves because their winter forage is now that works as a linked biological and Climate degradation and extreme icing events covered more frequently with frozen rain physical system. Ecosystem restoration constrain life in cold than with snow, which is easily brushed always brings immediate tangible adapted mammals. aside (Berger et al., 2018). benefits e.g. ( an agricultural system that Scientific Reports 8: 1156. Sometimes climatic shifts can lead accumulates carbon gains greater soil Erb KH, Kastner T, Plutzar C to abrupt ecosystem changes. A prime fertility). et al. (2018) Unexpectedly example is when not very much warming People tend to think of forests first large impact of forest for not very long causes coral bleaching: because they do in fact sequester management and grazing on global vegetation the symbiotic relation between the coral enormous amounts of carbon, but all kinds biomass. Nature 553: 73–6. animal and the alga with which it partners of ecosystems can contribute to carbon Peters RL and Lovejoy TE, breaks down and the entire coral reef, with sequestration while simultaneously eds (1992) Global Warming all its diversity and productivity, collapses. providing wildlife habitat and other and Biological Diversity. Sixty per cent of the Great Barrier Reef benefits. Restoration is also an activity Yale University Press, bleached last year. In another example, to which individuals can contribute, New Haven, CT, USA. in North America’s coniferous forests, alleviating the kind of helplessness that Lovejoy TE and Hannah L, eds longer summers and warmer winters have some people feel about climate change. (2005) Climate Change and Biodiversity. Yale University tipped the balance in favour of native bark Anyone can help plant a tree, restore a Press, New Haven, CT, USA. beetles, with massive tree mortality from wetland or support agroecology. Lovejoy TE and Hannah L southern Alaska to southern Colorado. In the geological past the planet has (2018) Avoiding the climate At an even greater scale, Earth system twice reduced very high carbon dioxide failsafe point. Science change is taking place, such as the levels from geological activity like volcanic Advances 4: eaau9981. aforementioned acidification of the oceans. eruptions to pre-industrial levels of carbon Lovejoy TE and Hannah L, The future of biodiversity looks very dioxide. We know it works – in fact it has eds (2019) Biodiversity grim if warming goes beyond 1.5°C worked twice. That took tens of millions of and Climate Change: Transforming the biosphere. above pre-industrial levels. The climate years, which we cannot afford, but we are Yale University Press, movement 350.org and others advocate quite capable of re-greening the emerald New Haven, CT, USA. a reduction from current carbon dioxide planet. n

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The unnoticed collapse of big freshwater animals

This piece is reproduced with kind permission of decline exceeded even those of other Brandon Keim of Anthropocene Magazine. Minor edits have freshwater species. been made for house style. The original can be Despite all this, write He and Jähnig and About the author read at https://is.gd/foO73q. colleagues, “monitoring of freshwater Brandon is a freelance megafauna species remains limited, journalist who lives in Maine, USA. He specializes particularly at continental or global scales.” in animals, nature and t’s the largest animals who tend to To fill the gap, they gathered worldwide science, and is the author occupy the most space in our hearts. population data for 126 freshwater species of The Eye of the Sandpiper: IThey might be imperilled – indeed – 81 fishes, 22 mammals, 21 reptiles and Stories from the living world they usually are, as it’s not easy being big two amphibians – who can attain a size of (Comstock, 2017). in a human-dominated world – but at least 30 kg or more. Citation people know and care. There’s one group of Number-crunching yielded the afore- Keim B (2019) The unnoticed large animals, however, whose decline has mentioned 88% contraction of freshwater collapse of big freshwater gone mostly unremarked: those who live in megafauna. Declines were especially animals. The Ecological Citizen lakes and streams and rivers. precipitous in Europe, Asia and northern 3(Suppl A): 77–8. “Globally, freshwater megafauna pop- Africa, with losses of between 97 and 99%. Keywords ulations declined by 88 percent from 1970 Large fishes were hit hardest, followed by and 2012,” write biologists led by Fengzhi reptiles; mammals, interestingly, appeared Biodiversity; sixth mass extinction; water He and Sonja Jähnig, both of Germany’s to be increasing in population, though the Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology researchers cautioned that data for them is and Inland Fisheries, in the journal Global sparse. Change Biology. “Compared to megafauna “Our results show a clear decline of in terrestrial or marine realms, they have freshwater megafauna across the globe,” received much less research, conservation write the researchers. And since many efforts, and public attention.” megafauna are so long-lived, individuals Big or small, the situation for freshwater may survive long after species reproduction animals in general is quite grim. According has ceased, their lingering presence to the Living Planet Index, their populations masking the full degree of their peril. fell by 80% in the last 40 years – roughly Such sharp declines are thus a harbinger double the declines experienced by of extinction – and fighting to protect terrestrial and ocean-dwelling vertebrates. them isn’t just about preserving Earth’s During the 20th century, freshwater fishes biological heritage, say He and Jähnig. Just went extinct at rates unsurpassed by any as terrestrial megafauna like grizzly bears other guild. and elephants are often apex predators He and Jähnig are especially concerned, or keystone species, so are their aquatic though, about the largest of these counterparts. Their loss leaves ecosystems creatures. They tend to live a long time but simplified and prone to collapse. reproduce very slowly, and travel between Future healthy freshwater ecosystems far-flung spawning and feeding areas; may well depend on the preservation when combined with heavy human impacts of these animals. As of now, however, on freshwater ecosystems, these traits “monitoring and targeted conservation make them especially extinction-prone. actions for the vast majority of freshwater The researchers suspected that their rates megafauna appear inadequate,” write

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Figure 1. A Eurasian beaver, a species which has been reintroduced to many parts of Europe (photo: Matteo Tarenghi [CC BY-NC-ND 2.0; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/]).

the researchers. Basic knowledge of their turning giant salmon carp and river turtles migratory routes and spawning grounds is and crocodiles into the next generation limited. of so-called charismatic megafauna and Further information is needed to protect flagship species. them – but, even more than that, people With overexploitation continuing and need to care. The researchers suggest that some 3700 large-scale hydroelectric dams conservationists tap into the fascination now under construction or scheduled, it people naturally feel for big animals, won’t be easy. Yet it is possible: in the US, populations of thirteen sturgeon species are now increasing. Beavers have been reintroduced to many parts of Europe (Figure 1); in South Asia, Irrawaddy river dolphin numbers recently rose for the first time in two decades (Figure 2). “Despite the plight of freshwater megafauna described in this study,” write He and Jähnig and colleagues, “opportunities to protect them still exist.” n References He F, Zarfl C , Bremerich V et al. (2019) The global decline of freshwater megafauna. Global Change Biology, Figure 2. An Irrawaddy river dolphin in Cambodia (photo: Jim Davidson 8 August. Available at https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14753 [CC BY-NC-ND 2.0; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/]). (accessed September 2019).

78 The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 www.ecologicalcitizen.net LONG ARTICLE

The endangered phenomenon of animal migration, and the dissonance between doing science and achieving conservation

For conservation to succeed across broad scales, more than science and more vocal Joel Berger scientists are needed. The public must be motivated and attendant concerns rendered into policy actions. Despite burgeoning data sets coupled with substantive concerns about About the author the persistence of land, water, and aerial migrations, sadly not enough is being done to Joel is the Barbara Cox sustain Earth’s animal migrations. Among an array of bold tactics that will help are these: Anthony Chair of Wildlife Conservation at Colorado Universities, among other educational institutions, need to restructure their internal State University, Fort reward systems so that faculty can be incentivized for biodiversity activities to benefit Collins, CO, USA, and a ecological health. And, regardless of age or background, spokespersons from all walks Senior Scientist of the of life must emerge and defend migration as an intrinsic and important component of Bronx-based Wildlife biodiversity and its conversation. Conservation Society, NY, USA.

If all the people of this country were Patagonia and the Arctic (Wilcove and Citation assembled and a rising vote taken on the Wikelski, 2008); Berger J (2019) The question – Are our birds and mammals worth n Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) – endangered phenomenon preserving? – we believe every man, woman, oceanic ascents and descents of 40-plus of animal migration, and and child would stand up to be counted. metres (Tarling and Johnson, 2006); the dissonance between doing science and achieving (Source given in main body) n Atlantic horseshoe crabs (Limulus conservation. The Ecological polyphemus) – from shoreline to at least Citizen 3(Suppl A): 79–85. 100 kilometres beyond (Swan, 2005). e’ve all probably asked why a Keywords conservationist should remain For large-bodied terrestrial animals, Biodiversity; conservation; W optimistic with the world’s the situation differs and the conservation conservation movement population growing toward 8 billion and of LDMs represents a massive challenge beyond. Indeed, any wistful dreams I may because substantive amounts of unfettered have had were shattered by the numbers space are required; already most African presented in the recent Global Assessment elephant (Loxodonta africana), plains Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services zebra (Equus quagga) and wildebeest (IPBES, 2019): 1 million species threatened (Connochaetes spp.) LDMs are lost. Others, with extinction and greater than three- like those for wood bison (Bison bison quarters of the planet’s terrestrial habitat athabascae) expand in Alaska’s and Yukon’s in serious trouble. Exacerbating the loss of northern boreal realms; however, in biodiversity and habitat is the deterioration Mexico, the US and Canada, plains bison of ecological processual phenomena, and (B. bison bison) LDMs were gone nearly 150 among the most greatly threatened are long- years ago (Sanderson et al., 2008). distance migrations (LDMs) – defined, most elementarily, as the seasonal movement What’s an optimist to do? to and from a given area. Already, many What’s an optimist to do? Wear thick aerial, marine and terrestrial migrations skin and change hats. Communicate have collapsed (Harris et al., 2009; Berger et broadly and simply about animals and al., 2014). Yet, a bewildering and impressive their behaviours, including LDMs. It is array of migrations still continue and inspire: not that the science banner per se should n red knots (Calidris canutus) – roughly be ignored or dismissed. When I give 15,000 kilometres in travel between public talks – unlike presentations to

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professional audiences or government – Namibia and Bhutan – have the word or appointed officials – I do not tout ‘biodiversity’ in their founding legislation, the data on the spectacular journeys of and phenomena such as migrations are Monarch butterflies Danaus ( plexippus), often showcased by ecologists for their reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), Arctic sea- and land-shaping properties, which terns (Sterna paradisaea) or humpback include nutrient transport and cycling, whales (Megaptera novaeangliae). I do regardless of whether the animals are fish, not discuss scientific details of salmon terrestrial mammal or aerial aficionado (Salmo spp.) or sturgeon (27 species within (Bauer and Hoye, 2014). The Convention In 2016, 2018 and “ Acipenseridae) or mention ecological on Migratory Species – instituted 40 years 2019, US Senator Tom function or intrinsic value. I talk not about ago under the auspices of the United Udall (New Mexico) millions of migrating individuals, young Nations Environmental Program – and the and Representative or old, or about tenacious journeys across Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation hostile environments. I make no mention Act of 2000 underscore demonstrable Don Beyer (Virginia) that such phenomena have repeated progress. have proposed a for thousands of generations, across Wildlife Corridors millions of years, subject to evolutionary Baby steps and not giving up Conservation Act and ecological pressures. Instead, I Optimism and public engagement aside, simply ask a few members of the general progress on the protection of LDMs to Congress. If the audience to raise their hands. I ask each is painfully sluggish, or more likely bill is successful, a to tell the group about their favourite stifled, when scientists refuse to move protected network migratory animals. I ask what actions will beyond their data-shields to mobilize would be created to be required to sustain their migrations support for a biodiverse and healthy sustain biodiversity in an increasingly human-dominated environment. At the plenary lecture of world. I ask these questions whether the the 2011 North American meetings of the at different scales. ” audiences are indigenous or not, hunter or Society of Conservation Biology (SCB) in vegetarian, poor or rich, English speaker Oakland, California, Michael Soulé – the or other. And, they answer with examples de facto founding father of SCB – was including x, y and z animal species. They interviewed by journalist and writer Mary are drawn into the conversation; it is clear Ellen Hannibal (Hannibal, 2011). When that they care. asked about successes for protection of People indeed adore nature and wildlife. corridors and migratory pathways, Soulé Support for this love affair is evident from acknowledged with chagrin only one a simple metric – attendance at cherished formal case of federal protection, in the pastimes. Annual visitation to US national USA, dating to 2008: Path of the Pronghorn, parks or zoos, for example, singularly a 70-kilometre-long and 2-kilometre- exceeds that of the combined number wide strip leading south from Grant Teton of attendees to professional American National Park in Wyoming (Berger and baseball, football and basketball games Cain, 2014). More than a decade later, no (Berger et al., 2014). It’s easy therefore others have been added. to imagine that the italicized quote that Staying with the American context, introduced this articles was written today. It the failed efforts to safeguard some of its was not. The quote derives from a 1901 New great land migrations have not resulted York Zoological Society (now, the Wildlife from a lack of cumulative effort (Aycrigg Conservation Society) report in which et al., 2016). In 2016, 2018 and 2019, US the ethics of wildlife conservation were Senator Tom Udall (New Mexico) and becoming institutionalized (Hornaday, Representative Don Beyer (Virginia) have 1901). proposed a Wildlife Corridors Conservation Fortunately, across the nearly 120 years Act to Congress. If the bill is successful, that have now elapsed, biodiversity is a protected network would be created to being valued at levels from genes to sustain biodiversity at different scales. A ecological processes. At least two countries Yellowstone to Yukon model (Chester et al.,

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Figure 1. Pronghorn movements in mass helped motivate public interest in migration in the US.

2012) might be envisioned that includes It was not the science that created the diverse habitats and protected areas to victory for federal protection of Path of the bolster connectivity across thousands Pronghorn during this acrimonious period of kilometres in a mosaic with humans; (Berger and Cain, 2014), though this was specific pathways are envisaged to assure of course required for identification of a finer-grained animal and plant movements corridor through which the animals move, between important habitats. The bill one they have used for nearly 6000 years provisions for enhanced interagency (Berger, 2004; Berger et al., 2006). Path of the cooperation (Udall, 2019). Principles from Pronghorn became a reality by petition and the proposed corridor act follow components by vote, and by advocates for science and of the unanimously passed 2007 resolution for people who donned thick skin and wore of the Western Governors’ Association many hats. Success came from engaging led by Dave Freudenthal, then Governor the public with simple messages, sharing of Wyoming. This promised to “protect a beer or coffee with strangers, attending wildlife migration corridors and crucial untold meetings in administrative offices, wildlife habitat in the West.” My colleagues pitching ideas, taking risks with the people and I had met previously with the governor who can implement change, and accepting to seek advice and to offer our data-based many insults for meddling. Indeed, beyond insights. He indicated support for our the science lies the real work in achieving concept of statutory protection but only if conservation goals (see Figures 1 and 2). his constituents, the Wyoming citizenry, A decade after this first federally favoured it. Freudenthal was right, I feel, to protected corridor, the phenomenon of back such ideology, which was, and remains, migration has arrived into the public immensely polarized by bipartisanship (as lexicon. Migration is discussed broadly it was during 2007–08 with George W Bush and in local municipalities; the New York and Dick Cheney in the White House). Times and Washington Post – even the Salt

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Lake Tribune – carry stories. As recently up challenges and considering solutions as ten years ago, when I asked state for LDM protection (Beckmann, 2010; Hilty management agencies about their most et al., 2012). Second, despite substantive endangered migrations, eyes dimmed. data collection steeped within the ecology There was little recognition. Because of of migration, conservation failures derive the work of many practitioners and non- in part because of academic timidity to profit organizations e.g. ( the Yellowstone engage at levels required to bring forth to Yukon Conservation Initiative), this has policy change (compare this with medical changed. States have wildlife action plans, professionals engaging with societal many including migrations. Practical health issues). Climate scientist James solutions will always be complex and Hansen, in a different, albeit related, “Conservation fraught with controversy because, in the context, called this “scientific reticence” failures derive in part times we still live in, land cannot simply be – an unfortunate reluctance on the part tucked away for animals at the exclusion of many scientists to speak in a forthright because of academic of humans. manner about the ecological predicament timidity to engage To further facilitate our conservation and become involved in policy and activist at levels required to goals, I will make two general points about struggles (Hansen, 2016). bring forth policy LDMs. First, we need clarity in the words we use. The concepts of ‘connectivity’, Confusion - connectivity, change. ” ‘corridors’ and ‘crossings’ frequently corridors, and crossings blur when reported under the migration Words such as migration and dispersal carry umbrella and popularized in social media, important process-based meanings; these digital communications and outreach. vary from gene flow to colonization, and from This has had an unfortunate effect in immigration and emigration to movements political and agency circles when taking from birth areas. Table 1 offers provisional

Figure 2. One of several public outreach signs in the US to commemorate migration.

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Table 1. Commonly used words in migration literature (used more loosely in media).

Theme Operational definition Comment and examples

A two-way temporal movement involving a Typically a seasonal phenomenon, but Migration shift from one area and then a return not uniformly true; yellow warblers, to the previous general vicinity rattlesnakes, elk and grey whales1–4

A fixed place that links habitats; can be stepping stones or continuously fixed Wetlands as stop-over sites, riparian Corridor† microhabitat locales that pass through zones, vineyards and mountain tops5–7 unsuitable landscapes

Movement away from natal Mostly one-way movements in Dispersal area or philopatric range the parlance of behavioural ecology8

Offers individual movement The term is also used to facilitate Connectivity between appropriate habitats and links access to seasonal habitats9–11 populations to assure gene flow

Typically human constructs which promote Allows for traversing inimical zones connectivity (e.g. under- or overpasses); these Crossing‡ (e.g. roads or mountain passes) mitigate against death by funnelling animals safely past danger zones5–6

†The phrase “migration corridor” is sometimes used although not all corridors connote ‘migration’ though ecological function may be similar. ‡ These are physical sites which may be human or natural constructs where animals pass.

1Berger, 2004; 2Sawyer et al., 2009; 3Sawyer and Kauffman, 2011; 4Wilcove, 2010; 5Hilty et al., 2012; 6Beckmann, 2010; 7Beckmann et al., 2012; 8Pusey, 1987; 9Berger, 2004; 10Berger et al., 2006. 11Berger et al., 2014.

definitions of key terms associated with Academic timidity pathways and migration as commonly There is no question that science underlies accepted in the peer-reviewed scientific all biodiversity conservation, including literature. Sometimes these meanings the conservation of migrations. An mutate and reify when used popularly but empirically documented understanding of conservation messages must be clear and migration has led to substantive gains for simple. For instance, a concrete bridge that aerial, aquatic and terrestrial migrants, links habitat across a major highway is a resulting in such actions as removal or crossing structure, which might serve as a restriction of impediments (e.g. dams, conduit for migrants; it is not a migration roads and fencing), while bolstering corridor although it may be placed in a wetland protections and expansion corridor. It may also facilitate migration by (Berger et al., 2014). Overpasses and assuring connectivity to enhance gene flow, underpasses have been constructed – their and in the process reduce road mortality placement would not have been possible in (Table 1). Differing from true migrations the absence of data. To cite some American are movements of individuals who spread examples, new ones will soon be deployed across landscapes nomadically in search of in California (for deer and cougars), as well food or mates. Even the 2019 massive swarm as in Nevada, Oregon, Idaho and Wyoming. of ladybirds (ladybugs) – numbering in the On Montana’s Flathead Reservation, more millions, spanning an area of 30 kilometres than 40 crossing structures aid species by 130 kilometres and detected by weather from fish and amphibians to grizzly bears. service radar – was clearly an occurrence Yet, owing to backlash or repercussions for involving movement but not a migration speaking out, numerous scientists remain event (Dobuzinskis, 2019). quiescent in public arenas, even though

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the reality is that we must convey simple change, why would we expect faculty messages, have those beers and coffees, commitment? Fortunately, there are and meet in untold administrative offices. simple solutions. A number of universities Such work beyond the science does not have adopted new approaches, including compromise scientific objectivity, rigour the University of California’s faculty- or calibre. based extension agents (people tasked Understanding biology above all else is no with applying research findings to longer the critical tool in a conservationist’s practice) focused on biodiversity. A toolkit, because challenges are frequently similar approach has been taken by neither biological in nature nor related to the University of Nevada’s College of data vacuums. There exists a broad portfolio Agriculture, Biotechnology and Natural of tactics available to specialists too timid Resources. Intrepid reform is required. or reluctant to speak directly on behalf Modifying tenure policies to recognize of conservation interests. These include practical contributions to conservation writing opinion pieces, blogging, offering achievement is an easy start. Similar services or making presentations to non- considerations apply in other countries. specialists, helping non-governmental n Second, we need more Greta Thunbergs to organizations, developing podcasts and inspire future generations. In this case, working more with journalists and other it would be to highlight migration as a media specialists (Wittemyer et al., 2018). critical component of biodiversity. Greta, Other productive means of engagement of course, is the sensational Swedish include liaising with the Connectivity student lauded in 2018 Presidential Conservation Specialist Group (within the candidate Bernie Sanders for chastizing “When people do IUCN’s World Commission on Protected world leaders for a lack of leadership not have favourite Areas), which aims to shore up support for on climate change (Newburger, 2018). animals, lack reducing the rate of habitat fragmentation Conservation scientists cannot achieve so that migrations continue. Among the success we would like to see if we ecological champions, other related conservation easement rest behind doors touting our science shut down in the face initiatives are the work of the Center but somehow expecting others to be the of endless scientific for Large Landscape Conservation spokespeople. debate, are engaged (https://largelandscapes.org/) and the only with statistics Freedom to Roam campaign started by The Wildlife Corridors Conservation Act outdoor clothing company Patagonia. proposed by Udall and Beyer has relied, or data, fail in their in the initial phases, on science. In the compassion for other Why not these two actions? end, however, success will come only if, species, remain While there are no uniformly single best as conservationists, we wear hats that uninspired, or care steps to achieve actionable conservation, reach beyond our comfort zones and some bold approaches will help. enjoin distant partners. In 1901, Hornaday disproportionately n Conservation is about doing and not about suggested something along similar about money, then publishing per se. First, then, college- and lines. Non-governmental organizations, optimism will fade.” university-level systems that operate as ranchers, farmers, painters, corporations, land-grant institutions (and thus have a outdoor recreationists and citizen mission to serve the public good) must go scientists must care. When people do not beyond just rewarding their faculties for have favourite animals, lack ecological the number and quality of peer-reviewed champions, shut down in the face of publications and grants. Although such endless scientific debate, are engaged incentive systems have helped make only with statistics or data, fail in their some American universities enviable in compassion for other species, remain many parts of the world, faculty are not uninspired, or care disproportionately incentivized to engage in conservation about money, then optimism will fade. action, especially when tenure and Attitudes change with activism (Teel and promotion are at risk. If this cannot Manfredo, 2010). n

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Acknowledgements Hansen JE (2016) Dangerous scientific reticence. Work on Path of the Pronghorn was supported Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 16: 3761–812. by the Wildlife Conservation Society, the Liz Harris G, Thirgood S, Hopcraft JG et al. (2009) Global Claiborne and Art Ortenberg Foundation and decline in aggregated migrations of large terrestrial the National Park Service. Steve Cain and Jon mammals. Endangered Species Research 7: 55–76. Beckmann were critical to facilitating the federal protection, as were Jodi Hilty and Bill Weber, the Hilty JA, Lidicker WZ Jr and Merenlender AM (2012) National Park Service, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Corridor Ecology: the science and practice of linking Service, and especially Nicki Hamilton and the landscapes for biodiversity conservation. Island Press, U.S. Forest Service. Joanna Lambert, as always she Washington, DC, USA. does, helps conservation biologists and people Hornaday WT (1901) The destruction of our birds and everywhere, and provided comments on this mammals. New York Zoological Society Annual Report manuscript. Eileen Crist also offered insightful 2: 77–106. “The Wildlife guidance. IPBES (2019) Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity Corridors Conservation and Ecosystem Services. IPBES Secretariat, Bonn, References Germany. Available at https://is.gd/rYo3mq Act proposed by Udall Aycrigg JL, Groves C, Hilty JA et al. (2016) Completing (accessed July 2019). and Beyer has relied, the system: Opportunities and challenges for a Newburger E (2018) Teen activist tells leaders they in the initial phases, national habitat conservation system. BioScience aren’t ‘mature enough’ to take proper action 66: 774–84. on climate change. CNBC Make It, 18 December. on science. In the Available at https://is.gd/8zuolF (accessed July Bauer S and Hoye BJ (2014) Migratory animals end, however, success 2019). couple biodiversity and ecosystem functioning will come only if, as worldwide. Science 344: 1242552 Pusey AE (1987) Sex-biased dispersal and inbreeding avoidance in birds and mammals. Trends in Ecology conservationists, we Beckmann JP, ed (2010) Safe Passages. Island Press, and Evolution 2: 295–99. Washington, DC, USA. wear hats that reach Sanderson EW, Redford KH, Weber B et al. (2008) The Beckmann JP, Murray K, Seidler RG and Berger J beyond our comfort ecological future of the North American bison: (2012) Human-mediated shifts in animal habitat Conceiving long-term, large-scale conservation of zones and enjoin use: Sequential changes in pronghorn use of a wildlife. Conservation Biology 22: 252–66. distant partners. natural gas field in Greater Yellowstone. Biological ” Sawyer H, Kauffman MJ, Nielson RM and Horne Conservation 147: 222–33. JS (2009) Identifying and prioritizing ungulate Berger J (2004) The longest mile: how to sustain migration routes for landscape-level conservation. long distance migration in mammals. Conservation Ecological Applications 19: 2016–25. Biology 18: 320-32. Sawyer H and Kauffman MJ (2011) Stopover ecology Berger J, Cain SL and Berger K (2006) Connecting of a migratory ungulate. Journal of Animal Ecology the dots: an invariant migration corridor links the 80: 1078–87. Holocene to the Present. Biology Letters 2: 528–31. Swan BL (2005) Migrations of adult horseshoe crabs, Berger J, Cain SL, Cheng E et al. (2014) Optimism Limulus polyphemus, in the Middle Alantic Bight: a and challenge for science-based conservation of 17-year tagging study. Estuaries 28: 28–40. migratory species in and out of US national parks. Tarling GA and Johnson ML (2006) Satiation gives krill Conservation Biology 28: 4–12. that sinking feeling. Current Biology 16: R83–R84.

Berger J and Cain SL (2014) Moving beyond science Teel TL and Manfredo MJ (2010) Understanding the to protect a mammalian migration corridor. diversity of public interests in wildlife conservation. Conservation Biology 28: 1142–50. Conservation Biology 24: 128–39.

Chester CC, Hilty JA and Francis WL (2012) Udall T (2019) S.1499 – Wildlife Corridors Conservation Act Yellowstone to Yukon, North America. In: Hilty of 2019. Available at https://is.gd/y2gjgN (accessed JA, Chester CC and Cross MS, eds. Climate and July 2019).

Conservation: Landscape and Seascape Science, Wilcove DS (2010) No Way Home: The decline of the Planning, and Action. Island Press, Washington, DC, world’s great animal migrations. Island Press, USA: 240–52. Washington, DC, USA.

Dobuzinskis A (2019) California ladybug swarm dozens Wilcove DS and Wikelski M (2008) Going, going, gone: of miles wide shows up on radar (Reuters). Available Is animal migration disappearing? PLoS Biology 6: at https://is.gd/zzDgFY (accessed July 2019). e188.

Hannibal ME (2011) The slow migration from science Wittemyer G, Berger J, Crooks KR et al. (2018). To to policy: Protecting wildlife corridors is still advocate or not is no longer the question: Paths more theory than practice. High Country News, to enhance scientific engagement. BioScience 68: 26 December. 13–14.

The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 85 A cramp-ball fungus weevil on a cramp-ball growing out of a dead ash tree in St Albans, UK www.ecologicalcitizen.net LONG ARTICLE

Nature needs half: Implications for population, consumption and inequality in the ‘other half’

Conservation biologists have called on human society to give half the Earth back as natural Gregory M habitat for our fellow species. This idea has prompted debates about population size, economic production and per capita consumption, and the distribution of conservation’s Mikkelson benefits and burdens, in the ‘other half’. This paper reviews some key aspects of these About the author debates, and presents an empirical analysis of the relative importance of population versus Greg is an associate per capita consumption as drivers of environmental impact. It concludes by asserting an professor in the School overall synergy, rather than any fundamental trade-off, between the half-Earth and de- of Environment and growth movements. Department of Philosophy, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada. o turn the tide against the worldwide production and consumption – I employ a collapse of biological diversity, Wilson data set compiled from public sources. Citation (2016) urged great expansion of the T Mikkelson G (2019) Nature Nature getting half: Social area protected as natural habitat, to include needs half: Implications for at least 50% of the Earth’s surface. This and economic correlates population, consumption, and idea goes under the name of ‘half-Earth’ To allay the fear of harm to human inequality in the ‘other half’. or ‘nature needs half’ (NNH). Dinerstein et populations, Dinerstein et al. (2017) stressed The Ecological Citizen 3: 87–91. al. (2017) refined Wilson’s proposal, to aim that expanding protected areas can Keywords at 50% protection within each of the 846 empower and otherwise benefit indigenous Ecological ethics; terrestrial ecoregions that collectively span and other local communities. They cited overpopulation; protected the entire land surface of the planet. This “[m]any indigenous reserves in Latin areas; sixth mass extinction refinement could also apply to the 232 America, Asia, Africa, and Australasia” as marine ecoregions identified by Spaldinget precedents. And they highlighted Namibia al. (2007). and Nepal as two countries “advancing to or Surely our 10 million fellow species already surpassing Half Protected” thanks collectively deserve at least half an Earth largely to engagement in conservation by on which to exist, flourish and continue local peoples. to evolve (Nash, 2011; Mikkelson, 2019). Cafaro et al. (2017) responded to another However, some critics have sounded argument, that “instead” of NNH, society the alarm that such a dramatic increase should take “alternative radical action in the area kept off limits to industrial […] shifting the global economy from its activity “would have widespread negative current foundation in growth” (Büscher consequences for human populations” et al., 2017b). Cafaro et al. agreed on the (Büscher et al., 2017b). These same critics necessity of challenging the “neoliberal argued that tackling economic growth growth economy.” But they pointed out and inequality would preserve species that rather than posing an alternative to more effectively than NNH’s focus on NNH, a challenge to growth would actually protected areas. NNH supporters have, result from NNH’s protection of much in turn, defended the idea against these larger areas from the economy’s “ravenous charges. Below, I review these defences and demands for natural resources”. They thus a reply to them by Büscher et al. (2017a). To echo an insight expressed in a recent book on adjudicate on one aspect of the debate – ecological economics, that protected areas about the relative environmental impacts play an important role in limiting economic of human population size versus per capita throughput (Dietz and O’Neill, 2013).

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Büscher et al. may have posed a second the built infrastructure there. Footprints false dichotomy in declaring that “cutting allow different categories of depletion inequality in half would do more for and pollution to be compared in terms of conservation than attempting to protect standardized ‘global hectares’ (gha): the half of the Earth from humanity”. Studies by area of forests, fields, farms and fisheries colleagues and myself have indeed shown needed to renew the resources depleted, and that countries and US states with lower Gini absorb the carbon emitted, to sustain the indices of income inequality have lower region’s current level of consumption. The rates of biodiversity loss (Mikkelson et al., Global Footprint Network (2018) compares 2007; Mikkelson, 2013). In fact, we found this measure of demand for ecological that for each one per cent drop in inequality, sources and sinks to the corresponding metrics of biodiversity loss fall by even more measure of supply, termed ‘biocapacity’ – than one percent. However, I speculate that the gha of the region’s biologically productive one reason for this connection is precisely land and water. Ecological footprints are that more equal societies tend to protect perhaps the most comprehensive measure natural areas more effectively against of environmental damage that is currently harmful human activities like commercial available (Wackernagel and Beyers, 2019). Another bone “ extraction of natural resources, industrial Since they reflect human expropriation of of contention agriculture, and urban, suburban and habitat area and greenhouse gas emissions between supporters exurban sprawl. If this is true, then it is – two leading proximate drivers of other and opponents misleading to propose less inequality as an species’ depopulation and extinction (W W F, alternative to more protected areas, since 2018) – footprints have significant relevance of the NNH idea the two go hand in hand. for conservation. concerns the relative Perhaps the simplest way to compare the importance of The relative importance of environmental damage done by population human population population size versus per capita versus consumption is to apply the well- production and consumption size versus economic known IPAT equation to the global economy Another bone of contention between over time. The IPAT framework (Ehrlich production and supporters and opponents of the NNH and Holdren, 1971) considers total negative consumption per idea concerns the relative importance of environmental impact (I) as a function of capita.” human population size versus economic population size (P) times production and production and consumption per capita consumption per capita (A for ‘affluence’) (henceforth ‘consumption’ for short), as times environmental impact per unit drivers of biodiversity loss. While Cafaro et of production or consumption (T for al. accused Büscher et al. (2017b) of ignoring ‘technology’). In this case, we can measure I the contribution of population increase as humanity’s total ecological footprint, P as to overall economic growth, Büscher et global population size, A as world GDP per al. (2017a) implied that Cafaro et al. were capita (corrected for inflation) and T as gha “focusing attention on the reproductive of ecological footprints per dollar of GDP. habits of the poor rather than the more The good news is that ecological footprints environmentally damaging consumption per US dollar have declined steadily over habits of the rich.” Is consumption indeed the period tracked by the Global Footprint more “damaging” than population? Network. Whereas it took 6.1 gha to produce Historical data on population size, gross US$10,000 of world GDP in 1961, it took only domestic product (GDP) per capita and 2.6 gha in 2016 – a decrease of nearly 60%. ecological footprints permit us to compare This reflects dramatic improvements in the strength of these two primary drivers of resource efficiency and pollution control. environmental impact. However, the bad news is that population Ecological footprints quantify the and consumption both exploded over the renewable resources depleted, and carbon same period, to the point that either one, emitted, to produce the goods consumed by itself, would have more than offset the within any given region, and support gains in efficiency. Human population size

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ballooned from 3.1 billion people in 1961 to on the basis of humanity’s total footprint: 7.5 billion in 2016. Meanwhile, GDP per capita consumption slightly outweighs population surged proportionally even faster: from as a driver of environmental degradation. US$3700 to US$10,400 (Global Footprint This suggests these two root causes deserve Network, 2018). As a result, humanity’s nearly equal attention when it comes to total ecological footprint mushroomed from relieving and reversing biodiversity loss and 7.1 billion gha in 1961 – well within world other ecological disasters unfolding in the biocapacity at the time – to 20.5 billion gha 21st century. Crist et al. (2018) rehearsed ways in 2016. This nearly three-fold expansion has of easing population pressure. Reduction of taken us to a state of overshooting Earth’s working hours may be the most promising biocapacity of 12.2 billion gha by almost 70%. If way of easing down per capita production we apportion this rise in ecological footprints and consumption. Working hours have to population and consumption according to stronger ties to both ecological footprints how much the latter two variables increased and income inequality than does any other over that same period, we can conclude that of the following basic determinants of GDP consumption slightly outweighs population – population size, the employment rate or as a driver of environmental impact. To wit, labour productivity (Mikkelson, in review). while population growth contributed 44% Given all of the above, we can predict that of the increase in footprints, consumption de-growth in population size and working growth contributed 56%.1 hours would interact synergistically with Data on individual countries afford a NNH. The project of slowing, stopping or more detailed comparison of population reversing growth in GDP, while distributing versus consumption as drivers of ecological it more equally within and among societies, footprints. Public sources make available the therefore fits in well with NNH. populations, GDPs per capita and ecological footprints of 120 countries over 56 years Conclusion “The idea of giving (1961–2016), for a total of 5705 data points The idea of giving half the Earth back to half the Earth back – (i.e. combinations of one country and one nature promises to help incite the bold action to nature promises to year; see Appendix 1 for more detail about required to reverse the current, incipient help incite the bold sources and methods). Across these countries mass extinction. Already, NNH has inspired action required to and years, ecological footprints increased scholarship bridging gaps between natural by 1.2% for each one per cent of population science, social science and the humanities reverse the current, growth, but only 0.5% for each one per cent (and, in particular, ecocentric environmental incipient mass of growth in GDP per capita. By themselves, ethics, on which see, for example, Washington extinction.” these two figures suggest that population has et al. [2018]). Like any bold proposal, it has more to do with environmental degradation also attracted criticism, and responses to than does consumption. that criticism. Above, I essayed to adjudicate However, we must also take into account on three aspects of the debate, concerning the fact that GDP per capita has generally economic de-growth, economic equality grown much faster than has population and the venerable question of whether it is size. Within this sample, populations grew more important to reduce population size at an average rate of 1.1% per year, whereas or per capita production and consumption in GDP per capita grew by an average of 2.9% order to reverse environmental degradation. per year. Multiplying these average rates I sided with defenders of NNH in framing de- of increase by the corresponding footprint growth as a natural correlate of NNH, rather expansion attributable to each one per cent than a competing alternative as imagined of increase yields the following estimate: by NNH critics. I added that enhancing while population growth drove 47% of economic equality would probably also go the expansion in ecological footprints along with NNH, thus dispelling another across this extensive set of countries and false dichotomy posed by NNH critics. years, consumption growth drove 53%. I delved deepest into the question of This confirms the inference made above population versus consumption as drivers

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of ecological damage. Based on analyses of Dietz R and O’Neill D (2013) Enough is Enough: Building ecological footprints over nearly six decades a sustainable economy in a world of finite resources. Routledge, New York, NY, USA. at the global level, as well as among 120 countries over that same period, I sided with Dinerstein E, Olson D, Joshi A et al. (2017) An ecoregion- based approach to protecting half the terrestrial NNH critics in holding consumption more realm. Bioscience 67: 534–45. responsible than population as a cause of Ehrlich PR and Holdren JP (1971) Impact of population environmental impact. However, since the growth. Science 171: 1212–7. two differ only slightly in the magnitude Gerlagh R, Lupi V and Galeotti M (2018) Family planning of their effects, it would be horrifically and climate change (CESifo working papers 7421). irresponsible to ignore either one. Reducing CESifo Group, Munich, Germany. each requires strong measures that, happily, Global Footprint Network (2018) National Footprint would enhance human well-being along Accounts (2018 edition). Available from: data. footprintnetwork.org (accessed September 2019). “NNH has inspired with the survival prospects of our fellow scholarship bridging species (Götmark et al., 2018; Mikkelson, Götmark F, Cafaro P and O’Sullivan J (2018) Aging human populations: Good for us, good for the Earth. in review). Thus, while local trade-offs gaps between natural Trends in Ecology and Evolution 33: 851–62. certainly exist between conservation and science, social Mikkelson GM (2013) Growth is the problem; equality is true human development, in general they science and the the solution. Sustainability 5: 432–9. go hand-in-hand. n Mikkelson GM (2019) Sentience, life, richness. In: humanities.” DesRoches C, Jankunis F and Williston B, eds. Notes Canadian Environmental Philosophy. McGill-Queen’s 1 Some sources have misleadingly implied that, to University, Montréal, QC, Canada: 83–96. the contrary, population far outweighs other root Mikkelson GM (in review) Invisible hand or ecological causes of environmental impact. For example, footprint? Comparing social vs. environmental Gerlach et al. (2018) began their working paper by impacts of recent economic growth. stating “The historical increase in [greenhouse gas] Mikkelson GM, Gonzalez A and Peterson GD (2007) emissions is for [sic] one-fourth attributable to the Economic inequality predicts biodiversity loss. PLoS growth of emissions per person, whereas three- ONE 2: e444. fourths are due to population growth.” The problem with this statement, and others like it, is that they Nash RF (2011) Island civilisation: A vision for human hide increases in GDP per capita, by collapsing occupancy of Earth in the Fourth Millennium. In: together the last two factors in the IPAT equation. Burdon P, ed. Exploring Wild Law: The Philosophy of Earth Jurisprudence. Wakefield, Kent Town, SA, Australia: 339–47. References Spalding MD, Fox HE, Allen GR et al. (2007) Marine Büscher B, Fletcher R, Brockington D et al. (2017a) ecoregions of the world: A bioregionalization of Doing whole Earth justice: A reply to Cafaro et al. coastal and shelf areas. BioScience 57: 573–83. Oryx 51: 401. Wackernagel M and Beyers B (2019) Ecological Footprint: Büscher B, Fletcher R, Brockington D et al. (2017b) Half- Managing our biocapacity budget. New Society, Earth or whole Earth? Radical ideas for conservation, Gabriola Island, BC, Canada. and their implications. Oryx 51: 407–10. Washington H, Chapron G, Kopnina H et al (2018) Cafaro P, Butler T, Crist E et al. (2017) If we want a whole Foregrounding ecojustice in conservation. Biological Earth, nature needs half: A response to Büscher et al. Conservation 228: 3 67–74 . Oryx 51: 400. Wilson EO (2016) Half-Earth: Our planet’s fight for life. Crist E, Mora C and Engelman R (2018) The interaction of WW Norton, New York, NY, USA. human population, food production, and biodiversity WWF (2018) Living Planet Report 2018: Aiming higher. protection. Science 356: 260–4. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland.

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Appendix 1. Further information on the methods used in the author’s empirical analysis.

This appendix is presented as supplementary information, in the form supplied by the author, and has not undergone the same level of peer review as the main article.

The empirical analysis reported above draws on data whole sample, weighted by the ecological footprint in any from the Conference Board and Global Footprint Network. given country and year. The Conference Board (2019) supplies information about countries’ population size and gross domestic product (GDP) Bailey MA (2015) Real Stats: Using econometrics for political science and public policy. Oxford University, New York, NY, USA. per capita, corrected for inflation over time and differences in purchasing power between countries (2018 US$, purchasing Conference Board (2019) The Conference Board Total Economy Database power parity). Data on ecological footprints come from the (April 2019). Available at https://is.gd/seKXvX (accessed September Global Footprint Network (2018). Estimates are available for 2019; behind password). population size, GDP per capita and ecological footprints; in anywhere from 5 to 56 years between 1961 and 2016; for 120 *Albania, Algeria, Angola, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Austria, countries.* This makes for a total of 5705 observations. Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, To estimate the relationships among these variables, I Côte d’Ivoire, Cambodia, Cameroon, Canada, Chile, China, performed a two-way panel regression of the natural Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, logarithms of ecological footprints on the logs of population Dominican Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ecuador, and GDP per capita. This method estimates the logged Egypt, Estonia, Ethiopia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, footprint in a particular country and year as a linear Greece, Guatemala, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, function of the logged population size and GDP per capita in Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kuwait, that same country and year, while controlling for both the Kyrgyz Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, time-invariant characteristics of individual countries, and Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Mali, Malta, Mexico, Moldova, the characteristics of individual years that are common to Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Nigeria, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Poland, all countries. Using logged variables entails that the slope Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, estimates are elasticities (Bailey, 2015). In this case, this Senegal, Serbia and Montenegro, Singapore, Slovak Republic, means the per cent increases in ecological footprints that are Slovenia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sri Lanka, St Lucia, associated with one per cent increases in either population or Sudan, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Thailand, GDP per capita, while holding the other constant. To estimate Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uganda, the average yearly percent increases of population size and Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, UK, USA, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, GDP per capita, I took the means of those increases across the Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

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The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 91 Pyrenean violets in a national park, Spain www.ecologicalcitizen.net EXCERPT

Excerpted chapters from On Beauty: Douglas R. Tompkins —aesthetics and activism

This piece comprises two chapters from On Beauty: Douglas R. Tompkins—aesthetics and activism, Tom Butler which was published by the David Brower Center in conjunction with the art installation On Beauty, mounted in 2017 in Berkeley, CA, USA. and Sandra Lubarsky Universal Beauty round and round, tracing indescribable About the authors Tom Butler combinations of vertical and horizontal curves, while I clung with muscles firm Tom is a writer and activist based in “There is no synonym for God so perfect braced, like a bobolink on a reed,” he later Huntington, VT, USA. as Beauty.” wrote. During his time aloft, Muir reveled Sandra is a professor — John Muir in the “the high festival” of fragrant (emeritus) of sustainability. air, sublime light, and the “music” of She lives in Flagstaff, AZ, windswept trees. “The sounds of the USA, where she writes on efore John Muir became the great storm,” he noted, “corresponded gloriously beauty and sustainability. prophet of American wilderness and with this wild exuberance of light and Citation champion for national parks, he took motion.” B Butler T and Lubarsky S thousand-mile walks to the Gulf of Mexico, While this recounting of “wild ecstasy” (2019) Excerpted chapters botanizing along the way, and rambled in the treetops is particularly thrilling, from On Beauty: Douglas R. widely through California’s mountains, Muir’s prose generally tended toward the Tompkins—aesthetics and puzzling out the geology and glacial effusive, with praise of “Nature’s open, activism. The Ecological Citizen shaping of the landforms he traversed. harmonious, songful, sunny, everyday 3(Suppl A): 93–100. The largely self-taught naturalist was a beauty” a leitmotif. Later sought out by Keywords mountaineer and endurance athlete of presidents and captains of industry, the Values; worldviews prodigious boldness and skill. Even when then-obscure naturalist would become carrying a plant press to save specimens, famous through his writings, which form a Muir typically traveled light, often with running commentary on his own rapturous About the book little more than a satchel containing bread, relationship with nature, the “freedom and Text: Butler T and Lubarsky S a book or two, and his journal. glory” he enjoyed in “God’s wilderness.” Photos: Antonio Vizcaíno One day in December of 1874, while Muir A Scotsman by birth who emigrated to hiked alone in the northern Sierras, a storm America with his family at age 11, Muir’s Year: 2017 gathered. A cautious mountaineer would early years on a hardscrabble farm carved Available from: browercenter.org/on-beauty have sought shelter in the low country. from the American wilderness were filled Muir instead went up, climbing a ridge to with toil and cruelty at the hand of his experience the weather’s full force. At the devout, evangelical father, whose strain of height of land, he noted a cluster of hundred- Calvinist-influenced Christianity was as foot-tall Douglas fir trees whose “lithe, severe as the beatings he inflicted on his brushy tops were rocking and swirling in son John. The younger Muir’s theological wild ecstasy.” Muir was accustomed to leanings would later evolve toward climbing trees for his botanical studies; pantheism, but his deep familiarity with he easily ascended the tallest fir and spent the King James Bible not only influenced hours riding the storm’s currents. the quality of his prose but also laid the “The slender tops fairly flapped and foundation for his evolving worldview. swished in the passionate torrent, bending Like most people of his place and time, and swirling backward and forward, Muir would have been able to recite by

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heart the opening passage of Genesis, cultures around the world. If Muir had which formed the dominant creation myth been born to any of numerous native North of his culture: American tribes, he would have learned stories in which bears figured prominently In the beginning God created the heaven in the cultural mythology and would have and the earth. been able to recite his tribe’s creation And the earth was without form, and void; myths as readily as the young Scotsman and darkness was upon the face of the deep. quoted scripture. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of The Miwok Indians who thrived for the waters. millennia in the western Sierra foothills And God said, “Let there be light:” and down to the Pacific Coast before a conquering there was light. civilization disrupted their culture, have a creation story featuring a female silver fox In that account, God goes on to separate and male coyote who sing and dance the the heavens and earth, the land from the world into being. Without digressing into waters, to fill the Earth with plants and Muir’s interactions with Native Americans animals, to create men and women, and (suffice it to say he was both a progressive then to give humans “dominion” over all of thinker as well as a product of that colonial the Creation. It’s a rich story, beautiful in its civilization with its racial bias), Muir’s drama and poetry, albeit problematic once writings and those of other early thinkers one gets to the granting of ownership of and in what came to be the American wilderness divine exhortation to “subdue” the Earth. conservation movement reflected earlier, Muir, a man of science as well as believer indigenous ways of experiencing the world. in the sacredness of nature, would later Muir’s description of nature’s intrinsic explicitly reject the anthropocentrism “order and beauty,” his familial reverence inherent in the Genesis story, writing, “No toward other forms of life, the way he Along with the “ dogma taught by the present civilization believed that it was a property of humans needs of food, seems to form so insuperable an obstacle to glow “with joy” when “exposed to the shelter, and sex, in the way of a right understanding of rays of mountain beauty”—these values are there may be no the relations which culture sustains to aligned with the sentiment encapsulated wildness as that which regards the world as in the Navaho/Diné people’s traditional more fundamental made especially for the uses of man. Every prayer, “The Beauty Way”: human yearning animal, plant, and crystal controverts it in than this—to be the plainest terms.” In beauty I walk connected, to be In another work he asked, “Why should With beauty before me I walk in harmony, to feel man value himself as more than a small With beauty behind me I walk part of the one great unit of creation?” In With beauty above me I walk rooted to place and another, while railing against humanity’s With beauty around me I walk people, to walk in hubris, he noted: “I have precious little It has become beauty again beauty.” sympathy for the selfish propriety of It has become beauty again civilized man, and if a war of races should It has become beauty again occur between the wild beasts and Lord It has become beauty again Man I would be tempted to sympathize with the bears.” Along with the needs of food, shelter, and Don Worster’s brilliant biography of sex, there may be no more fundamental Muir, A Passion for Nature, includes a scene human yearning than this—to be wherein Muir comes upon a bear carcass connected, to be in harmony, to feel rooted and stops to mourn his fallen ursine to place and people, to walk in beauty. neighbor. The notion that the bear was kin, “Biophilia,” the term coined by biologist a relative in the community of life, was an Edward O. Wilson to describe our innate idea at odds with Muir’s cultural heritage inclination to affiliate with the diversity of but of course commonplace in indigenous life, captures that longing.

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Almost certainly the mountaineer’s a worldview. The way that language compulsion—the drive that John Muir shapes our thinking and undergirds felt to climb the highest peaks in the the dominant human-supremacist Sierras, or Doug Tompkins’s zeal to put worldview is a largely unexplored topic up first ascents on multiple continents— in the popular literature of nature was partly an expression of this beauty- conservation, and, unfortunately, one seeking tendency. And even for us can find a million examples of common wilderness travelers who do not aspire language in “environmental” discourse to similar climbing exploits, it is that that reinforces a resourcist worldview. The way that direct experience of wildness that The language of ownership and dominion “ kindles connection, the kind that Henry is built on talk of “stewardship” (a word language shapes David Thoreau described when he said: that originally referred to the “ward” our thinking and “Talk of mysteries! —Think of our life of the “sty,” the person who tended the undergirds the in nature, —daily to be shown matter, domestic animals) and positively framed dominant human- to come in contact with it, —rocks, tree, “working landscapes” (places where wind on our cheeks! the solid Earth! the natural habitat is removed or manipulated supremacist worldview actual world! the common sense! Contact! to support resource extraction, such as is a largely unexplored Contact!” (For his many virtues, we’ll logging or livestock grazing). Note in the topic in the popular forgive Thoreau’s excessive use of the next direct mail appeal or calendar you literature of nature exclamation point.) receive from an environmental nonprofit While people naturally inclined to the ubiquitous use of the possessive conservation, and, spiritual introspection may discuss such “our”—as in, “we must protect our unfortunately, matters unashamedly, many of us leave oceans” (as if the oceans belonged to us). one can find a such topics unexamined, or fear to say In its bias toward human-centeredness million examples of it out loud: this search for connection we can see that our reductionist, common language is inextricably tied to life’s existential mechanistic, and increasingly cyber- questions: From whence do we come? metaphor-infused language is quite unlike in ‘environmental’ Where do we return? While sauntering that of earlier human cultures, where discourse that through this mortal plane, are there stories of communion and reciprocity reinforces a resourcist times and places we can brush up against between the human and other animal worldview. the eternal? (And must we climb to the top nations were ubiquitous. Beyond the ” of stormswept Douglas fir to experience pseudo-tribal gyrations of professional that primal unity?) sports and the clichés of regional identity If the desire to be connected is indeed (Don’t mess with Texas!), there is little one of our deepest human inclinations, common language that anchors people to how ironic is it that modernity, at place, and to other creatures in the land least in the supersized, techno- community. industrial-capitalistic form we see in Nearly twenty thousand years after the overdeveloped world, presents an humans painted extraordinary images of almost perfect set of cultural conditions animals on the cave walls at Lascaux—and to thwart that desire. The economic, presumably participated in a sophisticated political, and cultural superstructure ritualized relationship with the creatures that shapes and constrains daily life depicted—how can our present discourse in countless ways undermines life- on beauty and the relations between our affirming relationships and erects species and others be so bereft and trivial? barriers to the formation of an integrated How much we have lost. understanding of an individual’s place in In our time, what passes for concern for the biotic community. beauty is mostly thin and cheap, oriented The foundation of the great wall toward crass commercialism and celebrity separating people from all our relations in worship. On the other end of the spectrum, the community of life is language and the a river of academic writing about art way language presupposes and reinforces and aesthetics is intentionally insular,

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inscrutable to nonexperts, and powerless the “evolutionary odyssey,” the results to shape any broadly meaningful cultural we see around us—life’s diversity—are transformation. astounding. If we take seriously the If the idea of beauty as a potent elixir scientific explanation of our species’ to help heal the world is to have any evolutionary heritage, then we are chance, then first we must speak of not just metaphorical neighbors to all beauty in a way that is not trivial. That is organisms in the community of life, we not superficial. That is not corrupted by are literally related, a genetic connection the values of a society oriented toward we can describe through science or perpetual economic growth. If we are to absorb through the stories of indigenous be successful in gestating a new cultural cosmologies. The spleenworts, sequoias, conversation about beauty’s motive power and humans have common ancestors. This “Like an ecosystem to kindle ecological and social recovery, is worth repeating for emphasis: all our this discussion must be broadly accessible relationships with other living creatures whose integrity and and attractive. are, ultimately, familial. beauty are linked With a foundational orientation Whether we recognize it or not, we are to its diversity, a toward ecocentrism, that conversation connected. Our sense of autonomy is an language of beauty might borrow from the Norwegian illusion, resulting from biological (our for our times ecophilosophers whose writings deeply sensory apparatus) and cultural factors. influenced Doug Tompkins to orient Disconnection is practiced artifice, will include the his life’s work toward beauty. It might underlaid by philosophical, linguistic, indigenous voices also include the “sense of wonder” and cognitive training, most of which not well represented Rachel Carson articulated, as well as the is entirely unnoticed and unexamined. in the canon of poetry of Wordsworth and his English A conscious effort to practice beauty, Lakes District contemporaries who later however, can help override the cultural the classic nature influenced Emerson, Thoreau, Muir, conditioning of disconnection. tradition, as well as etc. Like an ecosystem whose integrity It may not be John Muir’s transcendent the nonhuman voices and beauty are linked to its diversity, moment of ecstasy in the delirious we hear around us, if a language of beauty for our times will treetops, but for some of us not so bold, include the indigenous voices not well the unlearning comes with daily practice we listen. ” represented in the canon of the classic of greeting the neighbors. Recognizing nature tradition, as well as the nonhuman our common origins, conjoined journey, voices we hear around us, if we listen. and common fate, we echo the warm A language of beauty needs to evoke acknowledgment issued by the poet the voices of those creatures on the cave Mary Oliver to “the moss grazing upon walls at Lascaux as well as the creatures the rock”: “I touch her tenderly, sweet with whom we share our backyards. It cousin.” might invoke, to borrow Derrick Jensen’s Of a spring morning, when I rise early to phrase, “a language older than words.” It spend time with arriving warblers in their need not necessarily replace the creation springtime finery, Blackburnian with his myth of any particular culture, but can iridescent orange breast, Canada with include and enhance them in a holistic his decorative black necklace, Chestnut- narrative that gains power from its sided with his incessant chatter that he’s cultural diversity. pleased to meet me, I say yes, I am pleased Whether our preferred creation story to meet you too. includes the Miwoks’ Silver Fox or Hopi Radically mysterious, the epic of people’s Grandmother Spider or the evolution’s long unfolding is a pageant of astrophysicists’ Big Bang, whether we pulsing and contracting life, the universe understand the spark of life/beauty breathing beauty. We, along with the emanating from the hand of a Divine wildflowers and wolves, cicadas and Creator or the miraculously creative jaguars come from beauty, and like every unfolding of what Aldo Leopold called living thing, will return to beauty. n

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own value. And in making our pleasure the primary measure of value, we imply that all The Kinship of Beauty and Life life on earth is for the purpose of serving Sandra Lubarsky human life. The result is a relationship with the world that is destroying the world. “The greatest wholeness is organic The belief that beauty is in the eye of wholeness, the wholeness of life and things, the beholder is part of the larger cultural the divine beauty of the universe.” story of human exceptionalism, with — Robinson Jeffers its justification of human dominion and entitlement to use the earth as we desire. We split the world between intrinsically art of the deep psychosis of our time valuable humans and everything else, is that we measure the world in terms valued only for their usefulness to us. But Pof our own pleasure. It’s an old riddle, this image of a hollow-shelled world, devoid whether something pleases us because it is of value (except for the value imposed on beautiful or whether we think it is beautiful it by the human species), is not supported because it pleases us. For most of western by our lived experience. Every time we look civilization, almost every major thinker— out the kitchen window to enjoy a sunset Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas— crackling with gold or step into the night In believing that resolved the riddle in favor of beauty’s to catch a blaze of meteors in the sky we “ presence in the world. Old-growth coastal enact a rebuttal to this parsimony of value. value is something redwoods, filtering sunlight and sheltering Every time we spontaneously shift our generated only by bundles of huckleberry, are beautiful in awareness toward the orange-tipped curve humans, we conform their structure and their relations. An of an ocotillo blazing in the desert or a to the idea that the encounter with these fog-catching trees sweep of purple jacaranda petals carpeting yields a surge of delight in their beauty, a the sidewalk, we break the narrative that world lacks its own spontaneous primordial “wow!” the human mind alone produces beauty. value. And in making And yet, the convention of our times What was thought to be hollow is resonant our pleasure the is to claim that “beauty is in the eye of with merit and our response to it is visceral primary measure of the beholder,” that instead of being a and unpremeditated. In that moment, we fact of the world, beauty is something know that the world generates its own value, we imply that formulated by our minds and dependent on value, that the world was beautiful before all life on earth is individual preference—and then imposed humans arrived on the scene, and that for the purpose of on the world. People decide for themselves we are shaped, enchanted, and sustained serving human life. whether something is beautiful or not, and by it. We know that beauty is something ” that decision is usually based on pleasure. more than human invention and personal Those towering sequoias with their opinion. And we know that the pleasure we furrowed bark and burled torsos shift from experience when we walk in the world is being beautiful in and of themselves to a pleasure given to us, the consequence of being beautiful because they please us. The beauty arising from the living relations of eye of the beholder becomes a barometer the world. of personal satisfaction—and pleasure When we remember this, we begin a becomes the measure of beauty rather than rotation back toward the world. Spinning the result of beauty. like dervishes, we abandon the deep This human-centered approach to loneliness of separation and realign the beauty is so fully threaded into the fabric axis of human experience with the life that of our modern way of thinking that we are infuses our life. Our direct experiences of scarcely aware of its consequences. But in beauty can guide us. Begin with sunsets, turning inward to find value, we turn away meteors, ocotillos, and jacarandas, the from the world. In believing that value is extraordinary familiars of the world. Admit something generated only by humans, we with poet Arthur Sze that “the infinite conform to the idea that the world lacks its glitter of the world’s here in our arms, here or

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not at all.” Abandon the idea that beauty is a the peremptory question that demands small subject, best kept within the confines a sound bite answer, “What is beauty?” of the arts or women’s fashion. Recognize Out of embarrassment or exasperation we that the question, “What is beauty or the censor ourselves. But a language unspoken beautiful?” is a metaphysical question is a language endangered and a culture about the make-up of the universe and impoverished. Not to speak about beauty is that to ask it is to replace the conventional to contribute to the diminishment of a vital picture of the world-as-machine with the part of our experience. image of the world-as-alive. Yet, after so many years of cultural In remembering, we free ourselves to indifference, it is challenging to speak admit that beauty is a quality of life that about beauty as a value that deserves our overflows individual judgment and narrow, attention. It is, by contrast, shamefully personal pleasure. It is a matter that belongs easy to point to the cost of silence: clear-cut in the open space of public discourse. forests and disfigured mountains, spoil tips and tailing heaps, strip malls and swaths * * * * * of concrete parking lots. In our failure to But it isn’t easy to talk about beauty. make beauty a public concern, vast tracts Language systems are nested in of formerly healthy ecosystems have been metaphysical systems and language and transformed into discarded landscapes. culture are intertwined, producing and Ecological decline always involves the loss reproducing each other. The words and of beauty. At the very least, for the sake of “Our modern, concepts we use and the way we use them curtailing the wreckage, we had better find western culture is are permeated by assumptions about our tongues and relearn the language of largely dominated by how we understand reality. Our modern, beauty. the idea that the best western culture is largely dominated by the The most important conversation we idea that the best way to describe the way can have today is about how to live well on way to describe the things function is in terms of a machine our beloved Earth without destroying it. way things function and that, like a machine, reality is made It is the conversation about sustainability. is in terms of a up of dead matter that has no intrinsic But it isn’t customary to speak of beauty machine and that, value. We talk about hearts pumping blood, as a critical dimension of sustainability. bodies needing fuel, and brains operating There is no place for beauty in the popular like a machine, reality like computers. Because in some ways and “three-E” formula for sustainability: is made up of dead to some extent, reality is machinelike, economics, environment, and equity. matter that has no these are helpful metaphors. But the Beauty plays no role in the mainstream intrinsic value.” trouble is that we have tended to move hope that we can manipulate and manage from “is like” to “is,” and we have accepted complex ecological systems or that we can these machine-based metaphors as a fully develop technological innovations that accurate description of reality. Mechanism will preserve our first-world lifestyles has become an idea so deeply embedded in and protect the planet’s biotic health and our culture that we are hardly aware of it. It climatic stability. But these are notions of is the primary reason why we have lost our sustainability that are rooted in the very proficiency in the language of beauty. worldview that has steered us toward The lexicon of beauty includes words that this most precarious period in human have no application to machines: feeling, history. We are in need of a broader, deeper emotion, value, participation, inspiration, foundation for sustainability. creativity, spontaneity, openness, and Though the word “sustainability” seems aliveness. These words, spoken in a to suggest endurance as its paramount goal, mechanistic world where proper language in fact it bears a greater intention: a concern is expected to be definite, precise, and with flourishing. The question is not meant quantifiable, sound soft and indeterminate, to be, “How can we endure endlessly on like a private language with no common the planet?” or “How can we maintain the rules. We stammer, struggling to answer status quo?” At the heart of the notion of

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sustainability is an axiological question bound up with the morphology of individual about value and what is worth sustaining. organisms and communities of organisms, It is a question that goes beyond mere it is the way we talk about patterns and persistence, though certainly reproductive relationships that create and sustain life. capacity is a necessary part of the answer. A In its partnership with the deep structure far greater ethical-aesthetic vision informs of life, beauty is most visible in our the practical work of sustainability, one encounter with life-affirming experiences. in which the convergence of beauty and Flowing water, buds and blossoms, young goodness is assumed. The question we need children—these are familiar instances of to ask is, “How can we live in life-affirming beauty in association with vitality. There ways?” and it is synonymous with the are a million ways that beauty appears The most question, “Can we live in ways that promote both with regularity and surprise, and “ important thing to beauty”? Sustainability is a practical guide always, like life itself, ephemerally. for arriving at a world flourishing with the When they arise from a place of health, know about beauty is beauty of life-supporting relations. they produce a manifold of beauty. In a its kinship with life. diminished environment, they are brief, * * * * * Rather than denoting tilting moments, undone by the absence of a thing in isolation, The most important thing to know vigor and coordination. about beauty is its kinship with life. Because beauty is so diverse, there is no beauty signifies life- Rather than denoting a thing in isolation, one best or final form. There is great beauty in-relationship.” beauty signifies life-in-relationship. in the high desert of the Colorado Plateau Most importantly, it is evidence of the and great beauty in the lush temperate cooperation of incalculable forms of life, rainforests of the Chilean coast; there is shaping themselves into a life-supporting great beauty in the simplicity of a Zen community. In this labor of life adjusting meditation hall and great beauty in the to life, each individual life aims both for vibrant aesthetic of artist Frida Kahlo’s reproduction and for an intensity and blue house. There are many manifestations fullness of life. That intensity and fullness of beauty and as with all experience, depends on a million delicate adjustments beauty is specific to its environmental and that simultaneously strengthen the vitality cultural conditions and to the experiencing of the individual and the whole, achieved subject. But the diversity of beauty, its only over great stretches of time. The plural forms, does not mean that beauty is outcome is a world where diverse forms of simply a matter of opinion. It is a mistake life belong, in the very literal sense of the to move from the diversity of beauty to the word: holding membership of place and claim that beauty is completely subjective, sharing interest and concern. The outcome entirely a matter of individual perspective. of belonging, of right relationship, is a place When we see images of mining operations of beauty. It is where our own vitality is on the Alberta tar sands with its tailing nursed and fortified. When we experience piles, open pits, and clear-cut Boreal forest, this beauty, we feel the quickening of our or images of a living body in pain or decay, being, an intensifying of our individual perhaps a baby albatross in the process of lives in right relationship with the life of dying from the tiny bits of ocean plastic the whole—and the revitalization of our it ingested, it is fair to say that there is deepest and oldest desire to belong to the widespread agreement—nearly universal world. agreement—that these things are ugly. This way of understanding beauty This agreement helps us to understand makes it clear that beauty is more than that judgments of beauty, like those of an inconsequential subject of fashion or ugliness, are not simply subjective. We may a matter for debate among artists. It is disagree on details and we may choose to fundamental to an ecological paradigm; ignore or repress our immediate relational beauty is the name for the value rapport but we share a deep receptivity to associated with aliveness. Inextricably experiences that increase or decrease life.

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To separate beauty from life and life that aesthetics and ethics are cooperating from beauty is to do great injury to both. constituents in the social order that is the The same goes for undoing the bond confederacy of beauty. between beauty and goodness, treating An ecological understanding of beauty as them as different kinds of value. In fact, the value related to life affirmation shifts goodness is a form of beauty, one that the way we think of the natural world—from depends on the free and conscious actions a storehouse of resources for human use to of persons. It is nested in the broader a web of relationships teeming with life, category of beauty, the value in which all filled with intrinsic value, and directed not of life, conscious or not, participates. To only toward the perpetuation of life but also repress the one is to distort the other. We toward the fullest expression of aliveness. speak of ethical actions as “beautiful” for Although in a living system neither To separate beauty “ the very reason associated with beauty: ecological health nor beauty is guaranteed, from life and life from they are life-affirming. Both beauty and the capacity for both exists. And it is that beauty is to do great goodness are ways of coordinating life capacity that calls us to the practice of injury to both.” to life and enabling each individual life beauty, to cultivating ways of moving in to flourish. Both evoke action directed the world that sustain and contribute to toward increasing and intensifying value. life. Because ecology and aesthetics are Both are teachers of care, drawing us into interrelated, the practice of beauty involves relations beyond ourselves. Work on behalf the practice of sustainability, both of which of justice and fairness, efforts to alleviate abide by the fundamental parts-whole poverty and suffering—all are acts of rule of all relations: in a healthy system, beauty, enabling all members of society to the exquisite details of each singular freely and fully engage with life. Years ago life adds richness to the larger body of the Jewish theologian, Abraham Joshua relations and is, in turn, strengthened by Heschel wrote, “It takes a great deal of these relations. The practice of beauty and inner cultivation to attain real love and real the practice of sustainability are one and compassion. It takes also a new conception the same, a coherent effort to value and about the relevance of beauty and the contribute to the vividness of life. It is an marvel and mystery of everything that effort motivated by more than our narrow exists.” Acts that sustain value, increase desire for pleasure, though great pleasure value, and heighten the enjoyment of comes in its wake. In leaning into the world, value are part of the relevance of beauty. we make ourselves receptive to the world’s Our ability to create communities that are profuse beauty and we become exuberant, life-affirmative depends on recognizing more fully alive. n

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100 The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 www.ecologicalcitizen.net REFLECTION

In defence of tears

“The advent of sentience was also the At the point in my life I finally became Simon advent of suffering, but the advent also of vegetarian, when 18, I had never heard compassion […] Thus was empathy born […] of Peter Singer’s animal liberation nor of Leadbeater

perhaps the most acute in our own species, Jeremy Bentham’s famous dictum “not About the author paradoxically the most monstrous as well whether it reasons, but can it suffer,” and I Simon is a woodland and as the most merciful of them all.” had not made the connection between eating meadow owner in rural (Harnad, 2019) meat and biodiversity destruction. I did not Hertfordshire, UK. eat meat simply because I loved animals and Citation I could not understand why people would Leadbeater S (2019) In have been a vegetarian for two want to hurt them. I still can’t. defence of tears. The Ecological thirds of my life, and now find myself Lacking empathy for beings other than Citizen 3(Suppl A): 101–3. Itransitioning to a vegan diet. I would like ourselves is difficult to disentangle from to think reason and compassion brought the ‘separation’ (Gagliano, 2018: 119) Keywords me here, but a childhood experience was and ‘dominion’ (White, 1967) paradigm, Agriculture; animal ethics; probably decisive. I was in France on a which went on to form the bedrock of a ecological empathy; sixth school outing. We walked past an industrial socioeconomic system in which animals mass extinction building; the walls may not have been glass, became insensate livestock, units of but the doors were open. And hanging from production to be turned into commodities. hooks was a row of slaughtered pigs; pink, Farming ratcheted up to industrial global fleshy, unmoving save that they swung agriculture entails day-old chicks being gently. Every child should visit an abattoir, flown from Heathrow to India via Nairobi, so as to experience first-hand the origins of one cog in an accelerating cascade of animal foods (Monbiot, 2014). transport links between producers and My next memory is of refusing to end-markets. Such global commodity eat some lamb mince. My mother was chains have facilitated the transformation perplexed; I cried; she took my supper of millions of hectares of Brazilian away. That is how vegetarianism began forest into soya plantations for feeding for me – through childish tears. My incarcerated farm animals in Europe, China feelings seemed perfectly normal. My and elsewhere (Lymbery, 2017: 187–9). parents had brought me up with animals; I Across the world half the forests have wept when they died, my upset extending already fallen (Vince, 2014: 267); in the last to fights at school. Why, then, would three hundred years 12 million km2 have I want to eat them? Much later in life I been felled and 4 million km2 of grasslands swapped childhood pets for ex-battery converted to agriculture (Hall, 2011: 164) – chickens, and still, I am embarrassed to a loss on the scale of Russia (World Bank, admit, sometimes cry when they (rather 2019). And the deficit continues to grow: frequently) die. I take their bodies, 3.6 million hectares of ancient rainforest exhausted from farm-factory life, to a were cut down in 2018 - most of the losses quiet place in our woods and say a little accounted for by loggers and ranchers in the prayer for them. I am not sure why, Amazon (Carrington, 2019). The outcome is but perhaps it is to acknowledge their an overwhelmingly declensionist trajectory innumerable unnamed kindred who are of population declines, species extinctions slaughtered without ever being mourned. and ecological impoverishment. People

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born since 2012 have inherited a planet animals since 1970 (W W F, 2018), and it with fewer than half the number of takes little imagination to conjure into one animals than those before 1970 (Waughray, collective anguished utterance the life we 2018), and now we teeter on the cusp of quashed in preceding centuries. We must extinguishing a further million species and should do all we can to preserve and primarily by extirpating habitats through restore wild places, as habitat destruction their conversion to agriculture, combined is among the greatest sources of wildlife with an animal killing spree (being called decline and suffering, and also do all we ‘defaunation’), climate breakdown and can to stop the global plague of animal pollution (IPBES, 2019). killings across land and seas (Czech, 2013: The extinguished and extinct no longer 171; Maxwell et al., 2016). suffer, but I am haunted by them. Humanity Anthropomorphism is encouraged in has caused the loss of over 60% of wild bedtime stories, but when we put away

A photo taken in a slaughterhouse in 2005 (Shpernik088; CC BY-SA 4.0 [https://creativecommons. org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/]).

102 The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 www.ecologicalcitizen.net In defence of tears

‘childish things’ most of us leave our attachment to animals; when their empathy for animals behind too. I did animal companions die, they are always not because I still see those pigs, hanging saddened. Embracing instead of hiding in a row, and am awkward in social tears of love and empathy might yet save situations when I have to sit at the same the world. n table as people consuming meat. I like to believe explaining that animal agriculture References and industrial fishing are among the Carrington D (2019) ‘Death by a thousand cuts’: vast expanse of rainforest lost in 2018. The Guardian, 25 biggest drivers of global defaunation and April. Available at https://is.gd/bXwXxD (accessed extinction would make a difference, but June 2019). rarely do I have the opportunity, and if I Czech B (2013) The imperative for steady state did it would probably not change things. As economics for wild animal welfare. In: Bekoff M, ed. Embracing instead Richard Powers suggests twice in his novel Ignoring Nature No More: The case for compassionate “ The Overstory (2018), the best arguments do conservation. University of Chicago Press. Chicago, of hiding tears of not change a person’s mind; instead, what IL, USA. love and empathy we need is a good story. He may be right, Gagliano M (2018) Thus Spoke the Plant: A remarkable might yet save the but in my view, what makes up a person’s journey of groundbreaking scientific discoveries and world. mind is largely how they feel, so in trying personal encounters with plants. North Atlantic ” Books, Berkeley, CA, USA. to change minds we need to make people feel differently. Hall M (2011) Plants as Persons: A philosophical botany. State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, Early 2019 has been marked with some USA. optimistic episodes in the shape of school strikes and Extinction Rebellion. Alongside Harnad S (2019) Email correspondence to the author, 27 April. swelling voices of protest, the rise of veganism is a most cogent and impactful IPBES (2019), Media Release: Nature’s dangerous decline ‘unprecedented’; species extinction expression of the same love and solidarity rates ‘accelerating’. IPBES, 6 May. Available at for the natural world, challenging the https://is.gd/6SnEZ2 (accessed June 2019). depredations of animal agriculture and Lymbery P (2017) Dead Zone: Where the wild things industrial fishing by increasing the were. Bloomsbury Publishing, London, UK. demand for meat- and fish-free, dairy-free Maxwell SL, Fuller RA, Brooks TM and Watson JE and industrial-egg-free products. In April (2016) Biodiversity: The ravages of guns, nets and 2018 there were in the UK some 3.5 million bulldozers. Nature 536: 143–5. vegans, up from just over half a million Monbiot G (2014) Overgrowth. The Guardian, two years earlier (Petter, 2018). More 16 December. Available at https://is.gd/NsEwM4 impressively still, the demand for plant- (accessed June 2019). based food increased by nearly ten-fold Petter O (2018) Number of vegans in UK soars to 3.5M, in 2017 and the UK launched more vegan survey finds. The Independent, 3 April. Available at products than any other country in 2018 https://is.gd/Z3r5jR (accessed June 2019).

(www.vegansociety.com/news/media/statistics). Powers R (2018) The Overstory. William Heinemann, Why do people become vegans? Is it London, UK. owing to concerns about the loss of wild Vince G (2014) Adventures in the Anthropocene. Chatto places and the extermination of their & Windus, London, UK. denizens, climate breakdown or human Waughray D (2018) On The Today Programme, 23 health deterioration? Of course all the January. above matter, but having emotional White L (1967) The historical roots of our ecological attachments to animals also remains crisis. Science 155: 12 0 3–7. central (www.vegansociety.com/go-vegan). World Bank (2019) Surface area: Russian Federation. I have decided not to be ashamed of Available at https://is.gd/PRyeKh (accessed June my tears. Feeling is more powerful than 2019). thinking. I must make it my mission WWF (2018) Living Planet Report. Gland, Switzerland. to help children acknowledge and Available at https://is.gd/v2eKNI (accessed June honour their emotional and spiritual 2019).

The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 103 BOOK REVIEW www.ecologicalcitizen.net

Thinking and walking with The Sonoran Desert: A literary field guide

Louise onsider the White-lined Sphinx Moth The guide, as Magrane and Cokinos of the arid lands of southwest North observe, was imagined as a form of literary Boscacci CAmerica. TC Tolbert does, but begins biomimicry. First, because it followed on About the author with, “Relationshapes: When we notice from the mode of the ‘bioblitz’ in which Louise is an Australian our breathing, we quiet it” (p 70). Read on. citizen scientists and other community writer, researcher and We are led into a vignette of prose that participants gather and work with teacher in the ecological takes flight as would the moth pollinating ecologists and biologists to collectively humanities. She is an evening primrose or sacred datura in the inventory the plants and animals on shared author and co-editor of the Sonoran Desert at twilight. A hover here; a conservation lands. But, equally important, creative non-fiction book, dart away again there. Why are we reading the project took direct impetus from a 100 Atmospheres: Studies in Scale and Wonder (Open about a museum exhibit on life and death, Poetic Inventory of the Saguaro National Humanities Press, 2018). a woman in pearls, a campground full of Park in the region: an inventory of poems big RVs, hummingbirds, Freud and the composed by a group of 80 poets and Citation uncanny? These, in a field guide? “I like to writers to address many on the local co- Boscacci L (2019) Thinking think that spaces ask people to turn them species list. Here, in this wider anthology, and walking with The Sonoran Desert: A literary field guide. The into a room,” Tolbert writes. So, the sphinx a biodiverse mix of poets and prose writers Ecological Citizen moth, Hyles lineata, and its caterpillar are have written poems and short fiction 3(Suppl A): 104–5. brought into focus as part of this larger pieces for a cast of 64 plants, insects, birds, desert imaginary, one that also leaves mammals, reptiles and amphibians that Keywords the reader with a teasing insight from inhabit and create the Sonoran ecosystems Climate change; conservation the philosopher of relationscapes, Erin and relationscapes. Each entry is headlined Manning: in order to stand still, you have by the plant or animal’s locally known About the book to move. name, and subtitled with the binomial Editors: Magrane E “We need biodiversity of thought […] the nomenclature of genus and species. The and Cokinos C empiricism of science, the imaginative desert globemallow (a flowering plant), Illustrator: Mirocha P and cognitive leaps of poetry, the close Arizona walkingstick (an insect), the elf Year: 2016 observation of both,” Eric Magrane and owl, javelina (collared peccary) and the Gila Publisher: University Christopher Cokinos write in introducing monster (fat-tailed lizard) are a sample of of Arizona Press this literary field guide (p xvi). Their bigger representative denizens. Paperback ISBN: matter of concern is the accelerating Biomimicry also refers to the varied 978-0816531233 loss of biodiversity in the contemporary approaches to writing and literary form Anthropocene bound, as it is, to the Earth- found in the collection. A one-line poem wide transformations of fossil-fuelled evokes the vivid flash of a broad-billed climate change. But, this book is a situated hummingbird, a tiny bird just four inches and particular composition that wants to long. A two-page micro-story follows a celebrate and mark the rich more-than- roaming coyote. Each entry spans two or human life and relations of the lands, skies three pages and is accompanied, not by a and ephemeral waters of the Sonoran. Its high-resolution colour photograph, but by writers recognise that a warming climate a soft black and white pencil drawing by portends drought and increased wildfire illustrator Paul Mirocha. Mirocha was artist- activity. They know that the current in-residence at the Research Library of desert ecological make-up of the bioregion will ecology at Tumamoc Hill, Tucson, where the change. two editors also wrote for the book.

104 The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 www.ecologicalcitizen.net The Sonoran Desert: A literary field guide

Underneath each poem or prose writing, as creative non-fiction, and as piece, in smaller typescript and often communiqués of wonder. threatening to steal the spotlight from Wonder. I am mindful that wonder, the main text, are the editors’ crisp, politics and ethics are inextricably coupled ludic descriptions that riff on the more in the present age of critical climate familiar field guide format of the natural change. Magrane and Cokinos simply ask: sciences. These complementary micro- “In a hundred years, will we look at some narratives arranged under subsections of the pieces […] as elegies for species past? of ‘Habitat’, ‘Description’, and ‘Life What will have persisted, what will have “The light-touch History’ skilfully transcend any claim to arrived?” (p xvi). Yet, and even in response of this clever a singular authoritative ‘knowledge’, but to this reality, exercising the easily jaded collaboration has do so without sacrificing factual accuracy. faculty of wonder is at the heart of this created a powerful They interpret and extract from the rich project, the editors also intimate. Does it – model for creative scientific lode found in existing flora and this heart – work? fauna almanacs to compose lively, playful In order to move, you need to stand still. interdisciplinary accounts that may include giving soft The literary field guide is a subtle material thinking and directions to the reader: “If you wish to offering that I have returned to over a writing.” be terrified, locate a group of hibernating passage of months, randomly dipped into, bark scorpions during winter.” Or, in an slowly read full entries from, or picked up eloquent mattering across scales of the briefly to let a new plant or animal come into individual and local to the planetary, focus as a page flicked over. But, here now, a description cuts straight to the heart inside out of the rain on an unpredictably of climate and action: “As the Sonoran cold midsummer day in eastern Australia, I Desert faces increasing drought due to am drawn once more to the front cover array human-induced climate change, the of drawings of unfamiliar raptors, a hirsute [Merriam’s] kangaroo rat might be an peccary, a solid tortoise, an advancing inspiration for those who are working on tarantula, the giant saguaro cactus and water conservation and policy.” the flower head of a fairy duster. First, I Here, it is worth knowing that scientific have been learning this new language of reviewers and area naturalists were invited another, unfamiliar bios. But, now I want to to read and ‘fact-check’ these descriptions. walk that open desert field and meet them But those hands are invisible, and the all. I would walk with this little literary light-touch of this clever collaboration guide close to hand, pause to read a passage has created a powerful model for creative en route, annotate sightings and soundings interdisciplinary thinking and writing. in the wide margins and free spaces of its These vignettes are truly pleasurable pages, jot down new questions, and let new to read as contemporary natureculture wanderings in. n

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The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 Suppl A 2019 105 Mycena seynesii growing out of a pine cone, France www.ecologicalcitizen.net Last Word

Last Word

“We are the killers. We stink of death.

We carry it with us.

It sticks to us like frost. We cannot tear it away.”

JA Baker

From The Peregrine (HarperCollins, 1967)

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