Journal of Architectural Education

2013 Fall Board Meeting PennDesign, Philadelphia, PA

Board Book

Table of Contents

General Information ...... 1

Meeting Schedule ...... 2

Meeting Agenda ...... 3

Reports Executive Editor . . . . . 4

Associate Editor, Design . . . . 6

Associate Editor, Reviews . . . . 8

Associate Editor, Theme . . . . 9

Additional Information

01 Theme Proposals

02 “Best of” Contributions

03 Board Guide

General Information

Welcome to the Journal of Architectural Education 2014 Fall Editorial Board Meeting.

We will be meeting at the Fisher Fine Arts Library (aka the Furness Library), Rm 306 and the conference room on the third floor of Myerson Hall. The buildings sit next to one another.

The campus is accessible by subway. The closest stop is the 34th St. stop on the Market- Frankford line.

Internet access will be available during meetings.

If you are unable to attend the meeting, a speakerphone will be provided if you are able to call in to participate.

While in Philadelphia, if you need to contact Marc Neveu, my mobile phone number is: 617-899-6965

1 Meeting Schedule

Friday, October 04 Location

1:00 – 3:00 Meeting with Taylor & Francis 325 Chestnut St. Suite 800 Crane, Kulper, Mitchell, Monti, Neveu, Sabatino, Tilder, Vonier

4:00 – 6:00 PhD Seminar Penn Design Archives Crane, Kulper, Monti, Neveu, Sabatino, Trubiano

Saturday, October 05

9:00 – 12:00 Design Committee Meeting Furness Building, 306 Brown, de Monchaux, Kulper, La, Rupnik, Sprecher, Theodore

1:00 – 4:30 General Board Meeting 3rd Floor Meyerson All members Conference Room

Sunday, October 06

9:00 – 12:00 General Board Meeting Furness Building, 306 All members

2 General Board Meeting Agenda

Saturday, October 05 Action Call to Order Neveu 1:00 pm

Executive Editor Report Neveu 1:10

Associate Editor, Theme Report Crane 1:30

Associate Editor, Design Report Kulper 1:45

Associate Editor, Reviews Report Sabatino 2:00

JAE Re-Design Report, discussion Vonier 2:15

Break 2:45

Best Article (SoD, DaS), discussion 3:00 Best Article vote

Theme, discussion 3:45 Theme vote

Adjournment 4:30

Sunday, October 06 Action Call to Order Neveu 9:00 am

What should the JAE look like in 2018? 9:05

How can the JAE better utilize the web? 10:00

Break 10:45

JAE session at ACSA National 2014, discussion Neveu 11:00 Session decision

Board Member nomination, discussion Neveu 11:30

Fall 2014 Editorial Board Meeting, discussion Neveu 11:45 Site decision

Adjournment 12:00

3 Executive Editor: Report

Marc J Neveu

My term as Executive Editor began on 01 July 2013. At that time I appointed Amy Kulper as Associate Editor, Design, Michelangelo Sabatino as Associate Editor, Reviews, and Sheila Crane as Associate Editor for the 68:1 issue. Since that time I have worked with the Associate Editors to develop issue 68:1, familiarized myself with the ScholarOne system, worked with Pascale Vonier to develop the JAE website, attended the August 2013 ACSA Board Meeting in Los Angeles. I am in the process of developing a Board Guide and an Author Guide.

JAE 67:2 Graham Livesey and the entire production team delivered the issue on schedule. The issue is printed and its shipment is imminent. Upon completion of production, Graham Livesey stepped down as Interim Executive Editor as well as the Editorial Board.

JAE 68:1 We have received a very good response to the 68:1 theme (design+) and over seventy essays have either been reviewed or are in process. Two Design as Scholarship essays were shifted to 68:1 from 67:2 due to page count. Four Opinion pieces have been solicited from Kenny Cupers, Renèe Cheng, Jeremy Till and Mass Design. Fifteen reviews have been commissioned.

Manuscripts Received 01 April to 01 October 2013 Manuscript Type Original Revised Total Design as Scholarship 24 1 25 Opinion 2 0 2 Scholarship of Design 45 3 48 Total 71 4 75

Manuscripts Received YTD Manuscript Type Original Revised Total

Design as Scholarship 37 1 38

Opinion 3 0 3

Review 1 0 1

Scholarship of Design 69 3 72

Total 110 4 114

Manuscripts Received This Month Manuscript Type Original Revised Total

Design as Scholarship 1 0 1 Scholarship of Design 6 0 6 Total 7 0 7

4 Fall Board Meeting Our Fall 2014 Editorial Board meeting will take place from 04-06 October. Franca Trubiano has coordinated the event at PennDesign. This meeting will welcome new board members: Franca Trubiano, Georgeen Theodore, and Ivan Rupnik. Grace La and Michelangelo Sabatino have been appointed for an additional term.

A decision regarding the “best-of” articles will be submitted to ACSA following the meeting for both Design as Scholarship and Scholarship of Design submissions.

A call for theme proposals was issued in August. The response was robust. Forty proposals were received. The theme for 68:2 will be chosen at the Fall Board Meeting.

Project Projects was hired to develop a new design for the JAE to include a new format, cover design, logo, and templates (including, but not limited to, fonts, margins, page numbering, titling, image sizing, etc.). A committee was struck by Graham Livesey in Spring 2013 to include Mason White, Nicholas de Monchaux, and Pascale Vonier to select a designer. I replaced Graham Livesey at the end of August once discussions began with Project Projects. Layouts will be presented to the Editorial Board at the Fall Meeting.

Participation in the 2014 ACSA National meeting in Miami will be discussed.

Potential new Board Members will be discussed. A list of potential new members will be forwarded to ACSA for nomination prior to he 2014 ACSA National meeting in Miami.

Three Committees will be established (Design, Theme, Reviews) to work with the Associate Editors.

Taylor & Francis A production meeting will be held with Taylor & Francis to clarify and streamline the production workflow. The new design will be presented to Taylor & Francis.

Online Reviews As part of the initiative to develop web content, the first online reviews will go live in October. I anticipate more content in the future.

Board Guide An Editorial Board Guide is in process. The intention of the Board Guide is to outline policies and procedures, clearly articulate Board Member expectations, and make participation on the board more accessible. It is intended that the guide will be online by the ACSA National Meeting in Miami in 2014. A working document was sent to the entire Editorial Board.

Author Guide An Author Guide is in process. The intention of the Author Guide is to articulate expectations and the process for submission to the JAE. To streamline production, the guide will include a style guide, templates and image permission form. It is intended that the guide will be online prior to the production of issue 68:2.

5 Associate Editor, Design: Report

Amy Kulper

The provocative call written by the theme editors produced a robust response. Overall, we received twenty-three submissions, and one additional submission (which seemed neither to fit the Scholarship of Design category, nor the Design as Scholarship category). Of the Twenty-three, just three submissions were for the new Pre- Fabrications column, so part of the discussion of the Design Committee in this meeting will be devoted to catalyzing a more fulsome response to this call. On the positive side, numerous inquiries about the Pre-Fabrications call (about ten in all) were received the week after the posted due date, and I am keeping a list of these contacts to whom I will send a reminder when we issue our next call. I will also solicit names of possible future contributors from the board, and write follow-up emails encouraging new submissions.

The Design Committee is currently comprised of six members of the board, returning members Grace La, Marshall Brown, Nicholas de Monchaux, and Aaron Sprecher, and new members Georgeen Theodor and Ivan Rupnik whom we are welcoming at this meeting. The Design Committee was divided into two groups, and each group reviewed ten submissions. For the peer review of the Pre-Fabrications submissions, three groups of two Design Committee Members each reviewed one manuscript. Kevin Mitchell created a dropbox folder for us, ensuring that even though the members of the committee were only reviewing ten submissions, they would have an overall view of the quality of the competition. With respect to the Pre-Fabrications submissions, these were reviewed using the Design as Scholarship review form, but I will poll the committee members at this meeting to see whether or not they thought this form was adequate for the review of material that is differently formatted.

As the Design Committee deliberations are conducted jury-style at the meetings, there are no statistics available at the time of this report for the number of submissions accepted for the issue. We do, however, have two submissions accepted for publication in issue 67:2 but held over because the issue significantly overran its page count – both of these submissions fit the Design+ theme well. In conversation with Marc and Sheila, it was decided that because the issue is devoted to design, we might feature a larger number of design submissions, if the committee thinks that there are ample submissions of sufficiently high quality.

In keeping with the theme of the Design+ call, the committee decided at our last meeting to activate the Design Frameworks most closely aligned with the theme, and so we selected Visible Data: Information Ecologies and Exhibitionists: Curators, Collectors, and Connoisseurs. Nicholas de Moncahux took the lead in the Visible Data category, and invited Sha Hwang of Trulia, and Shawn Allen of Stamen to act as Guest Curators. Aaron Sprecher led the Exhibitionists charge, inviting Hans Ibeling (independent scholar) and Frabrizio Gallanti of the CCA to act as Guest Curators.

6 On the agenda for Saturday’s meeting of the design Committee are the following items: • evaluating the Guest Curator and Pre-Fabrication features • revisiting the Design Frameworks, discussing whether any new categories have emerged, and pursuing their publication on the JAE and ACSA websites • selecting the Guest Curators for the next issue • considering the future review of the Pre-Fabrications column • utilizing the journal’s web platform to feature design content • activating the ‘low-hanging fruit’ strategy of featuring award-winning design content

7 Associate Editor, Reviews: Report

Michelangelo Sabatino

As the Reviews Editor of the JAE issue 68:1 I have commissioned 15 reviews of a wide variety of publication types ranging from exhibition catalogues to sole-authored and multi- author books. In addition to reviews that will be published in the forthcoming paper issue of the JAE I have commissioned a number of online reviews.

The online reviews section is currently in its experimental phase and we are looking to expand the number of reviews especially as they relate to exhibitions that have a limited time run.

In seeking to engage a broad audience of readers I have commissioned reviews from a wide variety of scholars (junior, mid-career, and senior) in Canada, Europe and the USA. I welcome suggestions from editorial board members regarding publications to review and potential reviewers.

8 Associate Editor, 68:1: Report

Sheila Crane

68:1 was conceived to be a special issue, with a rather unusual rollout, as we circulated two distinct, though related, calls for papers. The first call was posted in January 2013, with a deadline of March 15, 2013.

The initial call was framed quite broadly and did not elicit a large number of submissions, so the decision was made at the JAE Editorial Board meeting in April to issue a revised call. Marshall Brown and I worked with Marc Neveu during and after the meeting to hone a new call, working largely from a draft that Marc had previously prepared. A significantly revised and more focused call was issued shortly thereafter, with a deadline of August 1, 2013.

In total, between the two calls, we received almost 40 manuscripts, around 28 of which were submitted in response to the second call. reviewed manuscripts: – 1 recommend ACCEPT w/ minor revisions – 5 recommend ACCEPT w/ major revisions – 13 recommend REJECT manuscripts still in review process: – 3 received one ACCEPT (one ACCEPT as is) – 2 received one REJECT [including one late submission] – 4 waiting for review [all late submissions]

We should be in a position to make final decisions about the manuscripts we will officially accept for 68:1 during our meetings in Philadelphia. Our target of 3–4 Scholarship of Design essays for publication in 68:1 should be easily met and should result in a focused contribution to the overall issue.

Based on this experience, the Editorial Board may want to consider concerns that arose during the review process with a view to facilitating our work on future issues.

The importance of board member participation in the review process is critical to its effective operation. It might be worth discussing what our expectations are in this regard and ensuring that we are communicating these expectations to new Board Members. At the very least, board members who may unable to review a given manuscript might consider suggesting two or three alternative reviewers in order to facilitate the time-consuming process of finding reviewers who can commit to our rather strict production timeline.

While ScholarOne provides a ready database of reviewers with whom we have worked in the past, much of my efforts have been directed to expanding this pool and

9 to trying to cultivate relationships that would continue in the future. The theme/special issue model encourages regular turnover in the people who are handling the editorial process for each issue, which is an excellent way to share this time-intensive responsibility. However, it also means that we aren’t always effectively leveraging our contacts. It might be helpful to consider strategies for more effectively harnessing the networks of all Board Members in this critical stage of peer review.

I had more than one reviewer comment that they were shocked by the poor quality of the manuscript that they had been asked to review. More than one person recommended to me that we follow the policies of other peer-review journals that insist any submission meet a base-line level of acceptable quality before it is circulated to reviewers. From what I understand, this would be a major shift in JAE policy, but since I heard this from more than one reviewer and because this clearly meant these reviewers may hesitate to participate in the process again in the future, it seems important to note.

10

Appendix 01

Theme Proposals

EDGE CONDITIONS

Emerging Technologies, Multi-Disciplinarily And Design Responses To Challenges Facing Coastal Regions

DRAFT - 2/18/2013

The rapid growth of global population and continuing urbanization are pressing commerce, industry, people, and fragile ecosystems together in unprecedented ways. Adding to the squeeze, rising sea levels, increasing instability of weather, and technological change are forcing fundamental alterations in traditional lifestyles, historic settlement patterns, and design practices. Efforts to cope with these challenges are transforming the role of architecture and its relationship to disciplines that have until recently seemed quite remote from the field. Nowhere is this more clearly evident than in the world's coastal regions. In these locations the confluence of inexpensive wetlands and rapid development are attracting millions of people to dangerously low lying areas even as many coastal landscapes are subsiding and sea levels are rising. Shocks to the networked relationships of population, technology, and water in the world's coastal regions have led to disastrous consequences - consequences that are likely to continue to become more serious and more widespread in coming years.

In the course of the dramatic reorganization of the means and methods of analysis, design, and construction that are now shaping the built environment, especially in coastal regions, no profession has more to gain or lose than architecture. The profession faces a growing existential crisis as both urban centers and rural communities are increasingly threatened, undermining the very foundations of contemporary practice. However, this threat is matched by an encouraging re-centering of design thinking in the realms of architecture, engineering, environmental sciences, and planning. What could emerge is a truly multi-disciplinary model of design practice with architects at its center.

We propose a special issue of JAE to examine the re-centering of the discipline and practice of architecture in response to these challenges. How are increasingly multi- disciplinary engineering, scientific research, planning, and design groups exploring the potential of emerging design methods? What new tools are emerging from these collaborations? How are these tools transforming the architect¹s ability to affect change in the built environment? What research and design projects best exemplify the potential of this new model of practice? Does a deeper engagement with science enhance architectural responsibility or threaten the autonomy that design speculation requires? What are the implications of all this for practice, research, and teaching? We propose to invite papers to examine these subjects at a global scale while addressing specific regional and local conditions.

Tom Colbert University of Houston

Jeff Carney Louisiana State University

Journal of Architectural Education - 68:2 Proposed Call for Submissions

Proposed Title: Critical Environments and (Re)Constructive Practices Reflections on Modes, Methods, Affections, Goals, and Outcomes…

“Thus the framework of understanding a work depends on interpreting it in the light of its origins or creation, its forms, materials, and contents, and its ethical and intellectual impulse back to social, natural, and perhaps spiritual reality.” - Robert Mugerauer

This publication hopes to examine a myriad of diverse regional spatialities that are articulated and contested across a gamut of entwining research fields, from architecture, urbanism, environmentalism, and geography to history and critical theory. Within this subject, this session challenges participants to rethink the critical dimensions of the built environment and to move ‘agency’ to the center of concerns. Herein, researchers are invited to provoke critical dialog into global design and re-constructive practices that are enacted in correspondence with significant image- or identity-changing, perhaps even large- scale, destructive change of varying types, i.e. wholesale war, political or ideological conflict, modernistic or technological advancement, economic or social privileging, mass consumer marketing, environmental disaster or catastrophe, diaspora and immigration, and other combinatory forms of overt transformations within particular socio-environmental contexts.

Because there is the ever-present need to expedite reconstructive processes in an attempt to find quick resolve or redress after significant events (whether rapid or constituted over longer durations of time), there is little assessment of modes of destruction and whether reconstructive practices themselves are also formalized or co-substantiated in conjunction. As such, we seek reflection on converging global multiplicities of the current comprehensive regeneration and redevelopment schemes going on in places that have faced various forms of significant destructive change. We seek alternative dimensions to current global practices of reconstruction and propose modified and generative forms based within broader philosophical frameworks. This notion fosters design informed within inclusive understandings of critical socio-environmental frameworks and the specific epistemic conditions for thought-in-place, and how these can play roles in design practices. Topics should examine critical social theories, environmental discourses, and the didactic roles of design in multiple world contexts or scales (time and space); to intelligently consider not just ways we practice in conjunction, but to carefully and critically reassess leading modes-, practices- or predictions-in-process.

The editors invite scholarly criticism of the built environment to address diverse textual discussions about regional tropes and design interventions that are not static or reified heterotopias (or otherwise captured in global hegemonies or overt reductivist conformations), to shift lenses from the singular images, objects, or spatial productions per se, and to provide genuine exegeses of issues or conceptual ranges that are inextricably linked to the built environment and to universal or global space/ power/ knowledge dynamics that bring regional spatial identities into being.

We are particularly interested in scholarship that critically explores the protovative and constructive, as well as redactive, nature of design and reconstruction, and how the environment reciprocally inhabits and can become inhabited in multifaceted ways by varying agents-in-place. In addition to the cross-evolving discussions in these areas, there is a growing need to consider the reciprocal connections, but also the specificity of Critical Environments in relation to many contemporaneous global developments. By approaching this variegated and often contentious subject, this publication hopes to bridge discourses and to offer insights and resources for design professionals, educators, and students, but with stronger connections to distinct socio-environmental frameworks within and without the domains of mainstream global hegemonies.

Keywords: Urban Design, Architecture, Planning, Place Studies, Critical Theory, Epistemology, Non- western Philosophies, Diversity, Globalism, Critical Regionalism, Marginal Societies, Recovery and Rebuilding, War and Conflict, Dispositive Analysis, Architecture and Planning Education.

Proposed Guest Editors: Dr. Akel Ismail Kahera, Associate Dean of the College of Architecture, Arts, and Humanities, Clemson University Dr. Craig Anz, NCARB, Architectural Studies Coordinator, Southern Illinois University Dr. Jon Davey, AIA, Professor, Southern Illinois University

Akel Ismail Kahera, PhD holds a Bachelor in Architecture from Pratt University, a Master in Architecture from MIT, and a Ph.D. in Middle Eastern Studies from Princeton University. He has worked internationally and has taught and lectured at numerous universities in the fields of architecture and cultural studies. He is currently a Professor and the Associate Dean for Research and Graduate Studies at The College of Architecture, Art, and Humanities at Clemson University, South Carolina. He has authored three books on architecture and urban design: Reading the Islamic City, Deconstructing the American Mosque and Design Criteria for Mosques and Islamic Centers: Art, Architecture and Worship. His current work engages global philosophies, place-making, community engagement and participatory advocacy, and architectural practices that lead toward meaningful socio-environmental, cultural, and spiritual well-being for varying regional inhabitants.

Craig Kyle Anz, PhD received his Bachelor of Environmental Design in Architecture from Texas A&M University, his professional Master of Architecture and Urban Design from the University of Texas at Arlington, and a Master of Architectural Studies from the University of Texas at Austin, focusing on architectural theory, urbanism, and cultural history. He then extended this education with his doctoral dissertation from Texas A&M, titled Critical Environmentalism – Towards an Epistemic Framework for Architecture, emphasizing a composite assemblage of epistemology, critical social theory, environmental discourse, architecture, urban design and community development. He currently practices as an NCARB certified architect and is an Associated Professor teaching architecture, urban design, and graduate research at Southern Illinois University in Carbondale, Illinois. His current projects include recovery and rebuilding endeavors toward progressive environmental and socio-economic development for various Heartland Delta regional communities and townships that have suffered from varying degrees of decline and disaster. Anz’s current research engages place-making, urban and environmental design, and various large-scale development approaches toward enabling long-term well-being for varying communities.

Jon Daniel Davey, PhD has a broad academic experience that includes a Ph.D. titled, A Theoretical Model of Learning Employing Constructivism, Phenomenology and Neuroscience: Constructivist Neurophenomenology, a Master of Science in Education, a Master of Science in Environmental Design, a Stage D'Architecture et Dessin D'Interieur, Ecole De Beaux-Arts, Paris, a BS in Architectural Studies an AAS in Architectural Technology and a Certificate of Education from the Jose Marti Institute, Havana, Cuba. He is an Architect, Interior Designer, Professor in the School of Architecture at Southern Illinois University, Director of Interior Design 1998-2001, and founder and director of Kid Architecture and Le Petit Grand Tour d’Architecture Programs. Over 100 Kid Architecture workshops have successfully operated for over 23 years and have received nationwide awards; An Award of Merit from the American Architecture Foundation (twice), the Citation of Honor AIA Illinois, The R. Buckminster Fuller Award from the American Institute of Architects Illinois, Award of Distinction in the Children’s Environmental Advocacy The Urban Network, Commendations from The Construction Specification Institute Southern Illinois Chapter of the American Institute of Architects Presidential Award for Education and Connections Citation, Illinois State School Board. He has design experience in architecture and engineering offices as well as his own firm Prairie Design Studio. His present research is eclectic to include Neuroscience in Architecture, Architecture History, Computer-Aided Design, Environment Behavior Studies, and Corporate Office Design.

JAE 68:2 Call for Theme Proposals

Paul Emmons, PhD Associate Professor Virginia Tech University (WAAC) [email protected]

Matthew Mindrup, PhD Assistant Professor Marywood University, Scranton, PA [email protected]

Gravity and Levity

The contrasting forces of gravity and levity have long been used to define architecture. Philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer identifies this duality in the beginnings of architectural edification that he views as an expression of gravity through support and load: “The dumb striving of mass between gravity and rigidity.” The Swiss artist and Bauhaus pedagogue Paul Klee extended a similar reasoning to the drawing practices of architects through Aristotelian principles that he argued have an innate propensity to either rise (fire and air elements) or fall (earth and water elements). While the brutalism of late modernism emphasized weight, the almost exclusive contemporary focus has been on lightness, perhaps beginning with Buckminster Fuller’s tensile frames. The absence of any balancing of the two opposing forces lead us to wonder what is the tectonic role of the repressed weightiness of things such as building cores and structure in the new architecture. Is there a place for ‘hovering’ as that between absolute heaviness and lightness?

Early treatises on architecture perceived a similar duality in the education of architects with both practice and theory. For the German architect, Walter Herman Ryff’s 1558 translation of Vitruvius, this dichotomy between material and idea is present in his depiction of an architect as a young boy with one hand in the air grasping a pair of wings and the other held down by a stone. Ryff’s portrayal of an opposition between the wings and stone recall those between lady Theory and lady Practice on the frontispiece of Vincenzo Scamozzi’s 1615 architectural treatise L'Idea dell'Architettura Universale. It was the imagination as a piece of mental equipment that gave architects the levity to project new material transformations by keeping one hand in the heaven of ideas and another in the manipulation of earthly materials. In an age dominated by the physicality of human experience, are heavenly ideals still relevant?

Architectural interest in the physical forces of gravity and levity are equaled by their emotional expressiveness as developed by 18th century French theorists such as Étienne-Louis Boullée who emphasizes gravitas as essential to the character of either a palace or a prison. Similarly, in his 1920 proclamation “Down with Seriousism!” Bruno Taut called for architects to embrace a greater sense of levity by moving beyond the earnestness of style and tradition. It was inspired by a similar sense of levity that early twentieth century modern architects did away with the gravity-boundedness of mass and embraced skin, frame and volume. Today, architects continue to obsess over similar questions concerning the use of digital or physical methods of representation, nanotechnologies and biomimetic constructions. Yet, does this work, however important, return to gravitas by taking itself too seriously or not seriously enough?

We invite papers and design works that explore the theme of gravity and levity along one or more of these three dimensions: Tectonics, Culture, Aesthetics and Representation.

THEME EDITOR BIOGRAPHIES

Paul Emmons is a registered architect and Associate Professor at the Washington-Alexandria Architecture Center of Virginia Tech, USA, where he directs the PhD program in Architecture + Design. He earned a PhD from the University of Pennsylvania and an MArch from the University of Minnesota. His research on the history and theory of architectural practice focuses on questions of drawing and has been presented around the world at conferences and widely published in articles and numerous book chapters (including two in process with Ashgate Publishing, two with MIT Press, six with Routledge and one with Princeton Architectural Press). He also co-edited The Cultural Role of Architecture: Contemporary and Historical Perspectives (Routledge, 2012).

Matthew Mindrup is Assistant Professor of Architecture at Marywood University in Scranton, PA. An architect by training, Matthew completed a Ph.D in Architecture and Design at Virginia Tech University in 2007 on the physical and metaphysical coalition of two architectural models assembled by Kurt Schwitters in the early 1920s. Matthew’s ongoing research in the history and theory of architectural design locates and projects the implications that materials have in the imaginative projection of architecture. Dr. Mindrup has presented some of this research at conferences and published others in the Journal of Architectural Education (JAE), Interstices and currently has two books under contract with Ashgate Publishing including the co-translation of Bruno Taut’s 1919 published utopian urban scheme, The City Crown (Ashgate, 2014) and an edited volume of essay on imagination, materiality and architecture entitled The Material Imagination: Reveries on Architecture and Matter (Ashgate, 2014).

Deschooling Architecture Proposed JAE 68:2 Theme: Roger Connah

Architectural discourse – what we might term with caution ‘the intellectual project’ - has struggled for some time to understand the loss of a vital criticality. Throughout the 20th century and into this one, groups of architects (practitioners, thinkers, historians and critics) have been recognised as those who have advanced this project whilst often facing conditions which act against, even spurn, the ideas themselves. Even now a small section of the profession looks as if it will continue this pattern and could be skewing once more what amounts to architectural success. This leaves architectural education and production touched and steered by uncritical seduction that filters down in controlled and uncontrolled ways to the curriculum. Many issues of spectacle, fabrication, scripting, new, open and landscape urbanisms, meta-narratives, agency and activism (and others) can of course all continue to hold our attention. But for how long and to what extent? Where can we situate the architects’ critical self and the intellectual project today?

The architectural profession in its privileged form has become internalised and coded. Spinning around the parole of this or that favoured circle, the profession often denies language with brutal disregard, whilst the academy can opt for a language of brutal attraction. Generally – of course it is often denied – these two allies have stopped speaking to each other. A burning issue in the profession, practice and education is now beyond careless whispers. Education is not only a project, it is reaching a critical point: this is the time to understand Deschooling and its relation to architecture.

‘Deschooling’ can both be broadly framed within architecture, and then used to specifically situate its concerns and analysis within both practice and education. ‘Deschooling Society’ by Ivan Illich was one such framing from the 1960s and 1970s. ‘In ‘Medical Nemesis’, Illich also indicated how a profession can create, make and institutionally undo itself at the same time. The paradox is unmissable today in architecture. Advances are so spectacuar and fast- paced, yet often faster than the head and the hand. The broader frame for Deschooling Architecture could be comparatively traced in two major critical essays; one written within the profession, one written from without. Deschooling Architecture also clearly implies a situated knowledge within the intellectal project. Recent new research into pedagogy is exploring ‘situatedness’. Individual contributors would take on specific areas within the profession and education (from software to accreditation, from agency to activism, from history to theory, from hand to cursor, from magic to neuro-science, fom criticality to errancy etc.,) and reveal the necessity for accessible robust critical writing, reviews and re-assessments of both design and contempoary performative issues. Deschooling Architecture would demonstrate how ‘undoing’ within the intellectual project could be re-situated and signal a watershed return to a deeper practice and criticality that will not shun its responsibility.

JAE 68:2 Deschooling Architecture will use many varied contributors from within and outside architecture to understand how the architectural project in its widest sense may have become a prejudice project. And if there is one other burning reason to take this on – surely it is for our students, our young researchers and teachers, and our children who are more likely to understand this urgency for Deschooling best by the song from The Manic Street Preachers: If you Tolerate this, Your Children wil be next. It’s our call. The time is now.

Roger Connah Luang Prabang 9.9.2013

Short Biography of Architectural Publications. Roger Connah Associate Director (Graduate) Azrieli School of Architecture & Urbanism, Carleton University, Ottawa

To this date Connah has published over 20 books on architecture and has been involved in a string of other publications (as contributor, editor, collaborator, designer) inclulding journals, pamphlets, calalogues, manuals, online and small press pubications.

His most rceent book is a critical collaboration with Ian Ritchie (RA) Being: an Architect (Royal Academy London 2013). New research formats are sketched for future collaborations, inter-disciplinary pedagogical ideas and programs between educators/researchers and practitioners. The Rest is Silence: Zahoor ul Alhlaq was published by Oxford University Press in 2011. The death of a leading artist and educator at the hands of a guman leads to a re-construction of the artist’s life and works. The book involves a pioneering mapping of the chronologies and affinities between the artist, art, society and politics in Pakistan. Connah is responsibe for one other large volume published 30 years ago by MIT Press (1989): Writing Architecture - Fantomas, Fragments, Fictions (An Architectural Journey through the Twentieth Century). From 1975-1989 this involved constant research, work and collaboration with the Finnish architect Reima Pietilä. The book emerged out of the organization, indexing and re-formatting of the archives and documents, and offers a re- assessment of the life and journey of an architect and his work as it grappled with contrary ideas presented throughout the 20th century.

Other architectural pubications include: 2001 HOW ARCHITECTURE GOT ITS HUMP , MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. & Cornell University. (The Preston Thomas Memorial Lectures). 2001 WELCOME TO THE HOTEL ARCHITECTURE : an epic poem. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 2006 THE PIGLET YEARS – The Lost Militancy in Finnish Archtiecture, Datutop, Tampere, Finland 2006 JYRKI TASA, ARCHITECT China Publishing House, Beijing. 2006 VESA HONKANEN, ARCHITECT China Publishing House, Beijing. 2005 FINLAND - MODERN ARCHITECTURES IN HISTORY, Reaktion Books, London. 2005 THE VISIONARY, Steel Visions, Avain, Helsinki) 2002 40/40 YOUNG FINNISH ARCHITECTS, Helsinki. 2002 CRITICAL STEEL, Steel Images, Rakennustieto, Helsinki 2000 VOLKER GIENCKE Projects Prestel, New York & Vienna. 2000 ZAHOOR UL AKHLAQ The Enigma of Departure & Post-Mortem Laal, Toronto. 2000 SA(L)VAGED MODERNISM Rakennustieto, Helsinki. . 2000 ANDERS WILHELMSON, Electa, Milano. Italy. 2000 AALTOMANIA Rakennustieto, Helsinki 1999 ARMO JA ARKKITEHTUURI Rakennustieto, Helsinki 1999 1998 CENTRO DIPOLI, REIMA PIETILÄ Torino: Testo & Imagine 42. 1998 GRACE AND ARCHITECTURE Rakennustieto, Helsinki. 1994 THE END OF FINNISH ARCHITECTURE or Ciao Potemkin! Rakennustieto, Helsinki.

1979-2000 contributor to following architecture/art peer-reviewed journals; Le Carre Bleu (Journal of Architectural Ideas, Paris); Architecture and Urbanism (Tokyo), Muoto/Form (Design Journal, Helsinki); Living Architecture (Copenhagen); Finnish Architectural Review, Finland, Tiililehti, Finnish Brick Review Domus, L’Architettura, ANY (Architecture New York); Architecture & Design (Delhi); Inside Outside, (Delhi); Architectural Design (London); Projekt, Architecture (Warsaw); Datutop, Architectural Journal of Papers, Tampere University (Finland); Cite (Rice Design Review) Houston

Architecture Books (editor): Towards a Resistant Form of Practice, Kenneth Frampton Lecture andi Conversation with Roger Connah Fad Design House Montreal (2014) Towards a Critical Phenomenology, Proceedings from the Inaugural Frascari Symposium 1, Fad Design House Montreal (2013) The Ark of Architecture. Malcolm Quantrill, Selected Texts, Rakennustieto 2008 Invited editor CASA (Centre for Advanced Studies in Architecture, Texas A&M University). Collaboration and edited work with Professors Norman Foster, Marco Frascari, Kenneth Frampton, Stanford Anderson, Bruce Webb and Brian Mackay Lyons. Tango Mantyniemi, Edita, Helsinki 1995 (Revised edition: 1998) Commisssioning editor, contributor & designer. Research, collaboration and edited work with/from Daniel Libeskind, John Hejduk, Dennis Sharp (Documoma), Christian Norberg-Schulz and others. Worked in both languages (Finnish and English). SHELTER, a place to live, Exhibition, Hudco, New Delhi, India, 1986 - co-curator, researcher, editor/designer. Research, collaboration, exhibition design and edited/designed publication work with Gautam Bhatia, prize-winning Indian Architect and writer. KHAM, Space and the act of space, Exhibition, IGNCA, New Delhi, 1986 Co-curator, designer of exhibition/publication on Kham (tracing the Sanskrit origins of ‘space’ and the act of space’). Research, collaboration and edited work with many young Indian researchers, historians and architects under Dr. Prof. Kamila Vatsayan. Also responsible for design of the exhibition and publication. INTERMEDIATE ZONES IN MODERN ARCHITECTURE, Museum of Finnish Architecture, Helsinki 1984-86 Research, collaboration, co-curation and edited work between the Pietilä archive and the Museum of Finnish Architecture - responsible for installing the exhibition in New Delhi, and Ahmedabad India (1986). PIETILA, Context & Modernism, M.Quantrill, Otava/Rizzoli 1984 Editorial consultant.

Critical Essays/Contributions Books/Journals (Miscellaneous) Saying No to What, Oxford Brookes University & Bloombsury Pres, London, 2012 Pietila: Persona non grata, Los Nordicos, Barcelona 2010 The Closing of the Architectural Mind, UNSW, Sydney, Australia (online) 2009 Beachtown, Cite (Rice Design Review) 2008 On Zahoor ul Akhlaq Chowrangi Publications, USA & India, 2005 Pulp Architecture goes to Yale Perspecta 036: Yale University, 2005 After-ideology (Perspecta 038 Yale University, 2005 10x10: 100 Architects 10 Critics, Phaidon, London (2000) Invited contributor. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Architects and Architecture, Whitney, New York, (1991) (invited contributor on Finnish architects) Taidehalli Yearbook, Art Journal, Helsinki (985) Invited contributor.

A series of 10 pamphlets for education The Anti-Library, produced 2008-2013, will be edited and brought together as a single volume by Fad Design House, Montreal in 2014. Currently Connah is on a year’s research, travelling, lecturing and writing leave from Carleton University. [email protected] 9.9.2013

The Global Studio – A Proposed Theme for the JAE 68:2

Eren Erdener

Architectural educators frequently use the term critical mass in order to justify the necessity for studio members to be present in the same space to learn from each other, share ideas, and gain momentum while enjoying their camaraderie. Albeit in a pedagogy, which values individualism, it is believed the physical presence may yield an esprit de corps,. Aside from these conflicting aims, however, any of these educational objectives, such as communication, idea sharing and momentum, are within reach in the virtual environment. Indeed, the technology-created virtual studio environment enhances educator-student participation in identifying and solving problems across international boundaries, getting to know other cultures and their values to create a truly global studio, using telecommunication technologies. Today’s students’ computer savvy profile suggests that cross-cultural and across-distance design education and practice are achievable aims and may even weaken the argument for physical presence in a common studio-workspace for all parties concerned. Even in practice, for example, using "BIM" software, such as "REVIT" for linking and sharing with structural and/or M/E/P counterpart, will likely to change how professionals cooperate through networking media.

Recent developments in telecommunication technology practically has removed the necessity for sharing the same physical space by the members of a studio or cooperating professionals on a project. Professionals and students alike can easily telework together, debate, and share ideas even if they are many time-zones apart. Through this theme, concentrating on the studio-pedegogical and interdisciplinary-professional implications of this technology upon education and praxis needs to be further developed.

Thus, the theme I propose for the JAE 68:2 is to discuss and debate the pros and cons of global studios and share experiences in architectural education- as well as in praxis- which will come to focus as a variant in the studio typology both in traditional and in nascent on-line programs.

Eren Erdener

Education: Ph.D. in Architecture, University of Pennsylvania, PA, 1979 M.S. in Architectural Technology, 1976 Y. Mimar, The Fine Arts Academy of the State, 1973

Related Publications: Erdener, Eren and Chang, I-K. (2008) “Global Studio– Distant Participation in Architectural Education through Communication Technologies,” The International Journal of Technology, Knowledge and Society, 4:2, 137-148. (double-blind refereed).

Erdener, Eren. “Pooling the Talent – Sustainable Urban Regeneration through Global Studio – A Case Study” the 45th International Conference on Making Cities Livable (IMCL), Portland, OR, June 11-14; invited paper.

Erdener, Eren; Caldwell, M., Chang, I-Kwang, et al. “Dealing with Real World Design Issues in a Virtual Environment – A Global Studio Experience between OU and ITU,” Electronic Proceedings of the ArchEd 3 International Conference, November 14-17, (2006), Istanbul, Turkey.

Related Experiences:

• Regional Editor (North America), Facilities, U.K., ISSN: 0263-2772 (1997-2001)

Paper Reviews for:

• Technology and Society Conference, • Design Practices Conference • The Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, AISC • The Journal of Automation in Construction

Other relevant publication(s)

E. Bohemia, K. Harman and K. Lauche (May 15, 2009). The Global Studio: Linking Research, Teaching and Learning (Research in Design Series).

Please find below our proposal for a theme for the 68:2 issue of JAE. We propose the theme: "Advanced Fabrication Processes - Towards a more sustainable future". We are conducting a special invited session as part of the SDM'01: the SDM'2014: International Conference on Sustainable Design and Manufacturing to be held 28, 29 & 30 April 2014, Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom.

Main Conference Page: http://sdm-14.kesinternational.org/index.php Invited Session Page: http://sdm-14.kesinternational.org/cms/userfiles/is01.pdf

Our proposal is to solicit papers for our session and make a selection of the best papers for inclusion in JAE (after a full blind review of course). This will be in addition to an open call for papers. The session theme is included below. While we have opened the call to all advanced digital fabrication techniques, we are particularly interested in robotic manufacturing as many of the schools of Architecture have installed or are planning to install robots for use in research and teaching. We would like to examine this new development that goes beyond the more traditional laser and CNC, and 3D printing fabrication methods.

Journal Issue Theme: The combination of algorithmic parametric design and precise digital manufacturing has resulted in a productive ecosystem that enables teams of designers, architects, contractors and fabricators to maintain creative control of the process from its early inception to its realisation. The adoption of these workflows in architecture is expanding beyond the simple use of laser cutters, CNC machines, and 3D printers. Entirely new fabrication processes are created, both building upon proven hardware but also taking advantage of new robotic manipulators, whose multi-functionality, agility and large size make them ideally suited for innovative processes in an architectural scale. The architecture and construction industry is quickly taking notice of this new revolution in fabrication. At one end of the spectrum, large construction firms are taking advantage of industrial robotic processes to achieve efficiencies and cost reductions through rationalisation, accuracy, and waste reduction. At the other end of the spectrum, academics in research labs and design studios are experimenting with the potential of new processes and machines through innovative experimentation. Underlying the work in both practice and academia is a desire to understand the role of machines in creating a more sustainable future for architecture. This issue will report on state-of-the-art research and teaching that investigates aspects of digital fabrication methods that demonstrate their transformative effect on the architecture and construction industry and will examine the contribution of ‘machinic’ and robotic construction to a more sustainable building life cycle.

Proposed Journal Editors: Wassim Jabi, Senior Lecturer, Cardiff University Johannes Braumann, Robots in Architecture, Lecturer, TU Vienna Sigrid Brell-Cokcan, Robots in Architecture, Lecturer, TU Vienna

-- Wassim Jabi is Senior Lecturer at the Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff University. He has a PhD in Architecture from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Dr. Jabi is a past-president of the Association for Computer-Aided Design In Architecture (ACADIA) and a member of the Editorial Board of the International Journal of Architectural Computing (IJAC) and the International Journal of Heritage in the Digital Era (IJHDE). He has published numerous papers in the area of computer-supported collaborative design, computer-aided visualization, parametric design, and digital fabrication. He has guest edited several journal issues and has recently published a book titled "Parametric Design for Architecture" (Laurence King Publishing, London, September 2013). -- Johannes Braumann is researching applications of industrial robots in architecture. He is a graduate of Master Building Science and Technology and fellow of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Together with Sigrid Brell-Cokcan, he founded the Association for Robots in Architecture with the goal of making robotic arms accessible to the creative industry, organized Rob|Arch 2012, the first international conference on robotic fabrication in architecture, art, and design, and acted as co-editor of the Rob|Arch proceedings, published by Springer. He is the main developer of KUKA|prc (parametric robot control), a software tool for robotic fabrication and interaction which enables the accessible programming and simulation of robotic arms, directly within a CAD environment. His research on robotic fabrication has been presented at many international, peer-reviewed conferences, and published in research journals and books. In addition to teaching both technical classes and design studios at TU Vienna, Johannes Braumann has held robotic fabrication and Grasshopper workshops at international venues. -- Sigrid Brell-Cokcan is one of the founding partners of II Architects int Istanbul/ Vienna. (Best design award at Turkey Build 2008 for Reinforced Prefabricated client: Alacali Construction Industry and Trade Inc.) Before launching her own architecture firm with Baris Cokcan she was working with renowned international architects and engineers Coop Himmelblau, Frank O Gehry, Peter Cook and Bollinger & Grohmann on projects such as Kunsthaus Graz, MARTA Herford and BMW World Munich.

Since 2001 she has been teaching in the field of architecture and industrial design at University of Applied Arts and University of Technology Vienna. In her current research projects she is focusing on the design and computation of large scale freeform structures, computer aided manufacturing and design immanent robot milling. Her research contribution to “Multilayered Freeform Surfaces” was recently awarded with the 2nd prize of the FIT-IT Visual Computing granted by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Transport, Innovation and Technology. Together with Helmut Pottmann she is co-inventor and co-patentholder of European Patent PCT/AT2007/000302 ”Supporting structure for freeform surfaces in buildings”

In 2006 together with Anita Aigner she has initiated and organized the annual conference of CNC Milling Technology in Architecture, Art and Design at TU Vienna, which has become an annual conference at TU Vienna.Since 2008 she is serving on the Scientific Committee of the international conference Advances in Architectural Geometry at TU Vienna.

She holds a Master in Architecture (1998) from the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna (honoured with Carl Appel Prize), is a member of the Austrian Chamber of Architects and has completed international studies in architecture at University of Sydney (1994)

THE AESTHETICS OF PERFORMABILITY

This Issue would examine the notion that design aesthetics have many sources beyond the satisfactions that come from visually rewarding form. Sir Henry Wotton (1568-1639) translated Vitruvius(70-15BC), identifying three requirements of architecture - Utilitas, Firmitas and Venustas - as Commodity, Firmness, and Delight. It has been understood by many to imply that these are three separate criteria. This course attempts to challenge that assumption by demonstrating that there are rich aesthetic responses when something that has been designed works really well and is a joy to use and to experience, not just once but on multiple encounters.

AESTHETICS. We use this word to discuss sensory and intellectual conditions that evoke very positive and pleasing feelings in us as, through our senses, we engage objects and experiences. The five senses are: sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell. The intellect uses thought to achieve understanding. Aesthetic Theory is a branch of Philosophy, primarily directed at Beauty in Art, but with broader applications to other objects and experiences.

PERFORMABILITY. We use this word to discuss how well something works, not just once but with reliability, dependability and sustainability. It is a word that has been much used in engineering; indeed there is an International Journal of Performability Engineering.

We will also need to discuss theories based on Functionalism, but there is an important distinction, as most theories of Functionalism attempt to draw a strong connection between Form and Function – “Form ever follows function”(Louis Sullivan1896), was often used in the early 20th century as an argument for a particular formal, so-called functional, language, but as long as a designed object does work really well the question of what formal language it uses may not be that important. The issue is more how a designer has utilized that formal language to achieve, or surpass, performability goals. So, for example, we might find that both Gaudi and Rietveld were successful, although one language might be more amenable and the other require more skill. Rietveld’s Red Blue chair, as a chair, is surprisingly successful whereas Alvar Aalto’s Scroll chair is not, even though the rectilinearity of the one and the curvilinearity of the other promise otherwise. This is because for a chair anthropometric fit has normally a higher priority than visual appeal.

That human experience, even everyday experience, can rise to the condition of Art was the thesis of theAmerican Philosopher John Dewey who wrote an influential book, Art as Experience (1934). An important concept in this issue is that it is the task of the designer to orchestratethe experience of those who inhabit or use our designs so that they can achieve this quality. For example we could argue that Frank Lloyd Wright’s aesthetic achievements were more in his orchestration of the experiences of occupancythan in the originality of his forms.

The above was the basis of a successful seminar recently taught in THE DESIGN SCHOOL of the Herberger Institute for Design and The Arts at Arizona State University. Although I anchored it the individual classes were lead by a total of over twenty faculty derived from the array of disciplines in the SCHOOL: Architecture, Interior Architecture, Visual Communication, Product Design, Urban Design, and Landscape Architecture.

I would be interested in translating that experience into a Theme for the 68.2 Issue of the JAE

I attach a recent CV.

John Meunier BArch, MArch, MA, RIBA, AIA, FRSA Professor of Architecture

CV

NAME: JOHN MEUNIER Past Dean, College of Architecture and Environmental Design Professor of Architecture Arizona State University Tempe, Arizona 85287-1905 (602) 965-3249

Born: June 17, 1936 Nottingham, England

Married: Dorothy Elizabeth Meunier, 1960

Education: Bachelor of Architecture (First Class Honors) University of Liverpool, 1959

Master of Architecture Harvard University, 1960

Master of Arts Cambridge University, 1962

Professional Architekt Registration: Land Bayern, West Germany, 1962

Associate Royal Institute of British Architects London, England, 1969, ARCUK #000 32297k

NCARB Certificate #43,867 1993

Registered Architect #27528 State of Arizona, 1993

Member AIA #228518387 1994

Fellowships: Frank Knox Fellow Harvard University, 1959-1960

Fellow of Darwin College Cambridge, England, 1967-1976

Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts London, England, 1981-

Professional 1956 Experience: Sir Hugh Casson and Neville Condor London, England

1957-58 Marcel Breuer and Associates New York

1958 Town Planning Associates (Paul Lester Weiner) New York

1958 Peter Blake and Julian Neski (Toronto City Hall Competition) New York

1959 Ministry of Education Development Group London, England

1960 D.S.R. Staff Member (with Chermayeff and Alexander) M.I.T., Cambridge, Massachusetts

1960-1962 Professor Fred Angerer Munich, West Germany

1964 John Meunier, Architect Cambridge, England

1964-1973 Barry Gasson and John Meunier, Architects Cambridge, England

1974-78 John Meunier, Architect, with David Handlin Cambridge, England

1978 EBEC Energy House Project with Doepke, Vamosi, Triantifillou

1981 Master Plan for College of Design, Architecture and Art University of Cincinnati

1982 John Meunier and Bertram Berenson Designers of Gordon House Mount Adams, Cincinnati, Ohio

1982 John Meunier Infill Housing Study for the Walnut Hills Redevelopment Foundation on four sites on Sinton Avenue and Nassau Street Cincinnati, Ohio

1984 John Meunier Feasibility Study and Preliminary Design for the Prints, Drawings and Photographs Collection of the Cincinnati Art Museum Cincinnati, Ohio

1994 John Meunier, Ignacio San Martin, Lorri Cutler, Ruth Yabes, Patricia McIntosh Site and neighborhood development study for Motorola, Phoenix

1995 John Meunier and Michael Underhill Design of a new building for the College of Public Programs, Arizona State University

1997 ASU Sun Devil Stadium. John Meunier, Ron McCoy and Janet Simon

1998 Rio Salado Master Plan for ASU. John Meunier, Ron McCoy and Janet Simon

Competition: 1972 Burrell Museum-Glasgow, Scotland First Prize and Commission

Exhibitions: 1967 Paris Biennale Paris, France

1972 Royal Institute of British Architects London, England

1972 Kelvingrove Museum Glasgow, Scotland

1980 Exhibition of Architectural Works College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning University of Cincinnati

Teaching: 1962-1966 University Assistant Lecturer Cambridge University, England

1966-1976 University Lecturer Cambridge University, England

1968-69 Visiting Critic Harvard, Yale, California Polytechnic SLO

1976-1987 Professor of Architecture University of Cincinnati

1980-1987 Visiting Critic Harvard, McGill, Virginia, Kentucky, Miami, Ohio State

1984 Distinguished Visiting Lecturer in Architectural History University of North Carolina at Charlotte

1987- Professor of Architecture Arizona State University

Administration: 1969-72 Secretary of the Faculty Board of Fine Arts and its Degree Committee Cambridge, England

1969-1975 Member and Secretary of the Appointments Committee, Faculty of Fine Arts (later called Faculty of Architecture and History of Western Art) Cambridge University, England

1974 Head of the Department of Architecture Cambridge University, England

1976-1979 Head of the Department of Architecture College of Design, Architecture and Art University of Cincinnati

1979-87 Director of the School of Architecture and Interior Design College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning University of Cincinnati

1987-2002 Dean, College of Architecture and Environmental Design Arizona State University

2005-6 Interim Director School of Architecture, Clemson University

Service: 1971-1976 Board of Architectural Education Royal Institute of British Architects

1973-1976 Honorary Officer Steering Committee Board of Architectural Education and Practice Royal Institute of British Architects

1974-1976 Monopolies Commission Steering Group Royal Institute of British Architects

1973-1976 Visiting Boards to: Architectural Association North East London Polytechnic, Northern Polytechnic, Hull School of Architecture, Cheltenham School of Architecture, Edinburgh University; for the Board of Architectural Education and Practice, Royal Institute of British Architects

1974-1976 Executive Board Schools of Architecture Council London, England

1975 Chairman Research Fellowship Selection Committee Darwin College Cambridge, England

1967-1979 Member of Council Darwin College Cambridge, England

1967-1969 Councillor Caldecote Parish Council Cambridge, England

1968-1969 Chairman Caldecote Primary School P.T.A. Cambridge, England

1974-78 Member of FORUM (group of 50 leading British Architects) Association of Consultant Architects London, England

1976-1987 Executive Committee College of Design, Architecture and Art University of Cincinnati

1978-1987 Building Committee University of Cincinnati

1978-1979 Multi-Purpose Center Planning Committee University of Cincinnati

1979-1980 Enrollment Task Force Steering Committee University of Cincinnati

1978-1979 University Research Council University of Cincinnati

1979 Chairperson, URC Summer Research Subcommittee, Humanities, Social Sciences, and Arts University of Cincinnati

1979-1980 Urban Conservation Task Force City of Cincinnati

1979-1980 Chairman, Guidelines Subcommittee Urban Conservation Task Force City of Cincinnati

1979 Member Visiting Committee School for Creative and Performing Arts Cincinnati, Ohio

1978 Program Coordinator ACSA (Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture) Cranbrook Teachers Seminar

1980-87 Plan Review Committee Miami Purchase Preservation Fund Cincinnati, Ohio

1978 ACSA Committee on Career Alternatives

1979 Panelist "Future Directions" ACSA Annual Meeting Savannah, Georgia

1980- NAAB Visiting Teams to: Illinois Institute of Technology, Pratt Institute, SCI-Arc, Drury College, California Polytechnic University SLO, Hampton Institute, SUNY Buffalo, Cooper Union, Iowa State, Columbia, Univ. of Houston, Tuskegee, Morgan State, Wisconsin/Milwaukee, Louisiana State

1980 Chairman of theme session "History In, Of, and For Architecture" Cincinnati, Ohio

1980 Organizer of the Urban Infill Workshop for "The Fourth Corner" Cincinnati, Ohio

1980 Chairman, Academic Program ACSA Annual Meeting San Antonio, Texas

1982 Chairman, Academic Workshop ACSA Annual Meeting Quebec, Ontario, Canada

1980-1983 Member Publications Committee ACSA

1981-1982 Member of the Mayor's Economic Development Task Force Cincinnati, Ohio

1983-1987 Member of the Academic Affairs Committee of the Faculty Senate University of Cincinnati

1983-1987 Member of the Planning Committee of the Faculty Senate University of Cincinnati

1983 Vice President for Preservation Services Miami Purchase Association for Historic Preservation

1985 Advisor to the City Planning Commission, Cincinnati Member Urban Design Review Board, Cincinnati Bicentennial Commission, Preservation Awards Committee, Cincinnati. Advisory Committee to the Hillside Trust for the Hillside Housing Competition

Lecturer to: Contemporary Arts Center, Harvard Club, Graphic Arts Forum, Cincinnati Business Committee

Moderator "The Civic Realm: `An Architecture of Community," ACSA Annual Meeting, Vancouver, B.C., Canada

Advisor to the Cincinnati Art Museum and the Cincinnati Chapter AIA on the exhibition of drawings from the R.I.B.A. Collection

President, Miami Purchase Association for Historic Preservation

1987-2002 Chair of Design Review Board—later Public Art and Design Review Council Arizona State University

1987-1990 Member, Downtown Planning and Transportation Subcommittee City of Phoenix

1987-Chair ACSA Teachers Seminar Cranbrook, Michigan

1989-1992 Member AIA/ACSA Research Council

1989-1990 Vice President ACSA

1990-1991 President ACSA

1991-1992 Past President ACSA

1989-2002 Member and Vice Chair Central City Board of Architectural Review Phoenix

1989-1990 Policy Committee and Chair Urban Forum Task Force Phoenix Futures Forum

1989-2002 Board Member Phoenix Community Alliance

1991 Chair, Search Committee for Vice President Student Affairs, ASU Dr. Christine Wilkinson appointed

1992 Chair, Search Committee for Dean, College of Nursing, ASU Dr. Barbara Durand appointed

1993 Co-Chair, Academic Integrity Task Force, ASU

1994-1997 Board Member National Architectural Accrediting Board

1995- Peer Professional, GSA Design Excellence Program Federal Courthouse Projects Phoenix, Tucson, Albuquerque, Laredo, Salt Lake City, Corpus Christi

1995 Chair Continuous Improvement Committee Main Campus, Arizona State University

Publications: Thomas Payette, John Meunier, and Christian P. Wolff "Three Ways to Plan for Progressive Patient Care," The Modern Hospital, Vol. 95, No. 6, December 1960, pp. 82-85

John Meunier "In a Cambridgeshire Orchard," The Architectural Review, Vol. CXLIV, No. 858, August, 1968, pp. 106-107

Barry Gasson and John Meunier "Wohnhaus in Boston/Cambridgeshire, England," Bauen & Wohnen. 24. Jahrgang, December, 1970, Heft 12. pp. 440-441

Barry Gasson and John Meunier "University of Essex Sports Pavilion," The Architectural Review, Vol. CXLVII, No. 878, April 1970, p. 270

John Meunier "An Architect's own house near Cambridge," House and Garden, Vol. 23, April 1968, pp. 98-101

John Meunier "A House is more than a set of rooms," The Observer Magazine, London, 12 May 1968, pp. 26, 29

Barry Gasson, John Meunier, Brit Andresen "Burrell Collection Competition" The Architect's Journal, No. 12, Vol. 155, 22 March 1972, pp. 590-595; R.I.B.A. Journal, August 1972, pp. 327- 329; Design, May 1972, p. 26; Architectural Design, April 1972, p. 256; Museum's Journal, December 1972, pp. 104-106

"The Burrell: Art and Nature," The Architectural Review, Vol. CLXXV, No. 1044, February 1984, pp. 28-37

"Doing the Old Man Proud - the Burrell Collection, Glasgow," Country Life, January 26, 1984

"A Long Low House Set in an Apple Orchard," House and Garden, November 1974, pp. 112-115

John Meunier "House at Little Eversden, Cambridgeshire," The Architectural Review, April 1974, pp. 232-234

John Meunier with David Handlin "Cambridge Style," The Architect's Journal, September, 19, 1979, pp. 586-587

Philip Booth and Nicholas Taylor "Cambridge New Architecture," Leonard Hill, London 1970 Meunier House, pp. 199-200 Wendon House, pp. 196-198

Klaus Boehm, Editor "University Choice," Penguin, 1966 "Architecture," by J. Meunier, pp. 39-49

John Meunier "Ten new areas of architectural thought" "Architecture: Opportunities, Achievements," R.I.B.A. Publications, 1977, pp. 22-23

John Meunier "The Cranbrook TS: Notes from Albion," Journal of Architectural Education, Vol. XXXI, No. 3, pp. 16-17

John Meunier "Master classes with Charles Moore, et al," R.I.B.A. Journal, February 1978, pp, 67-68

John Meunier "The Cranbrook TS: Old Albion Strikes Again," Journal of Architectural Education, Vol. XXXII, No. 3, pp. 12, 13, 33, 34

John Meunier Review of P.L. Nervi's "Aesthetics and Technology in Building," (Oxford University Press) for "Italian Studies", Vol. XXIII, 1968

John Meunier Review of Norberg-Schulz's "Existence Space and Architecture," R.I.B.A. Journal, October 1971

John Meunier "Teaching Design and Technology in the First Two Years," Journal of Architectural Education, Vol. XXXIV, No. 2, Winter 1980

John Meunier and Bertram Berenson "House on the Hill," The Cincinnati Enquirer, January 28, 1984

'"In the Manner of" A propos de "a la facon de",' The Fifth Column, The Canadian Student Journal of Architecture, Vol. 4, No. 1, Automne 1983

John Meunier "Paradigms for Practice: A Task for Architecture Schools," Jubilee Issue Journal of Architectural Education, Vol. 40, No. 2, 1987. Editor, David Bell

John Meunier Review of Peter G. Rowe's "Design Thinking," Triglyph - a Southwestern Journal of Architecture and Environmental Design, No. 6, Summer 1988. Editor, Marcus Whiffen

John Meunier Introduction to The City of the 21st Century, edited by Madis Pihlak, proceedings of a conference held at Arizona State University, April 1988

John Meunier "Thoughts on Preparations for Tenure for Design Faculty," Debate and Dialogue: Architectural Design and Pedagogy. Proceedings of the 77th Annual Meeting of the ACSA, 1989

John Meunier "A Matter of Time: The Relationship between Architecture and Interior Design," Designers West, Vol. 38, No. 2, December 1990

John Meunier "Phoenix' Two Ecologies", Arizona Business and Development, July 1991

John Meunier “Autos spawned the new Urban Age,” review of “Edge City, Life on the New Frontier” by Joel Garreau, Arizona Business Gazette, November 1991

John Meunier “Downtown Stadium offers Huge Potential," op ed piece in The Arizona Republic, December 1993

John Meunier “Lost Phoenix,” commentary on Horizon, KAET public Television, 1993

John Meunier “Frank Lloyd Wright’s Arizona Legacy,” commentary on Horizon, KAET public television, 1993

“The APS Environmental Showcase Home,” anchor commentator, six episodes on Horizon, KAET public television, 1993

John Meunier Introduction to ASU’s College of Architecture: The first 25 Years by founding dean James Elmore, Herberger Center, ASU, 1994

John Meunier "University Based Design Clinics as a National Resource: Measurement," Vitalizing University-based Community Design Clinics by Organizing Them as a National Resource, Special Focus Session ACSA Annual Meeting, March 1994

John Meunier “Public and Private: Making a Better City” in Urban Design: Reshaping our Cities edited by Anne Vernez-Moudon and Wayne Attoe, University of Washington, 1995

John Meunier “Reflections on Architecture as a Knowledge Based Discipline” in PRACTICES ¾, Center for the Study of the Practice of Architecture, University of Cincinnati, 1995

John Meunier Introduction and chapter in Frank Lloyd Wright: The Phoenix papers, Herberger Center, ASU, U. of A. Press, 1995

John Meunier Foreword to The Environment Comes Home: Arizona Public Service’s Environmental Showcase Home edited by David Pijawka and Kim Shetter, Herberger Center, ASU, U. of A. Press, 1995

John Meunier “Four Rules Used in the Selection of Architects” in the Business Journal, Arizona, July 1995

John Meunier Introduction to Wright in Arizona The Early Work of Pedro E. Guerrero, Herberger Center, ASU, 1996

John Meunier Introduction to Phoenix in Perspective: Reflections on Developing the Desert by Grady Gammage Jr., Herberger Center, ASU, 1999

John Meunier Introduction to Desert Cities: Water, Politics and Design by Paul Goldberger, Herberger Center, ASU, 1999

John Meunier Anchor Commentator Desert Cities 3: Phoenix/Jerusalem, KAET Public Television, 2000

John Meunier “Appraising Arizona Center: “How has this ‘urban oasis’ stood the test of time?” in Landscape Architecture, April 2000

Travel: 1954 Sweden

1956 Paris, France

1957-1958 United States - Transcontinental tour on Vespa

1959-1960 New England

1960-1962 Based in Munich, travel to Austria, Italy, Switzerland, France, Holland, Belgium, Britain

1963 Based in Cambridge, England, travel to France, Italy, Greece, Yugoslavia, Austria, Germany, Holland

1968-1969 Based in Cambridge, Massachusetts travel through Southern States to San Luis Obispo

1974 Brittany

1975 Sweden, Finland

1976-1987 Based in Cincinnati, travel to England, New England, Canada, Florida, Georgia, New Orleans, Arizona, New York, Boston, New Mexico, Colorado, Missouri, Illinois, Oklahoma, Indiana, California, Pennsylvania, Virginia, South Carolina, Japan, China

1988 and 1989 Singapore - External Examiner National University of Singapore

1989- Based in Arizona, travel to: Paris, Athens, Prague, London, Mexico, Canada, The Hague, Chandigarh, Delhi, Rio de Janeiro, Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Tunisia, Morrocco, India, Egypt, Iran, Yemen, Australia, Chile, Peru

Editorships: 1980 Executive Editor CENTRAL Papers on Architecture

1980 Editor Language in Architecture, Proceedings of the ACSA 68th Annual Meeting

Landmarks as Dean at Arizona State University: 1987 Established Council for Design Excellence, College support group of 50 professional and industry leaders who each contribute $1,000 per annum.

1989 Established with the approval of the Board of Regents, the Herberger Center for Design Excellence, the research and publication arm of the College, with an initial endowment of $500,000, and an annual budget of $135,000.

1989 Established the Joint Urban Design Program, with studios at the ASU Downtown Center and in the College, with contracts for studies with the cities of Phoenix, Scottsdale, Peoria, Tempe and with Motorola Corporation.

1989-90 Programs in Planning and Interior Design accredited nationally for the first time.

1991 Established new program in Landscape Architecture, subsequently accredited.

1989-1993 Obtained approval for the formation of two new schools, the School of Design, and the School of Planning and Landscape Architecture, from the Arizona Board of Regents, to join the existing School of Architecture.

1993 Internal to the College, approval of a plan for an Interdisciplinary Ph.D. following planning approval from the Arizona Board of Regents.

1993 Negotiated move of the Environmental Resources Faculty from the College of Engineering to the School of Planning and Landscape Architecture in the College of Architecture and Environmental Design.

1993 Invited by the Vice President for Student Affairs to take the lead in planning the University's first academic residential college, based in the College of Architecture and Environmental Design.

1995 Obtained approval from the Arizona Board of regents to institute a College-wide Interdisciplinary Ph.D. Program.

1997 Negotiated move of the Graphic Design Faculty from the College of Fine Arts to the School of Design in the College of Architecture and Environmental Design.

1998 Initiated the Desert Cities Dinners, with speakers Joel Garreau, Paul Goldberger and Moshe Safdie over next three years.

The Right to Architecture A Theme Proposal for the Fall 2014 issue (Volume 68:2) of JAE

September 2013

Despite its humanistic roots, architecture is a profession that depends to a large extent on market dynamics. To build requires large layouts of funds, labor, talents and resources. Architects have to work with patrons —clients or financiers in our modern usage, the social elite, wealthy individuals or corporations, and governments’ high officials who assume a right to architecture by virtue of their power, which is usually, but not always, implicit. The architecture that they pay for, and about which they usually have the final say, is first and foremost subject to their social, political, and economic views and aims.

The poor have their vernacular: self-built, rooted in geography and tradition, purportedly timeless, and essentially missing the cachet of an architect. They have no right to architecture because they could not pay for it. And although they constitute the majority of users of public architecture, they rarely have a say in its design. In fact, most public architecture is designed to contain and control them even when methods were devised to poll their opinions as groups and to include these results in design guidelines for large public projects.

A different view emerged in the last few decades with some architects and theoreticians recognizing the right to architecture as a fundamental right that should be extended to all people, just like other more familiar universal rights such as health care and education. These individuals actively tackled the main obstacle, money, by searching for alternative ways to finance projects for “clients” who cannot afford architecture. Their quest differs from other new methods of mass funding of design, such as crowdsourcing, and from the so-called Humanitarian Design since it is motivated by the belief in the right to architecture.

This call for papers aims to solicit papers that will define the right to architecture, trace the development of the idea in the recent past and evaluate architectural and urban projects rooted in the belief in the universality of the right. Architects, historians, and theoreticians are invited to share thoughts and reflections on this idea and to propose ways to insert it more expressedly in the current architectural discourse.

Nasser Rabbat Aga Khan Professor Director of the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture

The Right to Architecture A Symposium organized by Nasser Rabbat and sponsored by AKPIA@MIT MIT, April 20, 2013, 9:30 am to 6:00 pm in 6-120

This symposium aims to define the right to architecture, trace the development of the idea in the recent past and evaluate architectural and urban projects rooted in the belief in the universality of the right. Speakers are invited to share thoughts and reflections on this idea and propose ways to insert it more constructively in the current architectural discourse. Program 9:00-9:30: Coffee and donuts 9:30-9:40: Welcome: Adele Nadé Santos, Dean of SAP, MIT 9:40-10:00: Introductory Remarks: Nasser Rabbat, MIT First Session: 10:00-12:00 (5 mins intro+25 mins discussion) Chair-Discussant: Mark Jarzombek, MIT Is There a Right to Architecture? Thomas Fisher, Dean, College of Design, University of Minnesota Who Needs Icons Anyway? Anna Heringer, Architect, Salzburg, Austria The Right to Architecture: Beyond Participation Kareem Ibrahim, Architect and Planner Takween Integrated Community Development, Cairo 12:00-1:30: Lunch: All participants welcome 1:30-3:3:30: Second Session: (5 mins intro+25 mins discussion) Chair-Discussant: James Wescoat, MIT Cross-Subsidy: A Model of Practice from Mumbai Rahul Mehrotra, architect, Mumbai Chair of the Department of Urban Planning and Design, GSD Private/Public Billie Tsien, Partner, Tod Williams Billie Tsien Architects Zongo Water Project Emily Williamson, Candidate, SMArchS program for Islamic Architecture at MIT founder, Open Boundary Design Lab [OBDL] 3:30-4:00: Coffee Break 4:00-5:20: Third Session: (5 mins intro+15 mins discussion) Chair-Discussant: Arindam Dutta, MIT The Role of Media in the Right to Architecture Movement Cathleen McGuigan, Editor-in-Chief, Architectural Record Editorial Director, GreenSource and SNAP McGraw-Hill Construction Right to Architecture in Crisis Zenovia Toloudi, Visiting Assistant Professor, Wentworth 5:20-6:00: Concluding Discussion and Recommendations

Nasser Rabbat Department of Architecture MIT, Room 10-390 77 Mass Ave Cambridge, MA 02139

Nasser Rabbat is the Aga Khan Professor and the Director of the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at MIT. An architect and a historian, his scholarly interests include the history and historiography of Islamic architecture, art, and cultures, urban history, and post-colonial criticism. In his research and teaching he presents architecture in ways that illuminate its interaction with politics, culture, and society and stress the role of human agency in shaping that interplay.

Professor Rabbat has published more than 100 scholarly articles and book sections in English, Arabic, and French. His most recent books are: Mamluk History Through Architecture: Building, Culture, and Politics in Mamluk Egypt and Syria (London, 2010), which won the British-Kuwait Friendship Society Prize in Middle Eastern Studies, 2011, and an edited book, The Courtyard House between Cultural Reference and Universal Relevance (London, 2010). Two forthcoming books, L'art Islamique à la recherche d'une méthode historique, and al-Naqd Iltizaman (Criticism as Commitment) will be published in the coming year in Cairo and Beirut respectively. Prof. Rabbat worked as an architect in Los Angeles and Damascus. He was a visiting professor at the École des hautes etudes en sciences sociales (EHESS), Paris (2009) and the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich (2007). He regularly contributes to a number of Arabic newspapers and journals and serves on the boards of various cultural and educational organizations. He also consults with international design firms on projects in the Islamic World and maintains several websites focused on Islamic architecture and urbanism.

I have always wondered about the advances in computer aided design, building information modelling and parametric design as well as coding.

Many people jump on the bandwagon to develop articulated structures and complex geometric building forms.

However, not enough of the emphasis has been on how to architecturally detail these complex building solutions.

I propose an issue that deals with architecturally detailing buildings by star-architects such as Gehry, Calatrava, Piano and Hadid.

I am not sure if these practitioners (and their clients) would be comfortable with relinquishing their details for publication but it would be interesting.

As for myself, I am an architectural technologist/designer with 16 years worth of experience, freelancing and working for architecture and engineering firms in Canada as well as USA.

I have 2 degrees- Bachelors of Technology, Architectural Science from Ryerson University, and Bachelors of Environmental Design Studies from Dalhousie University.

I am currently studying a Masters of Divinity program at Tyndale University College and Seminary in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Please let me know if I could be assistance, even if it is not in the role of assistant editor but potentially as a contributing author.

God bless,

Albert Lik-Heng Lee

JAE Theme Issue: Modern Africa

David Rifkind and Itohan Osayimwese, editors

Abstract This thematic issue of the Journal of Architectural Education focuses on architecture and urbanism in Africa since the early nineteenth century. The issue combines historical scholarship and essays on contemporary projects (both built and speculative) to explore the processes of modernization that have shaped Africa and their reflection in the built environment. The issue will include both invited essays by such leading architects and scholars as Joe Osae-Addo, Diébédo Francis Kéré, Jean-Louis Cohen and Johan Lagae, and peer-reviewed submissions from the growing numbers of architects and scholars working on African topics. The editors are particularly interested in questions of social identity and political engagement in the built environment, and the issue will seek increasingly nuanced considerations of colonial and post-colonial design. Essays will include discussions of trans-national and trans- continental cultural exchanges evident in the built environment, comparative studies of urban planning techniques, close readings of theoretical texts, re-examinations of experimental building technologies used throughout the continent, and case studies of sustainable development projects. Articles will be chosen to reflect the geographical, ethnic, linguistic and religious diversity of Africa. The JAE theme issue on Modern Africa will comprise a valuable and unique contribution to the fields of architectural education, design, and architectural history, and will become a standard reference for faculty, scholars and students.

Contents Editors David Rifkind and Itohan Osayimwese will write an introduction, tentative titled “On Transnationalism, Design, and the African Continent” Essays will include both Scholarship of Design and Design as Scholarship articles. Several authors have agreed tentatively to contribute essays to this issue. Review articles will focus on books, exhibitions, conferences, films and online media related to architecture and urbanism in Africa. A bibliography of additional sources will accompany the issue, in order to serve as a reference for designers, scholars and teachers.

Editors David Rifkind teaches courses in architectural history, theory and design at the College of Architecture + the Arts at Florida International University. Rifkind’s current research deals with urbanism and architecture in Ethiopia during the Italian occupation (1936-1941), and is the first component in long-term studies of the built environment in modern Ethiopia and of modern architecture and urban planning throughout Africa. His work in Ethiopia has been supported by a grant from the Graham Foundation and a residency at the American Academy in Rome as the inaugural Wolfsonian Affiliated Fellow. Rifkind’s first book, The Battle for Modernism: Quadrante and the Politicization of Architectural Discourse in Fascist Italy, won the 2011 James Ackerman Prize for Architectural History from the Centro Internazionale di Studi di Architettura Andrea Palladio in Vicenza. The book was published last summer by the CISA Palladio and Marsilio Editori. Rifkind also won best article awards for essays published in the two flagship journals in architectural education and history, the Journal of Architectural Education ("Misprision of Precedent: Design as Creative Misreading") and the Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians ("Gondar. Architecture and Urbanism for Italy’s Fascist Empire"). He curated the 2012 exhibition, Metropole/Colony: Africa and Italy, in the Wolfsonian-FIU Teaching Gallery at the Frost Art Museum.

Itohan Osayimwese teaches architectural history and theory in the Department of Art History at Ithaca College. She is a specialist in modern architecture, with a research focus on the German colonial project in Africa and architectural prefabrication as a sustainable practice. Her current work studies the impact of Germany’s global entanglements on German architectural culture of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and follows earlier research on the Pietist spatial imaginary in the eighteenth and nineteenth-century project of global Christianity. Her next project will explore the “dream of the factory-built house,” which has its roots in some of the foundational contradictions of modernity in addition to being a by-product of European colonial projects. Osayimwese received the Jeffrey Cook Award from the International Association for the Study of Traditional Environments (IASTE) for her paper, "Architecture and the Myth of Authenticity During the German Colonial Period." Osayimwese holds a Ph.D. in the history of architecture from the University of Michigan and an M.Arch. from Rice University

Form follows Ugly by Manu Garza / et al. collaborative

“You never change things by fighting the existing reality. To change something, build a new model that makes the existing model obsolete.” -- Buckminster Fuller

photo courtesy of Warren Chow ug • ly (adj.) 1. fear of use 2. use of fear

Days after super-storm Sandy as powerless New Yorkers struggled to rebuild and utility companies scrambled to reconnect our grids, it was finally clear: our infrastructures were not resilient. The discussion throughout the architecture and design community soon involved rising water tables and increasingly frequent "100-year storm" scenarios. These conversations once again exposed the vulnerabilities in our infrastructure. Roads, bridges, electrical grids, water supply, sewers and telecommunication had all been affected. The very systems that sustain our social living conditions will continue to be destroyed unless we intervene.

The focus of this investigation is to outline a new framework that embraces the reality of future natural disasters and other destructive forces. If we construct passive shelters with disregard for the contextual impact of social, ecological, economic environment we will continuously leave ourselves in a position to be left to pick up the pieces. Taking a step back to understand the relationships and implications of constructing along a waterfront, for example, could result in spectacular opportunities rather than catastrophic events.

What have we learned?

Post Katrina mentalities continue to haunt the way we construct and use space, in the aftermath of a natural disaster many of our private and public spaces inevitably are constructed and established on principles of resistance. That is, when we rebuild, new construction ineffectively pushes brutally against nature. When levees fail we resolve by rebuilding them "taller and stronger", a purely defensive response. Our communities suffer at the hands of such shortsighted reactions, to anticipate natural and man made disasters we need to merge proactive, integrated and intelligent design strategies with physical, democratic and accessible spaces. Active dwelling spaces, productive landscapes, and performing structures need to be modeled through interdisciplinary collaborative processes. Only then can we begin to bridge the gap and yield design solutions that respond to larger systemic problems.

FEMA : The Federal Emergency Management Agency, responsible for coordinating response to most disasters, was highly criticized and considered ineffective in the wake of Katrina in New Orleans. FEMA’s ability to provide emergency shelter and temporary housing was a failure. According to the Executive Summary & Select Bipartisan Committee:

“The enormous number of evacuees simply overwhelmed rescue personnel. The situation was compounded by floodwaters in the city that hampered transportation and poor communication among the federal government, state and local entities. FEMA was widely criticized for what is seen as a slow initial response to the disaster and an inability to effectively manage, care for and move those trying to leave the city." 1

FEMA’s response to Sandy was far more effective this time around. However approaches in these cases have been reduced to form follows ugly, rendering viscous cycles of destruction and thin methods of reactionary construction that yield communities shaped primarily by fear. A fear of the next catastrophe, a fear of using space effectively and a fear of being mismanaged by most agencies involved.

If our built environment is currently being defined by broad notions of natural and man made disasters and if we understand that these destructive and unpredictable weather patterned forces are here to stay. How can architecture and design engage productively and how can we reshape the built environment without imposing limits on how use space?

Resilient Design:

The Resilient Design Institute defines resilient design, "as the capacity to bounce back after a disturbance or interruption through the intentional design of buildings, landscapes, communities, and regions in response to the these vulnerabilities." 2 re·sil·ient /riˈzilyənt/ Adjective

(of a substance or object) Able to recoil or spring back into shape after bending, stretching, or being compressed

(of a person or animal) Able to withstand or recover quickly from difficult conditions.

Much like the terms "modern" & "green" there is a risk that the general public could misunderstand the definition of resilient design. The problem with resilient design is that it shifts the load and all the responsibility solely on to design. As an approach it should be used through a dynamic set of tools and used less as a reaction or response to a problem.

Essentially, “the development-process as a dynamic flow instead of a static state” says Matteo Giusti at the Stockholm Resilience Centre. 3

We may find value out of responding to need, but according to Giusti “it should not be a single blueprint, or a collection of architectural elements that create the new community. Instead out of the current mindsets and needs, instead a multitude of tools, methods, opportunities, options, to define a sustainable developing strategy to meet future’s demands. All we can do is provide guiding principles from current scientific understanding to define a social ecological urbanity capable of sustainably moving on with unique identity.” 3

When resilience is used for complex systems in the context of ecology, it refers to "the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to still retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feed backs" (Walker et al. 2004)

After the storm, there is inherent collateral damage communities have come to accept. Arguably our communities are in fact resilient, that is the people, but our structures however, are not.

The healing process is necessary for communities to bounce back to normality after any devastation. In the case of super-storm Sandy for example, the immediacy of getting a community back to normal trumped the research and development time needed to rebuild in a more thoughtful way. If we understand and value the inherent need for the communities to heal through the act of rebuilding, can our design interventions balance and implement both?

As John Michael Greer points out in his handy post-industrial how-to, The Long Descent, “One core concept that has to be grasped is the rule that the community, not the individual, is the basic unit of human survival. History shows that local communities can flourish while empires fall around them.” 4

Another point of view has been the inherent trust in nature and our ecosystem to protect us. There were reports of communities along many NY and NJ shorelines that were not affected as severely as the "engineered" beaches. An argument for basic sand fencing, stewardship and nature's wind patterns shaping the shore are certainly being considered. Here the vulnerability has been defined and a non-build approach implemented.

Does the shore protect itself? Is the peaceful balance of nature and man disturbed by how close we construct to the ocean? Is resilience simply the act of constructing on the right side of the sea wall? How do we measure resiliency in design? Is there a relationship between something resilient and something fragile? Could high impact events be beneficial to the structures we create?

Anti-fragile Design:

'Anti-fragility' is a concept developed by professor, former trader and former hedge fund manager Nassim Nicholas Taleb. Taleb coined the term "anti-fragility" because he thought the existing words used to describe the opposite of "fragility," such as "robustness," were inaccurate. Anti-fragility goes beyond robustness; it means that something does not merely withstand a shock but actually improves because of it. An example he uses to describe his theory is weight lifting, which trains muscles not just to withstand heavy lifting but to develop increased strength as the body repairs the muscle fiber tears.

In his new book, Antifragile, Nassim Taleb discusses the behavior of complex systems and distinguishes three kinds: those that are fragile, those that are robust or resilient, and those that are antifragile. These types of systems differ in how they respond to volatility: “The fragile wants tranquility, the antifragile grows from disorder, and the robust doesn’t care too much.” (p20) Taleb argues that we want to create systems that are antifragile – that are designed to take advantage of volatility. 5

I am intrigued by this concept. Its future uses when applied not only to systems but scalable to architecture could be extremely powerful.

Another of Taleb’s key claims is that it is impossible to predict “Black Swan” events:

“you cannot say with any reliability that a certain remote event or shock is more likely than another… but you can state with a lot more confidence that an object or a structure is more fragile than another should a certain event happen.” (p8). Thus we need “to switch the blame from the inability to see an event coming… to the failure to understand (anti) fragility, namely, ‘why did we build something so fragile to these types of events?’” (p136). 5

Unlike risk, fragility is actually measurable. How do we measure the fragility of the systems we build?

Quest for new-engineered tolerance:

Could we structure our communities as components of other networks in an overall city grid? Imagine the single family home played a new role within this integrated infrastructure. Imagine our new structures as living machines. Imagine new homes contributing to the grid rather than drawing from the grid. Imagine new cores being deployed after calamites as building blocks of communities rather than disposable shelters (i.e. trailers) that become permanent.

Intervening in our ever-changing environment demands that our focus as architects, designers and professionals primarily identify the vulnerabilities through out regions at risk. Understanding these vulnerabilities can help communities yield more integrated strategies through collaborations with appropriate government agencies and professionals.

By actively engaging these issues a re-shaping of our local communities would occur. In the face of unpredictable weather, these newly designed typologies would mitigate the damages as we learn to live with nature rather than combat it; in this exchange lays the true value and worth of design and collaboration.

1. "Executive Summary, Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina". February 15, 2006. U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved June 11, 2007.

2. Resiliant Design Institute – (RDI) - www.resilientdesign.org

3. Stockholm Resilience Center –Research for Governance of Social-Ecological Systems http://stockholmresilience.org/ / Resilience Science weblog : http://rs.resalliance.org/2010/10/12/resilience-meets-architecture-and-urban-planning/ 4. Greer, John Michael. The Long Descent: A User's Guide to the End of the Industrial Age, 2008. 5. Taleb, Nassim Nicholas. Antifragile: Things That Gain from Disorder, 2012.

1

The city as ‘complex adaptive organism’: Transitions and mutations of urban communities and ‘social bodies’

Over the past two decades, attempts to define architecture and urban planning using a holistic approach have multiplied in trying to comprehend/describe/control the development of human communities. This need is surfacing in both ‘emerging’ countries experiencing ‘turbulent’ urban development1 and in countries undergoing economic recession.2 The concept incorporates socio-cultural changes that have followed the short-term economic crisis and climate change. The aim is the construction of a ‘fluid’ theoretical and practical corpus disciplinare as a means of overcoming the crisis of the Third Millennium. The horizon is a cultural hybridisation of the urban sciences,3 with other emerging disciplines, the strategic organization of mobility4 and ‘fine’ and ‘poor’ technologies.5

This proposal is a multidisciplinary analysis of the evolution of the traditional concept of ‘city as system’ into the cutting-edge concept of city as complex adaptive organism.6 The aim is to highlight innovative aspects and elements of European/American urban communities and to define paths and forms of sociality in relation to the construction of the cityscape.7

Since the 1950s, architecture and urban expressive languages have combined to create a spontaneous and educated ‘creolism’ or ‘relexification’8 that overarches all forms of communication following the need for semantic progression in architecture to expand it beyond its traditional function and to recuperate many other meanings from history or from a future reality.9 This phenomenon has accelerated with the expansion of the Internet and social networks, which promote the creation of new ‘publishing frontiers’, such as webzines, and allow a ‘submerged continuity’10 with artistic, literary and historic vanguards. In these modern communicational spaces, semantic shifts can be fully appreciated in the linguistic and perceptual mechanisms of physical space11.

Urban metaphors have increased in number since the 1980s thanks to French semiological readings12, but the use of analogy discloses the inability of urban planners13 to understand and describe the features of an ever-fleeting reality. Their progressive ‘retreat’ into the theory and abstraction of ‘patterns’14 goes hand in hand with the erosion and decadence of gentrified city centres15. Thus, it is not accidental that the study

1 Batty, M., Marshall S., (2012) The Origins of Complexity Theory in Cities and Planning, in Portugali, J.; Meyer, H.; Stolk, E.; Tan, E. (Eds.), Complexity Theories of Cities Have Come of Age. An Overview with Implications to Urban Planning and Design. 2 Buzar S., Ogden P., Hall R., Haase A., Kabisch S., Steinführer A., (2007) Splintering Urban Populations : Emergent Landscapes of Reurbanisation in Four European Cities, Urban Studies, Vol. 44, N°4, pp. 651-677. 3 Zanni, F. (ed.) (2012) Urban hybridization, Milano Italy, Maggioli Editore. ISBN 8838761329. 4 Camagni, R., Gibelli, M.C., Rigamonti P. (2002) Urban Mobility and Urban form: the social and environmental costs of differential patterns of urban expansion, Ecological Economics 40: pp. 199-216. 5 Papanek, Victor (1972) Design for the real world; human ecology and social change, New York, Pantheon Books. p. 60. ISBN 978-0- 394-47036-8. 6 Kelly, K. (1994) Out of control: the new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world. Boston, Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-48340-8. 7 Maahsen-Milan, A., Pellegrino, M., Oliva, L.; Simonetti, M., (2013) ‘Urban Architecture as Connective-Collective Intelligence. Which Spaces of Interaction?’, Sustainability 5, no. 7: 2928-2943. doi:10.3390/su5072928. 8 Brightman, R. (1995) Forget Culture: Replacement, Transcendence, Relexification, Cultural Anthropology 10:4.509-546 9 De Fusco, R. (1975) Storia dell’architettura contemporanea, Laterza, Roma-Bari, pp. 507-508; 10 v. Mises, L. (1957) Theory and History: An interpretation of sociale and economic evalutatios. Preface by M. N. Rothbard, 1985 by Margit von Mises, (2007) Copyright © 1957 by Yale University PressReprinted in 1969 by Arlington House; Reprinted by the Ludwig von Mises Institute, Ludwig von Mises Institute, Auburn, Alabama, US.; www.mises.org, ISBN: 978-1-933550-19-0., 347-380. http://mises.org/Books/theoryhistory.pdf. 11 Montserrat Degen, M. (2008) Sensing Cities: Regenerating Public Life in Barcelona and Manchester, Studies in Human Geography, Routledge. ISBN 9780415397995 12 Marcos I. (ed.) Dynamiques de l'espace. Essais de sémiotique de l'espace, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2007, ISBN 978-2-296-03877-6 13 See: Planning/conflict – cities and citizenship in times of crisis, International research conference, Lisbon, October 9-11, 2013; http://www.planningconflict.ics.ul.pt/. 14 Alexander, C. (1977) A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction, Oxford University Press, Oxford, USA. 10: 0195019199 15 Pilger, J., (2013) How We Are Impoverished, Gentrified and Silenced – And What to Do About It, Global Research, July 25, 2013; 2 and systemisation of ‘urban facts’16 is carried out by philosophers, anthropologists and behavioral scientists.17 In fact, research studies

[…] the ways the sense of place is constructed, where physical and fictional places are put side by side, to include the hyper-signified and hyper-communicated city-spaces and the fictional cities of literature and art, of the media and of the audio-visual universe.18

Cyberspace and ‘nanotech’ fascinate and dismay.19

In the Third Millennium, semantic shifts have been more significant: the key factors in the unsustainability of the liberal business model have become apparent with the financial crisis, characterised by shorter and more interconnected recession cycles. The phenomenon of social networking suggests the idea of ‘the City 2.0’,20 or as researchers have previously suggested, the concept of the ‘global city’, a ‘reality on demand’, although this turned out to mean an ‘impossible governance’.21

Nonetheless, there are some positive consequences to our management of depleting resources: we are becoming aware, as a species, that we are agents of our own fate and the guardians of a restricted and crowded ‘garden of Eden’.22

Andreina Maahsen-Milan Dep. of Architecture, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Via Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy. [email protected] URL | http://www.unibo.it/SitoWebDocente/default.htm?UPN=andreina.milan%40unibo.it

Van Ghent W.P.C., Neo-liberalization, housing institutions and variegated gentrification;How the ‘third wave’ broke in Amsterdam, Urban Geographies Research GroupAmsterdam Institute for Social Science Research (AISSR). http://www.academia.edu/495223/Gentrification_in_Amsterdam. 16 Rossi, A. (1966) ‘La struttura dei fatti urbani’, chapter 1, in L’architettura della città, Padova, Marsilio. 17 Tagliagambe, S. (2005) Le due vie della percezione e l’epistemologia del progetto, Milano, Italy, Franco Angeli editions, pp. 88- 464-6987-9. 18 Volli, U. (ed.) (1972) La scienza e l'arte: nuove metodologie di ricerca scientifica sui fenomeni artistici, Milano, Italy, Mazzotta; Venturi R., Scott Borwn D., (2004) Architecture as signs and systems. For a mannerist time, William E. Massey Sr. Lectures in the History of American Civilization, Harvard. | ISBN-10: 0674015711 | ISBN-13: 978-0674015715 19 Augé, M., (2013) Les nouvelles peurs, Paris, France, Payot. ISBN 9782228908313 20 See: http://www.thecity2.org/ 21 Hunter S., Power, Politics and the Emotions: Impossible Governance? (Social Justice), Routledge-Cavendish, 30 Jun 2014 | ISBN- 10: 0415555108 | ISBN-13: 978-0415555104 22 Maahsen-Milan, A., (2013) "The Garden of Eden". Gartenstadt, Social Reformism and the Cult of Soil. The Social Aspects of the City, in J. Erzen and R. Milani (eds.) Nature and city. Beauty is taking on a new form. Yearbook of the International Association for Aesthetics - IAA. Proceeding of the Bologna Conference, June 2012, v.17 Parol, Sassari, Italy, pp.435-448, EDES. ISBN 9788860252753. 3

JoAE |Journal of Architectural Education [[email protected]] 68:2 Call for Theme Proposals

Andreina Maahsen-Milan – University of Bologna Theme Proposal: The city as ‘complex adaptive organism’: Transitions and mutations of urban communities and ‘social bodies’

CV Author

Andreina [Maahsen]-Milan (b. 12.28.1959, Rovigo, Italy)

Assistant Professor |Researcher at the Dep. of Architecture (DA) | University of Bologna [email adresse: [email protected]]

She obtained a degree in Architecture from the Venice University Institute of Architecture-IUAV in 1985/86 with a dissertation on the architectural-urban recovery of a late-mediaeval site in Bologna [The court of the Bentivoglio. Piazza del Barracano in Bologna, prof. Braghieri G., prof. Foscari A.]. Between 1987 and 1994, she both taught at and worked with the IUAV; from 2000 to date she has been teaching and conducting research at the Department of Architecture (DA) of the Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna. She currently teaches Sustainable Design and Infrastructure and Landscape Architecture. In the past, she has taught: Analysis of urban morphology and of architectural type, Architectural Design, Theories of Architectural Design. Main topics: Urban and morpho-typological studies, planning design for urban regeneration. She is author of many essays and articles on urban architectural topics and on relationships between settlements construction and cultural identity.

Leading publications:

Monography:

MAAHSEN-MILAN A. (2010) “Tradizione e modernità dei luoghi urbani. Le città ricostruite della Repubblica Federale Tedesca - Il "caso renano", 1945-1960. Bologna (Italy) CLUEB, ISBN 9788849129946. [Title transl.: “Tradition and modernism of urban places. The reconstruction of German cities, 1945-1960. The renano case”, CLUEB, Bologna 2011]. 4

Recent publications (2012-2013)

• Milan A. (2013) “Technological experimentation and Heritage: the preservation of installations.[Villa Hügel, Essen]”, In: Heritage 2012 - 3rd International Conference on Heritage and Sustainable Development. Porto (PT) 19-22 June 2012, vol.3 pp.6 ISBN:9789899567153, Ed. Greenline institute, Porto (Portugal); http://amsacta.unibo.it/3352/ • Maahsen-Milan A., (2013) “Technological Shells| Technological Ruins. Experimental theatres between innovation and architectonic rehabilitation”. In: Heritage 2012 - 3rd International Conference on Heritage and Sustainable Development. Porto (PT) 19-22 June 2012, vol.3; ISBN:9789899567153; http://amsacta.unibo.it/3351 • Maahsen-Milan A., ‘Under the Sign of the Eagle’ - German War Memorials and Cemeteries (1911- 1945). In: IN BO, vol.4/2012 pp.19 ISSN:2036-1602; DOI. 10.6092/issn.2036-1602/3259 • Maahsen-Milan A. (2012) “The re-codified town. Public space and “utopian pragmatism”, pp.12 ISBN:9789898527011, (Procedia), Ed. Faculdade de Arquitectura da Universidade do Porto, Porto (Portugal); http://amsacta.unibo.it/3339/ • Maahsen-Milan A.(2013), ‘Imma summis mutare’: landscape of light and shadow in the heart of the city – Porta Susa’ Railway Station, Turin. In: C.A. Brebbia (ed.) WIT URBAN TRANSPORT. pp. 19 ISSN:1743-3509 ISBN:9781845647162 Ed. WIT PRESS, Southampton, UK. WIT-Wessex Institute of Technology; DOI: 10.2495/UT130091 • Maahsen-Milan A. (2012) "The Withdrawn Sea". Urban Paradigm of Mediterranean Cities: Role/Meaning/Function. In: Civiltà del mare e navigazioni interculturali: sponde d'Europa e l' "isola" Trieste, pp. 126-145, Trieste, EUT. ISBN 10:8883034589; ISBN 1:9788883034589; http://hdl.handle.net/10077/8076 • Maahsen-Milan A., (2012) “Between experimentation and validation: the Bavarian experience of eco-districts and urban regeneration policies”. In: Eco-Architecture IV. Harmonization between Architecture and Nature. pp. 431-441, Southampton, UK. WIT-Wessex Institute of Technology; ISBN 10: 1845641191; ISBN-13: 978-1845641191 DOI 10.2495/ARC120381 • Maahsen-Milan A., (2012). 'Inhabited networks' | Perceptive changes in the use of public urban spaces. In: Abitare il Futuro - Abitare il nuovo/abitare di nuovo ai tempi della crisi/Inhabiting the Future - Inhabiting the new/inhabiting again in times of crisis/ Procedia. pp. 380-391, Napoli, CLEAN. ISBN 9788884972361. • Maahsen-Milan A., (2012) “Piccoli passi e buone idee”- Best practice per la rigenerazione urbana e retrofitting energetico nei quartieri di edilizia sociale. In: L. Colombo (ed.), Città Energia, (Procedia), Le Penseur, pp. 311-320, ISBN: 978-88-95315-17-1; (e-book PDF). • Maahsen-Milan A. (2012) “Spaces On Fire”. Architecture, Colours, Theosophy, pp.8, in Rossi M. (ed.), Color and Colorimetry (Proceedia), Milano, Ed. Maggioli. ISBN 8838760438. • Maahsen-Milan A., (2012) “Luminous Inclusions”. Emotions in the matter, from post-organicism architecture to “happy degrowth”. In: Rossi M. (ed.), Color and Colorimetry (Proceedia), Milano, Maggioli, pp. 165-172. ISBN 8838760438. • Maahsen-Milan A., Rigenerazione urbana nelle medie e piccole città della Romagna/Urban regeneration in medium-sized and small towns of the Emilia-Romagna region. In: URBANISTICA INFORMAZIONI, 2011, 239-240, pp. 1 – 4, Roma (Italy), Ed. INU – Istituto Nazionale Urbanistica. ISSN: 0392-5005. • Maahsen-Milan A., (2012), Pratiche di retrofitting per il rinnovo della scena urbana: il panorama internazionale, esperienze didattiche e percorsi di ricerca | Retrofitting practices to renovate the urban scene. International overview. Didactical experiences and research agenda, in: The Building Retrofit Challenge | Programmazione, progettazione e gestione degli interventi in Europa | Planning, design and management in Europe, Firenze (Italy) Alinea, pp. 39-44/175-176. ISBN 9788860556714.

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Other publications

• Maahsen-Milan A., (2011), La "città-cluster". Ibridazioni urbane e prassi operativa in nuovi scenari sociali., in: Zanni F. (ed.), Urban Hybridization, Milano (Italy), Ed. Maggioli, pp. 211-225, ISBN-10: 8838761329; ISBN-13: 978-8838761324 • Milan A. (2011) Pietra, suolo, tracciato: il “mito mediterraneo”nei processi di rigenerazione urbana. [Studentendorf Oberwiesenfeld, München|1972]/Stone, soil, lay-out: The “Mediterranean myth” in urban retro-fitting and regeneration processes. [Studentendorf Oberwiesenfeld, München|1972]. In: IL DISEGNO DELLE TRASFORMAZIONI, Napoli (Italy), CLEAN. ISBN 88-8497-215-6. • Milan A. (2010) Histria: l’identità contesa. Abitare i vecchi centri tra recupero urbano e nuova architettura (1991-2010). In: ABITARE IL FUTURO... DOPO COPENHAGEN, NAPOLI, CLEAN, 2010, pp. 1809-1822. ISBN/ISSN: 1723-0993/2010-1. • Milan A. (2010) Museums for the Environment and for Territorial Areas. From Museum as Cultural Identity to Museum as a driving force for Socio-Economic Development – Experiences and results in Northern Italy (1989-2009). In: Ferrari A., Tardiola S., Sirugo E., (eds), Proceedings - 4th International Congress on "Science and Technology for the Safeguard of Cultural Heritage in the Mediterranean Basin - Vol. 1 - Session: A,C,D. ISBN 978-88-96680-31-5. • Maahsen-Milan A., (2011) Rigenerazione urbana a Forlimpopoli., in: Monestiroli A., Semerani L., (eds.)“La Casa. Le forme dello "stare", Milano (Italy), Skira, pp. 132-133. ISBN: 978-88-572-1006-3. • Maahsen-Milan A. (2007) "Kindererholungsheime, Ferienkolonie, Jugendherberge, Hitler Jugend Heime". Health, Educational and Political Initiatives for the German Children and Youths (1900- 1945)., in: Architecture and Society of the Holiday Camps. History and Perspectives, Timisoara (Romania), Orizonturi Universitare – Mirton, 2007, pp. 94 – 106, ISBN 9789735202590. • A. Maahsen-Milan (2007) Margarethenhöhe, Essen (1906-1934). Gartenstadt e utopia sociale nella città dei Krupp., in: Braghieri, G. Trentin A., Palmieri A. (eds.) I quartieri e le case. Edilizia sociale in Romagna e nell'Europa del XX sec., Bologna (Italy), CLUEB, pp. 152-163. ISBN 978-88-491-2928-9.

Publications in collaboration with other authors

• Maahsen-Milan A., (2006) Tradizione e modernità in Turchia: La costruzione di un'identità nazionale (1923-1938), in: Alocco L., Ferracuti G. (eds.), Identità e Modernità. Rassegna di studi comparativi e interculturali, Trieste (Italy), EUT - Edizioni Università di Trieste, 2006, pp. 169-189. ISBN 8883031946, 9788883031946. • Maahsen-Milan A., Ungers e Colonia - Un paesaggio d’architettura, idee e contraddizioni, in: Oswald Mathias Ungers: una scuola, Milano (Italy), Electa, 2004, pp. 24 – 51. ISBN 978883703440. • Maahsen-Milan A., M. Pellegrino, M. Simonetti, L. Oliva (2013), “Urban Architecture as connective- collective intelligence. Which spaces of interaction?". In: SUSTAINABILITY, Basel (Schweiz), vol. V Sustainability 2013 pp.16, ISSN:2071-1050. DOI: 10.3390/su5072928 • Maahsen-Milan A., Fabbri K., "Energy Restoration and Retrofitting" - Rethinking Restoration Projects by Means of a Reversibility/Sustainability Assessment; http://amsacta.unibo.it/3353/; DOI: 10.1016/j.culher.2012.12.011. • Milan A., Pellegrino M. (2013), “Futurama II”. Tracking the ‘Presence of the Future’ in Contemporary Architecture Representations; in: CAHIERS THÉMATIQUES. vol.12, pp.8. ISSN 1625- 9505, Lille (France). • Maahsen-Milan A., Pellegrino M., Magnaghi A. (2012), Innovation in urban and architectural composition practices: the re-qualification/rigeneration project of Ile de Nantes as an example of how uncertainty can be managed in a positive way., in: Improving the Quality of Suburban Building Stock - COST Action TU0701, Ferrara (Italy), UnifePress, pp. 467 – 47. ISBN 978-88-96463-11-6- • Maahsen-Milan A., Simonetti M. (2011), Auditoria and Public Halls. The preserved Architectonic Heritage, in the Perspective of Sustainability. In: PROCEDIA ENGINEERING, 2011, 21, pp. 711 - 720, Paris (France), Elsevier. ISSN 1877-7058; DOI: 10.1016/j.proeng.2011.2069 6

• Milan, A. 2011) Dare Struttura alla Bellezza. [Sui concetti di ruolo, corrispondenza, relazione e rete nella composizione architettonica], in: Amirante R. (eds.) (2010) Eurau10: architettura, mercato, democrazia , Napoli (Italy) CLEAN, ISBN: 9788884971623. • Milan A., Pellegrino M., (2010) Città ecologica in nuce: le periferie urbane. In: F.C. Moccia (ed.), Abitare il futuro... dopo Copenhagen - Inhabiting the Future ... after Copenhagen, Napoli (Italy), CLEAN. ISBN: 97888849716 • Maahsen-Milan A., M. Pellegrino (2011) Futurama. Il mito magmatico dell’innovazione in architettura., in: D’amato C. (ed.), Rete Universitaria Italiana di architettura - "Rete Vitruvio", Bari (Italy) Polipress, pp. 997 – 1006, ISBN http://www.academia.edu/2115714/Futurama._Il_mito_magmatico_dellinnovazione_in_architettu ra

DRAWING IN THE POST-DIGITAL ERA: FROM EXACTITUDE TO EXTRAVAGANCE Pari Riahi, PhD. Critic, INTAR, Rhode Island School of Design

Drawing has occupied the central stage of architectural thinking and making since the time of the Renaissance. Mediating between the abstract and the physical, drawing has proved both essential and instrumental in many stages of an architectural project. In the past few decades the proliferation of digital media has destabilized the known means of drawing by pushing it towards new frontiers. Novel tools and techniques have made some of the conventional modes of operation more efficient, while equally subverting others in favor of new patterns of thought and action. Drawing’s metamorphosis presents a paradox: on the one hand it continues a tradition that has lasted over 500 years, and on the other hand it challenges the tenets of that tradition by implementation of methods that are at times at odds with roles assigned to drawing.

This proposal is preoccupied with the role and transformations of drawing in the post-digital era. Historically, drawing has acted as an intermediary between thought and action by creating a space of its own within which the architect’s creativity unfolded. This unique space, which has been the domain of imagination, allowed architects to think of different modes of expression (i.e. different forms of drawings) suited to the many phases of a project’s development. Since the inception of the digital, this very space has become infinitely small and extremely large and at once. While precision, accuracy and optimization push for an exactitude that equates drawing to blueprints of realizable artifacts and narrows the space of creativity; accident, deviation and excess distance drawing from reality and push it towards extravagant abstraction, removing it from the material and tangible world. The proposal is preoccupied with this paradoxical condition that is embedded in drawings of the post-digital era and calls for reflection and critical assessment of the status quo.

Since the digital has become an integral part of architecture, the following questions are to be asked: What are the potentials of drawing in the post- digital era? Understanding that the technological facet of digital drawing is one of its inseparable attributes, how do we, as educators and practitioners, come to terms with adopting, rejecting or compromising with these tools and techniques in order to engage with drawing as a creative process? How can we maintain the potency of drawing, without succumbing to the role of consumers of technological procedures and methods? This theme proposal invites opinions from either side of the spectrum. It is equally interested in curricular and practical experiments, in processes and products that explore contemporary methods of drawing and their effects on the teaching and practice of architecture.

Pari Riahi is a part-time faculty at Rhode Island School of Design, where she has been teaching for the past 6 years in multiple capacities in the architecture and INTAR (interior architecture and adaptive reuse) departments and a principal of her architectural office in Western Massachusetts. Pari completed her PhD dissertation under the supervision of Prof. Alberto Perez-Gomez at McGill University in 2010. Her thesis, "Ars et Ingenium: The Embodiment of Imagination in Architectural Drawings of the Quattrocento," concerns the reciprocity of architectural drawings and imagination in the work of Francesco di Giorgio Martini and will be published by Routledge in 2014. Pari’s current research interests track the propagation of digital media and the effect of new technologies on architectural thinking and practice. Pari has previously taught at MIT and SUNY Buffalo and has participated in many conferences and symposia. She was awarded two cycles of the Professional Development Grant at RISD, and reviews for journals such as the JAE. Tools and tactics of urban place making – (peri)urban memory, public remembrance and civic appropriations

Kathrin Golda-Pongratz Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences, Frankfurt am Main/ Germany Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona/ Spain

Contact: [email protected]

Special issue's description In the context of a globally contested public sphere, a uniformalization of the urban imagery, an ongoing commercialization of the urban realm, increasing forms of privatization and segregation and constant sensations of loss with regards to shared urban spaces and common references in consolidated or "historic" core cities, in formally planned and informally generated periurban neighborhoods and fast-growing new centralities, a JAE special issue "Tools and tactics of urban place making – (peri)urban memory, public remembrance and civic appropriations" is suggested. It focuses on urban memory, its inscriptions, manifestations or forms of rediscovery and visualization in urban space, as well as on new forms of public remembrance and civic appropriations as powerful tools and a vast potential to rethink and redesign planning frameworks and procedures in our post-political era. The irreversible fusion of the digital with the physical public space, the conflictive definition of the urban space between singular authenticity and mass culture, the dilution of space and citizenship in degraded or newly created and unfinished complexes of mass housing and the redefinition of the civitas in migrational urban environments make out the background for gathering –in a comparative approach– tools and tactics from culturally distinct places, culturally diversified neighborhoods and transnationally impregnated urban realities through migration and exchange. A further point of departure is the conviction of the importance and role of memory as a cultural tool, the ongoing and urgent need to discuss questions about identity, identification, authenticity, representation as well as the architects' potential to empower citizens to redefine the civic realm, to appropriate space and identify with it. The issue aims at discovering and divulging locally developed tactics and initiatives as well as best practice examples and challenging projects within and outside the US. At the same time, it searches for innovative theoretical approaches and conceptual frameworks able to facilitate the interpretation and evaluation of such practices, creating platforms for exchange and mutual learning as well as for developing relevant teaching and learning methods in architectural education.

Author's brief biography Kathrin Golda-Pongratz, PhD, is an architect and urban researcher. She holds a professorship of International Urbanism at Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences in Germany and lectures at Pompeu Fabra University (within the Metropolis Masters

1 Program) and Ramón Llull University in Barcelona/ Spain and at the Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería in Lima/ Peru, where she has conducted international workshops on the proposed topic since 2010: the European Public Space Workshop "Spaces of Memory" (with Antoni Muntadas, MIT, 2010), the Public Space Workshop "Whose city? Strategies of Participation and Appropriation" (2011) and Public Space Workshop "(re)member, (be)long." (2013) at the Metropolis Master Program Barcelona and the International Workshop "Memoria urbana - Palimpsestos, huellas y trazados en Lima Metropolitana" (2013) at the Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería, Lima/ Peru, as well as widely published on the subject (see: es.linkedin.com/pub/kathrin-golda- pongratz/44/307/469). In 2012, she has co-chaired with Murray Fraser (Bartlett, London/ UK) the session on "Civic Engagement" within the ACSA International Conference in Barcelona/ Spain. She has worked as a co-editor of "Werkundzeit" (Journal of the Deutscher Werkbund) between 2005 and 2007 and is currently a member of the editing board of the Association for Scientific Research on Planning and Building in Developing Countries' journal "Trialog" (since 2002), of the "Architecture_Media_Politics_Society Journal" (since 2012), as well as reviewer for the "International Journal of Urban and Regional Research" (Wiley-Blackwell). Her research focuses on urbanization processes and migration, Latin American urbanism, participative architecture and urbanism, urban activism, urban renewal and placemaking strategies, public space and urban memory, housing policies, structural changes of urban societies and urban perception. Currently, she is working on a research project on the urban memory in Lima's self-built neighborhoods.

2 Experience = ______

The next important theme in architectural education and professional practice is the quality of experience. I wish not to question the subjective nature of “good experience” or try to prove what the “right experience” for emerging professionals may be, rather I wish for those connected to the discipline to explore the qualitative nature of early professional experiences from many different angles. The quantitative milestones of architecture such as NCARB certified degrees, IDP, ARE testing, and ultimately licensure are necessary for a certain standard of quality, but I find the diversity of experience people receive while completing these tasks to be far more fascinating and insightful into the discourse of architecture as it relates to the link between education and the future of professional practice.

If quantitative milestones are the technical functions of a building that must be fulfilled, then the qualitative nature of experience acts as design’s subjective counterpart we are all too familiar with. It is the basis for debate, innovation, and speculation of how our discipline will manifest itself in practice via the academies.

After graduation choices and/or duties may include: travel, teaching, large firm, small firm, A/E firm, high-design firm, residential building, masterplan, health care, etc. What does each of these opportunities offer to the emerging professional? Do certain experiences have a shelf-life, making them temporally appropriate? How does a decision affect the emerging professional so they may navigate necessity while retaining their desired level of mobility for lateral movement amongst the numerous avenues of architectural education and practice? The previous questions are just a few examples of why we need explore the experiential qualities of different modes of practice.

People working within many different scenarios may achieve licensure, but we most-likely cannot say they have equal experience. Many architects find a corner of the profession in which to work, but there is constant overlap, with many opinions on how to detail the proverbial corner. I feel it is important to explore what this means for the development of young architects and in turn how our profession will continue.

Graduating in 2010 from the M. Arch I program at Ohio State University, I am currently living out the theme I have put forward. As a former architectural history and theory teaching assistant now with three years of professional experience ranging from 300 square foot single-family home additions at a very small office to 300 meter tall mixed-use towers at a world-renowned firm, I find myself reflecting and looking forward at the same time as many of my peers do. My first job was a necessity, my second was an opportunity to work with a famous architect, and the office I will join very soon is one I finally selected as the best fit for myself quantitatively and qualitatively. Anecdotally I must ask myself, “Does the profession consciously recognize the qualitative differences between the CD-set of a home addition and the DD-set of a tower?” JAE 68:2 Theme Proposal: Travel: The State of Off-Campus Education

Travel: The State of Off-Campus Education investigates the emerging diversity of architecture off-campus programs, their pedagogical perspectives, financial realities, and cultural changes.

Throughout the latter portion of the 20th century modern off-campus programs of western origin witnessed a dramatic increase in popularity, primarily as a result of increasing accessibility and financial viability. In more recent years, in an age of information and globalization, the relevance of these programs is now coming into question and alternative pedagogical models are beginning to appear.

On one level we are witnessing an increased number of institutions with off- campus programs as well as a diversity of non-western locations, raising questions as to the viability of traditional models. Is the off-campus ‘center’, a model based on a reoccurring location as a foreign base camp, becoming antiquated? At the same time, does the ability of an institution to setup multiple and temporal nodes offer a clear focus to the intention of the host program?

How are differences between programs predicated on cultural immersion become increasingly normalized through globalization? What challenges does the persistence of the English language present to programs focusing on cultural immersion?

As global programs are now emerging that no longer rely on a ‘center’ and online/distance education models become popularized, how is off-campus education and the experience of ‘study abroad’ redefined or revised?

With rare exception, off-campus studies are developed around an urban center. Should this model be reevaluated? The mobile, traveling studio was introduced in an attempt to examine a broader, multi-nodal cross-section through a culture. Is this model still relevant? How does off-campus education address the population shift to cities and the growth of the megalopolis?

Institutional exchange has long been an opportunity for a mutual benefit to schools at both ends, but has always come under scrutiny of a lack of specificity to pedagogical intent. Likewise, research studios have an interesting place in off-campus education. How do these models fit within the definition of the off campus experience? From a pedagogical perspective, can one balance cultural immersion with project-based investigation?

How do institutions manage a growing demand for off-campus programs at their home campuses? How much is too much? Is the ‘home’ experience marginalized? As students partake more frequently in these programs – in some schools three or more semesters away from campus – a compression of their curriculum occurs. How are core competencies such as practice-based criteria satisfied in an off-campus curriculum?

What might the future off-campus program look like? What pedagogical issues persist from older and current models? What new questions as to the viability of off-campus programs have arisen in light of more recent economic constraints? How has the concept of learning through travel changed with the expansion of the definition of ‘place’ and simultaneous compression of cultural ‘differences’?

My interest in the proposed theme comes from having directed an off-campus program at my institution for the past four years. At Clemson, we have an off- campus program that regularly maintains three ‘centers’ in addition to our main campus that are all architecture-only. We call this our Fluid Campus. Four years ago I began a fourth program in New York City that was based on an alternative pedagogical model to our own, using summer study and integrating professional practice. With this proposal I hope to shed light on an emerging diversity of pedagogical perspectives, financial realities, and cultural changes in off-campus education primarily through the eyes of ACSA institutions.

I am currently an editor for the International Journal of Interior Architecture and Spatial Design and have blind-reviewed paper submissions for both ACSA and ACADIA conference proceedings in years past.

Additionally, I have a research interest in Beginning Design Education and Computation and have published several research projects and pedagogical papers on these themes.

Dave Lee Assistant Professor

School of Architecture Lee Hall 3-102 Clemson University Clemson, SC 29634

ARCHITECTURE IN MODULATION MODE. Subjects in the Age of Cognitive Capitalism

Architecture school does no longer prepare students for the (work) reality students are facing, after they finish. Since today you are never finished with anything: Gilles Deleuze outlined already 25 years ago, in his “Postscript on the Societies of Control,” that we are in a transient time (he called it crisis) where schools and other environments of enclosure are replaced by permanent training. Whereas in former disciplinary dispositif, one would always go from one enclosure to the next one, today’s knowledge-based society is characterized by the fact, that one is always still ‘in something’, everybody is always occupied with ‘a project’. Deleuze asserts that, through the mechanisms of control, those new subjects are caught up in a constant process of ‘modulation’. I applied for a postgrad-training as I increasingly realized myself in a work environment that I felt not prepared for. After receiving my diploma in Architecture and Design, I collaborated as a freelancer for years in Berlin, where not earning much, I quickly became part of the city’s digital bohème. The work reality and discursive environment of Berlin sharpened my awareness on current work condition for the production of built environment, so I decided to pursue a postgraduate training at the newly established The Berlage. Upon admission I became an official staff member of the TU Delft; now, after its successful integration into the University, my status changed again to be a 30 old postgrad-student again... This generalizable experience of modulation is one of the reasons to formulate this theme proposal on an issue, which the Journal of Architectural Education should be addressing. In his recently translated book Gerald Raunig conceptualizes modulation ­— “both a striating, standardizing, modularizing process and at the same time a permanent movement of remodeling, modulating, re-forming and de-forming the self.” (Raunig 2013, 29) —, as the recent trend in the university. Being the major locus of friction in cognitive capitalism, the university exemplifies the increasingly economized educational environments of our knowledge-based society. Turned into a factory of knowledge, it presents no longer “simply a site of a transfer of knowledge, but rather a complex space of overlapping of the most diverse forms of cognitive, affective subservient labor; the contemporary, modulating university becomes a possible answer to the search for today’s sites of reterritorialization.” (ibid. 23f., my emphasis) Against this tendencies of the modulating university, against this creativity-destroying apparatus, we need to arrange new forms of subjectivation. Ever since, the edifices of architectural education always envelop a tautological relation to its praxis, likewise a deleuzean fold creating a double, an expressive mirror, a relation to one’s own self. Aren’t the educational environment of architecture then deemed the testing ground for new spatio- temporal arrangements — beyond schools simulating offices and office work — that facilitate new modes of subjectivation in the increasingly conflated work-life environments that we are dealing with, to offer spaces of possibilities, and spaces of resistance? (482 words) Robert A. Gorny

CURRICULUM VITAE Robert Alexander Gorny (*1984) received his diploma from the State Academy of Arts and Design in Stuttgart, Germany. He worked as a freelancer for offices in Stuttgart and Berlin, independently worked on projects, exhibitions and writings, is an active member and class facilitator at thepublicschool Berlin on topics as immaterial labour, architectural dispositifs, post-structuralist french theory and assemblage theory. Working at SMAQ — architecture urbanism research he collaborated and co-editied “Charter of Dubai” (2012) and “Giraffes, Telegraphs, and the Hero of Alexandria” (forthcoming). He is currently enrolled in the Berlage Center for Advanced Studies in Architecture and Urban Design, at the TU Delft in the Netherlands. Here he assisted in an insert publication collaborative between TheBerlage, The New Institute (former NAi) and Volume Magazine on Dutch Structuralism (2013)

The erosion of boundaries between digital and analog in architectural education and practice

In an era where the digital practice is no longer spectacular or new, the question arises on why the architects and architectural educators still frame the digital as innovative, or as ne model compared with analog media of the past and present? Tis issue of Journal of Architectural Education will explore the erosion of boundaries between digital and analog in architectural practice and education, with a focus on finding the paradigms of digital architecture in the analog world and vice versa.

Education: Architectural education has always been based on the active elements of learning, of learning by doing. Most of the times architectural educators point to the classic master- apprentice concept where the student emulates the teacher in the architectural studio, a relic from early architectural and artistic education from the renaissance on. Still, a critical part of architecture learning is the process of architectural design itself, as practiced by the learner. In this the essence of hand drawing as a tool for thinking and communication has been heralded as unsurpassed compared to the digital. On the other part of the conceived spectrum the digital has been framed as a tool of unsurpassed expressiveness and flexibility in representation; somehow devoid of meaning because of the perceived distance the machine introduces between architect and architectural object. Somehow though a new generation of architectural educators are ignoring the traps of this discourse, having found their position outside the spectrum, defining the dialog in the studio as analog and digital. However, we suspect this had always been the case with any new technology introduced into architectural practice. Why should the rapidograph be superior or inferior compared to the pencil? Are media so important that the concepts and processes of architecture remain hidden? What is the case with new-so called - hybrid tools that action hand drawing on digital tablets?

Practice: From conception to production the digital tools are an essential part of architectural practice to the point where no one anymore notices the absence of drawing tables in architectural offices, other than relics of the past. However there is a marked difference in the manner ‘digital’ tools are used in practice in comparison to research: Production takes charge rather than the conceptual and procedural. In a sense a risk-averse, copy- producing philosophy has taken over in architectural offices, in the form of BIM, rather than exploring the essence of tectonics, organisation, structure and form that constitutes architecture. Is this trajectory better and improved from the alternative poetics of analog production? Did the machine actually replace man or have we ended up with rubber-stamp ing every drawing? Where is the area of erosion of boundaries between digital and analog, where concept, form, organization emerges as architecture?

Editor: Theodoros Dounas is a Chartered Architect in Europe, Associate Professor and the acting Head of Department of Architecture at Xian Jiaotong Liverpool University, Suzhou, China. He is founding partner of the multidisciplinary architecture office archIV+. He has been teaching in architecture schools and colleges in Europe and China for 10 years and has experience with basic and applied research in architectural design. His design and research work has been published internationally and he has received awards for both research output and architectural design.

His main research deals with analogue and computer generative tools in architectural design with a focus on formal and functional typology. His research constantly informs his architectural design practice, outcomes of which have been 60 buildings.

He is a founding member of the Blender Educational board of the Blender Foundation and of the TOSMI project in Europe, involving designers, filmmakers, directors and architects in the use of open source software.

He was the editor of the first trainers’ manual for blender3d and the co-editor of Masterplanning the Future book and proceedings, stemming out of the same conference in XJTLU in 2012. His forthcoming book Design with Blender deals with the creation of tools for design inside Blender 3d.

Proposal for JAE Theme Issue – Spring 2015 Michele Lamprakos, School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation University of Maryland-College Park with Michelangelo Sabatino, University of Houston September 30, 2013

Adapt and Engage

This theme issue will historicize and relativize our current approach to existing buildings and sites. The editors seek examples of built work, research, and pedagogy that suggest or promote alternative models. They particularly encourage examples of design thinking, practice, and teaching from Europe and other parts of the world that have a strong tradition of working with historic buildings and sites.

What does it mean to engage creatively with existing architecture? How has this engagement changed over time, and from place to place? What is different about designing for existing buildings, and how can students benefit from the exercise? What precedents can we draw on, in terms of theory, built work, and studio experiences? How can we begin to frame adaptation and reuse within wider ecological models of design? The reuse and adaptation of existing buildings has been cited as an important aspect of “ecological thinking.” Over the last decade or so, they have been celebrated as “green” strategies, essential for shaping a sustainable environment. But in fact, they are very old practices, inherent in the human impulse to build. Throughout history, architects, patrons, builders, and occupants have engaged with the buildings and sites they inherited, selectively conserving, transforming, and demolishing fabric – not only to accommodate new needs and uses, but to express an evolving sense of self and community, framed in relation to the past.

Today reuse projects makes up a large proportion of architects’ work, and that trend is expected to continue. Perhaps as a result, we are seeing increasing interest among students, who are fascinated by reuse/adaptation as both a philosophy and as a practice. Yet design pedagogy in the US has been slow to respond: we continue to focus on design ex nihilo. In studio we speak of context, but we rarely consider the existing building-as-context. In architectural history classes, we tend to focus on new interventions as signposts of the age, rather than on the transformation of buildings and sites over time. This is due in part to our disciplinary training, and partly to the pedagogical materials available to us (textbooks, image collections, and so forth). The rise of preservation as a discipline, now often taught in schools of design, has not remedied the situation: for despite current interest in “cultural landscapes,” preservation theory and methods remain wedded to an object-oriented, curatorial approach to the built environment. Architecture and preservation remain on separate tracks: speaking different languages, teaching different skills, and beholden to ideologies that often seem at cross purposes.

1 This special issue will begin a conversation among the various design disciplines, both educators and students, on different approaches to existing buildings and sites, and how we might integrate them into design education. There is a rich field to draw from within modern practice: for example, the architectural works of Scarpa, Dollgast, Machado, Moneo, Gregotti, and Zumthor, all of whom developed subtle interventions for specific, historically layered sites. Their built and theoretical works were rooted in local/regional traditions of practice which may not be well known in the English-speaking world, and which deserve research. Historians and critics like Riegl, Kostof, and Colquhoun have provided models for understanding architectural history as the story of an evolving relationship with the past. Of particular interest are pedagogical models and venues that have explored historic/existing areas within a comprehensive design framework, like the International Laboratory for Architecture and Urban Design (ILAUD). Submissions are not be limited to contemporary practice, but might also explore historical examples of the changing fabric and meaning of buildings and sites, and how these were informed by design intentions and ideologies.

Biographical note:

Michele Lamprakos teaches at the School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation, University of Maryland-College Park, where she holds a joint appointment in the Architecture and Historic Preservation programs. Trained as an architect and an historian, she is interested in the historical layers of buildings and cities, and the role of local knowledge and practice in creating and sustaining built environments.

After obtaining a B.A. in Near Eastern Studies at Princeton (1983), Michele worked for an international aid organization, managing a project to revive the cottage silk industry in the Nile Delta. Through this work she developed a deep interest in material culture, which led her to the study of architecture. She obtained a Master of Architecture from U.C. Berkeley (1992) and later, a PhD at MIT (History, Theory, and Criticism/Aga Khan Program in Islamic Architecture, 2006).

Michele’s career has combined teaching, research, and practice in architecture and preservation. In addition to the University of Maryland, she has taught for the University of Pennsylvania, Duke University, and the Maryland Institute College of Art. Michele is guest editing “Conserving the City: Toward a Critical History,” a special issue of Change over Time (forthcoming, spring 2014), based on the proceedings of an international symposium that she co-organized at the University of Pennsylvania School of Design in April 2012. Her current research on the Great Mosque of Cordoba looks at the changing fabric and meaning of the building through the centuries: as Catholic cathedral, historic monument, and symbol of the Islamic past in Spain.

Michele is founder of PALIMPSEST LLC, a design and consulting firm that focuses on older buildings and sites. Recent consulting work includes technical review for the Aga Khan Award for Architecture (2010 and 2013 Award cycles).

2 JAE 68:2 Theme Proposal Timothy Hyde, Harvard University

Crisis

Is it even possible to offer a description of our contemporary moment that is not fundamentally defined by the experience of crisis? Financial crisis, environmental crisis, urban crisis—these are now inescapable markers that direct thoughts and speculations about late modernity, its past and its future. Indeed the present confluence of crises, both acute and chronic, is felt to be so encompassing as to perhaps signal an epochal shift, with the epoch whose demise seems to be presaged that of modernity itself.

The theme proposed for JAE 68:2 is Crisis, with the aim of assembling a collection of research, propositions, and opinions that illuminate in new ways the relation between architecture, modernity, and crisis. For if crisis is indeed the consummate experience of modernity, then design, as an anticipatory discipline, is surely implicated. At a moment when the experience of crisis is felt to be fully enclosing, when to be modern is to be not just ‘in crisis’ but inside crisis, what is the nature of design practices? What are the obligations and opportunities, the possibilities and impossibilities that confront the architect, the landscape architect, the urban designer? What, finally, is the value of aesthetic modes of experience in historical situations that are, like the present, enclosed by crisis?

This themed issue will pursue questions such as these by soliciting contributions that interrogate the relationship between crisis and architecture at the present moment as well as in prior historical events and objects. Contributions in the category of Design as Scholarship might address diverse manifestations of crisis—urban, financial, environmental, etc.—through the elucidation or demonstration of links between design practices and causes and consequences of such crises. Contributions in the category of Scholarship of Design might reveal different historical attitudes and exigencies of crisis through the examination of architects, practices, or events in contexts such as political revolutions, or economic contractions, or extreme climates. Opinion essays could address key theoretical aspects—such as scarcity, resilience, or decision- making—that might define different conceptualizations of crisis.

The emphasis of the themed issue would less the mitigation or solution of crises, but rather the contextualization of crisis itself in relation to design practice. To this end, the preference would be for contributions that historicize crisis (in Scholarship of Design) and those that interrogate crisis (in Design as Scholarship). Together with Opinion essays, such contributions could elaborate Crisis as a motivation, a means of judgment, a temporality, in short, a medium for architecture.

Author Biography

Timothy Hyde is Associate Professor of Architecture at the Harvard University Graduate School of Design. He is an architectural historian and theorist whose research has focused on intersections of architecture, urbanism and politics in the formations of modernity. He is the author of Constitutional Modernism: Architecture and Civil Society in Cuba, 1933-1959 as well as essays published in Perspecta, Thresholds, and Log. He is a founding member of the Aggregate Architectural History Collaborative and is one of the editors of the first Aggregate book, Governing by Design. He has been a MacDowell Colony Fellow and his work has been supported by grants from the Graham Foundation.

Two elements in my abbreviated cv are especially pertinent for your evaluation of this proposal. The first is that my research work has focused extensively on how architecture participates in processes of rapid change—political change in revolutions, for example, or behaviorial change in periods of social transition. An examination of crisis as an encompassing category is an extension of this focus, one that I am currently developing in lecture courses and new research topics. The second relevant aspect is the production of the book Governing by Design, for which I was the managing editor, working directly with the authors and the University of Pittsburg Press, and which is therefore indicative of my experience in collaborative publishing efforts.

[email protected]

Top I Up Urbanism: Hacking the City

“There are more houses in the way….more people in the way – that’s all. When you operate in an overbuilt metropolis, you have to hack your way with a meat ax.” – Robert Moses

hack: use a computer to gain unauthorized access to data in a system (New Oxford American Dictionary)

From the excesses of the slum clearance projects completed under urban renewal, to the pursuit of the militarized, sanitized, and privatized postmetropolis, the city’s spatial hacking has customarily been physically and politically manipulated by anointed power brokers. Within this framework public space quietly vanished, the city was remade to accommodate a new economy, and a post-political architecture emerged to serve the needs of the powerful. Other than radical moments of resistance, the ambitions of neighborhood residents proved, for the most part, irrelevant.

Tactical, guerrilla, insurgent – these terms have been adopted in the last half-decade to describe new “urbanisms” epitomized by typically bottom-up, short-term installations in the city that circumnavigate political protocols and economic limitations to provide immediate solutions for small-scale problems of public space. Exemplified in the parklets and temporary plazas instigated in part by projects like REbar’s Park(ing) Day or Jason Roberts’ Better Blocks, these bottom-up projects emerged initially in response to perceived misallocations of public space or overly- restrictive government regulation. Descendants of Everyday Urbanism, the rights to the city positions of Lefebvre, Sennett, and Don Mitchell, and the grounded practices of real people in real places, these spatial hackers quietly contest their rights to the street one parking space and dead city block at a time.

These “activist” movements have, ironically, also attracted the attention of top-down bureaucracies. Wildly successful projects like the revitalized Highline in Manhattan or Janette Sadik-Kahn’s reconfiguration of Times Square are products of the new top l up urbanism – projects produced through partnerships between grassroots activists and formal agencies or projects produced by top-down agencies through typically bottom-up processes. A third hybrid – the starctivist (star+activist) – is the transformation of the original urban instigator into a sanctioned, even celebrated, political power player. Have they officially hacked the system? If so, now what?

For this issue of the Journal of Architectural Education we seek submissions that explore and connect the idea and practice of contemporary urban hacking, specifically those seeking a critical take on its longer term ramifications for the socio-economic, spatial and political shape of the city. We ask: Are these projects full-scale experiments, intended to be tests for larger scales or more permanent versions of their ad hoc trial runs? If so, what are these tests finding and through what methods and with what criteria are they assessed? Are these projects endemic of a new, non- permanent city – either disposable or recyclable – and how does that change the role of design and designers? Do these projects run the risk of further accelerating governmental abdication for responsibility of public space? Is their role more powerful as vehicles to test process rather than product? Does urbanism as a “pop-culture” trend devalue longer-range efforts of city intervention?

Ultimately, we question the perception of hipster-for-hipster urbanism as a self-serving tool of gentrification or the temporary implementation of playspace. We offer a platform for conversation in this issue of JAE to discuss the state of agency and activism in this supposedly “user generated” metropolis. Are these works insignificant, do the projects advance the cause of urban activism by and for urban inhabitants? What role can these projects have on the truly wicked problems of urbanism – the original realm of urban activism – poverty, hunger, homelessness, equity, access and health?

This submission for JAE 68:2 is being submitted as a collaborative effort of Susan Rogers and Linda C. Samuels, their brief biographies are below.

Susan Rogers is an Assistant Professor of Architecture at the University of Houston and the Director of the Community Design Resource Center (CDRC). Rogers holds a Masters of Architecture and a Masters of City Planning in Community Development from the University of California at Berkeley. Her research, teaching, and practice focus on design as a strategy for community change, exploring the seams between design, justice and the public interest. Rogers is currently Chair of the Cite Editorial Committee, a journal of the Rice Design Alliance that has been in constant publication since 1984. She has served as guest editor for two issues of Cite, and is currently guest editing a forthcoming special issue entitled the “New Periphery.”

Rogers is the co-author of “An Architecture of Change,” the Introduction to Expanding Architecture: Design as Activism, published by Metropolis Press (2008). Her articles have appeared in Urban Design International, ii the International Journal of Interior Architecture + Spatial Design, Places Journal, Cite: The Architecture and Design Review of Houston, ArtLies, A Texas Art Journal and numerous conference proceedings. Most recently her essay “Strategrams” was published in the fifth volume of the Cleveland Urban Design Collaborative’s Urban Infill series, Diagrammatically.

In Spring 2012 the CDRC hosted a regional session of the Mayors’ Institute on City Design and Rogers served as a resource team member for the Sustainable Cities Design Academy in San Francisco, a program of the national Architectural Foundation. She recently received a teaching award for Excellence in Community Engagement and a national ACSA Collaborative Practice Award. Her work has been funded by the National Endowment for the Arts, the Houston Arts Alliance, the Architecture Center Houston Foundation, the Community Transformation Initiative of the CDC, and many others.

Linda C. Samuels is the Project Director for the Sustainable City Project (SCP), a multi- disciplinary research, teaching, and outreach effort collaboratively supported by the College of Architecture, Planning and Landscape Architecture (CAPLA); the College of Social and Behavioral Sciences; and the Institute of the Environment at the University of Arizona. She teaches the interdisciplinary urban design studio, bringing together architecture, landscape architecture and planning students to work on projects in Tucson and the larger southwest region with city and county agencies, private and non-profit partners and community members. This work includes urban design interventions and area planning from micro to macro scales. Her outreach and research efforts bring science, social science, and design together in an effort to have impact on the shape and discourse of urban design and planning.

Following a Bachelor of Design and Masters of Architecture, Samuels recently received her doctorate in Urban Planning from the University of California, Los Angeles. Prior to her current appointment, Samuels was a Senior Research Associate at cityLAB, an urban think tank in UCLA's Department of Architecture and Urban Design, and an adjunct lecturer at the University of Southern California, Woodbury University, and Otis College of Art and Design. While at cityLAB, she helped develop and run the WPA 2.0 competition, symposium and website. Over 300 teams submitted proposals for next generation infrastructure; the work of five professional and seven student finalist teams was shown in an exhibition at the National Building Museum and discussed in a concurrent symposium, both organized and executed in part by Samuels. The findings and design trajectories were included in the cityLAB exhibition at the Venice Biennale in 2010 and accompanying small publication, produced collaboratively by Samuels, cityLAb director Dana Cuff, and Tim Higgins. Samuels has also written collaboratively with Higgins (“New Public Works: Designers Address the Federal Sustainability Agenda” in APWA reporter) and public space planning expert, Anastasia Loukaitou-Sideris (“How to Ease Women’s Fear of Transportation Environments” for the Mineta Transportation Institute). Samuels’ recent publications include "Stitches and Insertions" in Dana Cuff and Roger Sherman's Fast-Forward Urbanism: Rethinking Architecture's Engagement with the City (2011), "Infrastructural Optimism" (2009) and "Working Public Architecture" (2010) both published in Places journal. She has recently written essays for the American Architecture Foundation reflecting on the work her team developed at this past summer’s Sustainable Cities Design Academy.

Prior to her time in Los Angeles, Samuels was an Assistant Professor in the College of Arts and Architecture at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte (UNCC). At UNCC, she co-taught the graduate thesis program and started two curricular initiatives: The Mobile Studio and Architecture as Activism. The Mobile Studio was a study un-abroad initiative incorporating studio, seminar, and visual arts components in collaborative courses with five universities between Charlotte and Los Angeles, California. Architecture as Activism culminated in a design/build public space project supporting the arts, soccer, and gardening programs at the Urban Ministry homeless services center.

Samuels served as southeast regional director on the ACSA board between 2003 and 2006 working collaboratively on ACSA conferences and publications. She also co-hosted a regional conference in 2001, collaboratively producing the conference materials and final proceedings.

Samuels and Rogers collaborated in the past while teaching at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte and have continued to collaborate on various writing, arts, and activist efforts.

Urbanization: Housing and the 21st Century City

Keywords: Urbanization, Public Space, Typology, Sustainability + Renewable Energy, Social and Economic Justice

Every year, the world’s population increases by 65 million people, and over the next 13 years, 600 cities will account for nearly 65 percent of global GDP growth.[i] Major global metropolitan areas are expanding at exponential rates. Asian cities are growing ever upward (Hong Kong) and far below the horizon line (Seoul and Singapore). Many American cities are experiencing unprecedented growth in historic urban cores, challenging the value of preservation efforts. Manhattan, Tokyo, London, Rio, Mexico City, Los Angeles, Paris, and Shanghai account for some of the largest population centers, but other second and third tier cities are experiencing growth at an even faster rate: New Orleans, Charlotte, Austin, Hamburg, Dar es Salaam, Jaipur. All unfolding while what is considered a minimum standard of living space continues to shrink and income gaps continue to grow.

Focus of the JAE issue: Seek essays and projects that expand the dialogue of what constitutes 21st century urban housing options and invite authors and designers from a host of related disciplines to speculate on how to meet the needs of changing urban demographics, basic housing rights, sustainability targets, via policy, precedent and design.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Michael Gamble is interested in intelligent, site responsive design at all scales with a special focus on the creation of healthy environments.

Gamble held the position Associate Chair of Undergraduate and Professional Studies in the School of Architecture at the Georgia Institute of Technology from 2010-2013 and is a partner in the firm G+G Architects in Atlanta, Georgia.

As a tenured Associate Professor at Georgia Tech, he is currently leading a 3 year funded research project in the area urban housing and energy, sponsored by the Alcoa Foundation. His research has received grants from the Center for Quality Growth and Regional Development, the National Endowments of the Arts, and received First Prize for Research in an international competition sponsored by the Environmental Design and Research Association. Gamble has published essays on the design of the public realm in Harvard Design Magazine (with W. Jude Leblanc) and the Book Writing Urbanism, published by Routledge in 2009.

G+G Architects has received regional and national recognition for their built work, including the American Institute of Architects Atlanta Chapter Emerging Voice Award; the American Institute of Architects Georgia Chapter Merit Award, as well an Atlanta Chapter Honor and Merit Award. Most recently, the firms work was shortlisted at the 2013 World Architecture Festival in Singapore. In September of 2006, G+G won first place in the Sustainable House Competition sponsored by Southface Energy Institute, Kendada Fund and Charis Community Housing. In August of 2009, G+G won first place in the Cleremont Hotel Competition – an ideas competition centered on the revitalization of a landmark building in Midtown, Atlanta.

[i] McKinsey Global Institute. Richard Dobbs, Jaana Remes, James Manyika, Charles Roxburgh, Sven Smit and Fabian Schaer

Urban world: Cities and the rise of the consuming class

June 2012.

O d i l e C o m p a g n o n A R C H I T E C T 6050 N. Maplewood CHICAGO Il 60659 T. 773 230 81 60 [email protected]

October 1, 2013

Dear Mr. Neveu. I am very pleased to send you a proposal for the Issue 68:2 of JAE and a brief biography. I would be honored to serve as Guest Editor and hope that my topic will seem worthy of your consideration.

PROPOSAL

“In France, a graduating class is called “une promotion” (“promo” in the popular language). In this, one hears not only movement but also movement forward. This summer, Le Monde published a series on historic famous “promotions” that described groups of students who have moved forward together and whose thinking, making, while at school, has had a decisive influence on their individual careers as well as on their disciplines. What is the role of our schools in triggering such forward movement? What tools do we have to foster our students’ autonomy?

I propose to use the JAE platform to share experiences on how our students’ work is presented and promoted to professionals and scholars, as well as to the general public and believe that this would be a tremendous advantage for all who teach in architecture schools, and most particularly for those, practitioners, who don’t necessarily travel to other schools. As an architect and as an adjunct faculty at the School of Art institute of Chicago (SAIC), I have been commissioned by our school’s Sullivan Galleries to design and curate four thesis exhibitions, since the foundation of the Master of Architecture program in 2007. It has been a rewarding experience as well as a challenging one - surely familiar to faculty in other schools - as it has raised questions about the necessity for our students to present and defend their work in front of a large and public audience.

When curating exhibits at SAIC, I work with more than 40 students, co-curators, gallery staff, fellows and colleague professors, and I have often pondered on the role that these exhibits –and the discussions, publications, websites that stem from them – can hold in the creation of this “esprit de corps”, this sense of belonging to the same forward going movement, which the idea of “promotion” implies.

The SAIC architecture program is small, every studio is co-taught and the faculty rotates often between studios. We invite exterior specialists, experts, and technicians to make up for the knowledge that we sometimes lack in-house. As a result, the students are aware of diverse (sometime contradicting) perspectives. They are less exposed to dogmatic knowledge and more to a sort of enhancement of their individual potential. The thesis show is a clear reflection of this autonomy (or lack thereof). Last year, during a panel discussion, traditionally accompanying the exhibition opening, it is precisely this autonomy that Robert Somol, Director of the School of Architecture at the University of Illinois at Chicago, attacked with a spectacular virulence. Where we see autonomy, he saw weakness. He strongly asserted that if you listen to the students too much - if you let their social/cultural heritage be voiced – the practice of architecture looses its integrity. This is the kind of debate that must find its way in any school, and this is the kind of debate that I would like to see in the JAE Issue 68:2.

The SAIC thesis exhibit has become a laboratory. Over the years, my mission has expanded beyond that of a curator (choosing and assessing the work) or that of a designer (creating a visual and spatial language tying the work together), to that of an “exhibit director” if such term exists: young curators and young designers have joined the team, as fellows, to learn the design and the curation process of a meaningful architecture exhibit. This year, we also hired two young graduates to design the graphics and the exhibit website. The thesis show is a trend setter that helps push the boundaries of how the Sullivan galleries can be used, as well as what work can be shown and how discourse can be provoked. To that effect, my team’s task is in encouraging the students to take advantage of all of the school’s resources in media equipment, communication technology, fabrication, and printing.

This definitely creates a movement, one that not only promotes the graduating class to professional life, but also becomes an incentive for the underclassmen. It is too early to predict what time may prove, but already, my privileged position of closeness to the students have allowed me to observe particular bonds, between students, which have succeeded at creating certain movements, I see definite waves of change. Is this a trend that can be felt elsewhere? What is the role of the thesis exhibit? Should students exhibit thesis, or final projects? How can these exhibits serve as a barometer to gauge our students’ autonomy? The architecture’s integrity? How do we promote our students, set them off to meet their peers, their clients, and eventually, their own students?

For many who don’t live in a city with several architecture schools where debate can happen, JAE is the only channel through which to judge the relevance of what we are teaching and how we are teaching it. Sharing through JAE our individual approaches to the promotion of our graduating classes is paramount.

BIOGRAPHY

Odile Compagnon is an architect based in Chicago and Paris, principal at Odile Compagnon Architect. Her professional practice as well as her research and work with students at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago are transdisciplinary and transcontinental. For Compagnon, a vital aspect of sustainable design involves weaving a network of knowledge, experience, and connections, so that endeavors in one arena become a source of creative solutions in another.

While working with leading French firm Chemetov and Huidobro, Compagnon participated in the design of the French Embassy in New Delhi, India, and supervised the building’s construction. Subsequently, her own firm, DMC, also in Paris, built over 30 public buildings for various communities in central France. In Chicago, Odile Compagnon Architect, founded in 2001, contributes its expertise in design and strategy to several community groups, including Redmoon Theater, The Hypocrites and Abraham Lincoln Elementary School, combining aesthetic creativity with feasibility and users’ participation.

Compagnon earned her degree at the Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture de Versailles in 1982, also attending the University of Illinois at Chicago (1980–81) and the Istituto Universitario di Venezia in Italy as a research scholar (1982). After working with Chemetov and Huidobro in Paris, Compagnon established her own company, DMC Architectes, (1987) which undertook public commissions and created master plans for several cities. Compagnon worked with Studio Gang/O’Donnell (Chicago) from 1997 until 2000, where she contributed to projects including, in Illinois, the Rockford Starlight Theatre, the Material Evidence exhibition installation at the Museum of Contemporary Art, and the Chinese American Service League Building. Her work has been shown at exhibits including Speculative Chicago, Diversecity Riba (Chicago), Palladio’s sister (Boston) and the Parachute Pavilion exhibition (New York). Compagnon’s projects have received top recognition by Architecture Mouvement Continuité in its annual review of built architecture (1994, 1995, 1996).

Compagnon joined the faculty at SAIC in 1998, after teaching at Parsons Paris and the School of Architecture at UIC. She collaborates, in teaching and research, with professors from several departments, including performance, writing, continuing education, and art education. Recently Compagnon has taught Set Design, Undergraduate and Master of Architecture design studios, and Design with Light. She has also curated and designed four thesis shows: Making Modern (2009) GRAVITY (2010), TELEVISION (2012) and SET OFF (2013). In 2011, Compagnon, in collaboration with Paul Tebben, was selected to teach the GFRY studio: a two semester multidisciplinary design studio focusing on post earthquake reconstruction in Talca - Chile.

I realize that I don’t have specific “experience working with collaborators on multi-authored publications” mentioned in the call for proposal, but as a practicing architect who frequently works with theater companies and curates exhibitions, I am fluent in orchestrating the work of many others and making sure of timely completion. I believe this special issue could give a voice to a broader group of professors, therefore I am convinced that it needs a different type of editor, practical, no-nonsense and an enabler.

Please feel free to contact me if you have any question or concern. Best.

Odile Compagnon, AIA DPLG AIGA odilecompagnon.com adjunct associate professor AIADO@SAIC Manifesto 5.4 mkm2 Architecture is in danger of becoming a casualty of human-induced climate change. Our manifestoes are obsolete, the scope of our responsibilities are too narrowly defined, and our education avoids addressing vital complex systems. As the drama of human-induced climate change becomes increasingly apparent, now is our moment to reimagine the potency of Architecture. In the 20th century, Architecture responded to new paradigms of industrial production and an understanding of civil rights. Now, Architecture must radically respond to new paradigms of global interdependency and universal human rights. Predictions indicate that 5.4 million square kilometers of land will be lost to rising oceans in the next 100 years, displacing 145 million people and hastening the extinction of at least 1.7 million species. In light of the urgency of human displacement and biosphere destruction, this issue is a call for scholars and designers to create a new manifesto defining the problems and tactical responses demanded by this post-Katrina world. We call for papers, pedagogies, and designs positioning architecture as a driver of environmental and social justice. The issue will include manifestos and programs, transdisciplinary solutions, and visionary designs of resilient systems for the anthropocene age. These will be complemented by critiques of Architecture’s response to climate change, engaging descriptions of the current climactic dilemma, and pedagogy that prepares students to face the social and environmental challenges in their futures.

Biographies The problem of climate change is bigger than any one discipline. We propose an editorial team to tackle the formal, human, and historical implications of the theme. Matthew Jelacic is an Assistant Professor of Environmental Design and an Adjunct Faculty member of the Mortenson Center in Engineering for Developing Communities at the University of Colorado. His research includes improving the design of shelter and planning for displacement caused by natural disasters, climate change and other conflicts. Prof. Jelacic received his architecture degrees at Pratt Institute, where he received the AIA Henry Adams Medal, and Harvard Universityʼs Graduate School of Design, was a Harvard Loeb Fellow in 2003-4, studied international human rights law at Oxford University in 2008 and was a Rockefeller Foundation Bellagio Center Scholar in Residence in 2009. From 1991-2001 he worked in the atelier of Louise Bourgeois and in 2004 he became a licensed contractor. Victoria Derr is a Senior Instructor in the Program in Environmental Design at the University of Colorado, Boulder. For the past 20 years, Derr has engaged communities in participatory research, design and planning for natural and built communities. Her published research and work includes topics of biophilic and restorative design, community engagement, and planning for neighborhood and community resilience. Derr holds a masters and Ph.D. from Yale University, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. Her awards include the Environmental Protection Agency "Science to Achieve Results" Fellowship (1999-2001), G. Evelyn Hutchinson Fellowship (1997-1998), and the Lynda Simmons Award for Excellence in Mentorship and Community Engagement (2012). Georgia Lindsay is a Visiting Assistant Professor of Environmental Design at the University of Colorado Boulder. She has been a reviewer for the EDRA conference for three years, chaired special tracks at various conferences, and co-hosted a multidisciplinary conference at the University of California Berkeley's College of Environmental Design. She is in the process of editing a collection of research about the renaissance of social factors in design for a book to be published by Cambridge Scholars Press. Her research focuses on human responses to architecture and design, including how lay people understand green architecture. JAE 68:2 Theme Proposal

Architecture and the Forestry Aesthetic This theme proposal envisions forestry as a medium of architecture and a radical tool with which to re-imagine the city of the future. In the context of this proposal, forestry acts a larger urban construct that is not necessarily limited to tree schemes. Instead, forestry is an aesthetic language that opens designers up to new ideas about permeable floors, protective canopies, and resilient systems. Architecture and the Forestry Aesthetic invites a wide range of trans- disciplinary interpretations of the term forest and its role in the built environment.

Background Forests have historically been the ground zero condition of cities that arose alongside agriculture settlement; forests existed before fields were cleared. In this context, many Western European cities were planned to incorporate existing forests into their municipal boundaries. Bocage and Pre-orchards of Hagues Avenes, near Floursies, France and Dehesa forests of Cordoba, Spain are still used in the 21st century as sources of food, fodder, and timber. The Sihlwald Forest, an integral part of the city of Zurich, remains a model for 21st century forestry practice in the United States.

Historical design projects also speak to the aesthetics of forestry as a concern of architects and city planners. For example, the capital city of Canberra in Australia features an urban forest as part of a design that was created in 1913 by Chicago architects Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony Griffin. Landscape Architect Frederick Law Olmsted, an early champion of ecological infrastructure, treated the forest at the Biltmore Estate in North Carolina as the foundation for and generator of development at Biltmore Village.

In the 21st century, the United States Forest Service and Departments of Conservation and Recreation have set limits on development of forests that occupy drinking water resource watersheds in order to meet the Environmental Protection Agency’s Safe Drinking Water regulations. Thousands of acres of forestland are managed to maximize drinking water yields for metropolitan areas in addition to economic returns from timber and non-timber forest products. These watershed forests are rich case studies in design. More recently, forests such as the Harvard Forest in Western Massachusetts have been studied to assess their value in carbon sequestration and their potential to be, as designer Andrew Jackson Downing put it, “lungs for the city.”

Architecture and the Forestry Aesthetic in the 21st Century Historical narratives feature the forest as a protector and an entity that tempers extremes of famine, weather, economic downturns, social uprising, and fuel shortages. Yet, forests have also been seen as unknown and even unsafe territories, as was the case of the Sherwood Forest in the legend of Robin Hood. In the 21st century, urban forestry as it is designed for the cities of Canberra and Zurich may or may not be an achievable or even desirable goal. Nevertheless, the role of the forest in the creation of the built environment should not be lost from the discourse of architects and designers.

The critical question for the 21st century is how can the forest be re-interpreted and engaged? Is there a new model for the forest that would fit in the plans for rapidly developing cities and expanding populations? If so, what are the threats and limitations of the forest? What are the new discoveries and radical propositions? Is there such a thing as a digital forest? Could the concrete jungle do better at processing storm water and providing food? Who or what can take on the social role of Robin Hood? The discipline of architecture, as one that is rich with strategies for synthesizing, organizing, and design thinking outside of the box, is poised to take on these questions.

Biography Jana Vandergoot is interested in the intersection of architecture and landscape. Her work and research focuses on food systems, forestry practice, and the ways in which buildings are an extension of ecological and social networks. Jana was the recipient of the 2010 Institute of Classical Architecture and Art Rieger Graham Prize at the American Academy in Rome, where she conducted research on ancient and modern food systems and their role in the formation of public space, culture, and architecture in the urban context of Rome.

Jana is an Assistant Professor of Architecture, tenure track, at the University of Maryland School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation where she is the ACSA Faculty Councilor. She has taught architecture at the University of Virginia and in 2012 was the Director of the School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture Summer Design Institute. She is currently collaborating with a colleague at the University of Maryland, Dr. Kelly Cook in the Landscape Architecture Department, on a project that is entitled The Paper Streets of Takoma Park. The project explores a matrix of streets near Washington, D.C. that were planned on paper but never paved, as an opportunity for an unconventional municipal forest.

Jana holds a Master of Landscape Architecture degree from the Harvard University Graduate School of Design. She also holds a Master of Architecture from the University of Virginia, where her thesis work on urban food foraging practices as a catalyst for public spaces in city of Charlottesville earned a Washington UNBUILT Honor Award from the Washington DC AIA. She received a Bachelor of Architecture from the University of Notre Dame. Jana is a licensed architect and a founding partner at Vandergoot Ezban Studio.

Contact Information:

Jana VanderGoot, RA University of Maryland School of Architecture, Planning & Preservation Office #1206 Building 145, College Park, Maryland 20742 Telephone 301-405-6289 Email [email protected] teaching learning: before the beginning

Aside from the three most common learning styles: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic, educators must also address generational, racial, ethnic, and cultural qualities of students. Various studies have defined six generations (GI, Mature/Silents, Baby Boomer, Gen X, Gen Y/Millennium, and Gen Z/Boomlets) currently alive while only the later four comprise the breadth of academic instruction. The generational differences span forms of technology, religious beliefs, family dependence, politics, upbringing, maturity, and countless other factors. People are unique, but educational requirements tend to group certain eras together in an attempt to generalize a pedagogical approach to not only instruct but also prepare for relations with future generational characteristics not yet defined. Are incoming students being perceived as having less problem solving skills? With the emphasis of NAAB requirements placed on the professional side of academia, how do educators revisit methods of teaching to engage the various generations?

What are the current problems or concerns with a modern architectural education? If so, who is responsible? Is it the approach of the educator or the needs and expectations of the student body? Students entering college may not have the same skill sets or the training of how to learn as previous generations or academic models. The final results for NAAB requirements are critical, but the question remains as a dramatic proposal: where do educators start? How do educators teach skills? What is being done to build up necessary skills when they are changing quickly? Proposed articles will address various methods of teaching the act of learning, which may focus on broad curricular topics or specific year level exercises to facilitate rationale and computation in lieu of simple data in / data out regurgitation.

Daniel Butko - AIA, NCARB, LEED AP, ASA Assistant Professor College of Architecture University of Oklahoma 830 Van Vleet Oval Norman OK 73019

As an architect and Assistant Professor of Architecture at a state university, the first author is responsible for instructing 125+/- students annually within design studios, materials, sustainable technology courses, and architectural acoustics electives. Research focuses on materials, sustainability, and acoustics with numerous grants, collaborative publications within national and international conferences and journals, a scholarly book contract, and notable awards. Professional background includes design phases, client management, and construction administration with nationally known architecture and construction firms.

Anthony Cricchio is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Architecture. He joined the faculty at the College of Architecture at The University of Oklahoma in the fall 2008. Professor Cricchio holds a BS in Architecture (1993) and a MArch (1995) from the University of Texas at Arlington. He has practiced in the Dallas/Fort Worth area with Corgan Associates as well as teaching at the University of Texas at Arlington. He also held an assistant professorship position at Oklahoma State University. Professor Cricchio is a registered architect and is NCARB certified. He believes that teaching architecture is an extension of his own inquisitive nature and is evident in his pedagogical approach to the design studio. In addition, he believes in a hybrid way of teaching. A combination of practical applications and conceptual problem solving, Professor Cricchio uses design competitions as a way to explore this approach and to develop a student’s critical thinking process through design. intentional integration: creating collaborative cohesive comprehension

Students are introduced to various topics by various professors via various mediums. Where do the topics all tie together? When and how do students begin to comprehend and demonstrate ability to assimilate the various topics into functional architecture? Comprehension is not just the surface component of understanding; it’s the grasping and expansion of intellectual ability. Comprehension is the key to success.

Educating a generation of students who typically confront traditional educational practices challenges educators to apply a new technique in architectural education that will facilitate interdisciplinary learning. Architecture is the culmination of various subjects including sociology, anthropology, construction details, problem solving, material longevity, and promotion of the human scale. Students are somewhat complacent toward comprehensive design and are primarily focused on getting a grade in each class without applying the cumulative knowledge to all courses. How can a design student begin to understand all that is expected and required as an architect when most classes are separate and merely recommended to be interdisciplinary? Can curricular framework center on a series of collaborative courses which teach and promote an environment of engagement, critical thinking, and accountability between the academic and professional environment? Pedagogy can invigorate the educational challenges of the current generation and reassert the core of architectural education - the studio. How can this approach of implementation and demonstration within a design studio setting promote interdisciplinary communication and collaboration?

In a world requiring environmentally responsive designs, can collaboration and full implementation of what architecture involves suddenly become the new and improved sustainability and resiliency? Comprehensive projects yielded from an intentional integration of theories, design elements, materials, and methods span beyond the aesthetic nature of architecture. As curriculums construct professions of mixed responsibilities and distinctions, a contemporary/relevant pedagogy and curriculum must be forthcoming. Proposed articles will address physical and pedagogical examples where the manner in which collaboration becomes actively demonstrated in design, moving toward and reacting to the profession outside the academic doors.

Daniel Butko - AIA, NCARB, LEED AP, ASA Assistant Professor College of Architecture University of Oklahoma 830 Van Vleet Oval Norman OK 73019

As an architect and Assistant Professor of Architecture at a state university, the first author is responsible for instructing 125+/- students annually within design studios, materials, sustainable technology courses, and architectural acoustics electives. Research focuses on materials, sustainability, and acoustics with numerous grants, collaborative publications within national and international conferences and journals, a scholarly book contract, and notable awards. Professional background includes design phases, client management, and construction administration with nationally known architecture and construction firms.

Anthony Cricchio is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Architecture. He joined the faculty at the College of Architecture at The University of Oklahoma in the fall 2008. Professor Cricchio holds a BS in Architecture (1993) and a MArch (1995) from the University of Texas at Arlington. He has practiced in the Dallas/Fort Worth area with Corgan Associates as well as teaching at the University of Texas at Arlington. He also held an assistant professorship position at Oklahoma State University. Professor Cricchio is a registered architect and is NCARB certified. He believes that teaching architecture is an extension of his own inquisitive nature and is evident in his pedagogical approach to the design studio. In addition, he believes in a hybrid way of teaching. A combination of practical applications and conceptual problem solving, Professor Cricchio uses design competitions as a way to explore this approach and to develop a student’s critical thinking process through design. defining the dash: design-build pedagogy

“Artists, let us at last break down the walls erected by our deforming academic training between the ‘arts’ and all of us become builders again! Let us together will, think out, create the new idea of architecture.” - Walter Gropius

Aside from Mr. Gropius’s stance, current design-build projects seem to stir opinions and shake the trees of academic policies, but one fundamental question concerning the project type is perhaps the most critical element. Are design-build projects always a linear process: a beginning to an end? Subsequent to the perceived process, how do educators define the dash between the two words? Where does a process fit within the pedagogy of designing and building? Is the dash analogous to that found on a tombstone? Designing and building is the active sense of doing where both entities influence and navigate the other. Some curriculums have coined or identified certain phrases or mantras as a method of defining the method of actively building and thereby submerging students in the realm of thought and deed. Is the subject matter merely a link between two bookends or can the project type allow for real-time designing to occur while physically building a full-scale prototype?

Design-build learning environments offer a means to engage today’s design students outside typical small-scale representations into development of full-scale inhabitable space(s). Varied in scale and disposition, opportunities focus upon deliberate and expressive inhabitable deliverables where design concepts address materials, function, and scale for global environments. The reliance between design and construction phases establishes the foundation of what defines the architectural terminology “creating-making.”

In the spirit of creating and making, how can/do architecture curriculums explore integration across thinking, developing, crafting, and physical building? The union of creating and making begins when students possess curiosity for bridging between stereotypical designers and constructors, thus recognizing the two aspects of creating are intrinsically linked. Opportunities defined traditionally as design-build projects may be more aptly labeled build-design projects, where the activity of building is the learning component. Can the project type be a method of real-time sketching? Proposed articles will explore the pedagogy of varied design-build engagements and how both faculty and students can/have advanced the design process and level of design comprehension.

Daniel Butko - AIA, NCARB, LEED AP, ASA Assistant Professor College of Architecture University of Oklahoma 830 Van Vleet Oval Norman OK 73019

As an architect and Assistant Professor of Architecture at a state university, the first author is responsible for instructing 125+/- students annually within design studios, materials, sustainable technology courses, and architectural acoustics electives. Research focuses on materials, sustainability, and acoustics with numerous grants, collaborative publications within national and international conferences and journals, a scholarly book contract, and notable awards. Professional background includes design phases, client management, and construction administration with nationally known architecture and construction firms.

Anthony Cricchio is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Architecture. He joined the faculty at the College of Architecture at The University of Oklahoma in the fall 2008. Professor Cricchio holds a BS in Architecture (1993) and a MArch (1995) from the University of Texas at Arlington. He has practiced in the Dallas/Fort Worth area with Corgan Associates as well as teaching at the University of Texas at Arlington. He also held an assistant professorship position at Oklahoma State University. Professor Cricchio is a registered architect and is NCARB certified. He believes that teaching architecture is an extension of his own inquisitive nature and is evident in his pedagogical approach to the design studio. In addition, he believes in a hybrid way of teaching. A combination of practical applications and conceptual problem solving, Professor Cricchio uses design competitions as a way to explore this approach and to develop a student’s critical thinking process through design.

Emerging Technologies, Multi-Disciplinary Teams, And Design Responses To Challenges Facing Coastal Regions The rapid growth of global population and continuing urbanization are pressing commerce, industry, people, and fragile ecosystems together in unprecedented ways. Adding to the squeeze, rising sea levels, increasing instability of weather, and technological change are forcing fundamental alterations in traditional lifestyles, historic settlement patterns, and design practices. Efforts to cope with these challenges are transforming the role of architecture and its relationship to disciplines that have until recently seemed quite remote from the field. Nowhere is this more clearly evident than in the world's coastal regions. In these locations the confluence of inexpensive wetlands and rapid development are attracting millions of people to dangerously low lying areas even as many coastal landscapes are subsiding and sea levels are rising. Shocks to the networked relationships of population, technology, and water in the world's coastal regions have led to disastrous consequences - consequences that are likely to continue to become more serious and more widespread in coming years.

In the course of the dramatic reorganization of the means and methods of analysis, design, and construction that are now shaping the built environment, especially in coastal regions, no profession has more to gain or lose than architecture. The profession faces a growing existential crisis as both urban centers and rural communities are increasingly threatened, undermining the very foundations of contemporary practice. However, this threat is matched by an encouraging re-centering of design thinking in the realms of architecture, engineering, environmental sciences, and planning. What could emerge is a truly multi- disciplinary model of design practice with architects at its center.

We propose a special issue of JAE to examine the re-centering of the discipline and practice of architecture in response to these challenges. How are increasingly multi-disciplinary engineering, scientific research, planning, and design groups exploring the potential of emerging design methods? What new technologies and tools are emerging from these collaborations? How are these tools transforming the architect¹s ability to affect change in the built environment? What research and design projects best exemplify the potential of this new model of practice? Does a deeper engagement with science enhance architectural responsibility or threaten the autonomy that design speculation requires? What are the implications of all this for practice, research, and teaching? We propose to invite papers to examine these subjects at a global scale while addressing specific regional and local conditions.

Credentials:

Thomas Colbert, AIA, APA is an Associate Professor with the Gerald D. Hines College of Architecture at the University of Houston where he teaches design studios and seminar courses. He is also a part of the trans- disciplinary multi-institutional research team of the SSPEED Center at Rice University. His research is focused on coastal and regional planning and infrastructure design with a focus on sustainability and resilience planning and design for the central and upper Texas Gulf Coast. He received his AB in Architecture from Princeton University and his graduate degree from the University of Cambridge. He has practiced architecture and planning in Texas, Louisiana, and the British Isles. Prof. Colbert served on the Editorial Committee of Cite, The Architecture + Design Review of Houston for over six years and was Chair of that committee for the last two years of his term. He has contributed to numerous other journals.

Jeff Carney, AICP, is an Associate Professor in the School of Architecture and Director of the Coastal Sustainability Studio at Louisiana State University. Jeff received his BA from Washington University in St. Louis and master’s degrees in both architecture and city and regional planning from the University of California, Berkeley. He teaches architecture and landscape architecture studios and seminars. He has significant experience in sustainable large-scale planning and design projects from time spent working with Skidmore Owings and Merrill in San Francisco. His work in Louisiana has centered on the trans-disciplinary work of the LSU Coastal Sustainability Studio. In that capacity he has been involved in numerous projects in New Orleans and south Louisiana. Currently Prof. Carney is principal investigator on a multiyear project called the Resiliency Assistance Program sponsored by HUD. The Coastal sustainability was awarded the ACSA Collaborative Practice Award for 2012-13.

Working with advanced multi-disciplinary teams of scientists, environmental engineers and others, Professors Carney and Colbert have been responsible for the development of coastal planning policy proposals as well as regional and local scale design proposals along the length of the Gulf of Mexico from Biloxi, Mississippi to Matagorda, Texas. the product of prolific writers

Ernest Hemingway once proclaimed, “prose is architecture, not interior decoration…” The powerful words from the celebrated novelist and 1954 Nobel Prize for Literature recipient sets the stage for the relationship between architecture and words. Prose is the approach, the style or manner in which ideas are conveyed to an audience. If a picture is worth a thousand words, how valuable are a thousand words? Regardless of education, experience, or social standing, most people - including the designers entrusted to the task of designing - have preconceived notions as to how architecture, or at least the outward aesthetics of the built environment, should be defined. Breaking from preconception can be imperative for successful projects. Words can assist students and faculty in conveying the sea of possibilities, from the poetic and conceptual to the technical and code related components.

Words are influential and have been anchored in history through various art forms and professions. Single words, phrases, and sentences have defined numerous generations in novels, poetry, textbooks, magazines, newspapers, musical lyrics, and speeches. They have characterized people, generations, and society.

What if designers simply began with writing as a brainstorming method of distilling observations, necessities, and project goals? Various topics such as scale, enclosure, spatial relationships, transparency, directionality, and procession can be effectively defined and debated in writing. Words can translate abstractions into tangible and discernible design criteria as ideas develop and are influenced by other decisions. The written word is powerful, but not always comfortable. When used effectively, the written word is capable of defining needs, weeding out opinions, and substantiating significance prior to any visual and/or tangible representations. Writing breaks down preconceived ideas into a hierarchical list that puts questions and programmatic needs above what someone may like or dislike about another building, a previously commissioned design, or the latest magazine cover.

Can instructors mold students to not only discover value in but also enjoy writing as both a design tool and an artistic expression, assigning the entire design process to a datum of information that serves as a point of reference and genesis for the built environment? Can prolific writers and articulate designers be one in the same? Can writing yield more articulate designers, articulation of thought, presentation, and material expression? How can writing help sift through all the different avenues of design and solutions fighting for attention?

Dan Butko

As an architect and Assistant Professor of Architecture at a state university, the first author is responsible for instructing 125+/- students annually within design studios, materials, sustainable technology courses, and architectural acoustics electives. Research focuses on materials, sustainability, and acoustics with numerous grants, collaborative publications within national and international conferences and journals, a scholarly book contract, and notable awards. Professional background includes design phases, client management, and construction administration with nationally known architecture and construction firms. JAE 68:2 Theme Proposal

Guest Co-Editors:

Hooman Koliji, PhD

Mohammad Gharipour, PhD

Non-West: Exotic or Essential?

In light of the globalization and increasingly exposure to the international world, architectural profession in the United States assumes a big market “out there” in what could be referred as “non-West,” cultures and communities. Recent decade has shown growing architectural practice in Asia and the Middle East. Both the discipline and profession have become overwhelmingly engaged in international conversations where scholars and practitioners from the global community share ideas and work, thus, enriching the field. Recent calls for global collaborative efforts to tackle the human’s wicked problems have made the value of work outside of the U.S. far beyond understanding cultures, but as means to provide critical angels to provide more holistic vision in solving global problems.

It is universally accepted that “international” educational experience is not only a plus but also a necessity for future practitioners. Such necessity has resulted in shifting architectural curricula in some schools and in redefining what could constitute “international.” New seminars, classes, studios, and emerging models of research studio abroad are outcomes of awareness to the necessity of global experience outside of “western world” for architectural education. On the one hand the architectural education’s commitment to social, environmental, and economical issues worldwide calls for revisiting “non-West” beyond an economical market. And on the other hand, “non- West” has yet to found its place in architectural curricula beyond its exotic position in history courses.

This theme explores this emerging interest and aims to explore the “relevancy” of non- West in contemporary architectural education. This special issue invites scholars, practitioners, educational leaders from around the world, and specifically from the Western culture to reflect on these questions: what is the place of “non-West” in contemporary and future of architectural practice? How relevant the topic is in terms of providing a critical platform for a holistic approach in practice? How could current political, social, economical, and environmental issues emerging in the non-Western world provide unique opportunities to engage future practitioners? How can a cross- cultural approach contribute to the education of critical thinker, designer, and leaders who could make an impact? Does “non-West” better off remaining in history sequence or if there is time to reimagine its place- as a critical contemporary discourse - in architectural curricula? What are possible advantages and disadvantages of pursuing such avenue? This special issue explores projects and pedagogical attempts and projects to transform architectural education from a marginal vision to a more profound and engaged understanding of the role of global traditions of architecture.

Hooman Koliji is an assistant professor of architecture at the University of Maryland. Koliji holds master degrees in both Architecture and Landscape Architecture and a PhD in Architecture and Design Research. He has completed his education in three continents: Asia, Europe, and the United States. His in PhD education, Koliji has examined questions of design thinking and representation from two philosophical perspectives of West and East and their effects on the process of conceiving architectural space. His multicultural education and background has yield research interest in the field of architectural education with an international perspective. Koliji has explores this research in his writings and serving as editorial member, conference and symposia chair, invited presentations, and co-authored papers.

Mohammad Gharipour is an assistant professor at the School of Architecture and Planning at Morgan State University. He obtained his Master’s in architecture from the University of Tehran and PhD in architecture from Georgia Institute of Technology. As the recipient of the Hamad Bin Khalifa Fellowship in Islamic Art in 2007 and the Spiro Kostof Fellowship Award from the Society of Architectural Historians in 2008, Gharipour has published extensively on architectural history. He is the author of Persian Gardens and Pavilions: Reflections in Poetry, Arts and History (I.B.Tauris, 2013), editor of Bazaar in the Islamic City (American University of Cairo Press, 2012), co-editor of Calligraphy in Muslim Architecture (Edinburgh University Press, 2013). Gharipour is the founding editor of the International Journal of Islamic Architecture.

Labor in Architecture

As with shifts in manufacturing from the 19th Century to the present, the production of architecture as an industry has followed trajectories fueled by technology, material innovation, economic forces, and socio-political influences. Moving from regional forms of production to a global one, the myriad terms we associate with manufacturing (e.g. labor force, labor value, skill set, means of production, etc.) are under scrutiny, given that these terms are no longer defined limited by their traditional meanings, but are challenged by emerging forms of practices.

Anyone involved in both academia and practice in architecture over the last fifteen years has likely not escaped the shift into digital production. Computer aided technologies have become an integral part of the means of production, and they have effectively reshaped architectural discourse in both production and outcome – retooling and reskilling the profession in the process. It is then only natural to revisit the question of craft, of technique(s), and materiality. Innovative design through digital fabrication has emerged alongside the recovery of historic production techniques in building and making, in effect situating the role of the architect as both designer and builder, exemplified by the trend of design-built projects.

As theorists, practitioners, and educators reassess this shift, the question of how it reshapes the profession, how we operate given these instruments and resources, is still up for debate. The argument that we increase efficiency and gain in time and effort through these means of production has waned, given that we actually spend more time and resources to accomplish more elaborate ends. Over the past decade, the focus of architectural discourse has primarily been on the product; however, the recalibration has in fact affected labor rather than product. Labor is that which constitutes myriad of forms that are both visible and veiled in the production of architecture.

This thematic issue invites a broad range of criticism and insights into this question of labor in architecture. How is labor understood in contemporary architecture? Is it inherently embedded in its production from design to development to fabrication? How do we reassess our discipline both academically and professionally in regard to labor – its organization, distribution, execution, and consumption? Who are the agents in the global context and what are the types of expertise involved? How can we direct the next generation of architects as thinkers and makers toward more responsible practices? Where does the value of labor reside in architecture and how do we qualify it?

Tsz Yan Ng

Ng served as a clinical assistant professor at State University of New York at Buffalo including one year as the Reyner Banham Fellow (2001-2002). She received undergraduate degree in professional studies, State University of New York at Buffalo, and has two master's of architecture degrees, one from State University of New York at Buffalo and one from Cornell University. She is currently working towards a doctoral degree in architectural history and theory at McGill University. Her area of specialization concerns architectural representation and the intimate relationship between ideation and making. Her current research looks at late 19th century universal expositions in France and confronts questions of constructed identities and their respective 'histories'.

JAE 68:2 THEME PROPOSAL

The overly self-reflective standards that define architectural discourse and appraise its impact upon the world may have curtailed its relevance beyond the discipline. This proposal for the 68.2 issue of theJournal of Architectural OFF-THE-RADAR Education offers designers, educators and scholars of architecture a means to reach out into the changing social reality of our global culture. Off-the-Radar Mitnick-Roddier proposes to use design and its discourse to consider how it might impact the social dynamics of the world, either directly in the production of space, or RHETORICS OF SPACE (PREMISE) indirectly through means of analyzing and representing it. On June 23 2013, Edward Snowden entered Moscow’s Sheremetyevo airport international transit zone, prompting a predicament that attracted much media attention by challenging re- ceived notions of freedom: while technically a “free man,” Snowden’s mobility was limited to the confines of the international transit zone until his legal status change five weeks later. The relationship between his (temporary lack of) citizenship and the (lack of) sovereign identity of the spaces he could inhabit—transit spaces, international airspace, “allied” embassy spaces, etc—calls into question the spatial configuration of such “safety” zones. It also highlights incongruences between legal and physical realities.

The overriding theme for the OFF-THE-RADAR issue will be founded upon the premise that ar- chitecture’s explicit area of expertise is in the formation and contemplation of space. And yet the long-standing terms with which space has been defined are precisely what needs to be reconsidered. The term “territory” is often posited as something that not only comprises land as a political-economic identity and terrain as a political-strategic relation of power rooted in geological representation, but also as something more: territories operate between and beyond the Cartesian geography of the material world and the abstracted networked spaces of the law. They combine—and for the sake of this call conveniently problematize—legal, social, physical, ecological and networked spaces. In the same vein, architectural space should exceed the limitations of either formal zoning or abstract landscape by working as a spatial technique that produces symbolic relations. Evidence of this may require new—or highlight existing— forms of collaboration with other professional disciplines and theoretical discourses that also use space as a technology (as shelter/defense but also as weapon, as alibi, as currency, as resource, as evidence), such as geographers, immigration lawyers, quantum physicists, theolo- gians, martial artists, game theorists, science-fiction authors, topological mathematicians, etc. Such extra-disciplinary lenses would not only inform and enrich our collective understand- ing of territorial science, but could expand our spatial imaginaries with possibilities for new operations and readings.

If an increased planetary surveillance apparatus is leaving little room on earth to hide, the network of global underground movements is inexorably tightening into a web of dissident spaces that will form the 21st century’s unified territories of resistance. Its cyber-space pres- ence has already demonstrated its potential power through networked communities of hack- tivists. Much in the same way that embassies, DMZ’s or international transit lounges use spatial alibi to function as abstracted “states of exceptions” within the territories on which they stand, the material terrain of dissent—of freedom to some—lies in the loopholes found between geometric and legal spatial attributes.

In our call for the OFF-THE-RADAR issue of JAE, we ask designers, historians, theorists, educators and critics to reflect upon these dual attributes of space, and to conceptualize, shape and re- frame the boundaries of what we define asarchitectural space through an assertive manipulation of spatial relations in order to re-frame its potential relevance. Rather than leave the media to portray international law and geography with diagrammatic infographics that tend to pro- duce the spatial realities they illustrate, we turn to experts of architecture, whether scholars or designers, to consider the terrain itself as a medium through which the message will be conveyed and to create new performative interpretations of, and alternative endplays to, the stalemate configuration that define the spatial conundrums and predicaments of our time.

1 OFF-THE-RADAR Journal of Architectural Education 68:2 BEING AND NOTHINGNESS EMOTIONAL REASON PROGRAM THE MINIMALIST INTRODUCTION TOFREE WILL A CONTEMPORARY SAVING TRUTH FROM PARADOX THE MINIMALIST BEING AND PROGRAM NOTHINGNESS ROBERT KANE NOAM CHOMSKY JEAN PAUL SARTRE A CONTEMPORARY INTRODUCTION TO FREE WILL

SAVING TRUTH CHOMSKY

SARTRE FROM PARADOX HELM FIELD KANE

EMOTIONAL REASON P 158.28 B 105 E46 B819 BC 199 P2 BJ 1461 C48 1995 H45 2001 BENNETT W. HELM S253 1965 P537 2008 HARTRY FIELDK365 2005 P 158.28 C48 1995 B 105 E46 H45 2001 B819 S253 1965 BC 199 P2 P537 2008 BJ 1461 K365 2005 PHENOMENON THE INCOMPLETENESS THE LIMITS OF ABSTRACTION ONTOLOGICAL RELATIVITY SELF-INTEREST OFTHE MORALITY OF AUTONOMY THE INVENTION THE LIMITS OF ONTOLOGICAL RELATIVITY THE INVENTION OF ABSTRACTION WILLARD VAN ORMAN QUINE AUTONOMY KIT FINE J. B. SCHNEEDWINDA SCHNEEDWIND

GOLDSTERN MARTIN GOLDSTERN OLSON QUINE

FINE THE ROBERT OLSON INCOMPLETENESS THE MORALITY OF PHENOMENON QA 8.4 B 840 QA 9.54 BJ 1474 SELF-INTERESTBJ 301 F56 2002 Q49 G65 1995 O4 1965 S35 1998 QA 8.4 F56 2002 B840 Q49 QA 9.54 G65 1995 BJ 1474 O4 1965 BJ 301 S35 1998 THE PARADOX OF THE LIAR AND MORALITY SELF-DECEPTION SELF-DECEPTION AND THE PARADOX OF THE LIAR MORALITY MARTIN MIKE MARTIN BIBLIOGRAPHY

MITNICK—RODDIER is a collaborative design practice founded by Keith Mitnick and Mireille Rod- dier. Their work explores space making as a social and symbolic practice through design proposals that explore notions of representation and rehearse conceptual rather than aes- thetic claims. Their main interests include questions regarding the manifestation of the public realm, material codings and other social practices, visual perception and the mechanics (physi- MARTIN MARTIN cal and political) of ocularcentrism. Their built work has received numerous awards, including the Architecture League of New York’s Young Architects Prize and Architectural Record’s Design BJ 1429.3 BC 199 M37 1986 P2 P22 Vanguard, and was most recently featured in Log and Mark Magazine. Their built work includes BJ 1429.3 M37 1986 BC 199 P2 P22 multiple installations, notably at the Chaumont-Sur-Loire International Garden Festival, the Montpellier Festival of Architecture and the Los Angeles Forum for Architecture + Urbanism. Both Mitnick and Roddier are Associate Professors at the University of Michigan.

Mitnick-Roddier MITNICK’s interests in narrative structures and representation has led to the publication of Arti- Untitled (Detroit) – excerpts (2012) ficial Light (Princeton Architectural Press, 2008), the curation of the Un-Privileged Views exhibit 75 proposed book jackets for the Tanner Philosophy Library, (LA Forum, 2012) as well as scholarly essays and criticism in such journals as Praxis, Domus and The University of Michigan Abitare. He is currently working on a manuscript of architectural fiction,Rainy Sea.

The mis-appropriation of one meaning-system upon another enables the reader to consider how the classification of abstract RODDIER’s interest in the politics of representation has fueled her research. Since publishing ideas and ideological territories not only colors our experience of Lavoirs (Princeton Architectural Press, 2003), which documents obsolete typologies, she has actual places, but is also embedded within their physical form. In lectured extensively on the aestheticization of industrial decay. Recent critical writings have the same way that Detroit-the-city is not only described but also appeared in the Architectural Review and Volume Magazine. In 2012, she co-organized and curated produced by the ways it has been represented, Untitled (Detroit) aims to break down the boundaries between fiction and nonfic- ‘Imaging Detroit’, a documentary film festival/symposium. ‘Imaging Detroit’ was included in tion typically upheld in conventional depictions of urbanity. the Institute for Urban Design curated exhibit Spontaneous Interventions.

2 OFF-THE-RADAR Journal of Architectural Education 68:2 JAE 68:2 Proposal Language and Design Process

Ever since, architecture has been a highly visual discipline. The architect´s tools are the pen and nowadays the computer, the only valid language is: the plan drawing. We clearly doubt that this is the whole story. In architectural education as well as in design theory the intriguing point is the act of developing a design idea. We tend to mystify this process as mainly intuitive act. But beside artistic intuition – which is hardly teachable – design is a highly cognitive process. A purposeful and professional use of language as part of the design toolbox can significantly contribute to high quality design and therefore has to be part of education and subsequent design skills. In the history of architecture, architectural theory and education, language has intermittently played an important role. Vitruvius and Alberti associated architectural design with linguistic rules. And it was Loos who stated that good architecture, the question how to build, can be written. Robert Venturi and Denise Scott-Brown alike, spend a lot of effort in the interplay between drawing and text, each of which has different potentials and both are interdependent for their work. From today´s perspective it seems worthwhile to pick up and develop design theories and debates which had begun in the 1970s, when language interestingly played a prominent role in new architectural movements and schools. Further, recent findings about the function of learning in neurodidactic and neurolinguistic research support the role of language as reflective tool in the thought process. This reflective aspect is needed more than ever. Architecture is not simply shaping a place or building, it is a statement which has to consider today’s highly complex social, economic and cultural environment. Not least design needs communication. Complex projects require sophisticated communication tools. Here, the most important tool of all still is language, not plan. Therefore it seems high time to take a closer look at the role of language in recent architectural theories, practices and curricula. With Issue 68:2 we want to open up a broad discussion on this.

CVs Prof. Dr.-Ing. Marc Kirschbaum is an architect, architectural theorist and publicist. He studied architecture in Germany, the UK and as a Fulbright scholar in the USA. He has taught architectural theory and design at different universities, among others as visiting professor at Clemson School of Architecture, South Carolina/USA. Since 2012 he is professor for architectural theory and design at SRH University Heidelberg/Germany. From 2004-2012 he was editor-in-chief of the architectural periodical arclos! Marc Kirschbaum is the author of several papers and books on design theory such as: Architektur und Lebensstil (2008), with Kai Schuster; architektur.unplugged (2008); architektur generalistisch (2008). Contact: [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Doris Gstach is a landscape architect by profession. She has been working as a practitioner and researcher. Her teaching career started supervising urban design studios at the Technical University in Vienna/Austria followed by positions at Kassel University/Germany and at Clemson University/US, where she organized a writing competition for landscape architecture students, funded by the Pearce Center for Professional Communication. Since 2011 she holds a position as professor at the Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning at the University of Applied Sciences in Erfurt/Germany. Dr. Gstach is the author various publications on design issues. In 2011 she discussed “Landscape architecture between professional ideals and common taste” (In: Design Principles and Practices: An International Journal, Volume 5, Issue 2, pp. 259-264). Together with Margit Schild she wrote on “Contemporary German Landscape Architecture” (in: Bund Deutscher Landschaftsarchitekten (BDLA) (ed.): Übergänge. Zeitgenössische deutsche Landschaftsarchitektur / Insight Out. Contemporary German Landscape Architecture. Birkhäuser, Basel, Boston, Berlin. pp.124-133). Contact: [email protected] JAE 68:2

S,M,L,XL and Its Futures

Guest Editors: Alicia Imperiale (Temple University) and Enrique Ramirez (Princeton University and Illinois Institute of Technology)

“The future has already arrived. It’s just not evenly distributed yet” —Attributed to William Gibson

In anticipation of the 20th anniversary of the publication of Rem Koolhaas/OMA’s S,M,L,XL, this special issue of JAE will reflect on the book’s singular influence on the practice and writing of architecture. We start with the premise that this rather large book— weighing in at over 6 pounds and printed with 1,376 pages of text and graphical material— was not only a last hurrah, but also an emissary from a future we are already familiar with. To put it another way, S,M,L,XL was very much a product of its time, a sterling example of the far limits of architecture publishing when the Internet was still a low-bandwidth, slow, and limited medium. Yet the book also prefigured many aspects of contemporary architecture practice. The architect as global consultant, media pundit, or technological early-adopter: All of these appear in the pages of S,M,L,XL, curated and calibrated for consumption by specialist and non-specialist audiences around the world. We still refer to the book as a kind of barometer by which the current state of architecture practice should be measured. To paraphrase William Gibson, the future of architecture had arrived with the publication of S,M,L,XL, and it took subsequent generations of practitioners and technologies to distribute it evenly.

This special issue of JAE seeks contributions that revisit and recast the influence of S,M,L,XL through multiple vantage points. The publishing angle is obviously important: Can S,M,L,XL be considered an important waypoint in the trajectory of architecture publishing, one marking the transition from the modernist manifesto to the image-rich websites of today? Did this book inaugurate a new paradigm for architectural expertise, one where the architect brings multiple scales into dialogue while addressing global contingencies? Do we think of urbanism differently because of S,M,L,XL? Beyond the resurgence of practices with acronyms for names and the proliferation of “big books” like U.N. Studio’s Move (1999) or MVRDV’s FARMAX (1999), what other futures did S,M,L,XL bring into the spotlight? Is today’s architect, an electronic-media-savvy, globe girdling consultant tuned in to 24-hour news cycles and streaming online content, the inheritor of the alternative modes of research, publishing, and production we find nestled inside the pages of S,M,L,XL? We hope that this special issue of JAE will invite speculation of how this is or may be the case.

Editor Biographies

Alicia Imperiale ([email protected])

A licensed architect, artist, and theorist, Alicia Imperiale is Assistant Professor of Architectural History/Theory and Design at the Tyler School of Art, Temple University. She holds a Bachelor of Architecture from Pratt Institute (1986), an MFA in Combined Media from Hunter College/City University of New York (1997), an MA (2007) and PhD (Feb. 2014) in Architectural History and Theory from Princeton University with the dissertation, Critical Organicism: Alternate Histories of Italian Architecture 1958-1973.

Her design and written work focuses on the impact of traditional and digital technologies on art, architecture, representation, fabrication, and urbanism from WWII to the present. Aspects of this research are presented in her book New Flatness: Surface Tension in Digital Architecture (Birkhauser, 2000). Other publications include “Paolo Soleri and the Teilhard de Chardin Cloister” in Building the Kingdom: Architecture of Religious Communities (Pickering & Chatto, London, 2014); “The Packaged House of Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius” and “Modularity, Prefabrication & Building Manuals in Postwar Italy: Scenes from America” (ACSA, 2012); “Organic Italy? The Troubling Case of Rinaldo Semino Architect” Perspecta 43 (Yale Univeristy/MIT Press, 2010); “Digital Skins: architecture of surface" in SKIN: Surface, Substance and Design (Princeton Architectural Press, 2002); “Fluid Alliances: Architecture, Politics and Fetish Post 9/11” and “Territories of Protest,” in LOG magazine (2003 and 2008); “Seminal Space: Getting under the Digital Skin,” in RE: SKIN, ed. Mary Flanagan (MIT Press, 2006), and “Anne Tyng: Dynamic Symmetries” in Anne Tyng: Inhabiting Geometry (ICA, 2011). In relation to her work on the politics of the 1960s Alicia is a co-curator of the exhibit and catalogue Clip, Stamp, Fold: The Architecture of Little Magazines 196X-197X. She is collaborating with AnnMarie Brennan on an anthology of translations of seminal essays of twentieth century Italian architectural magazines.

Enrique Ramirez ([email protected])

A former attorney and refugee from the film industry, Enrique Ramirez is a historian and scholar who writes about the intersections of architecture, technology, and environment across different media, time periods, and geographies. His work has appeared in a number of scholarly, professional, and specialty publications, including Perspecta, Thresholds, Manifest: A Journal of American Architecture and Urbanism, Future Anterior, AA Files, Materia, Quaderns, Pidgin Magazine and Design Observer. Ramirez studied History of Science at Northwestern University (BA 1999), received his law degree from the George Washington University Law School (JD 1996), and has also studied film production at the University of Southern California’s School of Cinematic Arts and urban planning at the University of California, Los Angeles. He received a MED from the Yale School of Architecture in 2007 and finished his PhD in History and Theory of Architecture from Princeton University in 2013. He is currently working on two book projects: the first is a study of architecture and human flight in 18th and 19th century France and America; the second is an examination of Thomas Pynchon’s historical novels in light of current trends in the historiography and theory of architecture. A dedicated writer, Ramirez is also the author and editor of this is a456 (http://www.aggregat456.com , one of the first weblogs dedicated to architectural history). He is currently an adjunct instructor at the Illinois Institute of Technology and a Postdoctoral Research Associate at Princeton University. The emergent field of Interior Architecture has its own history, its own theory and qualifies as a unique field of knowledge. The AIA has defined Interior Architecture through their own awards program as the design of “significant interior spaces”. Embedded in the rhetoric of modern architecture is the assumption that the interior and exterior are one and the same, one is encased within the other, that the inside must equal the outside, the form must follow function, that exterior form making holds priority over the interior. Architecture school and the design studio have long left meaningful discussion of the interior spaces of buildings unattended. While this may have been useful as a design methodology for a period of time, it has been challenged for more than a decade by the work of innovative designers and theorists. This proposed issue of JAE would seek the submission of articles that question the nature and perception of interiority, as well as examples of studio design projects that redefines our understanding of the relationship between interior and exterior.

Interior Architecture has been claimed by both Architecture and Interior Design. There are clearly differences between these professions, as one emerged from mathematics and engineering while the other emerged from the social sciences. These differences have been reflected in the adoption of title acts that provide boundaries to practice, but also in the literature produced by scholars in these two fields. It has become apparent that there is this third condition, of others looking across these disciplines with another set of parameters. For example, how can a discussion of Interior Architecture contribute to the dialogue of sustainability, while not simply being about lighting and material choices? Keywords and topics include: progressive materiality, thermal comfort, collaboration with non-design disciplines, history of Interior Architecture theory and practice, spatial sequencing, the design of spaces for adaptive reuse and additions.

Christian Dagg, AIA has served since 2007 as the Chair of the Interior Architecture Program in the School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape Architecture at Auburn University.

Rebecca O’Neal Dagg has served Auburn University as Chair of the Interior Architecture program, Associate Dean for Academic Affairs and Research, and Interim Dean for the College of Architecture Design and Construction. 68:2 Call for Theme Proposals

THINGS HUMAN: Systemic and the Horizonal Approaches to Architecture

Systemic thinking has come to define much of contemporary architectural practice and discourse. Rooted in the quantifiable metrics of science, in the technological, systemic thinking results in the creation of mechanistic products—in architecture as an instrument. To think systemically infers that one is positioned outside of the system—a closed loop that can be observed from a distance. Therein lies the trouble with applying systemic thinking to architecture—as inhabitants, we are fundamentally, and always, within the system. To think through our condition while inhabiting it might be described as a mode that runs parallel to systemic thinking, and at a different scale: call it horizonal thinking.

Horizonal thinking can only gesture to its outside perimeters. Horizonal thinking is that framework used by the humanities. An anthropologist must observe a culture from within, not from without. The painter, the poet, the sculptor all create works that are gestures toward the human condition—the capacity for wonder, the certainty of mortality, the fragility of being alive. There is, inherent in this work, an incalculable and insurmountable distance between the work and that which it gestures toward—which remains ever at the unreachable horizon. We find this evident, still, in various contemporary art forms—literature, visual arts, music, film, and so forth. But where is it to be found within architecture?

Often without acknowledging it, the academy operates in service of the separation of systemic and horizonal thinking. We engage with technology and the humanities in ways that are evidently distinct—implying a dichotomy between what is technological and what is, for lack of a better word, human. This call for papers asks for an exploration of these seemingly parallel frameworks. First, does architecture belong more to the systemic, or the horizonal? Should architecture navigate this spectrum continuously? What can the breadth of the humanities contribute to architecture and, as importantly, to architectural education?

Biographies:

Clive R. Knights is Professor of Architecture and Director of the School of Architecture at Portland State University. He practices architecture and art, in particular mixed media and monotype printmaking. He holds professional architectural design undergraduate and graduate degrees from Portsmouth Polytechnic, UK, and a Master of Philosophy in Architectural History and Theory from Cambridge University (Thesis: "The Place of Mimesis in Architectural Representation," 1988).

Clive has taught architecture for the past 29 years and was a full-time lecturer at Sheffield University for six years before moving to PSU in 1995 to collaborate in the initiation of a new school and its architecture degree programs. This Spring, 2013, the School reached a major milestone by achieving NAAB accreditation for its two-year Master of Architecture.

Clive’s primary areas of creative research include the cultural meanings of architectural representation understood through the phenomenology of the human body, with particular reference to the writings of Maurice Merleau-Ponty; the revelatory capacity of metaphor in poetic work; and speculations in architectural design studio pedagogy.

He has exhibited design work internationally, including three projects at the 1985 Venice Biennale as a founding partner of Ferenczi Design; and the prize-winning finalist project for the Grand Buildings Competition at the Royal Institute of British Architects, London, 1986. He has shown mixed media work in many public settings, such as the Northwest Biennial at the Tacoma Art Museum, Washington, in 2004. He has designed and built several works including the Christiane Millinger Oriental Rug Gallery in Portland, Oregon (with Michael Gibson, 2000), and Riverhouse, a private dwelling on the Columbia River in Cathlamet, Washington (with Louise Foster, 2002).

He has published in JAE, in many other journals and has contributed chapters in several books including Architecture & Order: Approaches to Social Space (Routledge, 1994), Intersections: Architectural Histories and Cultural Theories (Routledge, 2000) and Thinking Practice: Reflections on Architectural Research and Building Work (Black Dog 2007). He also co-chaired the 18th National Conference on the Beginning Design Student (Portland State University, 2002) including coordination of the blind academic peer review process.

His current, ongoing project is an interpretive study of the ‘involuntary’ predicament of being human incorporating a series of monotypes, mixed media drawings, maquettes and full-scale thematic structures directly engaging the human body, collectively gathered under the working title: “Cycles and Horizons: Re-membering the Daughters of Mnemosyne.”

Nora Wendl questions the composition of architecture—seeking to expand the perception of what the discipline’s built forms and histories are (and could be). Her compositions exist on a spectrum between the written artifact and the built artifact, aligning architecture and its histories with the adjacent fields of fiction, poetry, contemporary art and literature. She is co-editor, with Isabelle Loring Wallace, of Contemporary Art about Architecture: A Strange Utility (Ashgate, 2013). In 2012, with Michael R. Allen (Director of Preservation Research Office), she co-organized the international design competition Pruitt Igoe Now. In 2010-2011, she was one of twelve Pacific Northwest writers selected as a Jack Straw Fellow (Seattle, WA). Her research has been featured in various publications including 306090, Journal of Architectural Education, and Studies in the History of Gardens and Designed Landscapes, conferences and literary festivals, and her drawings and installations have been exhibited in a variety of galleries and academic venues. She is currently Assistant Professor of Architecture in the School of Architecture at Portland State University in Portland, Oregon.

Architecture as a System of Communication

In his work, sociologist Niklas Luhmann defines society as being structured in systems of communication and describes them as self-referential or autopoietic. Autopoiesis (pronounced "auto-poy-E-sis") comes from the Greek αὐτo- (auto-), meaning "self", and ποίησις (poiesis), meaning "creation, production”. By doing so Luhmann makes reference to a concept developed by Chillean biologists Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela who explain the nature of the living systems as self- generating. The biological cell, for example, with its structure of nucleic acids and proteins, based on an external flow of molecules and energy, produces the components that help sustain the cell. However, unlike the biological cell which is a closed self sustained network of processes that does not depend on external components to reproduce itself (and which ceases to exist when such components are no longer activated, thus abolishing the entire organizational structure), systems of communications rely on human beings to reproduce the correspondence which sustains them. Through their lack of autonomy, the systems of communication become therefore memes, analogues, for true autopoietic organizations which can mutate partially and arbitrarily.

Drawing from Luhmann’s “Second Order Systems Theory”, Patrick Schumacher defines architecture as another self-referential and self-recursive system of communication distinct from law, economy, politics, art or religion. In his book, “The Autopoiesis of Architecture. Vol1”, he defines a theoretical discourse on architecture which reestablishes a proper beginning with the Renaissance. He explains that although the Gothic cathedral was definitely a high point of achievement that begins to differentiate the figure of the architect along with the practice of drawings, no names were preserved within the ongoing autopoiesis of architecture. In contrast, Albetri, Palladio and Bramante are prominent figures of the theoretical and architectural discourse.

While the polemic of architecture versus building is by now obsolete as architecture can clearly situate itself as distinct from construction, a new debate is contoured around architecture and its surreptitious trespass into the realm of communication. As a meme for a self–created organization, architecture operates at different scales, while negotiating links between pre-existing gaps. In the most reductive form, its dependence on external agents [the architects and the audience] redefines its modus operandi as non-linear, anarchic, nomadic, smooth and moving in many directions, making connections to other systems while cutting across Arbolic like divisions.

This issue would invite architects, theorists and educators alike to further elaborate on the following questions:

What is it that architecture communicates? Does the message need translation or an educated audience? Is it an evolving one? Is that the new ‘meaning proper’ of architecture as a system of communication? Is architectural communication self- generated? Should precedents be taught as only pertaining to historical models? Should precedents from other fields be discarded? If architecture starts with an interdisciplinary approach [i.e. biomimicry] is the result not architecture? Does that make architecture allpoietic? [as opposed to autopoietic] What is the byproduct of architecture? Last, but not least, what is the impact this should have on education?

Mara Olga Marcu

3031 Eden Avenue, Apt 102 Cincinnati, OH 45219 [email protected] Mobile: +1 347 515 3407 www.maramarcu.com October 1, 2013

Re: Journal of Architectural Education 68:2 Call for Theme Proposals

Dear Marc Neveu,

I am writing to you to share my proposal along with my qualifications in order to be considered for the Journal of Architectural Education 68:2 Call for Theme Proposals.

Besides the Glenn Murcutt International Master Class 2010 in Sydney- Australia, my education includes a Master of Architecture degree from Harvard University, Graduate School of Design in 2009. Previously, I have received my Bachelor of Architecture degree, with honors, from University of Houston, Gerald D. Hines College of Architecture and was awarded the “Best in Show Design Award” for the top project in the graduating year. This award grants the participation to the design build Ghost Laboratory with Brian MacKay-Lyons, in Nova Scotia - Canada, program which I completed in July 2005. I was involved with Ghost 7, Shobac Cottages, project that has been widely published and is now in use, housing the current attendants of the laboratory.

Following this valuable practical experience, I have explored several internships in New York City, each providing a different experience of responsibility and environments. While at Rafael Vinoly Architects, I have benefited most from the cross field collaboration with the in-house structural engi- neers and consultants, while starting to develop a passion for having a multi-disciplinary approach at the heart of the architectural practice. Working for DesignLab Houston has led me to the understand- ing that architecture goes beyond the object. My academic background includes teaching gradu- ate and undergraduate design studios and seminars at the University of Houston Hines College of Architecture, Ion Mincu University of Architecture in Bucharest - Romania, at the University of Virginia School of Architecture as the Virginia Teaching Fellow and currently as Assistant Professor at the University of Cincinnati College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning.

My understanding of space is that it has an ineffable power over people due to an archaic built-in emotional intelligence. Through my various academic and professional projects, I have explored this psychological charge of architecture by looking into the archaic, the mythology of space, while pre- dicting potential ways to integrate the disenchanted, yet ubiquitous Soviet Constructivist blocks in to the current urbanism of Eastern European cities - filtered through the understanding capabilities and technical advancements of our times. My fascination with the endless possibilities that current tech- nologies provide to our field, led me to research and coordinate various applications of parametric design and lightweight structures in architecture.

As a Romanian born designer building a body of work in a foreign country, respectively the U.S., I be- came deeply convinced that although specificity goes way beyond nationality and political bound- aries, one’s upbringing and cultural baggage can be of great resonance with, and of relevance to, an international context. I am consequently a believer that the symbiosis between cultural heritage and international practice is not a one of loss nor a result of globalization, but irrevocable wealth for the humanity only made possible through various systems of communications. These were ideals instilled in my own education and something I believe in passionately. I hope I can bring a varied and intriguing contribution which can add to the discourse under the current leadership and legacy of the Journal of Architectural Education.

Please find the attached my proposal titled “Architecture as a System of Communication” . I would be glad to further elaborate on this topic, as well as on other research and academic work you may have questions about.

I look forward to hearing from you.

Best Regards, Mara Marcu, LEED AP Post-Modernism—An Incomplete Project

In 1980 Jürgen Habermas delivered a paper titled “Modernity—An Incomplete Project” in which he criticized the first Venice Architecture Biennale of that same year for sacrificing the “tradition of modernity in order to make room for a new historicism.” While others, such as Bruno Latour, argue more extremely that “we have never been modern,” both modernism and post-modernism are terms that remain in circulation. But if Habermas argues that post-modernism is simply an extension of modernism, might one also argue that contemporary digital culture is an extension of postmodernism? If so, post-modernism too might be considered an incomplete project.

If, following the lead of the J.A.E., we take Rossi and Venturi’s 1966 publications as the date for architectural post-modernism’s origin, then surely 1988 signals the year of a possible end. In that year, MoMA opened its Deconstructivist Architecture exhibition, commodifying post-modernism as both a style that responded to the language of context and post-modernism as a theory in which architects engaged philosophy, and homogenizing an inchoate and experimental body of work much as it had done in its 1932 International Style exhibition. In the decade and a half that followed, radically subversive and intellectually formidable writings about architecture and space were decontextualized into a series of architectural anthologies that effectively spelled the end of theory, at least on the surface. At the same time, digital culture emerged as a new and instrumental obsession. Post- modernity’s evolution seemed to be cut short.

We propose that as the hands of history’s clock and architecture’s fashion wheel move inexorably forward contemporary interest in the pre-post-modern parametric prototypes of Buckminster Fuller or Félix Candela will be augmented by post- modern models. As evidenced in the 2011 A.D. special issue, Radical Post- Modernism, and more recently by the Getty Research Institute’s “Pacific Standard Time Presents: Modern Architecture in L.A.,” architectural post-modernism is already plainly on the table in conversations about the contemporary moment. And yet, the epistemological break that digital culture seems to have ushered in may not be as homogenizing, undertheorized, or even as revolutionary as the results of its production may indicate, as, for example, the suspect premise that performance and representation are oppositional clearly suggests. If, as Antoine Picon has recently argued, ornament has returned spectacularly from modernist exile, then did this return not begin with post-modernism? The return of ornament and the concomitant merging of digital technologies and post-modern theory is but one example of the ways in which post-modernism’ tentacles stretch into the contemporary moment. We invite authors to submit essays that join in this discussion debating post-modernism’s legacy and imminent progeny. Authors might consider submitting on the following topics:

What is the role of imagery and meaning in architectural performative systems?

Are the parametric forms produced today always, already historically derivative and hence post-modern?

Does a return to 1980s architectural theory and practice offer a direction for a new digital avant-garde now that digital culture has been absorbed into mainstream architecture?

What are the possible modes of interaction between architectural autonomy and socially-engaged responsiveness?

Ewan Branda is an Associate Professor of architecture and coordinator of History-Theory at the Woodbury University School of Architecture. He holds a Ph.D. in Critical Studies in Architecture from UCLA, a Master's degree in Design and Computation from MIT, and a professional architecture degree from the University of Waterloo. His research focuses on architecture's place in the information society and the role of technology in scholarly discourse. He recently co-curated the exhibition A Confederacy of Heretics, part of the Getty Research Institute's Pacific Standard Time initiative, which examined postmodern architecture in Los Angeles in the late-1970s. He co-edited the exhibition catalog (published by Getty Publications and SCI-Arc Press), and his own catalog essay deals with the persistence of technological preoccupations in architectural postmodernism. Formerly a registered architect in the province of Québec, he has served as a board member for the LA Forum for Architecture and Urban Design and the Electronic Literature Organization, and is currently the Technical Editor of the Electronic Book Review.

Paulette Singley is a Professor of Architecture at Woodbury University and director of the university’s Rome Center for Architecture and Culture (R.C.A.C.). She obtained a Ph.D. in architectural history and theory from Princeton University, an M.A. in the history of architecture and urbanism from Cornell University and a B.Arch. from the University of Southern California. She has published extensively in the subject of postmodernism and her research derives in large part from post-modernist theory. She has co-edited two architectural anthologies Architecture: In Fashion and Eating Architecture. She also co-chaired, in 2006, the Western A.C.S.A. conference titled “Surfacing Urbanisms: Recent Approaches to Metropolitan Design,” that resulted in a publication of the presented papers. As co-chair she was responsible for assigning peer-reviewers for all submitted materials, and ensuring timely completion of all content. As Vice President of Programs for the Los Angeles Forum for Architecture and Urban design she organized a number of public symposia. Dr. Singley possesses a demonstrated record of professionalism and an ability to complete projects in a timely manner. Her interest in debate and open discussion describes her as an inclusive and fair-minded editor who embraces a plurality of viewpoints. Media + Landscape

Mobile technology increasingly, and more and more seamlessly, bridges the physical landscape with virtual environments to form visually rich and emotionally engaging narratives. Wireless communications, ubiquitous online connectivity, and a multiplicity of electronic devices irreversibly augment our daily lives. Video game environments involving massive multiplayer online collaborations affect our outlook on and expectations of our everyday activities and social fabric. Initially conceived as purely virtual experiences confined to the PC box, they start transforming our offline relationships with each other and with the environments that surround us. Mobile devices serve as portals to enter and navigate multimodal landscapes. Geographic data, pictures, and brief commentaries merge into a single data-based landscape. The distinction between the actual and virtual, or the permanent and temporal, fades when seen through the screen of a smartphone or an iPad tablet. Similarly, the distinction between the permanent and the temporal is blurred with the integration of LED and projection technologies into architectural façades, effectively transforming previously static buildings into dynamic media objects. The built environment becomes a continuous interface between these urban media façades and the ever-expanding use of digital devices with interactive content. Interactions and experiences that in the past were predominantly confined to art-gallery installations or online chat rooms become Main Street events with broader participation and authorship. While perceived by some as invasive and overreaching, media participatory landscapes could also help us to reclaim the public realm and democratize its content.

This journal theme invites papers to critically evaluate current media+landscape trajectories, their impact on the social and built fabric, and to speculate on future frameworks that interconnect media-enhanced spaces with intelligent (smart) and adaptable designs. This issue also invites papers with historical perspective on the role media played, both a form and content, in informing the built environment.

As digital media, and especially media façades and ubiquitous computing, assume a more prominent role in contemporary landscape, there is a growing need for research and for creative models that demonstrate enriching and meaningful integration of this technology into the urban environment. A number of questions emerge for designers. How can the integration of new technologies with landscape create spaces that evoke new experiences and touch us emotionally? How can media-rich environments provide new answers for the needs of a mobile and globally connected society?

These are the issues we need to address in coming years. The question is not whether or not we favor the extension of media content into urban life. The digital media landscape, in the form of advertisement and corporate identity, is already here. Instead, the challenge is to direct its development toward the aesthetic benefit of our urban environments and the cultural and political benefit of our society.

Andrzej Zarzycki is a designer and educator who uses digital tools to create experiential architectural spaces. His research focuses on media-based environments and on validation methodologies of generative design through building performance analysis and simulation tools.

He is a co-winner of the SHIFTboston Ideas Competition 2010 and a co-founder of TUTS (Tremont Underground Theatre Space) (the-tuts.org), a design initiative focusing on innovative adaptations of infrastructure into contemporary public spaces and on the integration of digital (ubiquities) technologies into urban life.

He has taught digital design studios and courses in the interior architecture department at Rhode Island School of Design, which gave him an opportunity to work with design discipline students in fields ranging from architecture and interior architecture to industrial design and digital media. In his classes, students developed visual narratives, imagery, and animations, and experimented with various delivery methods, among them web design and Flash. Their studio work was stimulated through the advanced computing course that he developed and taught which included cinematographic narratives, animation, and web design. This and his current teaching experience not only allowed him to incorporate interdisciplinary thinking into his curriculum, but also to learn how to integrate a variety of digital design media into architectural design and production. Since 1996, he was part of the MIT Architecture, Representation and Computation group and produced video presentations of Unbuilt Monuments for MOCA, Siggraph and more.

Zarzycki earned his master of architecture from the Technical University, Gdansk, Poland, and his master of science in architecture studies from Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Appendix 02

“Best-of” essays

Best Article: Scholarship of Design Best Article: Design as Scholarship 16 September 2013

Each year the Journal of Architectural Education (JAE) Editorial Board along with the ACSA Awards Committee selects two articles for the JAE Best Article Awards. These awards are selected as the JAE Best Articles from the all of the articles submitted to the journal in the award year. The following essays can be considered:

Best Article: Scholarship of Design

66:1 Mies and Bacardi. Kathryn E. O’Rourke

66:1 Prisoners of Ritoque: the Open City and the Ritoque Concentration Camp. Ana María León

66:1 Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park and the Making of Japanese Postwar Architecture. Hyunjung Cho

66:1 Domestic Arrangements: the Maid's Room in the Ataköy Apartment Blocks. Meltem Ö Gürel

67:1 Émile Zola's Volatile Utopia. Ralph Ghoche

67:1 Who's Afraid of Ludwig Hilberseimer? Daniela Fabricius

67:1 Home Is the Place We All Share. Olivier Vallerand

67:1 The Car Factory, Post-Industrialism, and Utopia. Michael Faciejew

Best Article: Design as Scholarship

66:1 Integrating Structures and Design in the First-Year Studio. Catherine Wetzel

66:1 Foldout Drawing: A Projective Drawing for Fabric Forming. Kentaro Tsubaki

67:1 Eco-topia. Igea Troiani

67:1 Material Manifestations. Andrew Saunders

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Journal of Architectural Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjae20 Mies and Bacardi Kathryn E. O'Rourke a a Trinity University Published online: 04 Dec 2012.

To cite this article: Kathryn E. O'Rourke (2012) Mies and Bacardi, Journal of Architectural Education, 66:1, 57-71, DOI: 10.1080/10464883.2012.715573

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In the late 1950s the Bacardi Rum Corporation commissioned span space for programmatic and promotional purposes. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe to design an office building in Mexico. At the same time, Bacardi used its Bacardi used the commission to shape its image as a sophisticated Mies buildings, along with those by other Bacardi architects, especially Felix Candela, to and cosmopolitan enterprise, as it reinvented itself in the aftermath respond to transformations in an increasingly internationalized post-war period marked by a of the Cuban Revolution. The Bacardi project serves as a case study dramatic acceleration of consumption, particularly of corporate patronage of modern architecture in Latin America, by the middle class. The Bacardi commissions of midcentury also coincided with and embodied marking a moment when both the image and organization of Mies’s a shift of authority from one generation of architecture helped build a reliable, mainstream international brand. architects to another, which was particularly noticeable in U.S. architecture. While advancing Paradoxically, Mies’s Bacardi building would also become part of the adoption of the International Style as the architectural language of capitalism through its a “mix” of architectural commissions that would include emerging patronage of Mies, through its other commissions alternatives to International Style modernism. the corporation simultaneously supported the development of buildings that reflected new architectural priorities and tastes. Its patronage suggested that while Mies’s buildings expressed quality to a certain audience, his buildings were Introduction space in Crown Hall, Bosch asked Mies to design by no means universally intelligible or relevant In 1962 an office building designed by Ludwig buildings that would foster a spirit of corporate to a diverse group of consumers and critics. Mies van der Rohe opened in the Mexican town of egalitarianism and employee loyalty similar to the IIT Indeed, Bacardi’s patronage occurred against Tultitlán, just north of Mexico City (Figure 1). The building’s ability to encourage informal, productive the backdrop of implicit and explicit indications project was the second collaboration between the working relationships among architecture students in the mainstream press and elsewhere that the 2 German architect and the chairman of the Bacardi and faculty. Following the opening of the Tultitlán International Style would soon coexist with a Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 Rum Corporation, José “Pepin” Bosch, the first being building, and in celebration of the company’s variety of formal alternatives. Attuned to the an office building in Santiago, Cuba, which was centennial in 1962, Bacardi issued a publication that change, and perceiving an opportunity, around never built. Bacardi’s Mexican office building was included numerous photographs of its new building 1960 Bacardi perfected, in architecture and rum one of several works of architecture commissioned and claimed that the open plan was “in keeping advertisements, the idea and image of “mixing” in an effort to shape its international image as a with the Bacardi philosophy that the ideal office is as an attractive alternative to purity in modernism cosmopolitan corporation attuned to contemporary one where there are no partitions, where everybody, and cocktails. 3 culture. Appearing at a critical moment in the officers and employees, can see one another.” Examined in the context of other major development of architectural modernism in the The story of Bacardi’s patronage of modern midcentury buildings, and of international United States, the project revealed an evolving architecture, and particularly its association with developments in architecture and consumer and intimate relationship between modernism and Mies, sheds light on the changing status of the capitalism, the group of buildings Bacardi corporate culture at midcentury. International Style at midcentury in the United commissioned around 1960 exemplified an Bosch was inspired to hire the architect after States and parts of Latin America. Although his more increasingly vibrant architectural exchange visiting Mies’s Crown Hall at the Illinois Institute of famous Seagram Building (1954–58) already seemed between the United States and Latin America at Technology (1950–56), where he claimed to have to suggest an elision of Mies’s forms with corporate a critical moment in hemispheric politics. Built “recognized an architect after his own mind.”1 image-making, his buildings for Bacardi reflected outside the places most familiar to historians of Impressed by the fluidity and openness of Miesian their client’s embrace of his conception of clear- modern architecture, and presented by Bosch continued

O’ROURKE 57 Figure 1. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Bacardi Administration Building, Tultitlán, Mexico, model, 1958. Cropped. Chicago History Museum, HB-22157-E. (Courtesy of the Chicago History Museum.)

in ways that emphasized characteristics imagined technology, aesthetics, and capitalism, and its role chain, the first and most famous of which was to be particular to Bacardi or Mexican culture, in igniting debates about corporate patronage, the completed in 1968.6 Through its patronage of the projects were nevertheless informed by many value of high modernist architecture, and the public highly expressive buildings by Candela, Bacardi Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 of the same impulses and problems that shaped realm.5 also demonstrated that the Miesian idiom had midcentury buildings elsewhere. Alice Friedman has As a savvy patron and international become only one of several models for corporate demonstrated the ways that iconic U.S. buildings, businessperson Bosch was influenced by, and architecture. especially those commissioned by corporate patrons responsive to, the tendencies and issues these at midcentury, responded to popular conceptions scholars have identified. But the particular Bacardi in Cuba: Palm to Pavilion of luxury, increased household purchasing power circumstances of Bacardi’s condition as a Bacardi’s efforts to link its public image to (and class anxieties), and were conceived of as multinational Latin American corporation, operating architecture did not begin with Mies, but were “glamorous” settings for new modes of living and against the backdrop of the communist takeover of already present in the story the company told about working.4 Although limited to the U.S. context, Cuba, and in a region with a highly developed market its founding, which it traced to a tiny building next her scholarship provides a useful framework for for U.S. tourism, presented distinctive opportunities to a palm tree in Santiago de Cuba.7 The tree had understanding the dynamics of taste, consumption, and challenges. Bacardi responded to some of the been planted around 1862 by the founder’s son and architecture in which Bacardi operated. same conditions in the United States that Friedman and stood outside a tin-roofed building typical of Likewise, Felicity Scott’s recent work on the Seagram and Scott describe. In Mexico, it helped establish Caribbean vernacular architecture.8 According to Building provides insights about the dynamics of the link between corporate image-making, leisure, Bacardi, the tree’s death in 1962 coincided with the emerging corporate architecture of the late 50s and high-style architecture aimed at an international Fidel Castro’s increasingly tight grip on power and early 60s. She gives an account of the Seagram audience, which was later embodied by Ricardo on the island. Regardless of the actual history of Building’s links to a network of global politics, Legorreta’s buildings for the Camino Real Hotel the tree, the repeated retelling of its story reveals

58 Mies and Bacardi: Mixing Modernism the central role context and setting played in the shaping of Bacardi’s image and identity. In the early twentieth century the most architecturally important Bacardi buildings in Cuba were designed to engage a rum-buying public that was comprised largely of tourists from the United States. One such building was the Emilio Bacardi Moreau Municipal Museum (Carlos Segrera, 1928) in Santiago, an elegant neoclassical building that housed the Bacardi family art collection (Figure 2). With its ornate cornice, deep porch, Corinthian columns and pilasters, and crests, the Bacardi Museum spoke in an unambiguous language about the prestige and sensibilities of the family that built it. Famed for its Egyptian mummy, the museum added to the cultural and historical wealth of the Figure 2. Carlos Segrera, Emilio Bacardi Moreau Municipal Museum, Havana, 1928. Photograph by Holger Leue. (Courtesy of Superstock). island and was a monumental reminder of Bacardi by tourists with tropical leisure—the building influence and civic munificence. The museum was communicated a reassuring message to tourists the first in a series of buildings that the family that Bacardi participated in the same traditions of would commission as a form of public relations. stability and refinement as trusted companies back The company’s second important architectural project was the Bacardi Building, completed in home, but with a touch of the “exotic” flair that Havana in 1930 (Figure 3). Designed by Cuban they had come to Cuba to consume. architects Rafael Fernández Ruenes, Esteban At the same time that Bacardi opened its Rodríguez Castell, and José Menéndez, the six- Havana building, the corporation worked to develop story office building combined historicist and Art its image in New York City as well, first by renting Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 Deco elements in the main block and included space in the Chrysler Building (built 1928–30). a prominent central tower that recalled vaguely In 1938 it moved into the thirty-fifth floor of the 9 the buildings of southern Spain. Its architects Empire State Building (built 1931). The corporation pulled together brightly colored tile arranged in was not unique among liquor giants in associating geometric patterns, Art Deco flat arches, stylized itself with elegant spaces. Prohibition had made mosaics, and a giant emblem of the company’s careful corporate promotion in the United States a bat logo to create one of downtown Havana’s top priority for liquor magnates, and many sought most distinctive buildings, and one that was fully to do so by situating themselves in buildings that up to date in its decorative language. During the conveyed restrained good taste. Hiram Walker’s waning years of Prohibition, the building was the headquarters on the Detroit River included site of the ultimate sales pitch to U.S. tourists. “oak paneling, marble fireplaces, and delicately Travelers who came to Cuba to drink rum could carved and sculpted classical references” and Sam stop at the Havana building for free Bacardi Bronfman commissioned “a miniature feudal castle” cocktails and receive promotional materials. In its with a portcullis in Montreal for Seagram.10 While visual connection to early U.S. skyscrapers—its other companies opted for buildings that conveyed Figure 3. Rafael Fernández Ruenes, Esteban Rodríguez Castell, and massive office block and large “B’s” on ground historicist gentility, Bacardi occupied space in José Menéndez, Bacardi Building, Havana,1930. Photograph by Adam floor windows, and its bright colors, associated continued Eastland. (Courtesy of Superstock).

O’ROURKE 59 Figure 4. Mies van der Rohe, office, Bacardi Administration Building, Santiago, Cuba, model, 1958. Hedrich Blessing Photographers, Giovanni Suter. Chicago History Museum, HB21253-B. (Courtesy of the Chicago History Museum.)

two of the newest and most celebrated buildings of the glazed volume below and were supported by form it took in the late work emerged in the Bacardi in the United States. Their Art Deco language had eight cruciform columns. project and was inspired in part by Cuban vernacular broad popular appeal and celebrated the modern Celebrated for its generative role in a series of architecture.16 Summers recalled the development of age while still participating in the same culture designs that culminated in the New National Gallery the Santiago scheme: of sophistication and luxury of other distillers’ in Berlin, the unrealized Cuban project most often headquarters. appears in scholarship on Mies as a kind of proto- . . . we were sitting under this overhang Nearly twenty years later, in 1957, Bacardi’s museum scheme (Figure 5).12 In both designs, the which was quite interesting, it was probably Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 relationship with Mies began in Cuba, before any main volume of the building was a giant, open-plan twenty feet high, it had long sort of colonial- plans for the Tultitlán project were under way. space, intended to be highly flexible.13 The columns like columns [with] probably twenty feet . . . That year Bosch hired Mies to design a corporate and the long, entablature-like horizontality of the between the column and the wall and we were headquarters in Santiago (Figure 4). The architect rooflines gave both a reposeful classicism, but the sitting very comfortably on lounge chairs having completed the initial design for the project projects differed dramatically in their materials. a drink and I said to Mies, “this is kind of quickly, within a few days of his arrival in Cuba, Mies’s signature black steel frame would have what we need to shelter the glass and to offer and without having seen the site.11 The Santiago deteriorated quickly in the salty, seaside air of Cuba, shadow and to keep the sun out of the inside. project was intended by the client to shape and a point made immediately to the architect by his At least in the summertime.”17 embody corporate culture and, like earlier Bacardi associate Gene Summers, who had seen at first hand buildings, to convey sophistication. But this latest the damage done to metal on the Texas Gulf Coast.14 In his final design Mies proposed a 130-square- project was decidedly different from the buildings it The intense tropical sun in Santiago prompted Mies foot space that was eighteen feet high and covered occupied before. A low, single-story building (with and Summers to modify the familiar class box form with a reinforced concrete roof that extended a submerged secondary level invisible from the use in Crown Hall by designing the large roof that approximately twenty feet in all directions from the exterior), made of whitish concrete, the building was shaded the main volume.15 This broad overhanging main glass volume. defined by a single, giant open-plan space enclosed roof would become one of the signature elements Detlef Mertins has demonstrated that the by floor-to-ceiling glass walls and covered by a flat of the New National Gallery, and although Mies had New National Gallery was conceived by its architect roof whose eaves extended far beyond the perimeter designed large overhangs before, the distinctive as a building for the display of, and perhaps even

60 Mies and Bacardi: Mixing Modernism divided….The materials are concrete iron glass. Buildings of reinforced concrete are by their very nature skeletal structures.21 Although Mies later came see the open interior spaces of this office building as well suited to buildings with other types of programs, including museums and residences, for the purposes of understanding the Santiago building it is significant that he associated them first with concrete. Reading the Concrete Office Building project in the context of an early twenties vogue for skyscrapers in Berlin, and in light of cumbersome legal requirements for buildings more than six stories tall, Neumann has shown that Mies’s design was intended expressly to avoid bureaucratic entanglements and to differentiate it from a plethora of proposals for tall buildings, including his own.22 Mies would also differentiate Bacardi’s building in Santiago, and later the one in Tultitlán, from one of his skyscrapers—in Figure 5. Mies van der Rohe, New National Gallery, Berlin, 1962–68. (Photograph by author.) this case, a building for one of Bacardi’s competitors, the steel-framed, bronze-clad Seagram Building, inspiration for, new forms of art, and new modes Office Building, Dietrich Neumann showed that the which was nearly complete by the time Mies went to of perceiving it—a program wholly different from windows would have been set back slightly beneath Cuba in 1957 (Figure 6). Both Bacardi commissions the one Bosch outlined for Mies.18 Although Crown each slab—not nearly as far as in the Santiago would be pavilions situated in exotic landscapes, Hall had inspired Bosch to approach Mies, Mies’s building—but enough that it is possible to begin to rather than tall buildings; the Santiago project, with speculative projects for Berlin from the 1920s were image the Bacardi project as a modified version of a its monumental white concrete roof, would also be Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 more relevant to the Cuban commission. Faced with single floor of the Concrete Office Building. materially and structurally distinct from the Seagram the obstacles presented by a tropical climate and Neumann also points out that the structural tower. The architectural press registered the unique a distinctive brief from his client, in Santiago Mies system shown in the Curvilinear Skyscraper of 1923 qualities of the Santiago project, and the significance revisited ideas he developed in the famous unbuilt was likely cantilevered reinforced concrete, not of his use of concrete, noting that, “the modern project for a Concrete Office Building of 1923, steel.20 In both Berlin projects the relative shortage master of steel here turns to . . .concrete,” and that which had a program similar to Bacardi’s corporate and expense of steel would have shaped the “this powerful design should be his most emphatic headquarters. In the 1923 scheme Mies stacked architect’s approach to the project, and informed expression of the material.”23 cantilevered concrete slabs on top of one another his thinking about the building type. In 1923, in the Debuting against the backdrop of the critical with ribbon windows in between to create a building avant-garde journal G, Mies’s statement of his theory success of the Seagram Building, Bacardi’s proposed that read as a six-story structure (but which in reality and principles of office building design appeared new building needed to demonstrate the range of would have had a basement level and short attic alongside a reproduction of the well-known drawing Mies’s work, and create a distinctive image for the story). In Berlin Mies set the concrete columns back of the Concrete Office Building: brand. For the Seagram Building, the Bronfman from the façade building, whereas in Santiago he liquor firm, under the direction of Phyllis Lambert, pulled them forward to sustain the giant canopy, but The office building is a house of work, of opted for sleek verticality and sensuous materiality in both cases cruciform supports—corner stanchions organization, of clarity, of economy. Bright, rather than the revivalist forms the distiller had in the 1923 project, and columns in the later one— wide workrooms, easy to oversee, undivided embraced in its earlier commissions.24 A unique 19 were used. In a reconstruction of the Concrete except as the organism of the undertaking is continued

O’ROURKE 61 be persuaded to switch to rum. In response to forward-looking, also implicitly served capitalism Bacardi’s desire for an open plan office building, and and, as Neumann has shown, dealt with a variety of the Santiago climate, Mies united the idea of the decidedly mundane problems. Considering Mies’s concrete low-rise office building with elements of repeated professions of concern with the “task” one of his most famous works, the German Pavilion and disavowals of formalism, this dualism in his for the 1929 International Exposition in Barcelona. architecture comes as less of a surprise.27 The gap Like the exhibition building, the Santiago scheme between the architect’s enduring commitment to stood delicately on a monolithic raised platform an avant-garde vision, which Mertins has shown reached by a set of broad stairs. Both were defined motivated even his last major project, and audiences’ by overhanging roofs that extended beyond walls very different understandings of his midcentury of glass and were supported by cruciform columns. buildings may reveal more about interpretation than While the Barcelona pavilion was more richly adorned about Mies’s architecture.28 Indeed, the Santiago in marble and chrome, both buildings were set back project suggests that Mies’s work was, by 1960, both on platforms more intimate than Seagram’s large corporate and connected to the architect’s long- plaza. The pavilion-esque building Mies proposed for standing engagement with questions at the heart of Bacardi in Santiago borrowed from the celebrated avant-garde European modernism. It represented the work in Spain a delicacy, lightness, and transparency triumph of his intellectual project on one hand, and altogether different from the Seagram building. the potentially infinite consumption of its forms, on Figure 6. Mies van der Rohe and Philip Johnson, Seagram Building, New York City, 1954–58. (Image in the public domain.) The distiller which had invented the first clear (or the other. “white”) rum would have a headquarters that was interpretation of the city’s zoning laws allowed well suited to the Bacardi brand, distinct from the Bacardi in Mexico: Pavilion and Umbrella Mies to set the New York building back from the bronze monolith built by a competitor best known Even before Fidel Castro took power, the street, creating the city’s first great modern plaza, for its brown spirits. Cuban political and economic climate had become and opening up space for the building to stand The connections between the Santiago design increasingly less attractive to corporations, including apart from the vertical cacophony of midtown and Mies’s schemes of the 1920s suggest that Bacardi. During the later years of the Fulgencio Manhattan. In doing so Mies provided Seagram although his work for corporate patrons may have Bautista regime (1933–44, 1952–59), with the Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 with an invaluable piece of permanent advertising been interpreted as signaling the end of his avant- specter of political and economic impediments to that suggested refinement and urbanity. The garde project, the architect did not necessarily view growth looming, Bacardi’s leaders began to consider 26 message, from the company’s perspective, was his work in this way. The 1920s office building opening a large office in Mexico. Abortive attempts simple: Seagram embodied exclusivity, elegance, and projects, while clearly highly experimental and to develop an operation in Mexico City in 1931 led modernity. From the perspective of the consumer the message was equally clear: drinking Seagram’s whisky could make him or her elegant, modern, and sophisticated, and perhaps even, like the architect’s interpretation of zoning regulations, clever enough to outsmart the system.25 Bacardi needed a building that aligned with its rhetoric of corporate egalitarianism, negotiated its now complicated heritage, and kept pace with one of its most important competitors in the coveted U.S. market. If, in their high-rise apartments at 860

and 880 Lake Shore Drive, prospective customers Figure 7. Bacardi Administration Building. Photograph by Arno Brehme, Humberto Franceschi, Albert Gruen, and Samuel Gallo. drank Seagram’s VO, they might, Bacardi hoped, (Courtesy of Bacardi Limited.)

62 Mies and Bacardi: Mixing Modernism churches.33 In doing so it began the process of using setting and locale to negotiate its increasingly complicated international identity. By embracing the forms and images of a Mexico familiar to the customers it sought, Bacardi attempted to make a new home for itself and at the same time capitalize on the popularity of Mexico as a tourist destination. Three years later Bacardi commissioned Mies to design his second project for the company. The Bacardi Administration Building stands on a verdant, seventy-five-acre campus in an industrial area in the State of Mexico (Figures 7–8). The main volume of the building is a large rectangular space raised one story above grade and is supported by twenty-four black, steel I-beams and sheathed in gray glass. This volume hovers over a much smaller, rectilinear lobby Figure 8. Bacardi Administration Building, side view. (Photograph by author.) of clear glass below. The entire building stands on a the firm to temporarily abandon that venture, but Bacardi restored the hacienda’s 1693 chapel and travertine platform that continues into the interior, becoming the ground floor. In this respect, and in its in its wake Bosch launched a lucrative campaign began to shape a campus where industrial modernity material, the Tultitlán building recalled the Seagram that transformed forever the company’s image and and romantic “Old Mexico” coexisted. The company Building, but retained the low-rise pavilion-like form standing in the international market. Promoting described the complex almost nostalgically and in of the Santiago design. Two utility shafts descend Bacardi rum and Coca-Cola as an “instant party,” language similar to that of tourist brochures: outside the building, flanking the lobby. The double- Bosch helped popularize the drink so successfully height lobby, at the center of the plan, includes two in Mexico that the firm dramatically increased . . . photographs can give little idea of the true symmetrically placed staircases that lead to the main production and distribution there and its Mexican flavor of La Galarza. At one moment the viewer floor. sales doubled from 1933 to 1934.29 In the process, is in the 20th century, craning his neck to look

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 Inside, on the second floor, the stairs frame an Bosch helped make the “rum-and-Coke” a popular at giant industrial installations of the latest opening to the lobby below, and this central void cocktail, and introduced an advertising strategy design. A few steps further on and all that is articulates the zones of the office floor (Figure 9). that linked socializing and Bacardi rum, which it hidden from view by a row of graceful colonial Mahogany paneled floor-to-ceiling walls separate would continue to use for decades, and which it arches. Now the visitor stands in a semitropical the far ends of the upper floor from the central area 30 would later link to architecture. Although Bacardi’s paradise where flocks of white geese float on and enclose bathrooms. Beyond the partitions are sales declined in the United States in the years old millstreams and the air is full of bird songs, offices of high-ranking employees and a conference immediately following World War II, the company the perfume of flowers, and the peace of room. Although the Bacardi building is smaller than 32 had done well in Mexico throughout the war and centuries. Mies’s most important clear-span spaces such as by 1950 rum was second only to tequila in Mexican Crown Hall, the building interiors share the relatively 31 liquor sales. Elsewhere in its descriptions of its Mexican unrestricted views and circulation that characterized In 1955 Bacardi acquired its first major piece facilities Bacardi referenced Popocatépetl, one of the many of the architect’s institutional projects in the of property in Mexico and continued its careful famous volcanoes outside of Mexico City. Bacardi United States.34 In Bosch, Mies found a client whose connoisseurship of architecture. Needing a space used the new distillery’s site and its iconic natural commission would allow him to apply these ideas to for a distillery, it purchased a seventeenth-century features to create an image that would appeal to a a corporate program. sugar hacienda called La Galarza, in the state of foreign, and particularly a U.S., audience that had The chairman’s interest in creating an open Puebla, southeast of Mexico City. Although it added already been conditioned to associate Mexico with plan reflected a long-standing corporate culture that modern production facilities, at Bosch’s direction idyllic natural settings and picturesque colonial continued

O’ROURKE 63 Mark Linder Syracuse University

Like the La Galarza distillery, Bacardi’s presentation of the Tultitlán complex integrated past and future in an idyllic, specifically Mexican, setting. O“ LD AND NEW are blended in . . . the Bacardi plant at Tultitlán. . . . Like a mirage in this timeless landscape of giant cactuses lies the magic of the twentieth century.”40 In its characterizations of the campus Bacardi combined not only allusions to “old and new,” but also the image of American corporatism, as it was rapidly coming to be embodied by International Style modernism, with the reality of the Mexican landscape. In January 1962, the Administration building was introduced to architectural audiences in the pages of Architectural Forum. Even before the building was complete Bosch had begun Figure 9. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Bacardi Administration Building interior, upper floor, model. Chicago History Museum, HB-22157-H. to cultivate relationships with editors of major (Courtesy of the Chicago History Museum.) architectural periodicals as he positioned sought to maintain the close relationship between Administration building opened. The distiller Bacardi as a sophisticated architectural client. In family and business that Bacardi had prized since its presented its most architecturally significant facility August 1959 he had written to Jeanne Davern founding. Bosch imagined that a minimally divided to the world in a large, well-illustrated marketing at Architectural Record describing his “sudden Miesian space would promote collegiality and loyalty pamphlet, emphasizing the natural beauty of the site interest in architecture,” his efforts to promote among workers and employers and help reinforce the and elements it understood as particularly Mexican, climatically responsive and innovative design in the practices of a nearly century-old family business that reiterating Bosch’s claims about the relationship Caribbean, and his engagement of various Cuban, fiercely guarded itself against external interference. between its corporate culture and the open plan. In Puerto Rican, and Mexican architects.41 Bosch told In reality, executives worked in offices hidden from the publicity materials, Bacardi called Mies “one of Davern of his efforts, “the results have been fair; Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 the view of lower-ranking employees by the wooden the greatest of modern architects,”35 and announced perhaps because we were always short of time.”42 partitions. But the ideal of internal openness, that “the building has an aristocratic simplicity which In discussing the Mexican building, he wrote that although incomplete, was more fully realized in mixes richness and restraint.”36 It drew attention to after having looked at many architects’ work and at the Bacardi building than in many other corporate the building’s Mexican travertine floors and “glass Mies’s proposal for the Santiago office, he decided office buildings of the period and, whether or not its tinted gray against the Mexican sun.”37 The firm “Mies’s work in one story buildings was foremost in workers experienced it as egalitarian, the company celebrated the air-conditioning and open plan, and the world.”43 Bosch “wanted to mark [his] tenure of portrayed Mies’s space as evidence of its own repeated Bosch’s claims about the organization office with indelible marks that to [his] successors benevolence. The Bacardi Administration Building of space and the benevolent, familial attitude of . . .would create a definite necessity to work for also demonstrated that Mies’s architecture, and Bacardi executives toward their employees. the greater success of [their] enterprise.”44 That especially his open-span spaces, could accommodate The grounds at Tultitlán, which were tended by the chairman used Mies’s work and reputation to any program, and, conversely, none at all. In 1960, eighteen full-time gardeners, also received special carve out a legacy for himself in Bacardi history and as the project was underway, the Castro regime attention: “Landscaping plays an important role at to inspire in those who followed him a long-term nationalized Bacardi’s Cuban assets. Now there was every Bacardi installation, and the Mexican plant commitment to the company suggests that by 1960 no question that Bacardi would need to construct a is no exception.”38 The company emphasized the Mies van der Rohe and his buildings were seen as corporate image that was independent of its Cuban building’s park-like setting and told readers of the much more than fine compositions in steel, glass, origins. site’s many lawns, trees, paths and gardens, which and travertine; now they were understood to add Two years later, in 1962, the Tultitlán included more than “30,000 tulips and dahlias.”39 considerable value to a corporate brand.

64 Mies and Bacardi: Mixing Modernism Mies’s designs for Bacardi functioned neither plant consisted of three sets of concrete partial steel and glass administration building stood stiffly as mechanisms in self-actualization processes, hyperbolic parabolic groin vaults (Figures 10–11).49 next to Candela’s bottling plant. Owing more to meditations on evolution, nor critiques of Thin structural members carried the loads to the Eero Saarinen’s Kresge Auditorium at MIT (1953) Enlightenment subjectivity as has been persuasively ground, and at their highest points the vaults, than to the Bauhaus, Candela’s comparably light- argued was the case in some of his other buildings, which were four centimeters thick, rose more than continued particularly the New National Gallery and Crown twenty-seven feet. The factory’s walls were made of Hall.45 Nor were they concerned primarily with glass. The cafeteria and warehouses were made of negation.46 These distinctions bring into focus one of concrete hyperbolic parabolic umbrellas (Figure 12). the central tensions in Mies’s midcentury work. While In its publication in honor of the Bacardi centennial, on the one hand his buildings operated as rarified the company celebrated Candela’s “prize-winning” prognostications about new ways of living and new bottling plant, noting that it was “unique on the kinds of social relationships, on the other, as deft American continent,” and announced that “the compositions in elegant materials, they were also type of light and airy vaults which roof the Bacardi profoundly materialist and very expensive—high- bottling plant in Mexico have been used before in quality objects of desire and beauty for an audience churches and museums, but his building marks the of refined and careful taste. For viewers unfamiliar first time they have been employed in an industrial or unconcerned with the theoretical and spiritual building on the American continent.”50 problems that motivated Mies’s ideas, the experience Boasting that “a prominent magazine has Figure 10. Felix Candela, Bacardi Bottling Plant, Tultitlán, Mexico, of being in a Miesian space was an opportunity to called” its Mexican plant “‘a veritable exposition of 1958–60. (Photograph by author.) move outside of the everyday and feel more elegant architecture by world-famous architects,’”51 Bacardi and sophisticated.47 drew attention to the dramatic differences between Figure 11. Felix Candela, Bacardi Bottling Plant, interior. Photograph by Arno Brehme, Humberto Franceschi, Albert Gruen, and Samuel Gallo. its two most important buildings. Indeed, Mies’s (Courtesy of Bacardi Limited.) A New Brand of Modernism Even as Mies’s architecture became linked with corporate and consumer elegance at midcentury, there were many signs that tastes were shifting. Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 Architects and their clients began to indicate that the cool detachment of Miesian modernism might be counterbalanced with forms that were imagined to be more accessible and attractive to a general audience, and which conveyed a greater sense of whimsy. Bosch and Bacardi perceived the shift. In 1960, alongside the Administration Building’s construction site, the company began building a bottling plant, cafeteria, and parking canopies designed by the Spanish-born Mexican engineer Felix Candela.48 Most famous for his soaring, thin- shelled designs in concrete, and for his innovations in the use of parabolic vaulting, Candela created buildings that could hardly have been more different from Mies’s. Where Mies relied on rectilinear forms, Candela delighted in curves. Situated only steps from the Administration Building, the bottling

O’ROURKE 65 Style elegance was tempered not by Hollywood- increasingly versatile, often abandoning orthogonal set-like interior spaces, but by Candela’s buildings schemes in favor of expressionist curves, and and the landscape. Dark steel, gray glass, and cool Stone, the architect of the Museum of Modern travertine were balanced by the carefully tamed Art, where the “International Style” was codified, “Mexican” plants and climate and by the whimsical, now delighted in superficial texture that looked a space-age curves of the Candela plant. good deal like ornament. The transition that Boyd Mainstream intelligentsia registered the identified was well under way by the mid-1950s, changes in architecture as well. In “The Counter- and for him was not a matter of refinements to the revolution in Architecture,” an essay published International Style, but the evolution of a new, less in Harper’s in September 1959, Robin Boyd, a orthogonal, less severe, vocabulary. leading Australian modern architect and astute With its comparably light-hearted shapes critic, acknowledged Mies’s central role in defining and patterns, the new architecture emerging modern architecture, but proclaimed that his era in the United States at midcentury seemed to was ending. Hailing buildings by Saarinen and appeal to a broader spectrum of the population Edward Durrell Stone, Boyd claimed that modern than did International Style modernism. An Figure 12. Candela, Bacardi Warehouse, Tultitlán, Mexico, 1958–60. architecture from earlier in the century “held such emerging middle class that had recently found (Photograph by author.) brilliant promise,” but was “too pure to live” and itself with unprecedented buying power was far claimed that it was now at “a possible turning hearted composition signaled, in the Bacardi world, less receptive to the forms of the old avant-garde point and the principles are in the balance.” the arrival of a new age of modern architecture that than to buildings that were visually (and often The International Style, furthermore, had been was indebted to Mies’s generation, but had moved programmatically) associated with leisure and “accepted as a fashion” and had “run the brief beyond it. The juxtaposition of Bacardi’s buildings pleasure. Boyd noted this phenomenon in his course of any fashionable style.” 53 Boyd suggested made Mies’s design look oddly historical—more like discussion of Stone’s buildings: that recent buildings sought to revitalize a an old classic than an avant-garde experiment. When profession whose avant-garde had been defined Fame has come to Mr. Stone because he has seen together, the buildings’ formal differences by its commitment to stark rationalism, realism, stimulated the unresponsive public eye with a embodied the larger stylistic shift under way across and geometry. He located the search for a new chiaroscuro splendor quite unfamiliar after two the profession as the grip of International Style decades of boxes. Time, and more recently

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 vocabulary in changes in form and surface most modernism loosened and architects working in the evident the work of Saarinen and Stone: a New Yorker profile, have told the story of Americas, and especially the United States, came his metamorphosis in 1954, when he forsook to have increasingly authoritative voices in global The simplest and most convenient way to martinis and the International Style and turned architectural discourse. study the vigorous development of [modern to coffee, fountains, and decorative grilles.55 Although it was less than one-third the size, architecture] . . . is to follow the two men the Tultitlán complex, like Saarinen’s 1944–55 GM whose work seems to express the spirit of the Although Bosch wanted to convey an image of Technical Center (itself indebted to Mies’s scheme midcentury more vividly than others: Edward sophistication and quality that existed on a plane for the IIT campus), integrated the cool abstraction D. Stone—for the surface quest—and Eero with Miesian modernism, Bacardi’s success was of midcentury International Style modernism with Saarinen—for the excitement. These are two ultimately measured in the numbers of bottles of elements imagined to be more accessible to the of the most distinguished members of modern rum sold to a public more likely to read Time and general consumer. Friedman has described how architecture’s second generation, two who the New Yorker than architecture journals. Profit materials, textures, lighting, and spatial organization helped substantially in their time to promote required addressing a relatively diverse market and inside the GM buildings created “glamorous” and the perfection and public acceptance of the catering to a growing middle class that might have 52 theatrical settings that appealed to customers. glass box.54 taste for rum, but whose architectural preferences Luxurious interior surface and sensory details helped were more likely to have been informed by “soften” the hard lines of the buildings’ exteriors. At By 1960 few traces of the glass box remained Hollywood than by Harvard. Bacardi, Mies’s potentially alienating International in either architect’s work. Saarinen had become

66 Mies and Bacardi: Mixing Modernism Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013

Figure 13. Bacardi Visitors’ Pavilion, San Juan, Puerto Rico, c. 1960. Hedrich Blessing Photographers. (Courtesy of Bacardi Limited.)

Bacardi’s extraordinary transformation of itself after modernism at Tultitlán, Bacardi diplomatically Long accustomed to linking itself with tourism, Castro’s nationalization of its Cuban operations positioned itself at the fulcrum of a historical turning Bacardi adjusted to rapidly changing norms of demanded a careful navigation between high culture point. Candela’s bottling plant suggested that the vacationing, consuming, and class identification at and middle class desires. Although relatively few company was focused on the future, while the the moment that Saarinen, Stone, and Candela rose prospective customers saw it firsthand, the Tultitlán administration building grounded the company in to prominence.56 As consumption became a leisure campus was an architectural representation of the a tradition of sophistication and quality. Similarly, activity during the 1950s, consumer behavior became company’s efforts to appeal to diverse tastes and to the bottling plant—where rum took the form in broadly associated with recreating, vacationing, and demonstrate its continued commitment to first-class which consumers would recognize and acquire it— socializing, and the relationship of these activities buildings. With its commission of buildings from appealed to middle-class tastes that increasingly to architecture became increasingly complex. the “first” and “second” generations of postwar continued

O’ROURKE 67 favored Saarinen and Stone, while the Administration by Candela, Pani, and others perhaps looked less like Building—designed for international business leaders a departure than it did in the United States. Oriented from one of Cuba’s oldest families—appealed to an to U.S. perspectives and tastes, for Bacardi, however, elite that preferred International Style refinement. the new forms signified market shifts it sought to This strategy extended to its other production sites exploit. as well. At its complex in Puerto Rico, Bacardi built a large Candela-esque pavilion that could be rented Mixing Business and Pleasure for parties and social events, and which it compared Bacardi’s efforts to rapidly negotiate changing to a nightclub (Figure 13).57 The building’s enormous consumer desires and international architectural soaring concrete eaves made the structure look as if culture were reflected in its promotion of rum as it were about to take flight. Its vaulted roof provided well. As a “mixed drink,” the cocktail lent itself easily shade, but, lacking walls, the pavilion allowed its to metaphors about blending and combining. Again 18,000 annual visitors to casuallly linger at the bar and again, in Boyd’s assessment of midcentury and enjoy tropical breezes. architecture, and throughout the liquor industry, The transition that Boyd registered and Bacardi notions of mixing and blending appeared in embraced was, in a different guise, also present in midcentury culture. Although it was invented in the Latin American modern architecture. Some glassy, nineteenth century and popularized in the 1920s, International Style skyscrapers did appear in a few the cocktail had never been as popular as it was major capitals—the Torre Latinoamericana (Agusto in the 1950s and early 1960s. Cultural anxieties about liquor (and about rum in particular, because Figure 14. Bacardi advertisement emphasizing “mixability” and promoting Alvarez and Leonardo Zeeveart, 1956) in downtown rum as “enjoyable always and all ways.” Life, October 14, 1966. Mexico City, for example. Other projects, such as of its associations with slavery) before and during (Courtesy of Bacardi Limited.) Candela’s Our Lady of the Miraculous Medal Church Prohibition disappeared at midcentury, as cocktail and balance, Bacardi appealed to body-conscious (1953–56) or his 1958 Los Mantieles Restaurant in parties became a means of stylishly doing business 58 aesthetes by informing them that Bacardi cocktails Xochimilco, provided the same kind of “excitement” at home. had fewer calories than other drinks,61 an approach Boyd found in Saarinen’s work. The “chiaroscuro” Seeking to capitalize on the popularity of the Stone created with decorative grilles also defined Cuba Libre cocktail—a mixture of rum and Coke— that surely resonated with those drawn to the Bacardi responded to Coca-Cola’s 1965 “Things go sleek lines of Miesian modernism. Throughout its

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 the Acapulco Airport—a building critical to Mexico’s tourist industry—by Mario Pani and Enrique del better with Coke” advertising campaign by proposing advertising campaigns and its architecture, Bacardi Moral of 1952. In a very different context, Carlos a marketing alliance.59 By partnering with the most sold itself as the “mixable one,” and carefully Raul Villanueva designed the Covered Plaza at popular and trusted beverage maker in the United maneuvered between high and middle class markets the National University of Venezuela in Caracas in States, Bacardi shored up its reputation with and with clean lines, crisp phrasing, and an emphasis on 62 1953. Here visitors were greeted with an intricate access to the heart of the American middle class, versatility and fun (Figure 14). pattern of light as they entered a wide, open-air and reduced the chance that those customers might The culture of mixing architecture, alcohol, corridor through a floor-to-ceiling grille. News of associate Bacardi with Castro. But the rum giant also and sophisticated self-promotion in which Bacardi such buildings reached U.S. architects at least as carefully maintained its image as something suitable participated was embodied by Playboy magazine’s early as 1955, when Arthur Drexler and Henry- for many kinds of cocktails and, by implication, conception of a bachelor’s apartment, in which the Russell Hitchcock organized the Latin American people of many social strata. At the bottom of the International Style and more popular strands of Architecture Since 1945 exhibition at the Museum of first “Bacardi-and-Coke” advertisement (in Life in modernism coexisted along with other combinations Modern Art and Hitchcock published the illustrated May 1966) appeared a catchall exhortation: “Drink of cultural symbols. While not as pared down as accompanying catalogue. In Mexico, in part because Bacardi Rum—enjoyable always and all ways.”60 Mies’s houses, Playboy’s fictive apartment was the International Style had not been realized as If Bacardi-and-Coke was the concept that went organized according to Miesian principles. Planes “purely” or widely as it had in the United States, and with Candela’s building, a second campaign, also that divided space but did not fully enclose rooms because concrete—not steel and glass—had long forged in the 1960s, corresponded more closely to shaped the open plan. Abundant glazing, which at been used by modern architects there, the new work Mies’s. In these ads, which emphasized moderation points went from the ceiling to the floor, made the

68 Mies and Bacardi: Mixing Modernism city (which was surely New York) and terrace visible Charles and Ray Eames and Eero Saarinen, and it In architecture the ultimate Bacardi mix came from inside. The magazine explained that, even included a coffee table by Isamu Noguchi. The in Miami, one of the main gateways to Latin America ideal Playboy space mixed Machine Age European from the United States, and a blended city of the apartment’s sense of masculine richness high modernism with an emergent U.S. Cold War Cuban exiles, middle-class tourists, and luxurious and excitement stems in part from such aesthetic that was more accessible to a large beach-side lifestyles. In 1964 Bacardi hired Enrique juxtapositions of textures—the smooth wall, audience. The denizen of such a space, who had an Gutierrez, a Cuban architect in exile and protégé of the stone, the planter, the cork floor—and for “urbane personality” and lived “in elegant comfort,” Mies who had assisted with the Santiago project, to visual impact the unadorned brick wall which in “a tasteful, gracious setting” specialized in mixing design an office building there (Figure 15). Allusions closes off the bath and the kitchen area…. drinks and allusions to high culture. 64 He “enjoy[ed] to Mies included floors hung from an open truss, The apartment is not divided into cell-like mixing up cocktails and an hors d’oeuvre or two, extensive glazing, and expressed structure on the rooms, but into function areas well delineated putting a little mood music on the phonograph and long sides of the seven-story building. But in other for relaxation, dining, cooking, and wooing and inviting in a female for a quiet discussion of Picasso, ways it seemed to have been inspired by great works entertaining, all interacting and yet inviting Nietzsche, jazz, sex.”65 Like the new buildings of Latin American modernism—most notably the individual as well as simultaneous use.63 by Saarinen, Stone, and Candela, the Playboy Ministry of Health and Education building in Rio de Janeiro (Oscar Niemeyer, Lucio Costa, and Le The bachelor pad was furnished, however, not apartment brought together “excitement,” leisure, Corbusier, 1936–45) and the main buildings of the with Barcelona chairs, but with ones designed by and consumption in a sophisticated cosmopolitan setting. National Autonomous University in Mexico City (Pani, del Moral, Carlos Lazo, et al., 1946–53)— in which International Style forms were clad in representational mosaics or murals. On the short ends of the Bacardi building Brazilian artist Francisco Brennand created multi-story blue and white mosaics that depicted tropical flowers and leaves. As an act of architectural diplomacy, Bacardi’s Miami building associated Euro-American rationalism and Latin American expressionism in the country most hostile to Cuba, most friendly to pluralism, and most skilled Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 in the creation of wealth. At the same time Bacardi also managed its own blended cultural and national existence. Although it courted a large U.S. audience, and another in Europe, by midcentury Bacardi’s most important bases were in Tultitlán, Puerto Rico, Recife, and the Bahamas. Exiled from Cuba, the firm’s leaders were well aware of their position as Latin Americans who had to appeal to a country that held decided (positive and negative) stereotypes about its hemispheric neighbors. In the era of the Cuban Missile Crisis and increasing U.S. military involvement in Latin America, Bacardi necessarily negotiated its cultural and national identity with care. Although he was German, by the time Mies worked for Bosch he had been practicing in the Figure 15. Enrique Gutierrez, Bacardi Building, Miami, 1964. Photo by Marc Averette. (Creative Commons Attribution License.) continued

O’ROURKE 69 United States for twenty years, in one of the given rise to a historiography in which international (CAPFCE) in the southern Mexico City district of nation’s commercial centers. As the architect of connections and the role of private patrons have Coyoacan, which suggests that the architect knew the Illinois Institute of Technology, the luxury been relatively neglected. the Bacardi building, and, if not the designs for apartment buildings on Lake Shore Drive, and Among leading European modernists, Le its Cuban precursor, then surely the New National several very famous private houses, Mies’s work Corbusier is generally regarded as the most Gallery. In the CAPFCE building the main volume so reliably conveyed a commitment to capitalism, influential figure in Mexico, in part because of was a glass box which Artigas set beneath a large private wealth, and security that in 1959, at the the formal similarities between some of his 1920s overhanging flat roof supported on all four sides same time he was working on the Tultitlán project, buildings and the early works of Juan O’Gorman. As by piers arranged to create a slow, classical rhythm the United States government hired him to design important as his ideas were for O’Gorman and many reminiscent of Miesian classicism. Unlike the Tultitlán a Federal Center in Chicago. Thus, for a corporation other Mexican architects, the Swiss modernist never building, the CAPFCE building was white, low to the exiled from the United States’ nearest nemesis, traveled to Mexico, nor did he design a building ground, and it rested on a platform.70 As scholarship Mies was an extraordinarily safe choice, much there. While French and francophone architects of twentieth-century Mexican architecture grows, better, perhaps, than a leading, but lesser-known, provided the most important foreign sources of new connections between Mies, Artigas, and other Latin American architect. ideas about architecture from the late eighteenth Mexican architects will surely be discovered. Bosch’s 1959 letter to Architectural Record century into the twentieth, Miesian forms, and suggested that part of the reason he hired Mies particularly Miesian conceptions of space, were Conclusion was because Latin American architects were simply clearly important for some of Mexico’s leading The often overlooked Bacardi commissions not good enough. It would have been obvious to midcentury architects. William J. R. Curtis identified reveal that Mies’s modernism had been fully anyone familiar with Latin American architecture the relationships between Mies’s buildings and the absorbed, if not appropriated, by mainstream (and surely to the well-informed Bosch) that there works of Enrique del Moral, particularly with respect capitalism at the very moment that postwar were “good enough” Latin American architects, to the handling of transitions between interior and modernism was undergoing important 67 particularly for an architectural audience that was exterior spaces. Luis Casteñeda has recently drawn transformations. Bacardi’s skillful crafting of aware of MoMA’s 1943 Brazil Builds exhibition attention to the links between midcentury Mexican its image to match rapidly shifting tastes and and the more recent Architecture in Latin America exhibition spaces and Mies’s work.68 The case of Luis preferences among customers, architects, and critics Since 1945 show, in which the curators praised Barragán, whose treatment of walls and court spaces helps us understand that international corporations Latin American architects. Although Bosch may in the later houses seem to owe so much to Mies, used architectural patronage to build their brands Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 have identified genuine limitations in the works he is more complex. Of the more than 2,000 books in in a variety of ways. By freely mixing Mies’s work saw by Latin American architects, his broad claim Barragán’s library, only two were on Mies, and both with emerging alternatives to the International signaled his desire that Bacardi not be seen as “too show little signs of use. Style, Bacardi would construct a cosmopolitan image Latin” by U.S. audiences. Even more notable for their relationships to distinct from its rival, Seagram. Mies’s work than Barragán’s buildings, and in need Mies and Mexico of further study, were the glassy, boxy houses Acknowledgments While the Bacardi building was Mies’s only Francisco Artigas designed in Barragán’s suburban I am grateful to the late Detlef Mertins for his work in Mexico, at midcentury glassy International development, the Gardens of El Pedregal, in the guidance and encouragement on a very early draft of Style buildings began transforming Mexico City. 1950s.69 In these buildings Artigas integrated the this paper. I thank the anonymous reviewers of the Nonetheless, instances of the architect’s direct black volcanic rock that defined the landscape of manuscript and the editor for their many productive influence in Mexico are still relatively understudied. the Pedregal region with the long horizontal lines Most scholarship on modern architecture there and smooth glazed surfaces of sleek international suggestions. At Bacardi, Patricia Suau was extremely has understood buildings primarily in terms modernism. From the outside, the main volume his helpful in acquiring archival images. I regret that I am of “national” architecture, in relationship to house at 240 Risco Street (1952) called to mind its unable to include certain additional images because the ideologies of the Mexican Revolution and contemporary, Mies’s Farnsworth House. Fifteen of ongoing litigation involving the Mies van der government patronage.66 While these approaches years later Artigas designed an administration Rohe Archive. have been fruitful in many respects, they have building for the Federal School Construction Program

70 Mies and Bacardi: Mixing Modernism Notes 27. For example, see Mies’s statement in G quoted in Neumann, 86. 58. Encyclopedia of Food and Culture, vol. 1, ed. Solomon H. Katz (New 1. “Mies’s One-Office Office Building,” Architectural Forum 110 28. As recently as 2005 Mertins observed that “many people still think York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2003), 424–28. (February 1959): 95. that Mies was indifferent to his client’s needs . . . imposing on them a 59. Foster, 144–45. 2. “An Administrative Building in Mexico, by Mies van der Rohe,” Zodiac work of art to be valued as an end in itself.” “Mies’s Event Space,” 61. 60. Life, May 1966, emphasis in original. 10 (1962): 183. Emphasis in original. 61. Foster, 147. 3. Samuel Gallo, Bacardi 1862–1962 (1962), n.p. There is no additional 29. Foster, 43. 62. Ibid. bibliographic information for this source, which is a large, book-like 30. By the 1970s the campaign had changed only slightly to “Bacardi 63. Ibid., 55, 57. pamphlet. The only copy of which I am aware is in the collection of the Party to Go,” for example, see Life, June 16, 1972, special advertising 64. “Playboy’s Penthouse Apartment,” Playboy (September 1956): 54. New York Public Library. section. 65. “From the Desk of the Publisher,” Playboy (January 1953): 5. 4. Alice T. Friedman, American Glamour and the Evolution of Modern 31. Foster, 70. 66. An insightful recent treatment of Mexican modernism of the 1920s Architecture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010). 32. Gallo, n.p. and 1930s which illuminates architecture’s relationships to political, 5. Felicity Scott, “An Army of Soldiers or a Meadow,” Journal of the 33. On the image and idea of Mexico for Americans in the early cultural, and intellectual currents is Luis Carranza, Architecture as Society of Architectural Historians 70, no. 3 (2011): 330–53. twentieth century, see James Oles, “South of the Border: American Revolution: Episodes in the History of Modern Mexico (Austin: University 6. With the notable exception of private houses, many of the most Artists in Mexico, 1914–1947,” in South of the Border, ed. James Oles of Texas Press, 2010). important midcentury Mexican buildings were designed for the (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996), 49–213. 67. William J. R. Curtis, “‘The General and the Local’: Enrique del Moral’s government, and were often large-scale projects by architects such as 34. For discussion of the clear span and Mies’s reactions to a new Own House,” in Modernity and the Architecture of Mexico, ed. Edward Mario Pani and Pedro Ramirez Vazquez, which differed considerably in landscape and commercial programs in the United States see Liane Burian (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997), 123–25. program, form, and scale from Bacardi’s buildings. Lefaivre, “Burgers, Fries, and a Side Order of Mies,” Architecture 89, no. 68. Luis Casteñeda, “Beyond Tlatelolco: Design, Media, and Politics at 7. Gallo, n.p. 77 (2000): 67–69, 138. Mexico ’68,” Grey Room 40 (Summer 2010): 100–26. 8. Peter Foster, Family Spirits (Toronto: McFarlane, Walter & Ross, 1990). 35. Gallo, n.p. 69. On the development of the Pedregal, see Keith Eggener, Luis 9. Foster, 54–55. 36. Ibid. Barragán’s Gardens of El Pedregal (New York: Princeton Architectural 10. Ibid., 51. 37. Ibid. Press, 2001). 11. Phyllis Lambert, “Space and Structure,” in Mies in America, ed. Phyllis 38. Ibid. 70. Expanded research on Mies’s influence on Mexican architecture Lambert (Montreal and New York: Canadian Centre for Architecture, 39. Ibid. might also investigate the links between IIT and the campus of the Whitney Museum of American Art, Harry N. Abrams, 2001), 475–80. 40. Gallo, n.p. Emphasis in original. National Polytechnic Institute in Mexico City (Reynaldo Pérez Rayón et 12. Gene Summers interview with Kevin Harrington; see note 246 in 41. Note 244 in Lambert, 519. al., 1957–1975). Lambert, 519. For discussion of the Santiago project in relation to the 42. Ibid. New National Gallery, see Lambert, 474–99. 43. Ibid. 13. On the New National Gallery, see Detlef Mertins, “Mies’s Event 44. Ibid. Space,” Grey Room 20 (Summer 2005): 60–73. 45. See Detlef Mertins, “Living in a Jungle: Mies, Organic Architecture, 14. Note 246 in Lambert, 519. and the Art of City Building,” in Mies in America, 590–691; and Mertins, 15. Summers discouraged Mies from framing the Santiago project as he “Mies’s Skyscraper ‘Project’: Towards the Redemption of Technical had Crown Hall because, “if you put glass on the outside . . . it’s going to Structure,” in The Presence of Mies, ed. Detlef Mertins (New York:

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 fry those people,” and because of the difficulty of air-conditioning the Princeton Architectural Press, 1994), 48–67. space effectively. Note 246 in Lambert, 519. 46. See K. Michael Hays, “The Mies Effect,” in Lambert, ed., Mies in 16. The innovative structural system of the roof received special attention America, 692–705, and Peter Eisenman, “Mies and the Figuring of in the architectural press; see “Mies’s One-Office Office Building,” 95. Absence,” in Mies in America, 706–715. 17. Quoted in Lambert, 480. 18. Mertins, “Mies’s Event Space,” 61–66. 47. On midcentury buildings, glamour, and corporate clients, see 19. Dietrich Neumann explains this in “Three Early Designs by Mies van Friedman, American Glamour, especially 39–74, 109–148. der Rohe,” Perspecta 27 (1992): 87. 48. On Candela’s work for Bacardi, see Edward Segal et al., “Bacardi Rum 20. Neumann, 83. Factory,” Félix Candela: Engineer, Builder, Structural Artist, eds. Maria 21. Neumann quotes from G and makes the connection between the E. Moreyra Garlock and David P. Billington (Princeton, NJ : Princeton drawing and text, 86. University Art Museum; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008) 154–67. 22. Neumann, 85. 49. Three more vaults were added in 1971. 23. “Mies’s One-Office Office Building,” 94–95. 50. Gallo, n.p. 24. Like Bacardi, Seagram commissioned two buildings, only one of which 51. Ibid. was built. The second commission (1957) was for an office building in 52. Friedman, 119–132. Chicago to be much like the one in New York. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, 53. Robin Boyd, “The Counter-Revolution in Architecture,” Harper’s Arthur Drexler and Franz Schulze, The Mies van der Rohe Archive, vol. 17 (September 1959), 40, 48. (New York: Garland Publishing, 1986), 202. 54. Ibid., 44. 25. Friedman revealed that Philip Johnson’s role in the Seagram design 55. Ibid., 44. was considerably greater than had been thought. On this and his 56. Friedman, 148–185; see also Friedman, “The Luxury of Lapidus: conception of “style,” see Friedman, American Glamour, 39–50, 60–66. Glamour, Class and Architechure in Miami Beach,” Harvard Design 26. See Scott for a discussion of this phenomenon, 331¬–338. Magazine 11 (Summer 2000): 42.

O’ROURKE 71 This article was downloaded by: [24.34.163.121] On: 28 August 2013, At: 04:35 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Architectural Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjae20 Prisoners of Ritoque: The Open City and the Ritoque Concentration Camp Ana María León a a Massachusetts Institute of Technology Published online: 04 Dec 2012.

To cite this article: Ana Mara Len (2012) Prisoners of Ritoque: The Open City and the Ritoque Concentration Camp, Journal of Architectural Education, 66:1, 84-97, DOI: 10.1080/10464883.2012.718300 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10464883.2012.718300

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which saw the short-lived presidency of socialist In the early 1970s, a school of architecture and a concentration Salvador Allende (1970–1973) and the subsequent camp appeared at the Ritoque beach, just north of Valparaíso, military dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet (1974–1990). Chile. Situated three miles apart, they never acknowledged each Previous research on the school has emphasized other’s presence. Nonetheless, their occupants formed communities its pedagogical innovation, through the use of games, poetry, and design-build, but has avoided that used a similar repertoire of games, events, and performances any discussion of the political upheaval that marked to create real and imaginary spaces. Faculty at the school deployed its founding.4 South American scholarship has come from within the school—eager to showcase its these activities to form a utopian enclave, freeing students and methods—or from outside the country, where the school is seen as an alternative utopia in support themselves from the strictures of normative education and practice, of the development of an American architecture while limiting their political agency. In contrast, the prisoners of (“America” understood as the American continent).5 The presence of the prison camp in the immediate the camp transformed their enforced isolation into active political vicinity of the school has never been acknowledged resistance. in past scholarship on the school. By presenting these two sites as parallel enclaves in the context of the Chilean dictatorship, I describe how each Introduction a concentration camp for political prisoners three A set of train tracks runs along the Ritoque beach.1 miles north of the school.3 The camp prisoners, My argument follows these tracks, connecting two who included professional actors and playwrights sites that settled in Ritoque in the early 1970s: an imprisoned for the political content of their architecture school called the Open City (Ciudad theatrical performances, initiated a series of games Abierta), and the Ritoque concentration camp, and theatrical performances at the camp. The established by the Pinochet regime to house political confrontational nature of their performances which Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 prisoners (Figure 1). included defiant interactions with their audience— Founded in 1971 on the south edge of the the guards—stands as a foil to the Open City’s beach, the Open City is an architecture school architectural performances. that has defined its pedagogy as a combination In this article, I place the founding and of poetry and architecture. As part of their studio development of the school in the context of exercises, students participate in collective events the pedagogical and political environment of that recall surrealist practices, such as the exquisite late 1960s and early 1970s Chile. I compare the corpse and automatic writing. These exercises are school’s pedagogical methods and the prisoners’ starting points for the design and construction performances, describing their origins in French of buildings, sculptures, and installations on Surrealist theater and Brazilian Marxist pedagogy. the Open City campus. This process reflects the In the camp, these influences were mobilized with school’s philosophy: that architecture should be a specific political intent, but in the school, which collaborative, ephemeral, and utopian event that expressly detached itself from politics, similar exists outside the boundaries of conventional activities had much different motivations. I argue Figure 1. Location of the Ritoque concentration camp (provided by Miguel Lawner, former prisoner) and the Open City school. (NASA’s Earth 2 professional practice. that the school’s detachment implied a removal, a Observing System, http://earthdata.nasa.gov/data/near-real-time-data/ Three years after the Open City was founded, voluntary imprisonment, which should be understood rapid-response/modis-subsets, accessed 25 July 2012. In the public the dictatorial regime of Augusto Pinochet set up in the context of the political turmoil of 1970s Chile, domain.)

84 Prisoners of Ritoque group negotiated the political potential of utopian isolation. There are two stories to be told about Ritoque in the 1970s: one of voluntary isolation, the other of enforced imprisonment. The Open City still operates, promoting itself as an alternative to conventional architectural education. The concentration camp has disappeared, demolished after the 1989 referendum that ended Pinochet’s regime. Despite their physical and cultural proximities, these sites were distinguished by one profound difference. While the school’s faculty chose to remove itself from the conventions of university and professional practice Figure 2. Godofredo Iommi (left, reading) and Alberto Cruz (right), in an early Phalène (Horcones, Chile 1964). (Photograph courtesy of Archivo and the larger political environment, the camp Histórico José Vial Armstrong, Escuela de Arquitectura y Diseño, PUCV.) prisoners were brought together and compelled to act by a repressive government. in continuing the canonical modern architecture Maldonado and the Ulm School (whom Iommi project, somewhat inflected by a focus on vernacular visited while in Europe).11 But the Valparaíso group Starting Points: The School architecture, and kept close relations to U.S. schools distanced itself from these schools by including On September 1939 the SS Winnipeg, a ship linked to the Bauhaus, through invited guests philosophers and poets among its members, chartered by Chilean poet Pablo Neruda to transport and U.S.-trained faculty.8 Despite their alignment and organizing itself around a collective model, approximately 2,200 refugees from the Spanish with Larraín’s desire to rid the school of traditional typically assigning one member as the design lead Civil War, arrived in Valparaíso. Many artists and teaching models, a faculty group led by Cruz sought for the group and inviting students to participate intellectuals were aboard the ship, including Spanish to explore an alternative modernity linked to poetry in projects as needed. As part of their agreement art historian and playwright José Ricardo Morales, and craft—an approach that was viewed as too with the PUCV, the group received full-time posts, whose work would be influential in the development narrow by the rest of the PUC faculty.9 although with reduced salaries. Their agreement of a discourse for modern architecture.6 This Spanish Later in that same year, Cruz was invited to to pool their salaries and occasionally share living Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 diaspora tied the development of modernity in Chile teach at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de conditions allowed them to avoid working in to the Spanish avant-garde, which had a strong Valparaíso (PUCV). The offer to Cruz was prompted professional offices outside the school. Surrealist component, and was characterized by by a change of leadership at the PUCV, originally Their practice was developed parallel to collaborations among poets, architects, and theater a private foundation and taken over by the Jesuits academia, in a similar mode to the ateliers at the performers. in 1952.10 Cruz accepted the position only after École des Beaux-Arts in Paris: that is, the work Modernist ideas would be introduced to Chilean the school agreed to hire a multidisciplinary group produced at the Institute was part of a learning architecture schools in 1946, when most schools he led from the PUC, which included Argentinian process that involved students and teachers started modeling their pedagogy on predominantly poet Godofredo Iommi (1917–2001). Iommi had outside the school. This collective mode was in Bauhaus ideas.7 That year, Alberto Cruz (b. 1917) met Cruz only one year before, but would become sharp contrast to the School of Architecture at taught one of the first composition courses to move the ideological leader of the group (Figure 2). Once PUC in Santiago, where teachers maintained a away from the classic Beaux-Arts model at the in Valparaíso, Cruz, Iommi, and their colleagues professional career separate from their part-time Pontificia Universidad Católica (PUC) in Santiago. created the Institute of Architecture (1952–1969), teaching posts. From the start, the members of the Eight years later, in 1952, the school at PUC was a separate institution that allowed them some Valparaíso group sought to distance themselves still struggling to transition from a traditional Beaux independence from the university. The Institute was from conventional professional practice, which they Arts school to a more modern model. A decisive partially inspired by the experience of the Institute saw as an obstacle to the development of a more shift occurred that year when Sergio Larraín was of Architecture and Urbanism in Tucumán, Argentina significant discourse. This position further isolated appointed dean of the PUC. Larraín was interested (1946–1952), itself related to the teachings of Tomás continued

LEÓN 85 Figure 3. Open City Inaugural Act (Ritoque, 1971). (Photograph courtesy of Archivo Histórico José Vial Armstrong, Escuela de Arquitectura y Diseño, PUCV.)

them from Chilean academia. Mario Pérez de Arce, rustic or reused materials, and programs related length poem, Amereida, based on the trip, which former professor and dean at the PUC in Santiago to collective spiritual experience. Throughout this became an important reference for the Open City. and colleague of Larraín and Cruz, describes his period the group collaborated on the design and In that same year, a series of university impression of the Institute of Architecture group: reconstruction of several churches destroyed or reforms altered the organization of the largest damaged by an earthquake in 1960, as well as a Chilean universities. Larger political, academic and I would see them every now and then, but the Benedictine monastery. agrarian reforms, enacted by the government of

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 truth is I always felt the Valparaíso School as a In the early 1960s, several members of the Eduardo Frei (in office 1964–1970), prompted the very closed thing, hermetic. It’s like they had a group travelled to Europe and met with a group university changes.16 Students demanding universal language of their own.12 of French poets and philosophers, prompted by access to education and participation in university It is important to note that as part of their conversations with German philosopher Ernesto decisions led the university movement.17 At the methodology, the group promoted—in accordance Grassi who had lectured at the PUCV.14 Iommi PUCV, a more moderate movement was led by the with the new religious status of the institution—an organized “poetic acts’ in a number of French cities academics of the School of Architecture—including understanding of Catholicism in terms of service and during the trip; the “acts” recalled Iommi’s earliest Cruz and his group—along with the Institute of poverty rather than hierarchy and obligatory charity. work, which sought to liberate poetry from writing. Social Sciences. The reform discussions at PUCV These religious influences should be understood in A key shift in Iommi’s thought happens at this focused on administrative assignments, control over the context of the Catholic left in postwar South moment, as he began to look back at America as a budget allocations, and increased autonomy from America, which developed within the Church as an continent of possibilities, instead of relying upon the Catholic Church, and also opposed faculty that alternative to more conservative Catholic groups.13 European sources for inspiration.15 This outlook used their posts for political gain.18 Compared to The Open City faculty was outspokenly Catholic inspired Amereida, a 1965 trip throughout the similar processes across Chile, the PUCV reform had and leftist. Their particular practice of Catholicism South American continent spent traversing the a stronger academic focus and more support from reinforced ideas about communal living, equality, rugged terrain of the interior, improvising “poetic conservative factions within the university. During and a culture of poverty that translated into their acts,” which the Valparaiso group considered a this reform process, Iommi argued against the architectural production as an appreciation for foundational event. In 1967, Iommi published a book social privileges and divisions created by university

86 Prisoners of Ritoque degrees, and proposed transforming the university into a collective society that integrated life, work, and study.19 These ideas were dismissed by both the university and the larger reform movement, compelling the group lead by Iommi and Cruz to look for alternative venues to implement their vision. Taking advantage of recent land reforms, they purchased 275 hectares of land in the southern stretch of the beach of Ritoque, and founded the Open City in 1971 (Figure 3).20 Since then, the Open City has functioned as a laboratory of arts and architecture that collaborates with—and is partially funded by—the PUCV. Its legal framework, Amereida, is a non-profit cooperative that owns the site collectively, with the exception of some smaller private properties within the complex.21 Figure 4. From left: Juan McLeod, Marieta Castro, Alfredo Cifuentes, Óscar Castro, Manena Parra, Cecilia Benítez, Ricardo Vallejo, in Hip, hip. . . ufa! The school’s buildings are built communally, in (Aleph Theater, 1972). (Photograph courtesy of Théâtre Aleph.) a slow, additive process that makes it difficult to attribute specific authorship. A project director Mandrágora was founded in 1938 at the Instituto these efforts despite its affiliation with the PUC, a coordinates the work, and different designers Pedagógico in the Universidad de Chile by the first conservative, upper-middle-class university. collaborate on smaller projects that contribute to the self-declared Surrealist group in the country. It dealt In 1972, Brazilian playwright Augusto Boal gradual construction of the campus. primarily with poetry, and included some discussions taught “physical training,” performance exercises The Open City was the culmination of a long of art and philosophy.23 As I mentioned earlier, based on the body, to the Aleph group. Although history of efforts by the Institute of Architecture many artists fleeing the Spanish Civil war arrived Castro claims that the group’s contact with Boal group, combining the broad range of influences in the country in the late 1930s, bringing with did not go beyond these classes, Boal’s ideas that brought the group together in Santiago in the them an influx of Surrealist theater practices that supported the Aleph’s emphasis on political Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 1940s and nurtured their collaboration through the had a profound influence on university theaters.24 consciousness and audience participation, and 1950s and 1960s. The Bauhaus pedagogy as taught Although theater groups from the 1960s and 1970s likely influenced Castro’s work.25 For example, at the PUC, the independence of the Institute of did not acknowledge these earlier influences, the their play Hip, hip . . . ufa! (1972) included a scene Architecture at PUVC, the Catholic left’s collectivist relationship between the Instituto Pedagógico and called “el tren de los vivos” (an untranslatable pun theology of equality, and the Chilean university the Universidad de Chile set the stage for a close which refers to both the train of the living and the reform movements merged with Iommi’s experiences connection between the Chilean avant-garde and the train of the smart guys), in which the audience in France and his interpretation of Heideggerian institution of the university. was invited to “join the train” (Figure 4). Thus existential phenomenology to form the pedagogy The 1967 university reforms that had prompted linked, actors and audience left the theater and of the school. This philosophy is described on the the Institute of Architecture group to purchase the went out into the street, where the play ended, in school’s website as the “permanent co-participation property at Ritoque also resulted in a reorganization order to demonstrate that “life was in the street.”26 in the construction of the Open City.”22 of the university theaters into larger interdisciplinary In contrast to these productions, other groups academic structures, in association with music, staged lighter plays that tried to diffuse, rather Starting Points: The Camp dance, and art departments. Led by students, than confront, the tense political atmosphere in The modernist avant-garde in Chile developed these reforms emphasized the role of theater as an Chile. This dichotomy between social commitment within institutional and literary groups that instrument for social change through experiments and escapism reflected the increasing polarization accommodated a growing middle class increasingly in collective creation. The Aleph Theater, led by of the country into a political left eager for interested in scholarly pursuits. The journal playwright Óscar Castro (b. 1948), participated in continued

LEÓN 87 Figure 5. Tournament Edros vs. Oides (Open City, June 1979). (Photograph courtesy of Archivo Histórico José Vial Armstrong, Escuela de Arquitectura y Diseño, PUCV.) popular participation and a right anxious to maintain Shortly after the coup, several universities went studio travel in or outside Chile as a group, or the status quo. through a counter-reform process: university theaters participate in courses on site, and then complete a At the end of 1970, a year prior to the were closed or had their staff replaced. Such was the building exercise. The trips, or travesías, are related founding of the Open City, socialist Salvador Allende case for Óscar Castro and the Aleph Theater at the to a larger discourse of continental integration that was elected president of Chile and initiated an PUC (a university where the majority of the student characterized the Open City pedagogy from the accelerated program of industrial nationalization and population had opposed Allende’s government).30 start.33 The travesías require leaving the Open City land reform.27 As part of his social agenda, eighteen The Aleph’s university offices were closed and several in order to “establish” it elsewhere through “poetic small vacation resorts were built in the beaches of members were arrested for staging plays against the acts.” Whether at Ritoque or in the travesías, these Chile, aimed at low-income families.28 One of these regime. Castro was arrested, tortured, and eventually ritual events combining poetry and architecture are resorts, comprised of five wooden barracks with confined to the concentration camps.31 Between the cornerstone of the school’s pedagogy, reflecting Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 communal facilities, grouped around a clearing for 1974 and 1975, the camps received prisoners from the two main actors involved in the development of group activities and sports, was built in Ritoque, the undeclared torture centers and incarcerated them the school, poet Iommi and architect Cruz. three miles north of the Open City. The resorts and until they obtained political asylum outside Chile. In The poetic act or phalène is a performance the broader reforms of the Allende government contrast to the torture centers, the camps were not that Iommi integrated into the architecture had a short lifespan, however. on the morning of secret: the International Red Cross paid visits, and pedagogy at Valparaíso in 1952 and developed September 11, 1973, the army took control of family meetings and donations were permitted.32 further during his stay in France between 1958 Valparaíso—the country’s main port, just south of However, the camps maintained a routine of torture and 1963.34 For Iommi, the poetic act was a Ritoque—and advanced to Santiago, where they and punishment that bypassed international control. collaborative and participative event, yet at the bombarded the Presidential Palace and a number The strategies developed by camp prisoners to resist same time it distinguished between a creator of other buildings including the theater of the such punishments would echo the pedagogical or artist and an audience. It involved multiple University of Chile. It was the beginning of a military methods of the Open City. disciplines but did not attempt to transgress dictatorship led by General Augusto Pinochet which their boundaries. Accordingly, the emphasis on would rule Chile for seventeen years, transforming Pedagogical Positions: The School collaboration and participation in the Open City has the country from a socialist state into a totalitarian The Open City has always operated as part of always been conducted in the context of a teacher- regime. Repeating this transformation on a smaller the PUCV, typically offering an elective or required student relationship, although this relationship is scale, Allende’s vacation resorts were turned into studio for the students of the PUCV School of less rigidly hierarchical than it was prior to the 1967 concentration camps for political prisoners.29 Architecture. Students enrolled in an Open City student reforms.

88 Prisoners of Ritoque Iommi’s “poetic act” was influenced by the Figure 6. Student Graduation Project, R. Varela (Open City, 1973). Romantic poetry of Friedrich Hölderlin and Arthur (Photograph courtesy of Archivo Histórico José Vial Armstrong, Escuela de Arquitectura y Diseño, PUCV.) Rimbaud, understood through the phenomenological lens of Martin Heidegger, who had become an Figure 7. Palace of Dawn and Dusk (Open City, 1982). (Photograph courtesy of Archivo Histórico José Vial Armstrong, Escuela de important influence on Iommi through his PUC Arquitectura y Diseño, PUCV.) colleague, the German philosopher Ernesto Grassi.35 In his examination of Hölderlin’s poetry, Heidegger Figure 8. Hostel of the Entry (Open City, 1982). (Photograph courtesy of Archivo Histórico José Vial Armstrong, Escuela de Arquitectura y meditates on the innocent, harmless nature of poetry Diseño, PUCV.) versus the dangers of language. Iommi’s lectures echo these thoughts and connect them to Rimbaud’s ideas about the need to detach word and action. Iommi carries this idea of poetry as detached from action into an architectural strategy by arguing that poetry is an originary language, and as such it is the basis of any type of work, including art and architecture. Iommi described his position in a 1983 lecture:

. . .we [the school founders] disengaged ourselves, radically, from everything that could be called action ...... no type of action, categorically, none: it doesn’t move anything. This is a hard, strong division, dangerous for the individual life of the self. Innocuous, for the political life, without any political decisions such as site and building orientation transcendence, but, yes, hard, for the individual (Figure 5). Design, construction, and sometimes life of each person.. . . And we don’t intend to destruction follow the rituals; architecture becomes Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 change the world. One would think this is an an improvised process (Figure 6). During his stay evasion, but it’s the opposite, why? Because in France, Iommi’s colleagues had criticized his 37 we’re the only ones that are going to change fondness for improvisation and automatic writing. favored rudimentary materials and haphazard the world, because we believe in the word that At the Open City, these tactics were recovered geometries that are occasionally compared to changes and not in action that does not change and encouraged. The whole site is understood as a slum settlements or deconstructivist geometries anything.36 continually evolving project, an enormous exquisite (Figure 8). However, the school’s phenomenologist corpse at multiple scales in which the work pauses discourse, derived from Iommi’s Heideggerian This elevation of word over action was for a few hours or years and then is resumed by a ideas, is devoid of explicit formalist impulses, reflected in the roles of Iommi as poet and Cruz as new collective of designer-builders. and emphasizes site instead. The changing sand architect. It was Iommi who spoke for the school; The life of a project is unpredictable, most dunes, the harsh vegetation, and the constant his many lectures were recorded and transcribed to notably in the Palace of Dawn and Dusk, a wind are typical starting points for design. All represent the school’s philosophy and teaching. As construction that was halted before its planned constructions turn away from the sea, reflecting an the architect, Cruz built after the poet had spoken, completion when the group agreed it was done enduring desire to benefit from its presence, while just as the poetic acts start with readings and are (Figure 7). This informal, sporadic approach was resisting its commoditization. The location of larger followed by actions that turn into building. These meant to resist the closed processes and individual structural elements such as prefabricated columns actions include games and rituals—planned in authorship of normative architecture and the are determined only after they reach the site, and advance but using chance and intuition to determine professionalization of the discipline. The buildings continued

LEÓN 89 Pedagogical Positions: The Camp In contrast, political and social concerns were central to prisoners at the Chilean concentration camps. The camps were used by the regime to hold former opposition leaders, and included a broad range of occupations and education levels. While at Ritoque, the inmates produced a series of lectures and festivals, and ran a small school.41 Each inmate taught their field of specialization— nuclear physicists taught advanced mathematics, farmers explained land cultivation, mechanics showed how to dismantle a car engine. These study sessions established a common ground that brought different income levels and social classes together. Once established in the camps, Figure 9. Ritoque Concentration Camp, approximate site plan drawn by Miguel Lawner (2005). (Courtesy of Miguel Lawner, private collection.) former university theater playwright Castro started staging plays with increasing roof membranes are designed empirically after the Argentinean architecture historian Marina Waisman, collaboration from fellow prisoners, including a few structure has been erected. Many buildings take the who championed the work of Manfredo Tafuri, theater professionals and amateurs.42 They soon form of closed, introspective enclosures, sometimes emphasizing its social aspects (in contrast to its became weekly events. Castro would write plays,

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 excavated into the dunes. Sculptures usually stand reception in the United States through the journal performing them in front of the camp authorities for out vertically against the horizontal landscape. Oppositions), was particularly influential. Waisman’s approval, and then change emphasis and intonation Buildings and sculptures appear disconnected from writings were read throughout South America, in the actual performance. Engineers and mechanics each other within the site—like a landscape of and their complete absence from the discourse helped with special effects, using an economy of objects washed over by the sea, they are located of the Open City distinguished the school from means and material improvisation similar to the work based on intuition, improvisation, and topography, in architecture culture in the rest of the continent. It of the Open City. Fellow prisoners often performed contrast to the orthogonal composition of classic and is a convenient absence: Tafuri, with his extreme roles close to their own lives. Office clerks would 38 modern planning. distrust of utopia as a confinement in the irrelevance portray office clerks, and rural workers would play A desire to realize change through discourse, of a boudoir, would have been skeptical of the rural workers. Victims of torture would reenact their a deliberate suppression of political engagement, idiosyncratic experimentation at the Open City. 40 experiences, only to be rescued by comic book and the firm belief in the inefficacy of action: these In failing to engage with this discourse, Cruz and heroes. These parallels between fiction and reality positions take on new meaning when reframed Iommi’s group—already isolated by the censorship reached a climax in a permanent performance called within the political context of 1970s South and restrictions of the Pinochet regime—was “The Town of Ritoque.”43 America. It was an era in which the predominant further distanced from South American architectural “The Town of Ritoque” started as a joke, after architectural discourse, influenced by the Marxist academia. Like many of its buildings, seen from the the prisoners gave street names to the passageways writings of the Venice School, shared a distrust of outside, the Open City seemed introspective and along the five barracks of the concentration camp utopia and an interest in social concerns.39 The solitary. (Figure 9). The play transformed the camp into an

90 Prisoners of Ritoque Figure 10. “Dogs Without Uniform,” drawing by Miguel Lawner (Ritoque, February 1975). (Courtesy Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos, Fondo Miguel Lawner.) imaginary free town protected from the rest of Chile to become part of our championship team, the guards, chastising the guards for their lack of by barbed wire, meant to keep all the prisoners of which had always been such a success. We proper documentation, in an ironic reference to the Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 the dictatorship (that is, all the Chileans outside wished the return train would be more reliable, procedures of the secret police.45 These audacious the camp) from escaping into the freedom found in because the arrival train that brought people performances were part of a larger shift in the Ritoque. This urban fantasy grew to include a City was very good, but the return train always prisoners’ attitudes, from despair to increasing Hall, a Fire Department, a Music Band, a Priest, and failed, which is why the comrades have stuck disobedience, prompted, paradoxically, by their a Post Office. Prisoners decided who should play around and we should not blame bad luck, but increasingly desolate prospects.46 each role, a hierarchy distinct from their official transportation.44 Encouraged by the success of “The Town of internal organization, managed by a Council of Ritoque,” prisoners without a theatrical background Elders. Castro became the Mayor. He was responsible Castro alludes to the train which went by the started performing their own plays (Figure 11). for giving an “official” welcome to new prisoners, site every day, but never stopped at the camp—the They used acronyms and anagrams to invent code once they were registered and the Council of Elders prisoners were brought over by truck. words and make allusions to their political situation, assigned them to a barracks. The fictional mayor of The mayor also took on less playful tasks. and created narratives that paralleled, but did not Ritoque, in a performance that would transform the Periodically, the guards would group prisoners in the directly describe, their experience of arrest and central area of the camp into the town plaza, then main field, strip them and search their bodies and torture. Prisoners also confronted their guards, received the new members of the town’s “team”: scarce personal property (Figure 10). After these interfering with the schedule of torture sessions, humiliating experiences, when the camp settled back and they maintained records of their presence and The theme for the greeting was sports—we into a semblance of routine, Castro would assume resistance. When his theatrical activities became welcomed these new athletes, who had arrived his character and break diplomatic relations with continued

LEÓN 91 Figure 11. “The Gospel According to Us” drawing by Miguel Lawner (Ritoque, 30 March 1975). Courtesy Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos, Fondo Miguel Lawner.)

too provocative, Castro was transferred to other pedagogy of Paulo Freire, Antonin Artaud’s Surrealist pedagogy can be understood as a more politically Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 camps, in what he jokingly referred to as his “artistic theories of the theater, and Michel Foucault’s late radical variant of methods the Open School tried to tour.” He used his transfer from camp to camp to writings on discipline and power. implement.50 disseminate his plays and their rebellious message. Marxist pedagogue Paulo Freire lived in In their efforts to support university reform, The prisoners’ defiance complicated the regime’s Chile from 1964 to 1969, exiled by the Brazilian the Open City faculty—led by Iommi—intended international image. After two years of operation, the military dictatorship.47 For Freire, education had to destabilize all instances of power: not only from camps were closed and the prisoners were deported the potential to become “the practice of freedom”: the outside, but from within the school. We can see from Chile. the means to achieve a critical consciousness of these tactics at play in the emphasis on collaboration the world.48 This education was best achieved between students and teachers, which was intended Power, Politics, and Performance through dialogue, and peers were the most effective to erase distinctions between work, study, and life, During the early 1970s, there were, in practice, teachers.49 Freire viewed education as a political dismantling notions of authorship and disciplinary three sites at Ritoque: the school, the concentration and collective act that critiqued oppressive practices hierarchies. This paradigm is very close to Freire’s camp, and the fictitious “town of Ritoque.” and hierarchies, including those of the educational pedagogy, where knowledge is discovered through These sites form a field in which the dynamics of system itself. His ideas would be incorporated into a collective experience where the teacher is only a power were negotiated through two related ideas: the work of another influential Brazilian exiled in guide. Similarly in the Open City studios, teachers a pedagogy of equals, and the erasure of the Chile, playwright Augusto Boal. Freire also had ties acted as guides and collaborators with students. distance between performer and audience. I will to the South American Catholic left, specifically with However, in the Open City these tactics supported examine these ideas through the lens of the Marxist the Liberation Theology movement, and as such his a deliberately apolitical architectural pedagogy,

92 Prisoners of Ritoque opposed to Freire’s ambitions to create a critical interpret the action, and the appropriation of liberation from external power, by making it the consciousness. Rather, Iommi advocated for an “non-performers” (the prisoners and guards) into culprit for all internal repression. Thus Foucault a-critical consciousness: a liberty of thought the “Town of Ritoque.” In contrast, the Open dismisses processes that react to external repression, that was nurtured from within a community and City’s poetic acts encouraged participation but emphasizing instead practices based on the deliberately disengaged from external political forces. sidestepped its political meaning. Jacques Rancière ideological liberation of the self, independent of Furthermore, despite seeking to destabilize ideas of has recently reinforced the relationship between external conditions. We can contrast this concept authority within the school, Iommi and Cruz were, Artaud’s call to draw the audience into the space of with Freire’s “practices of freedom,” in which critical without question, leaders, not guides. the play and pedagogy through the paradigm of the consciousness is a necessary step in order to perceive A pedagogy with a stronger resemblance to “ignorant schoolmaster.”54 According to Rancière, and understand repressive conditions. For Freire Freire’s ideas developed within the camp. In an just as the ignorant schoolmaster can only teach by achieving this freedom (or consciousness) makes interview from 1979, during his political exile in giving students freedom to explore, emancipated political action inevitable. France, Castro described his realization that workers spectatorship creates a collective of individuals who Following this taxonomy, Castro’s work would with no formal education could explain political, learn through exploration. be defined as a process of liberation, that is, a economic, and social problems to him.51 This society Unlike the camp performances, the school’s reaction to a repressive mechanism—the discipline of equals, and its various forms of literacy were interest in redefining power relationships was of the concentration camp. Iommi’s ideology could also at play in Castro’s theatrical performances, ancillary to the implicit purpose of realizing a be understood as a practice of freedom—a process and demonstrate an obvious debt to Augosto model of architectural education and practice that of internal transformation, deliberately detached Boal’s writing. Boal describes what he calls—in an transcended a troubled and corrupt social and from external conditions. Suspended in utopian acknowledged reference to Freire—the poetics of political order. This desire for autonomy—distinct isolation, the school gained the freedom to act at the oppressed: from the discourse of autonomy that arose in Europe the cost of its own relevance. Although the school and North America in the 1970s and 1980s—defined was founded before Pinochet’s regime, its voluntary . . . the poetics of the oppressed focuses on the architectural education as necessarily separate disengagement from the political realm allowed action itself: the spectator delegates no power from the world as given. The distinction between it to function with relative independence. Within to the character (or actor) either to act or to education as an autonomous or political process, the enclosure of the school, students had a certain think in his place; on the contrary, he himself or, as Foucault would characterize it, a practice liberty that was denied to many Chileans. While the assumes the protagonic role, changes the of freedom and a process of liberation, defines school voluntarily embraced its own isolation from Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 dramatic action, tries out solutions, discusses and animates the differences between the camp the political context, the camp performers used their plans for change—in short, trains himself for performances and the school’s teachings. tactics to create a space of resistance from inside real action. In this case, perhaps the theater Acknowledging the inevitability of the the Pinochet regime. The school chose to disengage, is not revolutionary in itself, but it is surely presence of power, in his late writings Foucault while the camp chose to resist. a rehearsal for the revolution. The liberated theorized on the care of the self and the need There are some obvious similarities between spectator, as a whole person, launches into for guidance. He described external forms of the Open City pedagogy and contemporaneous action. No matter that the action is fictional; discipline based on power (the rule of law and experimental communities such as Utopie in France, what matters is that it is action!52 techniques of government) and internal disciplines and Arcosanti, Drop City, and Ant Farm in the or technologies of the self (practices of the self United States. Felicity Scott has noted the critical Note the stark contrast between Boal’s call and practices of freedom).55 Foucault defined possibilities of some of these experiments, distancing for action and Iommi’s prescription against it. For these internal disciplines as “an exercise of the Drop City’s haphazard isolation from Ant Farm’s Boal, action produces participation and a liberated self on the self by which one attempts to develop political engagement.56 These countercultural spectator, a complete dismantling of the hierarchy and transform oneself, and to attain to a certain communities sought to produce alternative societies between the actor and audience derived from mode of being.” He distanced them from what he and engaged architecture as part of their practices, Antonin Artaud’s “Theater of Cruelty.”53 Similar called processes of liberation, which respond to not unlike the Open City, and the participants in the tactics can be found in Castro’s plays: the anagrams mechanisms of repression. According to Foucault, school were aware of some of these experiments. and metaphors that asked the audience to actively these political processes only achieve an illusory continued

LEÓN 93 Certainly, the beach of Ritoque and its surroundings were known as a site for hippie communities, a phenomenon common in certain isolated areas in South America and other locations in the southern hemisphere, which received an influx of North American and European immigrants in the early 1970s—members of the post-1968 generation in search of more “natural” ways of life. Likewise, other groups in Chile formed experimental communities, including the more structured but similarly collective community housing experiments involving self- construction coordinated by Chilean architect Fernando Castillo in the 1960s and early 1970s.57 Thus the Open City was established in the context of similar practices in Chile and around the world, but its status as a school of architecture makes it unique among these examples.

Abandoned Tracks For prisoners in the camp, the train that Figure 12. Remains of Ritoque concentration camp, October 13, 2012. (Photograph by the author.) traversed the beach twice a day was a reminder of the outside world—the distant whistle was often English and Spanish, also shows a shift in the school into a form of active resistance, producing a spatial mentioned in the prisoners’ memories of the camp.58 pedagogy: each project lists the professor in charge politics. The “Town of Ritoque” satirized the camp, In contrast, it is telling that despite their emphasis without including the rest of the team—a return and relied upon an understanding of utopian on site, the various descriptions of the school to authorship, away from the utopian collective communities that played upon the idealization overlook the train and its tracks. If the prisoners were advocated by Iommi in the days of reform.60 The inherent to utopian thinking. The camp is gone—it Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 attentive to the train’s whistle as a daily ritual, the school keeps a detailed record of its past—Iommi’s was demolished in 1989 after Pinochet lost the school’s deafness reminds us of their insistence on speeches have been carefully transcribed and plebiscite, ending the dictatorship. Only concrete isolation. archived online, images of the Open City have foundations remain, partially covered by grass The train no longer travels along the beach, been uploaded to a Flickr site, and its buildings and (Figure 12).62 While the school seems obsessed although the tracks remain, covered by sand. The sculptures have been located on a Google Map.61 with preserving its memories, the events that took Open City still operates, if in a slightly different This careful documentation demonstrates not only place just three miles north have been buried in the mode, its aging founders giving way to a new an eagerness to safeguard the past, but also a sand, and the “Town of Ritoque” survives only in the generation of teachers. From the start, funding willingness to share it with the world: a carefully memory of the prisoners. For the school’s students, problems limited the frequency of built work. Current curated public version of an introverted pedagogy. the camp is only a distant rumor, if they have heard faculty is expected to raise funds for Open City However, this openness is limited to the words and of it at all. Yet the activism that characterizes the projects through grant applications, while students images the school uses to describe itself, and critical camp remains: Castro continues to do theater in both cover the expenses of school travel. Increasing costs analysis of the school remains scarce. The school’s Chile and France, often connected to his experiences have compelled school administrators to make Open detachment from politics contributed to its survival, of imprisonment and exile. City studios elective rather than required courses, and its introspection has become self-promotion—it In the end, Ritoque offers two versions although most students at PUCV are involved with at is the school’s brand. of utopia and its critical potential. According least one Open City project during their studies.59 A The performances in the Ritoque concentration to Manfredo Tafuri, in his canonical essay, monograph published by the school in 2003, in both camp turned architecture—the image of a town— “L’Architecture dans le Boudoir,” architecture

94 Prisoners of Ritoque focused on the internal processes of the discipline, information, and gave me access to his drawings. 5. See Ramón Gutiérrez, Arquitectura Latinoamericana en el Siglo XX such as formalist experimentation, confines the This essay is dedicated to him and to all the prisoners (Barcelona: CEDODAL, 1998), 39, 304. Argentinian historian Gutiérrez concludes his introduction to the book by proposing that the Open City discipline to irrelevance, an enclosed space he of Ritoque. provided a means to rescue an American utopia in open opposition to the likened to a boudoir. In its utopian isolation and First World. This political charge is later confirmed in his description of its participatory tactics, the Open City resembles the work emphasizing its lack of funding and use of cheap materials. Notes 6. Morales fought in the Spanish Civil War as a republican and arrived many of the experiments of the United States 1. The tracks run parallel to the Pacific Ocean. They serviced a train from in Chile in the Winnipeg. He published his writings in the late 1960s, and European neo-avant-garde Tafuri was the National Mining Enterprise (ENAMI for Empresa Nacional de Minería) elaborating on the work of Italian architecture historian Bruno Zevi addressing. However, the resemblance ends that transported copper from the foundry to the port. and German aesthetic theorists August Schmarsow and Alois Riegl. 2. See “Ciudad Abierta,” in Rodrigo Pérez de Arce Antoncic, Fernando here—political repression in Chile created two He developed a more phenomenological approach in his second book Pérez Oyarzún, and Raúl Rispa, Escuela de Valparaíso: Grupo Ciudad published in 1969. He influenced teaching at both Universidad Católica types of imprisonment at Ritoque—one voluntary Abierta, Serie Maestros latinoamericanos de la arquitectura (Santiago: (PUC) and Universidad de Chile. For a synthesis of Chilean architectural and one enforced. For the architects of the Open Contrapunto, 2003), esp. 59–60. academia see Fernando Pérez Oyarzun, “Theory and Practice of Domestic City, the only avenue for action existed outside 3. It was one of several; an estimated 100,000 people went through Space between 1950 and 2000,” in Chilean Modern Architecture since these camps. Miguel Lawner, Isla Dawson, Ritoque, Tres Alamos: La Vida 1950, ed. Fernando Pérez Oyarzun, Rodrigo Pérez de Arce, Horacio the larger political context. The body of work the a Pesar de Todo, 1st ed. (Santiago: LOM Ediciones, 2003), 75. Lawner’s Torrent, and Malcolm Quantrill (College Station: Texas A&M University school produced under the dictatorship stands drawings published in this book are the only graphic representations of Press, 2010), 1–43, and “Los Frutos de la Modernidad,” in Arquitectura y as the strongest argument for their project. It life at the camps. They were smuggled out of the camps and outside Chile Modernidad en Chile, 1925–1965: Una Realidad Múltiple, ed. Humberto with great difficulty. Initially known as concentration camps, at a later demonstrates that the disciplinary boundaries of Eliash and Manuel Moreno (Santiago: Ediciones Universidad Católica de stage the name of these sites was changed to dentention centers. I have Chile, 1989), 154–91. architecture can create a certain freedom, a space chosen to keep the name used whey they were operational. 7. Famously, the students burned copies of Vignola’s Five Orders of to act. But that freedom is also constrained; at the 4. For scholarship and documentation about the Open City, see Lisette Architecture—which they had been forced to copy in the previous Open City, it required a voluntary imprisonment. Lagnado, Drifts and Derivations (Madrid: MNCARS, 2010); Pérez de classically-inspired training—on the school’s patio to celebrate the end Arce Antoncic, Pérez Oyarzún, and Rispa, Escuela de Valparaíso; of a strike in 1949. Massimo Alfieri,La Ciudad Abierta: Una Architettura Fatta in Comune, 8. As dean of the PUC, Larraín invited former Bauhaus professor Josef Acknowledgments una Comunità di Architetti [An Architecture Created in Common, a Albers in 1953. Albers’s brief passage through Chile was influential in An early version of this paper was presented at Community of Architects] (Roma: Libr. Dedalo, 2000); Ann Pendleton- the school’s curriculum, and symptomatic of the approach Larraín was the “Teaching Architecture, Practicing Pedagogy” Jullian, The Road That Is Not a Road and the Open City, Ritoque, interested in promoting. Emilio Duhart and Alberto Piwonka, who studied Chile (Chicago: Graham Foundation for Advanced Study in the Fine under Walter Gropius at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, were graduate student symposium at the Princeton Arts; Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996). A recent publication by Alejandro also important figures. The university also kept a program to fund its University School of Architecture. I’d like to thank Crispiani puts the school in the context of the larger arte concreto- teachers in visits and studies at U.S. universities. See Eliash and Moreno, organizers Vanessa Grossman, Enrique Ramirez, invención movement in South America. See Crispiani, “Arte concreto 170.

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 en Valparaíso. ¿Qué Es una Exposición?” in Objetos Para Transformar and Irene Sunwoo for their support, and my 9. According to Mario Pérez de Arce Lavín, professor and later dean at el Mundo: Trayectorias del Arte Concreto-Invención, Argentina y Chile, PUC, interviewed in Torrent Schneider et al., La Escuela de Valparaíso y respondent Claire Zimmerman for her generous 1940–1970: La Escuela de Arquitectura de Valparaíso y las Teorías del sus Inicios, 124. and insightful comments. The reviewers and editors Diseño Para la Periferia (Buenos Aires: Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, 10. According to Pérez Oyarzun, Cruz was offered the post by the new at the Journal of Architectural Education gave me 2011). Published articles include “Rodrigo Perez de Arce Describes the rector of the PUCV, Father Jorge González Förster, the representative Playful Experiments of the Valparaiso School of Architecture,” Lotus of the Jesuits, who had taken over administration of the university in valuable feedback on the content of this research. International, no. 124 (2005): 18–31; Fernando Perez-Oyarzun, “The 1952 which had been established in the 1930s as a private institute. See My colleagues at MIT, Niko Vicario and Rebecca Valparaiso School,” Harvard Architecture Review (1993): 82–101; Gian Fernando Pérez Oyarzun, “The Life of Architecture: The Valparaíso School Uchill, gave me helpful editorial advice. Open City Amadei, “Chile School: So, Your Studio Has Built a Pavilion? That’s and the Studio of Juan Borchers,” in Drifts and Derivations. The group Nothing. Valparaiso Is the Only Architecture School in the World to alumnus Rafael Moya Castro generously described hired with Cruz included architects Miguel Eyquem, Fabio Cruz, Arturo Have Created Its Own Open City. The Architectural Pieces in the City,” Baeza, José Vial, painter Francisco Méndez, and poet Godofredo Iommi. the workings of the program and his personal Blueprint, no. 270 (2008): 34. Valuable interviews with the main actors Soon afterwards they were joined by Argentinean sculptor Claudio Girola. experience as a student; my account should not of the school have been compiled in Horacio Torrent Schneider, Alejandro Jaime Reyes Gil, “La Reforma de la Universidad Católica de Valparaíso de be confused with his description. Jaime Reyes at Crispiani Enríquez, and Rafael Moya Castro, La Escuela de Valparaíso y 1967: Una Reoriginación Poética,” retrieved from http://www.ead.pucv. sus Inicios: Una Mirada a Través de Testimonios Orales (Santiago: DIPUC, Archivo Histórico José Vial in Valparaíso assisted cl/2010/una-reoriginacion-poetica-la-reforma-de-1967. 2002); Consuelo Vallespir, “Hacia una espiritualización de la materia a 11. The main contacts at this stage were with Argentinian artists and with the Open City images. Isella Ugarte at Théâtre través de la arquitectura” (Doctoral thesis, Universidad Politécnica de architects. For more on the Institute of Architecture and Urbanism at Aleph, in Paris, found images from Óscar Castro’s Cataluña, 2005). The school’s website, http://www.ead.pucv.cl/1992/ Tucumán, see Franco Maragliano, La Educación Arquitectónica en la early work at Teatro Aleph, Chile. Former camp ritoque-ciudad-abierta/ (accessed June 27, 2012), includes digital Universidad de Tucumán (1939–1952), retrieved from http://www. transcripts of several lectures. Graphic documentation is available at archivo.unt.edu.ar/attachments/059_marigliano.pdf, and Franco prisoner and architect Miguel Lawner located Archivo Histórico José Vial Armstrong, http://www.ead.pucv.cl/mundo/ Maragliano, El Instituto de Arquitectura y Urbanismo de Tucumán. the camp on a satellite image, provided context archivo/ (accessed June 27, 2012). All translations are mine unless noted. continued

LEÓN 95 Modelo Arquitectónico del Estado y Movimiento Moderno en Argentina, Initially known as the Amereida Cooperative of Professional Services, interview with Dorfman. See Ariel Dorfman, “El Teatro en los Campos de 1946–1955 (Doctoral thesis, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 2003). as of 1999 the group exists as the Amereida Cultural Corporation Concentración: Entrevista a Oscar Castro,” Araucaria de Chile 6 (1979): 12. Mario Pérez de Arce Lavín, interviewed in Torrent Schneider et al., La (Corporación Cultural Amereida). 115-147. UC students held rallies in support of strikes promoted by Escuela de Valparaíso y sus Inicios, 126. 22. Description of the Open City Campus, retrieved from http://www. Allende’s opposition. The PUC had political ties to the Christian Democrat 13. Following the shifts of the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965). Its amereida.cl/ciudad-abierta/campus/. party through its dean, who rejected an offer from Allende to collaborate most extreme manifestation is the Liberation Theology movement, which 23. Mandrágora was founded by Braulio Arenas, Teófilo Cid, and Enrique in his government. The Christian Democrats tried to hold a neutral eventually separated from the Catholic church. Paulo Freire had ties to Gómez Correa. Avant-garde poet Vicente Huidobro published in the position during most of Allende’s government, joining the opposing the Liberation Theology movement. Both Cruz and Iommi were part of journal and was close to the group, although he did not consider himself parties of the right in the last months before the coup. See La Batalla Acción Católica, a Catholic association. See the Jaime Márquez Rojas a surrealist. Stefan Baciu, Surrealismo Latinoamericano: Preguntas y de Chile. interview for some discussion of the role of the church in the first reform Respuestas (Valparaiso: Ediciones Universitarias de Valparaiso, 1979). 31. Castro and his sister Marieta were also charged with housing a in the School of Architecture at UC, and León Rodríguez Valdés on the Another important Surrealist reference for Chile is artist Roberto Matta, member of the MIR, the Revolutionary Left Movement, which was origins of Acción Católica and Catholic progressive movements tied to who was close to the Paris circle of André Breton and visited Chile in the banned after the coup. Their mother and Marieta Castro’s husband, France, both in Torrent Schneider et al., La Escuela de Valparaíso y sus early 1970s. Luis Pradenas, Teatro en Chile: Huellas y Trayectorias, Siglos Juan McLeod, were captured when they visited Marieta (Figure 3). They Inicios. XVI–XX, 1st ed. (Santiago: LOM Ediciones, 2006), 407. were taken to the Grimaldi camp and are among the many prisoners that 14. Ernesto Grassi was a German philosopher of Italian origin and a 24. These groups shared a desire to expand the audience from the disappeared without record. Dorfman, 119–121. Marieta also staged Heidegger disciple, who lived in Chile in 1952–53. He taught at the traditional elite to the masses in working-class districts and rural areas, theatrical productions in the women’s camps, although those productions School of Philosophy at the University of Chile and lectured at the PUCV, linking modern methods and leftist politics. By the 1950s, modern were immediately suppressed by guards. I will focus on Óscar Castro where he met the group and encouraged them, especially Iommi, to travel theater in Chile was established as an advanced institution, with a because of his specific involvement with Ritoque. to Europe. Crispiani, Objetos Para Transformar el Mundo, 244. The trip diverse and abundant production. Catherine Boyle, Chilean Theater, 32. The Open City also had national recognition in 1975, when founder to Europe also allowed different members of the group to get in touch 1973–1985 : Marginality, Power, Selfhood (Rutherford, NJ.: Fairleigh Alberto Cruz received the National Architecture Prize from the School of with figures of the European avant-garde, including Tomás Maldonado, Dickinson University Press, 1992). See also Catherine Boyle, “Text, Time, Chilean Architects. Georges Vantongerloo (friends with artist Claudio Girola), Jean Prouvé Process and History in Contemporary Chilean Theater,” Theatre Research 33. The travesías started at the school in 1984. A detailed chronology of (whom Miguel Eyquem worked for for three years). See Torrent Schneider International 26, no. 2 (2001): 181–89. the school’s trajectory is available in Torrent Schneider et al., La Escuela et al, La Escuela de Valparaíso y sus Inicios. 25. Personal communication with Óscar Castro via Isella Ugarte, Aleph de Valparaíso y sus Inicios. This series of interviews with the main actors 15. Before leaving for Europe, Iommi had described the trip thus: “One Theater, Paris, March 22, 2012. of the school and some of their contemporaries was prepared one year of us should go be in Europe, because our origin comes from there. One 26. Personal communication with Óscar Castro via Isella Ugarte, Aleph after Iommi’s death in 2001. The chronology, significantly, ends with his should be in Europe with the originals.” By “originals” Iommi meant the Theater, Paris, March 22, 2012. Anecdotally, former Socialist president death. European avant-garde. Upon his return, Miguel Eyquem describes how Michelle Bachelet was part of the Aleph group when she was 15 years 34. Fabio Cruz Prieto, part of the original 1952 group at Valparaíso and Iommi spoke of discovering a European perspective on the American old. In her analysis of Chilean theater, Catherine Boyle describes the teacher at the PUCV, interviewed in Torrent Schneider et al., La Escuela continents, which led to the first Amereida trip and poem in 1964. Aleph group as having “a distinctive style and a strong following,” de Valparaíso y sus Inicios. This interview and a description of the Godofredo Iommi quoted by Miguel Eyquem Astorga (interview, 2002) in “almost deliberately naïve, with an emphasis on social and political poetic act and Iommi’s experiences in Europe can be found in Alejandro Torrent Schneider et al., La Escuela de Valparaíso y sus Inicios, 64, 70. comment.” See Boyle, Chilean Theater, 47. For more on Chilean theater, Crispiani, “El acto poético,” in Crispiani, Objetos Para Transformar el 16. Eduardo Frei was a member of the Christian Democrat party, which see Luis Pradenas, Teatro en Chile. Mundo, 239¬–71.

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 kept an intermediate position between Socialists and Conservatives. Frei 27. In a year and a half of government, Allende nationalized copper, 35. See particularly Heidegger,“Hölderlin and the Essence of Poetry,” would later support the coup against Allende, and then become part of iron, nitrate, coal, and cement mines, and expropriated approximately in Existence and Being (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1949), 293-315; the opposition to Pinochet. six million hectares of arable land. These measures were opposed by and Heidegger, “…Poetically Man Dwells…. . .” in Poetry, Language, 17. For more on the Chilean university reform see Jaime Rosenblitt, private industry and parties of the political right through large strikes that Thought (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 213-229. “Hölderlin and “La Reforma Universitaria, 1967–1973,” Cátedra Liderazgo Social paralyzed the economy. La Batalla de Chile: La Lucha de un Pueblo Sin the Essence of Poetry” was published in Spanish as early as 1944. See (14 October–18 November 2010), retrieved from http://www. Armas—Primera Parte: La Insurrección de la Burguesía, DVD, directed by Heidegger, Hoelderlin y la Esencia de la Poesia: Seguido de Esencia memoriachilenaparaciegos.cl/archivos2/pdfs/MC0014015.pdf. Patricio Guzmán, 1975 (Berkeley, CA: Tricontinental Film Center, 1978). del Fundamento (México: Editorial Séneca, 1944) and Heidegger, Arte 18. The university was funded by the state and the rector was elected by 28. Both Socialist President Salvador Allende and his successor, right- y Poesía (México: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1958), which includes the Catholic Church. The reform group argued for the rector to be elected wing dictator Augusto Pinochet, were born in Valparaíso, and were translations of “Ursprung des Kunstwerkes” and “Hölderlin und das by the faculty. The reforms were later dismissed by the Great Chancellor probably familiar with the beaches just north of the city. The Ministry of Wesen der Dichtung.” of the University and Bishop of Valparaíso, Emilio Table Covarrubias. Housing built 17 resorts, with communal facilities and a total capacity of 36. Godofredo Iommi, Hoy me voy a Ocupar de mi Cólera (Valparaíso: See Jaime Rosenblitt, “La Reforma Universitaria.” Coincidentally, Table 500 people. The resorts were used in 6 rotations of 15 days, for a total Taller de Investigaciones Gráficas, Escuela de Arquitectura UCV, 1983). Covarrubias was Alberto Cruz Covarrubias’s cousin. See Torrent Schneider of 300,000 tourists per season, and designed for low-income groups, This text is a transcription from a recording of a lecture held on 20 March et al., La Escuela de Valparaíso y sus Inicios, 115. especially young people and children. They were owned by the Central 1983 in the School of Architecture UCV. The transcription maintains the 19. Iommi, “Voto Propuesto al Senado Académico 1969,” Casiopea, Unica de Trabajadores (CUT, or Worker’s Center). Several of these sites spontaneous syntax of the lecture. The text is available online at the retrieved from http://wiki.ead.pucv.cl/index.php/Voto_Propuesto_al_ were converted into concentration camps. Lawner, 75. school’s website, http://www.ead.pucv.cl/1983/hoy-me-voy-a-ocupar- Senado_Acad%C3%A9mico_1969. 29. Other known camps were Tres Alamos, and Melinka or Puchankaví, de-mi-colera/. 20. The land was previously part of a large estate. The purchase was made also a former resort. Known torture or detention centers were Dawson 37. By Carmelo Arden Quin, Uruguayan poet and artist and member of possible by agrarian reform established by Frei, although it took place Island, the Chile Stadium (Estadio Chile), Grimaldi, and the underground the Madí movement who lived in Paris. Arden Quin and Iommi were part during Allende’s government. Alfieri, La Ciudad Abierta, 14. of the War Academy of the Chile Air Force (Academia de Guerra de la of a larger community of poets and artists in Paris. Their groups (Madí 21. It should be noted, however, that although the overall lot is Fuerza Aérea de Chile). and La Phalène) separated in 1963, and Iommi returned to Chile. See collectively owned by the cooperative, it is in itself private property. 30. A complete account of Castro’s experience can be found in his Crispiani, Objetos Para Transformar el Mundo.

96 Prisoners of Ritoque 38. A satellite photograph of the Open City can be found in Google Maps, the concentration camps was part of the extensive influence of the 59. Rafael Moya Castro, personal communication, February 6, 2011. at http://goo.gl/maps/h3xJ. Catholic Left in 1970s South America. I have tried to outline it but it is a 60. Pérez de Arce Antoncic, Pérez Oyarzún, and Rispa, Escuela de 39. See Marina Waisman, La Estructura Historica del Entorno (Buenos Aires: complicated topic that exceeds the limits of this study. Valparaíso has been published in English as Valparaíso School: Open City Ediciones Nueva Vision, 1972). 51. Óscar Castro currently divides his time between Chile and France. Group (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2003). 40. Manfredo Tafuri, “L’Architecture dans le Boudoir,” in The Sphere and In 2009, he restaged the concentration camp plays in the Villa Grimaldi 61. See the school archive, http://www.ead.pucv.cl/amereida/, its flickr the Labyrinth: Avant-gardes and Architecture from Piranesi to the 1970s Peace Park, a former detention center and now a human rights memorial website, http://www.flickr.com/photos/archivo-escuela/, and the sites (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987). The book was published in Spanish in 1984. park. The plays were performed by former political prisoners, recreating on Google maps, 2012, http://bit.ly/nrx1Xq. See Tafuri, La Esfera y el Laberinto: vanguardias y Arquitectura de piranesi the experience from the early years of the dictatorship. See Daniela 62. Although we don’t know who took the camp down, it is interesting a los Años Setenta (Barcelona: Gustavo Gili, 1984). Italian architecture Estrada, “Ex Political Prisoners in Therapeutic Theater,” IPS News to note that it was demolished before Pinochet left office. More recent theorists had a strong influence in Latin America, partly due to the scarcity (Santiago, 16 January 2009), retrieved from http://ipsnews.net/news. images of the camp can be found at http://www.memoriaviva.com/ of Spanish scholarship during Franco’s regime, and the delay of translations asp?idnews=45443. Centros/05Region/ritoque.htm, accessed June 27, 2012. Other camps of material from England or the United States. Italian scholarship was often 52. Boal, 122. like Villa Grimaldi have been turned into memorial parks, but similar translated into Spanish before it was translated into English. 53. Antonin Artaud, The Theater and Its Double (New York: Grove Press, efforts in Ritoque have been unsuccessful. In 2009, the group Senderos 41. The festivals celebrated local poets and singers like Pablo Neruda, 1958). de la Memoria (Memory Paths) tried unsuccessfully to turn the camp Violeta Parra, and Gabriela Mistral, in a deliberate effort to rescue them 54. Jacques Rancière, “The Emancipated Spectator,” Artforum 45, no. 7 into a memorial park. The election of conservative Sebastián Piñera from appropriation by the regime. (2007): 270–81. In his first writings in the 1970s, Rancière notes that the as president of Chile following Socialist Michelle Bachelet might have 42. The first presentations staged in Tres Alamos were done as part of Chile dictatorship influenced the move of the French Communist Party played a role in discouraging these memorials. Personal communication, the “Cultural Fridays,” a weekly event allowed and attended by the away from the concept of “the dictatorship of the proletariat,” arguing Guillermo Gatica Silva, Senderos de la Memoria. A video of Óscar Castro camp guards and higher officers. Miguel Lawner, Director of the Urban that “dictatorship is reminiscent of Chile.” The PCF abandoned the and Miguel Lawner visiting Ritoque is available at http://youtube/K_ Improvement Corporation (CORMU, for Corporación de Mejoramiento concept of the “dictatorship of the proletariat” at its 22nd Congress in GIyQLyp9c?t=12m48s. In the video, Castro performs “Casimiro Peñafleta, Urbano) in Allende’s government, was also a prisoner in Ritoque and other 1976. Rancière, “The Links of the Chain: Proletarians and Dictatorships,” prisionero político” in the empty field where the camp used to be, with camps. His drawings are the only record left of these events. in Staging the People: The Proletarian and His Double (London: Verso, Lawner as his audience. The visit is dated 12 years after Castro and 43. The concentration camp of Ritoque was ready on 20 July 1974. 2011), 100. Brazilian critic Roberto Schwartz has also linked Paulo Lawner left Chile, which would be 1987. Freire’s pedagogy to the avant-garde theater practices of Augusto Boal Lawner, 75. and José Celso Martinez Corrêa. See Schwartz, “Culture and Politics in 44. “El tema era deportivo, era el saludo a estos nuevos deportistas que Brazil, 1964¬–1969,” in Misplaced Ideas: Essays on Brazilian Culture llegaban a incorporarse a este campeonato que había tenido tanto éxito, (London: Verso, 1992), 126–59. que esperaba que la locomoción de vuelta se fuera mejorando, que la 55. “I see nothing in the practice of a person who, knowing more than locomoción de ida, de traer a la gente, estaba bastante buena, pero que la others in a specific game of truth, tells those others what to do, teaches de regreso siempre fallaba, por eso los compañeros se iban quedando y no them, and transmits knowledge and techniques to them. The problem había que culpar a la mala suerte sino a los medios de transporte.” Óscar in such practices where power—which is not in itself a bad thing—must Castro, interviewed in Dorfman, 130. inevitably come into play is knowing how to avoid the kind of domination 45. In this performance Castro would mimic the excessive documentation effects where a kid is subjected to the arbitrary and unnecessary authority regulations of the DINA—the National Intelligence Directorate, or Chilean of a teacher, or a student put under the thumb of a professor who abuses

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 Secret Police during the government of Pinochet. his authority. I believe that this power must be framed in terms of rules 46. “Había un período de despersonalización que venía del paso por la of law, rational techniques of government and éthos, practices of the self tortura, y en el cual estás reducido a una mierda. Entonces, de pronto llegas and of freedom.” Michel Foucault, “The Ethics of the Concern for Self as y descubres que hay un espacio en el cual ya no te van a meter preso ... a Practice of Freedom,” in Ethics: Subjectivity and Truth (New York: New ellos están cagados: ¡tú ya estás preso!” Personal account from Renato Press, 1997), 299. Transcript from an interview conducted on January Arias, in Pradenas, Teatro en Chile, 450. 20, 1984. 47. A Brazilian, Freire lived in Chile from 1964 to 1969, during the 56. Felicity Scott, Architecture or Techno-utopia: Politics after Modernism presidency of Eduardo Frei, and worked for the Christian Democratic (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2007). Agrarian Reform Movement and the Food and Agriculture Organization 57. However, despite its collective qualities, Castillo’s work was doubly at UNESCO. His first book, Educação como Prática da Liberdade, was removed from the Open City; it was either done as part of his tenure published in Brazil in 1967 and in Chile in 1969. in a political post, or as straightforward architectural projects within 48. Freire defines conscientização as “learning to perceive social, political, the traditional constraints of the discipline. Prior to the military coup, and economic contradictions, and to take actions against the oppressive Castillo was involved in both academia and politics. He served as mayor elements of reality.” Thus “The pedagogy of the oppressed . . . is the of a commune housing group in 1964, promoting self-construction pedagogy of men engaged in the fight for their own liberation.” Paulo and coordinating a development plan. After the 1968 events, he was Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Herder and Herder, appointed rector of the PUC (the equivalent of university president) 1970), 39. and served until the military coup in 1973. For more on his work, see 49. Following ideas brought up in early Marx, the subject’s consciousness Humberto Eliash, Fernando Castillo: De Lo Moderno a Lo Real (Santiago: was strengthened through the cultivation of social relationships. See for Colegio de Arquitectos de Chile, 1990). example Karl Marx, “Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts,” in Early 58. The train would travel through the Open City and could be heard by Writings (London: Pelican Books, 1975), 279–400. the Ritoque camp prisoners twice a day. Castro remembers the schedule 50. The role of Catholicism in the context of both the Open City and in his interview with Dorfman, 129.

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Journal of Architectural Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjae20 Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park and the Making of Japanese Postwar Architecture Hyunjung Cho a a Korean Advanced Institute of Science and Technology Published online: 04 Dec 2012.

To cite this article: Hyunjung Cho (2012) Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park and the Making of Japanese Postwar Architecture, Journal of Architectural Education, 66:1, 72-83, DOI: 10.1080/10464883.2012.720915 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10464883.2012.720915

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The Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park, designed by Japanese and tradition, and the broader sociopolitical and intellectual climate of Japanese postwar society architect Kenzō Tange, is an eloquent visual account of the vexed between 1949 and 1955. nature of postwar Japan’s contested history. It played an important Tange’s Wartime Career: role in the contentious debates over postwar internationalism and Continuity and Discontinuity Despite Tange’s fame as a hero of “postwar” an emerging Japanese nationalism among Japanese architects and Japanese architecture, he first rose to prominence critics, and catalyzed the development of a new “non-Western” during the war. Tange made a dazzling debut on the wartime architectural scene by winning three modern architecture. nationwide competitions in a row: the People’s House Design Competition (1941), the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere Commemorative Building Competition (1942), and the Japan-Thai Cultural Hall Competition (1943). Although none of these be indelibly tainted by a nationalist and imperialist Introduction projects was realized, they were saturated with history and in need of radical reformulation. After Widely circulated as an iconic image of propaganda and imperialist undertones. Take, for the occupation, however, attitudes about Japanese postwar Japan, Yasuhiro Ishimoto’s photograph of example, the 1942 competition for the Greater East culture and tradition began to shift. the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park (1949–1955) Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere Commemorative Building, seems to convey the spirit of a new beginning In this essay I will argue that the Hiroshima a notorious example of wartime propaganda that (Figure 1). The splendid modern structure, standing Peace Memorial Park represented a new direction represented “the heroic aim and the sublime triumphantly on the ravaged site of the bomb’s for postwar architecture. Midway through the intention of the establishment of the Greater East epicenter, encapsulated the society’s collective project, Tange would link modernist architecture to Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere,” the bloc of Asian nations aspiration to put the past behind it and start anew. traditional Japanese culture in a new “prototype” led by the Japanese militarist government.3 Tange’s In Japan, “postwar” (sengo) is more than that has since been reiterated, revised, and prizewinning design featured a commemorative a temporal category; it is a prevailing “structure reconsidered. Initially, the Hiroshima project was an zone at the foot of Mount Fuji, the ultimate symbol of feeling” shaped by the defeat of 1945 and emblem of the postwar hegemony of international of Japanese nationalism (Figure 2). The main Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 subsequent global Cold War geopolitics.1 Like modernism, with an emphasis on the rational use commemorative hall, a reinforced concrete structure, Germany after the war, postwar Japan was built on of industrial materials and a rejection of historical drew primarily from traditional architectural what historian Carol Gluck has called “the mythic or regional references. As the project progressed, elements. Its imposing gabled roof and the nine sense of starting over of 1945,” a strongly willed however, it came to incorporate a resurgent interest protruding windows strongly recalled the massive discontinuity with the nation’s wartime memories in Japanese tradition and became a focus of the roof and decorative logs called katsuogi of the Ise and imperial legacy.2 For architects and critics, all of “tradition debate” by the mid-1950s. Shrine, a Shinto shrine that was inexorably associated whom were extremely eager to unshackle themselves The postwar debates about modernism and with the imperial authority of wartime Japan.4 from a troubled past, it was urgent to establish a tradition went beyond stylistic issues to the core Tange’s embrace of Japanese traditional legitimate style of postwar architecture, distinct from of Japanese intellectual discourse on the war and elements was, of course, not just a matter of wartime precedent. its aftermath. If the dominance of international personal taste but was closely tied to wartime The initial trajectory of postwar Japanese modernism in the immediate postwar period cultural nationalism. As the Asia Pacific War got architecture was synonymous with the triumphant represented an escape from a troubled history, the under way, the international style drew widespread resurgence of a modernist style, which had been growing interest in traditional elements in the post- condemnation for its “less patriotic” or even “anti- largely forsaken during the war. At the inception occupation era echoed a regained self-confidence Japanese” character. Architects turned to tradition of the postwar period, during the U.S. occupation and the renewal of nationalistic sentiment among as an alternative to international modernism. Thus (1945–1952), many Japanese—architects and the Japanese. My research situates the Hiroshima 1930s architecture saw the dominance of “Japanese critics included—understood Japanese tradition to project within these debates about modernism continued

72 Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013

Figure 1. Kenzō Tange’s Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park, Exhibition Hall, photographed by Yasuhiro Ishimoto, undated. (Photograph courtesy of Tange Associates.)

CHO 73 Figure 2. Competition entry of Kenzō Tange’s Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere Commemorative Building, 1942. (Photograph courtesy of Tange Associates.)

taste” (Nihon shumi), a hybrid style combining Asian races. To admire Angkor Wat is the mark identity and tradition of the Japan Romantic School Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 modernist structure and traditional ornamentation. 5 of an amateur. We should start out with an (Nihon Roman-ha). In his retrospective essay titled Japanese taste was often called the “imperial crown unshakable conviction in the tradition and the “The Age of Compé,” published in 1985 in Kenchiku style” or teikan yōshiki in a pejorative sense because future of the Japanese races. Architects were zasshi, Tange recalled that he was influenced by it employed traditional tile-and-gabled roofs as given the task of creating a new Japanese Yojūrō Yasuda, a leading member of the Japan the main decorative element without considering architectural style in order to contribute to Romantic School, who was eager to discover the their suitability to modern materials and structures. the supreme and inevitable project of the essence of Japanese-ness.8 The Japan Romantic Although Tange was critical of the eclectic use of foundation of the Greater East Asia Co- School’s “ethnic nationalism” was deeply embedded tradition in teikan yōshiki building, he relied upon Prosperity Sphere.7 in a larger intellectual and cultural discourse of references to Japanese tradition as a powerful means “overcoming the modern” (kindai no chōkoku) of differentiating his architecture from Western Thus the architect’s lifelong ambition to prevalent in wartime Japan.9 modernist design. 6 formulate a Japanese-style modern architecture Tange’s successful pre-1945 career was a In his reply to a 1942 questionnaire regarding emerged during the war; that said, Tange’s ambition political liability in postwar architectural circles, the preferred architectural style and policy for the registered a desire that was shared by many wherein architects and critics alike tried to negate Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, Tange stated: Japanese at the time. Tange’s strong belief in the the legacies of prewar architecture. One of the superiority of the Japanese race and its cultural earliest efforts to reexamine Tange’s wartime We must ignore both Anglo-American culture tradition recapitulated the nationalistic thought of activities was made by critic Masami Naka in the and the pre-existing cultures of the Southeast the era, particularly the romantic view of Japanese 1960s.10 Yet, Tange was by then an untouchable

74 Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park “state architect” whose designs, such as the Yoyogi rejection of the troubled notion of Japanese Olympic Stadium (1961–64) and Osaka Expo ’70 tradition to its reformulation in favor of a new (1966–1970), represented the postwar achievements identity for his postwar designs. of the nation. Most of the critical acclaim Tange received in the 1960s and 1970s either regarded his Monument for a New Beginning early work as a rupture in his otherwise blameless In 1946, Tange, then a fledging professor at career, or simply treated it with silence. the University of Tokyo, went to Hiroshima at the During the 1980s, Tange’s wartime career request of the War Damage Rehabilitation Board. His would enter into Japanese critical discourse when decision to volunteer to work on the contaminated Shōichi Inoue’s series of essays shed new light site of the nuclear blast was regarded as an act of on Tange’s propagandistic projects. According to bravery as well as an act of contrition for his wartime Inoue, the so-called “new style of the Greater East collaboration. Tange conducted a survey to assess Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere” was not an aberration the damage of the city and proposed a land-use plan that was promulgated by the military government, that was partially integrated in the official Hiroshima but an example of the architect’s interest in Reconstruction Plan of 1947. He saw this ravaged moving beyond Western modernism by turning Japanese city as a tabula rasa, a rare opportunity to Japanese traditional elements, anticipating to implement a radical new order without the the “postmodern” practices of hybridization and constraints of an existing urban structure and historicism.11 Although Inoue’s claim was not well pattern of land ownership. His reconstruction plan accepted in mainstream architectural circles, in was a utopian project that was based on a functional part due to its politically sensitive nature and some zoning system, with an emphasis on green areas.14 scholarly inaccuracies, it does describe Tange’s This plan featured a large-scale park complex near ambition to challenge the universal framework of the bomb’s epicenter that was to be developed Figure 3. Kenzō Tange, prizewinning proposal for the Hiroshima Western-dominated modernism and to pursue the into the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park in the near Peace Memorial Park, site plan, 1949. (Photograph courtesy of Tange alternative languages of “other modernisms” or future. Associates.) “postmodernism.” 12 Recent studies by Jacqueline The Park was the first official attempt to Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 Kestenbaum, Terunobu Fujimori, and Hajime Yatsuka memorialize the unprecedented use of the atomic plan allowed him to conceive of the Hiroshima Peace acknowledged an obvious continuity between bomb and to commemorate the end of the Memorial Park as the “core of Hiroshima” from Tange’s wartime and postwar designs, and agreed destructive war.15 In May 1949, the architectural an urban planner’s perspective (Figure 3). Hideto that his pre-1945 practices served as the seedbed of journal Kenchiku zasshi announced a competition Kishida, a competition juror and Tange’s mentor various architectural vocabularies that would prove brief for the Hiroshima park.16 The objective of at Tokyo University, wrote in the commentary that useful throughout his entire career.13 this competition was “to respond to the worldwide Tange’s proposal was characterized by its axial My study is indebted to this recent scholarship movement for the establishment of a symbolic peace composition and harmony with the comprehensive and its critique of the “starting over” myth that has city.”17 The competition brief indicated that the park urban structure.18 It included the existing framed discussions of postwar Japanese architecture. complex should include various facilities including 100-meter-wide boulevard as an access road and Of course, there is no radical discontinuity a peace hall, a conference hall, an exhibition space, incorporated the monumental ruins of the Atomic between prewar and postwar Japan. However, an a bell tower, and offices, among other structures. Bomb Dome (the former Industrial Promotion Hall, overemphasis on historical continuity can obscure A specific style was not designated, except for destroyed by the nuclear attack) as the apex of the real changes in Tange’s strategies for dealing with the stipulation that the design should suit the central north-south axis. Japan’s traumatic past as well as his own wartime environment of the surrounding area. A total of 132 The project was made possible by the career. In the following sections of this article, I entries were submitted and the competition jury was “Hiroshima Peace City Construction Law,” which will focus on the postwar shifts in Tange’s design held in July. The first prize went to Tange’s team. granted Hiroshima special status as a “Mecca” strategies, as he moves from an unmitigated Tange’s involvement in the city’s reconstruction continued

CHO 75 only served as a gateway to the park complex but also functioned as a viewfinder through which to contemplate the cenotaph and the Atomic Bomb Dome (Figure 4). The visitors’ only view of the skeletal ruin of the Dome would be through the frame made by the pilotis of the imposing modern structure of the Exhibition Hall. Enclosed and dwarfed by this monumental structure, the powerful symbol of the horrific disaster was transformed into an unthreatening and even romantic relic from the past. Ironically, the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park, a symbolic monument of the new Japan, had its Figure 4. Kenzō Tange, prizewinning proposal for the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park, model, 1949. (Photograph courtesy of Tange Associates.) precedent in Tange’s wartime project of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere Commemorative of world peace. On the occasion of the passage and destruction were conflated with the past. Sachio Building (1942). These two projects shared a nearly of the law in August 1949, Shinzō Hamai, mayor Ōtani, Tange’s collaborator, claimed that “the aim of identical plan; the commemorative zone located at of Hiroshima, defined the civic ambitions of the the Hiroshima project was not to mourn the dead, the foot of Mount Fuji in Tange’s 1942 design was city’s reconstruction: “the people of Hiroshima which was a past-oriented and backward-looking act, composed of four building blocks that would be laid decided definitely to stand for peace and wanted but to commemorate peace, which was a future- out within an isosceles triangle (Figure 5). At the 22 to demonstrate it to the world by molding their oriented and forward-looking act.” The official center of the triangle’s base was the main hall, which ruined community into a monument of permanent peace narrative thus corresponded to what historian would serve as a gateway to the commemorative 19 peace.” The effort reflected a shared interest Lisa Yoneyama has called “an obsession with the space, with two buildings placed symmetrically between the U.S. occupation force and the Japanese future” in narrating Hiroshima, an ideological on each side of it. The central axis extended from government. While the former wanted to dissociate strategy that has undergirded the instrumental the entrance structure in a straight line toward a Hiroshima’s disaster from the U.S. military’s use rationality of Japan’s postwar recovery.23 commemorative monument. of the atomic bomb, the latter hoped to deny any Tange’s layout of the park embodied this Similarly, the Hiroshima project was based on Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 causal relationship between the bomb and Japan’s future-oriented ideology in its narration of the tragic symmetrical placement and axial composition. The aggression in its Asian colonies. A number of scholars history of Hiroshima. On the central north-south Exhibition Hall, which functioned as the entrance have argued that the peace narrative supported the axis, four main facilities were aligned—the Atomic to the park complex, was located in the middle ideology of “starting over,” and required a deliberate Bomb Dome, the arch for prayers (later changed to on the central axis, and two buildings, the Main amnesia about the wartime traumas of both a cenotaph), the plaza for peace gatherings, and Hall to the west and the International Conference Hiroshima and Japan’s Asian colonies.20 the Peace Memorial Complex (composed of the Center to the east, were placed symmetrically in This deliberate shift in the perception of Exhibition Hall, the Main Hall, and the International alignment with the museum building. The location “Hiroshima,” from a painful reminder of destruction Conference Center). The park was designed to lead of the arch was similar to that of the commemorative to a hopeful monument of world peace, was visitors counter-chronologically from the future monument in Tange’s wartime proposal. Drawing on well illustrated in Tange’s statement in his prize- (represented by the Peace Memorial Complex) to these parallels, critics such as Shōichi Inoue, who winning proposal. According to the architect, the past (symbolized by the Atomic Bomb Dome). ignited the contentious reexamination of wartime “Peace is not naturally given from the gods, but it Visitors approached the park on the 100-meter- architecture in the 1980s, provocatively pointed should be searched for. This facility is not meant wide boulevard and entered the park through the out that Tange realized his majestic monument for to commemorate peace in an abstract way, but reinforced concrete buildings of the Peace Memorial Greater East Asia at the Hiroshima Peace Memorial it is for actively producing peace. I hope that my Complex. They then passed the plaza, the arch, Park, albeit on a much reduced scale.24 Subsequent building works as a factory for peace.”21 Here, and the dome along the axis. The splendid modern to this controversial claim, commentators noted the peace was associated with the future while death structures of the Peace Memorial Complex not long-overlooked similarity between Tange’s wartime

76 Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park admired Le Corbusier since his days as a student, the often associated with a rising nationalism. To some direct influence of Le Corbusier on the Hiroshima extent, the country’s regained political autonomy project can be understood in terms of Tange’s visit was responsible for a growing interest in Japan’s to Le Corbusier’s Unité d’Habitation in Marseille cultural identity and traditional values, which had in 1951. A 1953 article published in Architectural been suppressed in the immediate postwar era. Forum emphasized the elements of international A collaboration with Isamu Noguchi (1904– modernism in the Hiroshima design by noting that 1988), the famed Japanese-American sculptor, “this development proves how strongly international played a significant role in the emergence of architecture has appealed to young Japanese Japanese tradition in the Hiroshima project. During architects and how well they use it.”26 his sojourn in Japan from 1950 to 1952, Noguchi Tange was not alone among Japanese architects encouraged the Japanese people to “discover Japan” in his rehabilitation of international modernism. and to reevaluate their cultural roots. His approach to As architectural historian Cherie Wendelken has Japanese culture and tradition can be characterized convincingly argued, the popularity of international by an attitude that art historian Ryū Niimi terms modernism reflected the emergence of the universal “modern primitive”: Noguchi understood “primitive” ideals of humanity and democracy in immediate Japan through a “modernist,” Euro-American lens.29 postwar Japan, ideals which were the antithesis of At the request of Tange and the mayor of Hiroshima, the nationalistic discourse of race and tradition of Noguchi was invited to participate in the Hiroshima the recent past.27 In this regard, Tange’s adoption of project in 1950. He designed the two bridge railings Figure 5. Kenzō Tange, competition entry, Greater East Asia Co- Prosperity Sphere Commemorative Building, plan, 1942. (Drawing a modernist style participated in the concerted effort at the entrance of the Hiroshima park and, more courtesy of Tange Associates.) of Japanese architects to break with the nation’s importantly, undertook the design of a cenotaph imperial past and to reenter the international to the nuclear victims, a sculptural work that would and postwar designs, and they began to view Tange’s architectural community. Ultimately, the Hiroshima invest the park with a hint of Japanese tradition. seamless transition from a propagandist for imperial project brought Tange tremendous international Noguchi’s engagement in the Hiroshima Japan to the honored memorialist of a peaceful, fame and initiated a new phase in his career; no project led Tange to make a number of changes democratic nation as a symptom of the society’s longer the young architect of unbuilt imperial to his original proposal. He decided to abandon collective amnesia about its enduring imperial monuments, he was now the father of postwar Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 the large-scale commemorative arch (120 meters legacy.25 Japanese architecture. wide and 60 meters long), which Hideto Kishida The widespread failure to recognize the criticized as a mere copy of Eero Saarinen’s Gateway A Rising Past: The Emergence of relationship between Tange’s wartime and postwar Arch at the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial work resulted, in no small part, from some obvious Japanese Tradition (1948), and commissioned Noguchi to design the The Hiroshima project was constructed over stylistic differences between his projects before cenotaph.30 Noguchi’s model of the cenotaph did and after the war. If Tange’s wartime proposal drew a relatively long period of time, from 1949 to not refer to Western examples but was derived from intensively on traditional Japanese motifs, the 1955, as funding for the project ebbed and flowed. early Japanese art and culture. It consisted of two proposal for the Hiroshima project strictly followed During this relatively short period, Japanese society facing structures: a rectangular platform serving as international modernist style. The unornamented, underwent dramatic social, political, and intellectual a liminal space and a dome-like arch serving as the raw concrete structure of the Hiroshima project change. The project had been initiated under the main sanctuary. The main sanctuary featured an reflected the influence of “Brutalism,” a postwar Allied occupation, when representation of the atomic underground space into which visitors would have style that was favored both in Japan and Europe for bomb tragedy was strictly censored and the narrative been able to descend through a stairway to face its economic efficiency and “honest” expression of of Hiroshima was channeled into the commemoration a granite box inscribed with the names of nuclear 28 materials. More specifically, the Hiroshima project of world peace. After the occupation ended in victims (Figure 6). The parabolic contour of the adopted a flat roof, pilotis, and louvres (windows 1952, however, the dominant narrative of Hiroshima sanctuary was widely understood to recall various with vertical or horizontal slats), all of which were as a city of world peace began to be challenged by Japanese traditional artifacts, such as ancient signature Corbusian elements. Although Tange had anti-nuclear and anti-U.S. movements that were continued

CHO 77 Despite Noguchi’s failure to gain an official role in the design of the memorial, his ideas had an important influence on the “Japan tradition debate” (Nihon dentō ronsō), a collective effort to redefine Japanese culture and tradition undertaken by a diverse range of intellectuals, artists, and architects during the mid-1950s. One of the earliest postwar discussions of Japanese identity in architecture occurred at the 1953 symposium published in the architectural magazine Kokusai kenchiku under the double titles “Kokusaisei, fūdōsei, kokuminsei” and “Nationalism vs. Internationalism.”34 The emergence of “nationalism” in the symposium title, a term that had been taboo in earlier years, signaled the demise of the triumphant trajectory of international modernism in postwar architecture. The participants included four leading architects of the time, Isoya Yoshida, Junzō Sakakura, Kunio Maekawa, and Tange, as well as three members of the magazine’s editorial staff, Tsutomu Ikuta, Ryūichi Hamaguchi, and Kazuto Tanabe. While Maekawa and Sakakura expressed an aversion to the rehabilitation of “Japaneseness” as a problematic concept tainted with wartime nationalism and Japan’s imperial legacy, Tange and Yoshida expressed concern about the worldwide dominance of international Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 modernism.35 Tange, who was skeptical of homogeneous internationalism, tactically blurred the strict boundary between internationalism and nationalism by asserting that a truly international architecture should reflect the specific economic and technological conditions of Japan along with Figure 6. Isamu Noguchi, proposal for the Memorial to the Dead of Hiroshima, 1951 (two views of the “cenotaph.”) ©Isamu Noguchi/ ARS, localizing factors such as climate (fūdōsei) and New York-SACK, Seol, 2012. (Photograh courtesy of Isamu Noguchi Foundation and Garden Museum.) tradition (dentō).36 curved beads called magatama, terracotta tomb a memorial to its victims.32 Consequently, Tange When the Hiroshima project was completed in figurines called haniwa, or the bronze ceremonial hurriedly took over this aspect of the project again 1955, it became a focus of this debate on traditions bell called dōtaku (Figures 7–8).31 Despite Noguchi’s and completed the cenotaph by combining his in architectural discourse. The January 1954 enthusiasm and Tange’s support, however, Noguchi’s original arch and Noguchi’s rejected model (Figure Shinkenchiku article marked one of the first attempts proposal was not accepted by the committee of the 9). Expressing regret over the rejection of Noguchi’s to discuss the Hiroshima project in terms of Japanese Construction of the Peace Memorial City—in part proposal, Tange stated “it was my pleasure to meet tradition. Here, Tange implied that there was a because members of the committee thought it was Noguchi in the construction process. We discussed resemblance between the pilotis structure of the inappropriate to entrust a citizen from the nation Japanese tradition, and I was influenced by how he Exhibition Hall and a traditional wooden storehouse that dropped the atomic bomb with the design of confronted tradition in his work.”33 with a raised floor.37 A year later, in the same journal,

78 Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park critic Noboru Kawazoe, then the editor-in-chief through the lens of modernism and to find a of Shinkenchiku and a key figure in the tradition direct analogy between modernist and Japanese debate, specified the Shōsōin, the eighth-century architecture.40 Prior to the Hiroshima project, a imperial storehouse built on wooden pillars, as a few notable buildings, such as Antonin Raymond’s significant source for Tange’s design of the reinforced Reader’s Digest Building (1949–1951) and Junzō concrete structure raised upon pilotis.38 Kawazoe Sakakura’s Modern Art Museum in Kamakura also pointed out the close affinity between the (1951), demonstrated earlier efforts to translate horizontal louvre projecting the Exhibition Hall the Corbusian model into the context of traditional and the exterior surface of the Shōsōin’s log post-and-beam construction. Although Tange would construction.39 have been aware of both projects, his ambition was These formal analogies between modernist not limited to the development of formal affinities and Japanese traditional architecture were nothing between modernist and traditional design. Rather, he new. As early as the 1930s, architects and critics intended to formulate a new Japanese architecture alike, including influential German architect that would “reflect the possibilities and diversities Bruno Taut, tried to reevaluate Japanese tradition of reality” of postwar Japan.41 This new architecture

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 Figure 8. Dōtaku, from Kagawa prefecture, Yayoi period (300BCE– 300CE), bronze, height 42.8 cm. (Photo courtesy of Tokyo National Museum, http://webarchives.tnm.jp/archives/, accessed 25 July 2012.)

would be embedded in the larger urban and social fabric of postwar Japan, and not depend upon allusions to Western precedents.42 In the 1954 Shinkenchiku article I discussed earlier, Tange described the Hiroshima project as a “prototype,” a powerful image that would represent the nation’s phoenix-like rebirth.43 Through various iterations of the design, he continued, “the prototype came to emerge in our minds as a vague but powerful image. Gradually, I felt this possible image might be the Ise Shrine”44 (Figure 10). The introduction of Japanese tradition, and in particular Ise, into the Hiroshima project was not simply a Figure 7. Haniwa figure of house, clay, from the Kofun period (300CE–710CE), height 47.8 cm. (Photo courtesy of Tokyo National Museum, http://webarchives.tnm.jp/archives/, accessed 25 July 2012.) continued

CHO 79 Figure 9. Kenzō Tange, Memorial to the Dead of Hiroshima (the “cenotaph,” redesigned in response to the Noguchi proposal), photographed by Yasuhiro Ishimoto, 1952. (Photograph courtesy of Tange Associates.) stylistic tactic. Kawazoe pointed out the dilemma

Figure 10. Main Shrine at Ise, located in Mie prefecture, photographed by Yoshio Watanabe, undated. that Tange faced in his adoption of the traditional (Photograph courtesy of Yoshio Watanabe.) motifs of the Ise Shrine as follows:

Tange was obliged to struggle with Ise in the chaotic situation after the war. Ise is the oldest and greatest building of the national heritage. But at the same time, it is a symbol of the imperial system. Tange had to resist it and still hoped to represent the will of the nation, which Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 was associated with Ise.45

The dilemma of Ise was not reserved just for Tange, but was the fundamental issue for the tradition debate itself. As Kawazoe has acknowledged, the “Japan tradition debate” itself risked being regarded as a postwar version of the debates within the Japan Romantic School.46 The main players in the tradition debate, including Tange and Kawazoe, resolved this difficulty by constructing a new genealogy for Ise, looking to a more remote past, an untainted terrain of authenticity upon which to justify the postwar architectural creation. This search turned to the prehistoric civilizations of Jōmon and Yayoi. While Jōmon, the prehistoric culture from 10,000 B.C.E. until 300 B.C.E., was seen as an indigenous plebeian culture characterized

80 Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park by vitality and dynamism, Yayoi, from the end of Jōmon and Yayoi model via Ise. If the refined nationalistic discourse of minzoku. In the 1950s, the Jōmon until 300 C.E., represented the sophisticated pilotis and the well-balanced proportions of the emergence of the Volk consciousness of “Japanese culture of the aristocracy inspired by the advanced Exhibition Hall were often associated with the people,” or minzoku, was noteworthy. According to civilization of the continent. It was Tarō Okamoto cultural order of Yoyoi, its robust appearance literary critic Takeuchi Yoshimi, the term minzoku (1911–1996), the godfather of the Japanese and rough concrete materiality easily evoked had been taboo and “the very existence of the Volk avant-garde and a core member of the tradition the chaotic vitality of Jōmon.51 However, Tange was thought inevitably to be evil” in scholarly and debate, who articulated the Jōmon and Yayoi was careful not to confine the ōJ mon and Yayoi political domains immediately after the war.57 In this model into an aesthetic dichotomy, a variation principle to any particular building materials or regard, it was fair for a contemporary critic Ryūichi of the Apollonian-Dionysian split. In his classic architectural styles. Rather, he approached the Hamaguchi to argue that “a crowd gathered in a essay “Thoughts on Jōmon,” published in the relationship between Jōmon and Yayoi in terms gigantic plaza in this postwar design recalled the art magazine Mizue in February 1952, Okamoto of class distinctions; the Jōmon represented the imperial subjects who prayed for the completion of criticized the widely circulated view that associated vitality of the unprivileged, oppressed people, the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.”58 While the nature of Japanese culture with the elitist and whereas the Yayoi symbolized the aesthetic of the the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park was far from elegant aesthetic of Yayoi, and advocated the vital ruling class and aristocracy.52 a scene of political demonstrations, it was a state and populist energy of Jōmon as the authentic Tange believed the Hiroshima project required monument that would transform individuals into origin of Japanese art and culture.47 In the wake of a particular sympathy with the Jōmon strain of national subjects; this time those subjects belonged the occupation era, the primal and bold nature of Japanese tradition because it stood for a people’s to a democratic rather than a totalitarian regime. Jōmon would serve as an antidote to the passive, architecture, a monument of postwar democracy. commercialized, and overly refined aesthetic of As Jōmon was the plebeian culture of the people, Legacy and Influence Japonica, the “version” of Japanese tradition that so the Hiroshima park was, for Tange, a place for As postwar Japanese architects and critics alike had been popularized in the West. the nameless masses, a public plaza derived from called for a Japanese-style modern architecture Although Tange was familiar with Okamoto’s the “Greek agora.”53 Its democratic nature was distinct from both the eclectic wartime style and “Thoughts on Jōmon,” Tange, unlike Okamoto, embodied in the Exhibition Hall’s entry plaza, an international style modernism, the most urgent task appreciated both Jōmon and Yoyoi traditions equally architectural expression of “social solidarity,” in was to reinvent nationalistically tinged notions of and considered their relationship a “creative tension” which people gathered and interacted with each tradition and construct a new model for Japanese that produced something new.48 From 1953, when other.”54 Tange’s championing of Jōmon resonated architecture that would be culturally authentic Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 he visited the ceremonial reconstruction project of with the rise of the idea that “people power” would and contemporary. It is my contention that Tange Ise Shrine, Tange became interested in rewriting the be the new protagonist of a democratic postwar became an emblematic figure in this effort through Ise’s genealogy not in terms of the imperial system political order, in contrast to the imperial order and his continued engagement in a dialogue between but in terms of a pre-imperial Jōmon and Yayoi its aristocracy. As architectural historian Jonathan tradition and modernism, an effort that began in synthesis. This effort resulted in the publication M. Reynolds has argued, the architects of the mid- his early wartime work for the imperial regime, and of a monumental book titled Ise: The Prototype of 1950s wrote of an alternative tradition centered continued to gain momentum after the war. Japanese Architecture, a collaborative work by Tange, on “the people” rather than on an authoritarian Tange’s reconciliation of Japanese culture with Kawazoe, and photographer Watanabe Yoshio.49 imperial regime.55 By doing so, he continued, “the postwar global realities gave impetus to 1960s avant- This book showed evidence of the presence of both authority of tradition which had been deployed to garde practices such as the Metabolism movement. the Jōmon and the Yayoi in Ise; the main shrine preserve the status quo in the 1930s and 1940s The Metabolists, an experimental architectural represented the “feeling of stability and fulfillment” could be co-opted after the war to challenge the group, made a stunning debut at the 1960 World of the Yayoi period, while animistic clay figurines discredited wartime political and cultural order and Design Conference under the tutelage of Tange and and fantastically shaped rocks scattered in the shrine to advance new democratic social ideals.”56 Kawazoe. They proposed the idea of flexible and precinct were associated with the “dark pool of However, Tange’s use of the “people” (he renewable architecture as a reaction against the rigid nature’s secrets” of the Jōmon period.50 used either citizens (shimin) or the general public rationalism of the modern movement.59 Metabolist Tange argued that the origin of the Hiroshima (kōshū)) in the Hiroshima project was less informed theory and design would translate a global interest Peace Memorial Park can be traced back to the by a politically radical discourse than by the continued

CHO 81 in megastructure into the language of Japanese reading my draft and offering insightful suggestions. nation’s official monument to commemorate Hiroshima’s tragedy because culture and tradition. The Metabolist emphasis on I also thank the anonymous JAE reviewers and the it was sponsored and guided by international Catholic organizations. 16. Kenchiku Zasshi 64, no. 751 (May 1949): 32. temporality and changeability in architecture was JAE editors for their assistance in preparing this 17. Ibid. informed by vernacular wooden buildings, in which article for publication. All translations are my own. 18. Hideto Kishida, “Hiroshima heiwa kinen kōen oyobi kinenkan kyōki individual elements could be selectively removed sekkei tōsen zuan shinsahyō,” Kenchiku Zasshi 64, no. 756 (October 1949): 37–38. and repaired, and by Buddhist teachings about Notes 19. Kenzō Tange, “Hiroshima keikaku, 1946–1953,” Shinkenchiku 29, impermanence and change.60 Paradoxically, this 1. Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (London: Oxford University no. 1 (January 1954):12–17. discourse based in tradition became instrumental in Press, 1977), 128–35. 20. For the political implications of the peace narrative, see Lisa 2. Carol Gluck, “The ‘Long Postwar’: Japan and Germany in Common Yoneyama, Hiroshima Traces: Time, Space, and the Dialectics of Memory reaching an international audience intrigued by the and in Contrast,” in Legacies and Ambiguities, ed. Ernestine Schlant and (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 18–21; Thomas Chung, exotic qualities of Japanese culture. Thomas Rimer (Washington, DC: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press, “Amnesic Remembrance: Hiroshima’s Peace Memorial Park,” Scroop 17 Alongside the Metabolists, Arata Isozaki was 1991), 64–67. (2005): 90–101. 3. Mamoru Yamada, “Dai tōa kenchiku bunka kensetsu o tantō suru 21. Kenz Tange, “Hiroshima heiwa kinen k en oyobi kinenkan ky ki another rising star on the world stage inspired ō ō ō kenchikuka no sōgō deki jikaku,” Kenchiku Zasshi 56, no 688 (July sekkei tōsen zuan,” Kenchiku Zasshi 64, no. 756 (October 1949): 42. by Tange’s notion of “Japan-ness.” During his 1942): 2. 22. Sachio Ōtani interviewed by Terunobu Fujimori, “Senji modanizumu apprenticeship in Tange’s office from 1954 to 1963, 4. Kenzō Tange, “Recollections: Architect Tange Kenzō, Part 2,” Japan kenchiku no kiseki, Tange Kenzō no jidai 01,” Shinkenchiku (January Architect 60, no. 5 (May 1985): 12; Jonathan M. Reynolds, “Ise Shrine Isozaki participated in Tange’s research on the unique 1998): 86. and a Modernist Construction of Japanese Tradition,” Art Bulletin 83, no. 23. Yoneyama, Hiroshima Traces, 75. 61 qualities of space in Japan. According to Tange 2 (2001): 323–24. 24. Inoue, Ato, Kitchu, Japanesuku:Daitōa No Posutomodan, 192–297. and his colleagues, Japanese space was governed 5. For the popularity of Japanese taste style, see Jonathan M. Reynolds, 25. Yoneyama, Hiroshima Traces, 3; Arata Isozaki, Japan-ness in Maekawa Kunio and the Emergence of Japanese Modernist Architecture by the dynamic ambience of lively neighborhoods Japanese Architecture (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006), 17–18; Chung and (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 74–134; Jacqueline Kobayashi, “Amnesic Remembrance,” 95. called kaiwai, embodied in traditional festivals Kestenbaum, “Modernism and Tradition in Japanese Architectural 26. Ryūichi Hamaguchi, “Postwar Japan,” Architectural Forum (January (matsuri), rather than the static, monumental Ideology, 1913–1955” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1996). 1953): 142. organizations of Western urban design.62 Isozaki 6. “Kokusaisei, fūdōsei, kokuminsei: Gendai kenchiku no zōkei o” 27. Cherie Wendelken, “Aesthetics and Reconstruction: Japanese megutte,” Kokusai Kenchiku 20, no. 3 (1953): 4. Architectural Culture in the 1950s,” in Rebuilding Urban Japan After would use these ideas about traditional Japanese 7. Kenzō Tange, “Dai tōa kyōeiken ni okeru kaiin no yōbō,” Kenchiku 1945, ed. Carola Hein and Jeffry M. Diefendorf (New York: Palgrave space to develop the “invisible city,” a model of Zasshi 56, no. 690 (September 1942): 744. Macmillan, 2002), 192–94. For more discussion of the cultural and cybernetic architecture enabled by the development 8. Kenzō Tange, “Kompe no jidai,” interview in Fujimori Terunobu, intellectual climate of the immediate postwar society, see Victor Kenchiku Zasshi 100, no. 1229 (1985): 24–25. 63 Koschmann, “Intellectuals and Politics,” in Postwar Japan as History, ed. of communications and information technology. 9. For more discussion of the Japan Romantic School, see Kevin Michael Andrew Gordon (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 396–403.

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 The most important legacy of Tange’s Doak, Dreams of Difference: The Japanese Romantic School and the 28. For censorship on representations of the nuclear tragedy, see John Hiroshima project lies in its tactical synchronization Crisis of Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994). W. Dower, “The Bombed: Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japanese Memory,” 10. Based on a series of essays published from 1963 to 1965 in the of the Japanese and the international. By inventing in Hiroshima in History and Memory, ed. Michael J. Hogan (New York: architectural journal Kenchiku, he published a controversial book. Masami Cambridge University Press, 1996), 124–34. a notion of Japanese tradition and culture Naka, Gendai Kenchikuka no Shisō Tange Kenzō Ron (Tōkyō: Kindai 29. Ryū Nimii, “The Modern Primitive: Discourses of the Visual Arts in unencumbered by the imperialist past, Tange and Kenchikusha, 1970). Japan in the 1950s,” in Isamu Noguchi and Modern Japanese Ceramics: 11. Shōichi Inoue, Ato, Kitchi, Japanesuku: Daitōa no Posutomodan his followers could find new ways of negotiating A Close Embrace of the Earth, ed. Louise Allison Cort and Bert Winther- (Tōkyō: Seidōsha, 1987). Tamaki (Washington, DC: The Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian the modern, constructing what Rem Koolhaas has 12. Left-wing commentators, such as Shūji Funo and Uzō Nishiyama, Institution in collaboration with University of California Press, 2003), 93. recently termed “a post-Western aesthetic.”64 This criticized Inoue’s work as a reactionary effort to rehabilitate wartime 30. Kishida, “Hiroshima heiwa kinen kōen oyobi kinenkan kyōki sekkei new aesthetic would provide an alternative to an fascism. See Shūji Funo, “Kokka to postomodanizumu kenchiku,” tōsen zuan shinsahyō,” 38. Kenchiku Bunka 39, no. 451 (1984): 18; Uzō Nishiyama, “Tokushū 31. Isamu Noguchi, “A Project: Hiroshima Memorial to the Dead,” Arts exhausted Western modernism and have a global Ushinawareta Shōwa 10 nendai o yonde,” Kenchiku Zasshi 100, no. and Architecture 69 (April 1953): 16. influence.65 1231(1985): 38. 32. Noguchi’s design was rejected, in part, because of his American 13. Tange Kenzō and Fujimori Terunobu, Tange Kenzō (Tokyo: citizenship. Kishida was strongly opposed to Noguchi’s design of Shinkenchicu-Sha, 2002), 74-113. the cenotaph since he thought that it was inappropriate to entrust a Acknowledgments 14. Carola Hein, “Visionary Plans and Planners: Japanese Traditions and citizen from the nation that dropped the atomic bomb with the design I am grateful to Tange Associates and the Western Influences,” in Japanese Capitals in Historical Perspective: Place, of a memorial project to commemorate the victims. Hideto Kishida, Isamu Noguchi Foundation and Garden Museum for Power, and Memory in Kyoto, Edo, and Tokyo, ed. Nicolas Fiévé and Paul “Hiroshima no hi,” in En (Tōkyō: Sagami Shobō, 1958), 85. For the Waley (New York: Routledge Curzon, 2003), 327–31. debate over Noguchi’s cenotaph, see Bert Winther-Tamaki, Art in the providing illustrations, and my gratitude also goes 15. Although there was a nationwide competition to design the Hiroshima Encounter of Nations (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press), 128–29; to Jonathan M. Reynolds and Chunghoon Shin for Catholic Church in 1948, this religious project cannot be regarded as the Bert Winther-Tamaki, “The Rejection of Isamu Noguchi’s Hiroshima

82 Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park Cenotaph,” Art Journal (December 1994–February 1995): 23–27. Proposals for a New Urbanism (Tokyo: Bijutsu Shuppansha, 1960). 33. Kenzō Tange, Genjitsu to Shōzō: Tange Kenzō, 1946–1958 (Tōkyō: 60. Kishō Kurokawa, Metabolism in Architecture (Boulder, CO: Westview Bijutsu Shuppansha, 1966), 91. Press, 1977), 23–40. 34. “Kokusaisei, fūdōsei, kokuminsei: Gendai kenchiku no zōkei o 61. Beginning in 1961, Isozaki participated in the research project of megutte,” Kokusai Kenchiku 20, no. 3 (1953): 3–15. Toshi Dezain Kenkyū Tai (City Design Research Group), initiated by 35. Ibid., 4–6. Tange and critic Teiji Itō. In 1968, the collective urban study of the City 36. Ibid., 3–13. Design Research Group resulted in a volume called Nihon No Toshi Kūkan 37. Ibid., 13–14. (Japanese Urban Space). Toshi dezain kenkyū tai, Nihon No Toshi Kūkan 38. Noboru Kawazoe, “Tange Kenzō no nihon teki seikaku,” Shinkenchiku (Tōkyō: Shōkokusha, 1968). 30, no. 1 (January 1955): 63–64. Kawazoe published this essay under the 62. Ibid., 25. pen name Kazuo Iwata. 63. Arata Isozaki, “Mienai toshi,” in Kūkan-e (Tōkyō: Bijutsu 39. Ibid. Shuppansha, 1975), 400. 40. For more discussion on Bruno Taut in Japan, see Kestenbaum, 64. In the recently published oral history of the Metabolism, Rem “Modernism and Tradition in Japanese Architectural Ideology, Koolhaas described the Metabolists as the first non-Western avant-gardes 1913-1955,” 78–131. who pursued a “post-Western aesthetic.” Rem Koolhaas and Hans Ulrich 41. Tange, Genjitsu to Shōzō: Tange Kenzō, 1946–1958, 29–30. Obrist, Project Japan: Metabolism Talks (Köln: Taschen, 2011). 42. Ibid. 65. Florian Urban, “Japanese ‘Occidentalism’ and the Emergence of 43. Tange, “Hiroshima keikaku, 1946–1953,” 12. Postmodern Architecture,” Journal of Architectural Education 65, no. 2 44. Ibid. (2011): 89–102. 45. Kawazoe, “Tange Kenzō no nihon teki seikaku,” 62–69. 46. Noboru Kawazoe, Kenchiku 1 Kawazoe Noboru Hyōronshū Tai 1 Kan (Tōkyō: Sangyō Nōritsu Tanki Daigaku Shuppanbu, 1976), 10. 47. Tarō Okamoto, “Thoughts on Jōmon,” Mizue (February 1952), 3–10; Okamoto’s essay was recently translated into English with an introduction by Jonathan M. Reynolds, Tarō Okamoto, “On Jōmon Ceramics,” trans. Jonathan M. Reynolds, Art in Translation 1, no. 1 (2009): 49–60. 48. Kenzō Tange et al, Katsura: Tradition and Creation in Japanese Architecture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1960), 34. 49. Kenzō Tange, Noboru Kawazoe, and Yoshio Watanabe, Ise: Nihon Kenchiku No Genkei (Tōkyō: Asahi Shinbun, 1962). This book was soon translated in English and published by the prestigious MIT Press. Kenzō Tange, Noboru Kawazoe, and Yoshio Watanabe, Ise: Prototype of Japanese Architecture, trans. Eric Klestadt and John Bester (Cambridge:

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:35 28 August 2013 MIT Press, 1965). For more on the Ise publication, see Yashushi Zenno, “Finding Mononoke at Ise Shrine: Kenzo Tange’s Search for Proto- Japanese Architecture,” Round 01 Jewels (Japan: Acetate 010, 2006), 104–17; Reynolds, “Ise Shrine and a Modernist Construction of Japanese Tradition,” 316–41; Wendelken, “Aesthetics and Reconstruction: Japanese Architectural Culture in the 1950s,” 196. 50. Tange el al., Ise: Nihon Kenchiku No Genkei, 30. 51. Kawazoe, Kenchiku 1 Kawazoe Noboru Hyōronshū Tai 1 Kan, 10. 52. Tange, Genjitsu to shōzō: Tange Kenzō, 1946–1958, 22–26. 53. Tange, “Hiroshima keikaku, 1946–1953,” 4. 54. Kenzō Tange, “Gendai ni oite kindai kenchiku o ikani rikai suru,” Shinkenchiku (January 1955), 16. 55. Reynolds, Maekawa Kunio and the Emergence of Japanese Modernist Architecture, 215. 56. Ibid. 57. Takeuchi Yoshimi, “Kindai shugi to minzoku no mondai” (September 1951), reprinted in Takeuchi Yoshimi zenshū 7, eds. Yoshimi Takeuchi, Iikura Shōhei, and Hashikawa Bunsō (Tōkyō: Chikuma Shobō, 1981), 28¬–29. 58. Ryūichi Hamaguchi, “Sōritsu no shūnen kinen zadankai: Dezain (1936–1955),” Kenchiku Zasshi 71, no. 833 (1956): 17. 59. For Metabolist theory, see Noboru Kawazoe at al., Metabolism 1960:

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Journal of Architectural Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjae20 Domestic Arrangements: The Maid's Room in the Ataköy Apartment Blocks, Istanbul, Turkey Meltem Ö. Gürel a a Bilkent University Published online: 04 Dec 2012.

To cite this article: Meltem . Grel (2012) Domestic Arrangements: The Maid's Room in the Ataköy Apartment Blocks, Istanbul, Turkey, Journal of Architectural Education, 66:1, 115-126, DOI: 10.1080/10464883.2012.721313 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10464883.2012.721313

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The first phase of Istanbul’s Ataköy Housing Development, an policies.5 It reinforced ties with the West, and especially with the United States; participation icon of architectural modernism in Turkey, inflects modernist in the Korean War (1950), membership in NATO architectural forms with local domestic traditions. This study (1952), and taking part in Cold War foreign aid programs were important signifiers of this alliance. examines the maid’s room, a sphere of the Turkish modern interior In this political context, American and European where post-war ideas and ideals both reconciled and contradicted experts were invited to Turkey to develop solutions for the nation’s housing problem. The invitees the customary and the modern. The case study extends recent included prominent planners and architects such as Charles Abrams (1954) and a team from the attempts to re-think postwar architectural culture and its global U.S. architectural firm Skidmore, Owings and effects. Merrill under the direction of Gordon Bunshaft (1951).6 The new government shifted the bulk of modernization efforts from Ankara, built as the Introduction My research, a close reading of the Ataköy capital of the Republic of Turkey (which had been A maid’s room is found in many apartments designed project, provides insight into the transformation of founded in 1923), to the old capital of Istanbul. for upper-income groups in the 1950s and 1960s. the Turkish domestic realm in response to Western In fact, making “Istanbul into a modern city” by In Turkey, the midcentury maid’s room is a remnant postwar ideas and ideals, and demonstrates the means of rebuilding, “establishing a new road of earlier domestic interiors, especially late 19th and fluidity of cultural norms and practices.2 At the same system for better traffic flow, constructing new early 20th century residential buildings designed to time, my scholarship extends recent attempts to emulate European models.1 A maid’s room as part rethink postwar architectural culture and its global public squares, restoring mosques and beautifying of a distinct service zone with a separate service effects beyond simplistic, canonic, and ontological the city” was high on the agenda of the Menderes 7 entrance, appears in Istanbul’s Ataköy Housing definitions or explanations.3 Using this frame, and government. Development, Phase I (1957–62), an iconic mass grounded in historical research, oral histories, and my Unfortunately, Turkish urban renewal projects housing project regulated, funded, built, and analyses of the extant buildings, my study describes generally led to the demolition of older buildings marketed by the government. Distinguished by the social implications of the design of the Ataköy and the eradication of the traditional fabric, and Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 unadorned aesthetics, green areas, reinforced interiors, highlighting the maid’s room—an ordinary destroyed areas of the historic city of Istanbul. The concrete load-bearing structural systems, open space, often overlooked in the studies of the built Ataköy Housing Development, as well as other plans, large windows, and roof terraces, the environment. My intent is to show how Western projects by the same developer (the Emlak Kredi development exemplifies the ideals of post–World modernism in the 1950s and 1960s was transformed Bank) became influential models for subsequent War II modernism. The Ataköy apartments were by local society and culture, and to demonstrate, projects (Figure 1).8 Here, the meaning of among many multistory apartment projects built in in turn, how these modern residential interiors of “modern” embodied a leitmotif of modernization response to a web of political, social, and economic the period reflected and organized everyday life— theory, as developed by social scientists and circumstances that produced rapid urbanization defining the social order, and normalizing social, theoreticians in the United States in the Cold War in Turkey. As such, they formed part of a series of class, and gender relations.4 era: “the world was converging from a congeries government modernization programs profoundly As urbanization accelerated in Turkey, a growing of traditional life ways onto a unique modernity.”9 influenced by postwar Western lifestyles and shortage of urban housing became an important This ideology promoted a singular understanding aesthetic concerns. The maid’s rooms in the Ataköy national challenge, particularly for the Democrat of modernization, uninflected by geography or development were a product of the dynamics Party government, which came to power in 1950. culture. Housing developments, like the Ataköy which drove modernization in Turkey; these forces, Headed by Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, the new project, would materialize this singular “unique operative at a number of scales, converged to government marked the termination of an era of modernity” and link Turkey to a larger international shape the program and interior architecture of the single-party rule by the Republican Peoples Party, community, albeit one defined by Western postwar apartments. with a promise of a more liberal and democratic culture. continued

GÜREL 115 Figure 1. The Ataköy Development, Phase 1 (foreground) and Phase 2 (background). Mimarlık, no. 15 (1965): 17. (Courtesy of the Turkish Chamber of Architects.)

The Ataköy Housing Development, Phase I ve Eytam Bankası in 1926 (Figure 2). As the Emlak (1957–1962), Istanbul: Blocks B, D, F Kredi Bank’s most comprehensive mass housing European-style mass housing had a significant initiative, Ataköy was planned as a small city of impact worldwide during the mid-twentieth ten neighborhoods.14 The construction of the first century.10 In developing economies, these housing neighborhood or Phase I started in 1957 when the bank established a planning office. The 50 Phase Figure 2. Advertisement for the Ataköy Development. Arkitekt 27/294 projects were an endorsement of Western industrial (1959). (Courtesy of Eren Sayar Kavcı for Arkitekt.) society by cultural and economic elites.11 The 1 buildings housed approximately 3,000 residents abstracted forms, large windows, and new domestic and were completed in 1962 (Figure 3).15 The office Figure 3. The site plan of the Ataköy Development, 1958. The settlement is bounded by the London-Istanbul motorway on the north equipment that typified housing projects like the was run by a group of Turkish architects, including and the Sirkeci-Florya shore drive on the south. The strip of land along Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 Ataköy blocks signaled that a modern lifestyle was Ertuğrul Menteşe as the chief and the prominent the sea was developed as a beach with recreational facilities and hotels. available to some social groups in Turkey. Italian planner and architect Luigi Piccinato as a Mimarlık, no. 15 (1965): 17. (Courtesy of the Turkish Chamber of Architects.) The Ataköy development was situated in a consultant.16 prominent location between Istanbul’s international Ranging from 110 to over 200 square airport and the city. The project urbanized an area meters, the apartment plans were spacious, called Baruthane, between Bakırköy to the east light, and airy, with large glazed areas providing and the airport to the west. The London-Istanbul natural ventilation, and central heating. Many motorway and the Sirkeci-Florya shore drive materials were imported, and construction adjacent to the Sea of Marmara defined the project’s costs were high as a result. Contrary to the borders on the north and south, respectively.12 The Emlak Kredi Bank’s original intention to 50-hectare strip of seashore along the Sirkeci- provide housing for civil servants, the spacious Florya drive was designed as a tourist area, with a flats were affordable only for the middle and modern beach, recreational facilities, and hotels, upper-middle class. In 1958, Zeki Sayar, an further increasing the attractiveness of the area.13 architect and the publisher of the country’s Initiated in 1955 and only finished in 1991, the most prominent professional journal, questioned government-funded development was led by the the motives of the mass housing project, Emlak Kredi Bank, which was established as Emlak stating that it was designed as a “holiday

116 Domestic Arrangements village” rather than inexpensive within an existing landscape or context, rather than housing for people with low an abstract geometric organization.23 Besides the incomes.17 The relatively luxurious general plan for the Ataköy district, his work in Ataköy apartments did not Turkey between 1956 and 1968 included the urban resemble Western European and plan for Bursa and a master plan for Istanbul. In all North American public housing of these projects, he stressed the importance of “an developments, such as the ‘organic’ plan integrated with the hinterland.”24 One public housing blocks in England can see this emphasis and his influence in a report by G. H. Weed, A.R.I.B.A in published by Menteşe in Arkitekt, describing Ataköy London by Robert Haning and Anthony Chitty, and as one of the modern satellite cities of Istanbul: Rotterdam complexes by W. Van Tijen, all of which were celebrated in Arkitekt as models for housing a According to contemporary lifestyles, the modern society.18 According to Muhteşem Giray, a structure [of Istanbul] needs to be changed key architect, Medeni Berk, Minister of Public Works in an organic way. This requires revitalization and Housing in Prime Minister Menderes’ cabinet of old neighborhoods and the foundation of at the time, suggested the large size of the earlier a new urban organism. That is, to carry the units. As Giray explained, “Minister Berk had been city formation enclosed within itself to an influenced by housing developments that he had open, airy, and centrally organized network seen abroad. He insisted on spacious flats of 200 of little cities composed of housing clusters sq. m. and above despite the fact that Piccinato organized around educational, entertainment, suggested designing more affordable, smaller administrative, commercial, and social units.”19 facilities. These small cities are connected with Surrounded by greenery, the blocks contrasted automobile roads.25 with the low-scale fabric of neighboring areas as Other aspects of the Ataköy Phase I project well as the traditional wooden houses of Istanbul. reflect an emerging critique of CIAM, most notably The development’s universal architectural language,

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 by its younger members, such as Giancarlo De Carlo, zoning of functions, and landscape connect Ataköy to CIAM (Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Aldo van Eyck, and Alison and Peter Smithson, who Moderne, 1928–1959) principles.20 Overall, the formed Team 10. These influences can be seen in architects emphasized “the element of height,” the variety of size and scale of the Phase I buildings and “sufficient space, sun, [and] ventilation,” as and in the broken masses of the lower blocks. outlined earlier in the CIAM tenets of “housing, The siting of these blocks takes into consideration work, recreation, and traffic.”21 Yet, the planning both sunlight and ventilation; they are oriented and the landscape layout in Phase I of Ataköy, with to maximize sun exposure and minimize shadows. its irregular paths and greenery, did away with the Nevertheless, the primacy of the freestanding block rigid orthogonal geometries of CIAM modernism. and a universal and rational architectural expression remain in the overall design.26 Figure 4. Model of the Ataköy Block B. Buildings are partially raised on The organic planning of the first phase of the pilotis and surmounted with roof terraces. Arkitekt 26, no. 291 (1958): development, which was followed by more regular The Ataköy’s Phase I blocks included ten 63. (Courtesy of Eren Sayar Kavcı for Arkitekt.) and mechanized designs in the 1970–1990 sections, different building types. With rectilinear masses, 22 Figure 5. Ataköy Block D, exterior detail, showing Betebe mosaic with an is arguably indebted to Piccinato. The prolific planar surfaces, a reinforced concrete load-bearing integrated bench. (Photograph by author, from 2006). Italian planner, an admirer of Wright, understood system, large glazed surfaces, balconies, flat-roofed

Figure 6. Ataköy Block B, exterior detail, showing sculptural supporting the master plan as an integrated ensemble that terraces with concrete pergolas, and the use of pilotis walls. (Photograph by author, from 2006). developed over time and came to define a place continued

GÜREL 117 to make segments of the ground level available for car parking, the buildings clearly demonstrate the influence of Le Corbusier. This influence can also be readily observed in the larger four-bedroom schemes of Blocks B, D, and F, which are the focus of my research.27 These blocks contain 228 units in 26 buildings.28 Composed of two flats on alternating levels, the four-story blocks of B and D are similar in massing, articulation, roof height, and exterior appearance, as well as in plan (Figure 4). They are composed of two adjoining masses: one side meets the ground directly, while the other is raised on pilotis. The ground-level walls and the pilotis are covered with Betebe mosaic and partly decorated with abstract compositions of lines and squares in primary colors. Sculptural support elements in Block B and grill panels in Block D are other decorative touches characteristic of the period (Figures 5–6). Distinct from the broken masses of Blocks B and D, the eight-story Block F is a massive rectilinear prism that formally inaugurates the Phase II buildings. It is surmounted with a roof terrace and partially raised on pilotis (Figure 7). The roof terrace, which combines two buildings into a single mass and Designing for the includes indoor and outdoor areas, is designed to Modern and Its Other take advantage of the views of the Sea of Marmara. The relationship between Brazilian Modernist

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 Block F recalls Le Corbusier’s Unité d’Habitation architecture and the Ataköy blocks is not limited (1947–1952, Marseille), which embodied 19th to the building’s massing and decoration; both century collective housing ideals exemplified by Niemeyer’s apartment designs and the early Ataköy Charles Fourier’s phalanstery.29 In contrast, the buildings include a maid’s room with a separate Ataköy apartment block was more exclusive, catering service entrance. As Paul Rabinow observes, to a privileged lifestyle. An earlier model of this Niemeyer’s Brasilia housing blocks include a maid’s project, with plastic roof forms, as published in room and separate circulation systems for domestic Arkitekt (1958), betrays another influence—Brazilian helpers and residents: Modernism. The roof elements recall the plastic Oscar Niemeyer, the communist architect, did forms of Oscar Niemeyer’s Hotel Regente in Rio de provide space in each apartment for maids. Janeiro, which was published in a special issue about These modern rooms have no windows, Brazil in L’Architecture d’aujourd’hui30 (Figure 8). but, as opposed to the equally omnipresent This particular issue of the magazine was available maids’ rooms in Rio, they often do have space Figure 7. Ataköy Block F exterior, showing pilotis and balconies. in Turkey, and architects like Oscar Niemeyer and for a dresser or chair as well as the bed. In (Photograph by author, from 2006). Lucio Costa had a profound impact on the younger Niemeyer’s (and his followers[’]) six-story Figure 8. An earlier model of the Ataköy Block F with a roof terrace and 31 generation of Turkish architects. The Ataköy blocks super-quadra buildings there are two systems plastic roof forms. Arkitekt 26, no. 291 (1958): 66. (Courtesy of Eren are an example of this influence. of elevators: one for the maids—these don’t Sayar Kavcı for Arkitekt).

118 Domestic Arrangements stop at the main floor, only the underground a service zone with a kitchen, an ironing room, a garage level—as well as the regular elevators small toilet, and a maid’s room, accessed from a for Brasilia’s modern citizens.32 separate entrance door. Overlooking the Bosporus, the modernist aesthetics of the Birkan Apartments In Niemeyer’s buildings, social and class with their open plan and the distinct servant zone hierarchies are not only expressed in the program, reconcile modern lifestyles and traditional patterns of but are reinforced through the design of a circulation domesticity (Figures 9–10). system that limits the visibility of the domestic However, it is curious to find a similar spatial worker at the formal entry point to the apartment organization in some of the earlier blocks of the buildings. The early Ataköy interiors would Ataköy housing, since it was meant to accommodate also reflect the prevailing social hierarchy in its more middle-class residents. In the Ataköy blocks, organization of circulation and other functions. although the maid’s rooms are the smallest rooms In Istanbul, the presence of maid’s rooms in the apartment, they enjoy plenty of light and a can be connected to both traditional upper-class view of the greenery (Figure 11). This difference is lifestyles with roots in the Ottoman elite, and important to note for it indicates the sensitivity of Westernized apartment schemes emerging in the designers towards improving the environment of 19th and early 20th centuries, catering to the every inhabitant of the building. It also indicates upper class.33 Maid’s rooms are found in Turkish a status shift for middle and upper-middle residential designs from the 1920s and 1930s, and class families as well as their domestic staff. In in the Modern schemes of their famous European most cases, the Ataköy interiors represented an counterparts, such as Mies van der Rohe and Le improvement for both the family and its servants, a Corbusier. A canonical example of a modernist mark of prestige for all involved. maid’s room appears in the Birkan Apartments The Ataköy plans define three distinct interior (1955) designed by Haluk Baysal and Melih Birsel.34 zones: a public and spacious living/dining area Modeled on the Corbusian hygienic ideal, with roof (which would have been separate rooms in earlier terraces, pilotis, and metal mullions, the design apartments), a private bedroom area for the family, Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 promoted an industrial image, despite the fact that and the service facilities. Visible from the front door, its metal mullions had to be produced by hand.35 As the living and dining area was designed to be the was typical for urban apartments designed for upper- “front stage” of the apartment, a place where guests income groups during these years, the plans include would be received. With large windows facing the street, the living area was always the largest room in the apartment (Figure 12). It served as a showcase of the inhabitants’ modern status, while the servants’ Figure 9. The Birkan Apartments (1955) by Haluk Baysal and Melih Birsel, Istanbul. Arkitekt 27, no. 294 (1959): 6–7. (Courtesy of Eren quarters were “backstage.” The service zone included Sayar Kavcı for Arkitekt.) the service hallway, the kitchen, a laundry area, a

Figure 10. Plan of the Birkan Apartments (1955) by Haluk Baysal and maid’s room, and a small toilet designated for the Melih Birsel, Istanbul. The plan includes a maid’s room and a service maid’s use. Different from the family bathroom door/entrance. The other rooms are: building entrance, parking, which was equipped with modern fixtures, the maid’s apartment entrance, hall, living room, terrace, music corner, dining wet space contained a traditional squat (Turkish- room, laundry, WC and sink, service balcony, kitchen, office , bedroom, bathroom, closet, WC, sink, and shower. Arkitekt 27, no. 294 (1959): 6–7. style) toilet fixture, which accommodated traditional (Courtesy of Eren Sayar Kavcı for Arkitekt). bodily practices and therefore was usually preferred 36 Figure 11. A maid’s room in an unrenovated Ataköy Block D unit. by domestic helpers. The wet space also included (Photograph by author, from 2006). continued

GÜREL 119 a tiny sink and a shower faucet attached to a wall.37 zone, while the service door opens into the servant’s The live-in maid was assumed to either take a shower hallway (Figures 13–14). In Block F, the units in this space, over the Turkish-style toilet basin, have only one entry point. Once inside, however, or in a small laundry room (provided in the Block the service zone is accessed through a secondary D1 plans) adjoining her room. Neither space has a doorway off the foyer. In either case, the schemes shower basin, only a drainage hole in the floor.38 propose two major circulation patterns from the The Ataköy’s maid’s rooms and their toilets entrance: one is for the family to reach the living/ are organized along a small corridor connected to dining area and the private bedroom area; the other the kitchen, which serves as a buffer between the is for access to the service zone (Figures 15–17). maid’s quarters and the rest of the apartment. In In both schemes, the maid is removed from the Blocks B and D, each level’s landing accesses the family domain. The maid’s apartment is tucked into small elevator, the staircase, and two doors for each a corner of the apartment and distinctly segregated unit. The main entrance has double doors opening from the rest of the household spaces. This into the apartment’s foyer, which leads directly to organization minimizes unannounced appearances the living/dining area and the adjoining bedroom by the domestic help. At the same time segregation Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013

Figure 13. Original main door (left) and service door (right) of an Ataköy Block D unit, exterior view from the public corridor. (Photograph by author, from 2006).

Figure 14. Original main door (right) and service door (left) of an Ataköy Block D unit, interior view from the foyer. (Photograph by author, from 2006).

Figure 15. The plans for the B blocks, showing the two-door scheme. One door opens to the entry (hol), which flows into the living/dining area and the bedroom zone; the other one opens to the service area. The ser- vice zone is circled, and shows: service corridor, maid’s room (hizmetçi), Figure 12. A spacious living room with large windows and a fireplace, a typical architectural element of stylish homes at the time, in an unrenovated Turkish-style WC, kitchen (mutfak), and office (ofis). Arkitekt 26, no. 291 Block D unit. (Photograph by author, from 2006.) (1958): 63–66. (Courtesy of Eren Sayar Kavcı for Arkitekt).

120 Domestic Arrangements from the family provides flexibility and privacy for older residents. Whether the maid lived with the the kitchen, we always use this door. Also the maid, lending her some autonomy. As residents family or came in on a regular basis, the service zone when we have guests in the living room, for explained, live-in maids were usually widows or was designed to remove her from the life of the example, our children use this door.42 unmarried young girls who had often migrated from family and their guests. The residents enjoying the rural areas and the Eastern provinces in search of modern lifestyle of the Ataköy blocks did not wish to However, not all residents considered the better economic conditions. Other forms of domestic be intruded upon by servants, whose lives reflected service door useful. “I used it very little at the help, such as an evlatlık (a so-called foster child), another, non-modern reality. In this respect, the two beginning,” explained a female resident, “then, I were also seen. The evlatlık was a cheaper form of doors indicated an understanding of the maid as the stopped using it altogether, but decided to keep 40 labor than a maid, and was preferred by the middle other. the door itself intact, just to preserve the original class.39 That said, not all occupants of Blocks B, For many apartment dwellers of the 1950s and look of the unit.”43 A small grocery store owner, D, and F had live-in help. They were usually only 1960s, the division represented by the two entrances who had run a neighborhood store for over 30 shaped everyday life.41 As a Block D resident explain employed by families with young children and by years, told me that fewer and fewer people use to me, while one door receives guests, the other the service doors, and that typically “the service allows domestic workers to enter the apartment person takes the groceries to this door” only for Figure 16. The plans for the D blocks, showing the two-door scheme. without disturbing the family life: 44 One door opens to the entry (hol), which flows into the living/dining older people. Many residents consider them a area (salon/yemek) and the bedroom zone (yatak/banyo); the other one The water supplier delivers the water from this risk factor for theft, a growing problem in the city opens to the service area. The service zone is circled, and shows: service in general. corridor, maid’s room (hizmetçi), Turkish-style WC, kitchen (mutfak), and door. Our domestic helper has always used office (ofis). Arkitekt 26, no. 291 (1958): 63–66. (Courtesy of Eren Sayar this door. If we have something delivered to The physical distinctions between the family Kavcı for Arkitekt). and its maid created within the Ataköy blocks reflected larger differences at the urban scale. In this respect, the Ataköy blocks possess another similarity to Niemeyer’s Brasilia housing projects; both materialize a distinction between the modern and its other at the scale of the interior and at the scale of the city. In Brasilia, conceived by President

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 Juscelino Kubitschek (in office from 1956 to 1961) and by Lucio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer “as a city of the future, a city of development, a realizable utopia,” the low-income citizens lived on the periphery while much of the middle and upper class lived and worked at the center.45 Scrutinizing the Brazilian housing blocks, Rabinow states:

The fundamental contradiction of this modern city is the fact that those who built it and those who kept it running basically cannot live in it. There is almost no low-income housing in Brasilia and those who service the city are forced to live twenty miles away in the semicircular ring of impoverished and unplanned satellite towns.46

continued

GÜREL 121 Similarly, in the Ataköy development, service workers often commuted from low-income neighborhoods outside of the socially hygienic boundaries of Ataköy, as is still the case in many similar developments in Turkish cities. In Istanbul, these neighborhoods were typically squatter housing (gecekondu) formed as a result of a massive influx of rural populations to major urban centers in search of new job opportunities. This migration was spurred by the mechanization of the countryside. New agricultural machinery, funded by Western aid, was meant to promote democratic capitalism and prevent the spread of communism post–World War II. Although the squatter settlements were generally Figure 17. The plans for the F blocks. The main door opens to the entry (hol), which flows into the living/dining area (salon/yemek) and the bedroom regarded as a problem by both the government and zone (yatak/banyo); the service entry leads to the maid’s area and the kitchen. The service zone is circled, and shows: service corridor, maid’s room the public, the gecekondu provided housing for a (hizmetçi), Turkish-style WC, and kitchen (mutfak). Arkitekt 26, no. 291 (1958): 63–66. (Courtesy of Eren Sayar Kavcı for Arkitekt). cheap labor force, and they were allowed to remain.47 Modern housing developments like the Ataköy blocks developed in parallel with the gecekondu. income groups, dominated the imported goods of the kitchen, the 1930s rationalist Frankfurt Family life in the modern apartments depended market. Their advertisements, as well as images of Kitchen by Margarete Shütte-Lihotzky. She, along on labor from the squatter housing; the squatter postwar American kitchen designs, could be seen with her husband, was one of the German-speaking housing rose in response to rural modernization. not only in popular media such as newspapers and architects and experts invited to Turkey as part of Both Ataköy and the gecekondu depended on magazines like Hayat, and Hollywood movies, but an early republican westernization and advancement an alliance between the modern and its other, an also in professional publications. For example, a program, and she worked for the Turkish Ministry alliance which operated at the scale of the interior, 1950 issue of Arkitekt featured the equipment of of Education from 1938 to 1940. The Austrian the city, and the region. an American kitchen in great detail. The article also architect had applied the principles of Taylorism to Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 noted that planning domestic tasks was a function the domestic environment in Germany during the New Domestic Arrangements carried out in this kitchen.49 In Turkey this function 1920s in order to liberate women from the kitchen.50 As the interiors of the Ataköy apartments was materialized in a home office, which appeared This goal, however, was not the intent of Turkish revealed the local social and economic dynamics as an extended section of the kitchen in 1950s and kitchen designs, even though Taylorist and scientific that defined domestic life, they also exposed 1960s middle and upper-middle class apartment home management ideas were popular, especially crosscultural influences. In the early 1950s, Prime plans. Such office spaces are included in Blocks B, D, among young women educated in the girls’ institutes Minister Menderes intended to make Turkey “a little and F as a small area of the kitchen with a counter. established in the early republican era.51 In Turkey, America.”48 The Ataköy kitchens reflected a strong They are shown in three configurations: as a buffer then, innovations in kitchen design during the 1940s current of American influence by providing space zone between the maid’s area and the rest of the did not reflect a change in women’s status; rather, for refrigerators, even though the plans published apartment, as part of a passage through which the they reflected cultural influences flowing from the in Arkitekt do not show the equipment. In contrast, trash can be taken out to the garbage chute next to West. the kitchens found in Turkish apartments from the the elevator, and as a transitional space between the The washing machine was another appliance 1930s and 1940s were too small to accommodate place where food is prepared and the dining room that slowly made its way into Turkish homes during refrigerators, which were expensive and uncommon where food is served. the Cold War period. Before national production of at the time. This scaled-down version of the postwar washing machines began in the 1950s, they were In Turkey during the 1950s American American kitchen, with a space for planning the imported and expensive. Advertisements depicting refrigerators such as Frigidaire, available to upper- household tasks, replaced an earlier Western model women as content housewives in the presence

122 Domestic Arrangements of a washing machine were plentiful in 1950s undertake housework without, as one architect and 1960s Turkey. Arguably, washing machines put it, “intruding” on the household. Significantly, entered the domestic scene a little later than a maid’s room was also in demand because it made refrigerators because of the availability of cheap the apartments more marketable; apartments with domestic labor.52 Accordingly, architects often did a servant’s quarters were considered profitable not provide space for washing machines in 1950s real estate investments. In this respect, the apartment plans, and Ataköy was no exception. mass housing units of Ataköy contributed to Washing machines had to be squeezed into the the proliferation of the maid’s room by turning bathrooms, or in the case of the Block D1 scheme, this feature of elite households into an amenity they found their place in the laundry room. Located for middle and upper-middle class households. inside the maid’s room, this wet space received The maid’s room became a norm rather than an plenty of light and was equipped with plumbing, exception, regardless of the actual needs of the drainage in the floor, and Betebe glass mosaics on residents. the walls (Figure 18). With or without a washing machine, its location and accessibility through Conclusion the maid’s room imply that the laundry was her When the Ataköy development was designed responsibility. and built, it answered to a set of postwar ideals The actual function of the maid’s room and prevalent in the West: renewal, democracy, its relationship to the other service areas varied liberation, and the notion that housing was a from household to household. If the room was not public good, deserved by all. The development’s used for the accommodation of domestic helpers, it construction started shortly before the 1957 was often used as a guest bedroom or housework- elections, and it became a showcase for the related space, such as a pantry or storage, urban modernization initiatives undertaken by laundry, or ironing room. The use of the room and the Democrat Party government in the 1950s. employment of maids changed with changing The Ataköy blocks demonstrated that Turkey was Figure 18. A wet space accessed from the maid’s room in an

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 lifestyles, social, economic, and family conditions, a “modern society,” a part of the wider world. It unrenovated Block D unit. (Photograph by author, from 2006). further developments in technology, and the represented a model of progress that tied Turkish widespread use of household appliances. However, speak the local language well and live in isolation life to the ideology of Western modernity. But as a local real estate agent explained, “today once for the duration of their stay. the apartments in Ataköy’s Phase I reserved the again, the maid’s rooms are more often being This new population of migrant domestic privilege of “modernity” for a middle and upper- used for live-in help.”53 This development is tied workers illustrates the role that market forces middle class clientele, rather than accommodating to increased employment among Turkish women play in shaping the built environment. During the housing needs of the newly urban poor. and the availability of domestic helpers from the the 1950s, multistory residential developments, In this respect, Ataköy may be considered an former Soviet Union countries, such as Moldova, whether built by the state or private enterprises, early precedent of more recent architectural and Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan. Many women produced significant commissions for architects. urban formations of high-status enclaves and from these countries leave their families and Architects who worked on these projects claim controlled housing environments, such as gated come to Turkey to earn money. They do not have that clients and dwellers, especially housewives, communities. These housing typologies, criticized permanent work permits, and cannot stay in the often requested a maid’s room in their apartment for cultivating socioeconomic segregation, have country for long periods. They work for low salaries because they felt that the domestic servants been proliferating in Turkey and worldwide, from and prefer live-in employment to keep a low profile needed an area to change clothes, rest, iron, Brazil to South Africa to the United States. Similar as well as to be able to save money to support their and to retire to in the presence of guests.54 The to Ataköy, these so-called “modern” housing families in their home country. Often, they cannot room provided a space for the domestic helper to continued

GÜREL 123 developments promote architectural form and and between the physical space of the modern Notes style as means to a contemporary lifestyle. Their apartment and squatter housing. Finally, while 1. For examples of multistory apartments with servant’s rooms in Turkey, see the Helbig Apartments (1892) in Istanbul; “Pertev advertisements—with seductive architectural the maid’s toilet with a traditional Turkish-style Apartmanı, Taksim” [Pertev Apartment, Taksim], Mimar 2 (1933): 46; imagery, minimalist interior design, green areas, fixture in the service zone displays a contrast to “Bayan Firdevs Evi” [Mrs. Firdev’s House], Mimar 12 (1934): 334. swimming pools, manicured landscapes and the family’s modern-style bathroom, it also shows 2. An important idea in my discussion is the fluidity of culture as promises of security—present a utopian vision of sensitivity towards accommodating the traditional discussed in Akhil Gupta and James Ferguson, “Beyond Culture: Space, Identity, and the Politics of Difference,” in Culture, Power, Place: 55 the ideal home. practices associated with domestic help. Therefore, Explorations in Critical Anthropology, ed. Akhil Gupta and James The two-door schemes of Blocks B, D, and even with its shortcomings, such as inappropriate Ferguson (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997), 33–51. F set boundaries between the master and the bathing arrangements, the maid’s room reflects 3. For example, see Sarah Williams Goldhagen and Réjean Legault, servant, and the contemporary and traditional. “Introduction: Critical Themes of Postwar Modernism,” in Anxious a concern for the particularities of these local Modernisms: Experimentation in Postwar Architectural Culture, ed. The articulation of the service area as a separate households. This concern explains, in part, the Sarah Williams Goldhagen and Réjean Legault (Montréal: Canadian zone speaks to tacit assumptions about what is larger size of the apartments, which takes into Centre for Architecture; Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000), 15. considered modern and its other, and is a product account extended families with grown children, 4. For a collection of papers that ponders the complex relationship between modern architecture and domesticity, see Negotiating 57 of socioeconomic circumstances in a consumer grandchildren, or grandparents. Domesticity: Spatial Productions of Gender in Modern Architecture, society shaped by global dynamics. Including a The Ataköy blocks could be understood ed. Hilde Heynen and Gülsüm Baydar (New York: Routledge, 2005). maid’s room in an interior program when the end as just another manifestation of modernism’s Also see Christopher Reed, ed., Not at Home: The Suppression of user (i.e., the specific family or persons that would ubiquitous forms. But a closer look reveals the Domesticity in Modern Art and Architecture (London: Thames and Hudson, 1996); and Witold Rybczynski, Home: A Short History of an inhabit the unit) was unknown during the design discrete cultural and spatial dynamics of Turkish Idea (New York: Viking Press, 1986). The Ataköy plans materialize phase indicates a general market demand for this domestic life in the 1950s and 1960s, a moment tacit assumptions and shared social beliefs and embody their culture, room, fed by the availability of cheap domestic when local aspirations—for both the middle class “the systems of shared meanings which people who belong to the labor. same community, group, or nation use to help them interpret and and the urban poor—became entangled with make sense of the world.” As defined by Stuart Hall, culture is a Beyond this socioeconomic dynamic, global forces. The open, transparent, and spacious consequential “means by which identities are constructed, sustained, however, one can read the efforts of Ataköy’s interiors followed the formal design precepts of and transformed,” and it is realized in habit and routine. These quotes Phase I designers to improve the quality of life the modernist home, but accommodated local are from Stuart Hall, “New Cultures for Old,” in A Place in the World? Places, Cultures and Globalization, ed. Doreen Massey and Pat Jess for everyone who would inhabit the apartments. family structures. New programs and spaces, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 176.

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 Despite its segregation from the modern spaces of such as the home office, bearing traces of an 5. The Democrats vowed to put an end to government monopolies, the family, planning the maid’s room as a separate American influence, were accompanied by to promote private enterprise, and to resolve economic troubles while space with large windows indicates a concern traditional spaces such as the squat toilet. The reducing taxes. Their promise of rapid economic growth implied severe criticism of the rigid control of earlier statist policies, which they about providing privacy and some autonomy design scheme simultaneously contradicted and planned to relax. Stanford Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and for her. The same can be said for the apartment reconciled the customary and the new, marking Modern Turkey (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976–1977), building janitor’s (kapıcı) quarters, which is placed the in-between space of modernity.58 The interior 405, 408. For discussions on Democrat Party politics, also see Feroz at the ground level of each block.56 Compared to Ahmad, The Making of Modern Turkey (London: Routledge, 2000); architecture of these apartments suggests ways Leslie L. Roos and Noralou P. Roos, Managers of Modernization: the typical janitor’s quarters, often placed in the in which mainstream modernism was adapted, Organizations and Elites in Turkey (1950–1969) (Cambridge: Harvard basements of apartment buildings, these provide contextualized, and even regionalized, specific to University Press, 1971); and Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern more humane accommodations for the janitor and location, culture, and local economies. Turkey (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002). 6. For these reports, see lhan Tekeli, Türkiye’de Ya amda ve Yazında his family, who typically were rural immigrants, İ ş Konut Sorununun Gelişimi [Housing Problems in Life and in Printed like the maids. Both of these service spaces mark Matter in Turkey] (Ankara: Toplu Konut İdaresi Başkanlığı, 1996), a status shift for the people employed in those 98–105. positions. They also provide a better working 7. P.M. Adnan Menderes, press conference, September 23, 1956. Published in Belediyeler Dergisi 132 (1956): 644–45. Quoted in Ipek environment than agricultural and factory jobs. Y. Akpinar, “The Making of a Modern Pay-I Taht in Istanbul: Menderes’ Thus, the service positions both crystallize and Executions after Prost’s Plan,” in From the Imperial Capital to the accommodate the gap between social strata Republican Modern City, ed. F. Cana Bilsel and Pierre Pinon (Istanbul:

124 Domestic Arrangements Araştirmalari Enstitüsŭ, 2010), 167–99. Also see Sibel Bozdoğan, Ataköy Mass Housing Development,” in Quality of Urban Life Policy Istanbul), interviews by the author, Ankara, December, 2006 and “The Predicament of Modernism in Turkish Architectural Culture: versus Practice, ed. Nuran Zeren Gülersoy, Nur Esin, and Ahsen Özsoy Ankara, May, 2006, respectively. Oscar Niemeyer was influential in the An Overview,” in Rethinking Modernity and the National Identity in (Istanbul: Istanbul Technical University, 2003). However, because Turkish architectural community. For a published interview, see “Oscar Turkey, ed. Sibel Bozdoğan and Reşat Kasaba (Seattle: University of of the 1960 military intervention, many people who had invested in Niemeyer Küp’ler Mimarisine Karşı” [Oscar Niemeyer Is Against the Washington Press, 1997), 133–56. the property pulled their money out, uncertain about the project’s Architecture of Cubes], Mimarlık 25 (1965): 38–39. 8. Other major projects developed by the Emlak Kredi Bank include: future. As a result, there were many vacancies in the early years of the 32. See Paul Rabinow, “A Modern Tour in Brazil,” in Modernity and apartment blocks on Atatürk Bulvarı (1957), the Fourth Levent settlement. These vacant Phase I units were rented for several years. Identity, ed. Scott Lash and Jonathan Friedman (Oxford: Blackwell, Development (1956–60) in Istanbul, and the Emlak Kredi Bank Muhteşem Giray, interview by the author, Istanbul, September, 2006. 1991), 261. Apartments in Ankara (1957–64) and Izmir (1956–59). Ataköy residents, interviews by the author, Istanbul, September, 2006. 33. Formally distinct examples of these ranges from the celebrated Casa 9. Nils Gilman, “Modernization Theory, the Highest Stage of American 16. See “Ataköy Sahil Şehri,” 16. Milà (1905–12) in Barcelona by Antoni Gaudi to Berthold Lubetkin’s Intellectual History,” in Staging Growth, ed. David C. Engerman, Nils 17. Zeki Sayar, “Imar Vekaletinden Beklediklerimiz” [Our expectations Highpoint Apartments (1935, 1938) in London. Gilman, Mark H. Haefele, and Michael E. Latham (Amherst: University from reconstruction proxy], Arkitekt 26, no. 290 (1958): 4. 34. For this project, see “Birkan Apartmanları (Bebek)” [Birkan of Massachusetts Press, 2003), 50. 18. For these projects see Arkitekt 217–218 (1950): 15–17. Apartments], Arkitekt 27, no. 294 (1959): cover, 4–10. Baysal and 10. While beyond the scope of this study, I note briefly that high rise 19. Giray, interview. Birsel was one of Turkey’s first architectural partnerships, established housing developments, launched as part of state-led modernization in 20. CIAM (Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne, during the 1950s. different political regimes worldwide, have been widely criticized for 1928–1959) was important in the dissemination of the Modern 35. See Uğur Tanyeli, “Haluk Baysal & Melih Birsel,” Arredamento disrupting traditional ways of life, abstracting social life, oversimplifying Movement, developed in Europe in the 1920s and the 1930s. Mimarlık 100+2 (April 1998): 77. For an earlier assessment of this human needs, promoting segregation based on class, race, or Composed of an avant-garde group of architects including Le Corbusier, point and the influence of Mies van der Rohe’s stylistic concerns, for ethnicity, standardizing the idea of home, and homogenizing the Sigfried Giedion, and Hannes Meyer, the organization promoted example, in the use of “I” profiles on the facades of high-rises, also see urban landscape. An important critical reflection is James C. Scott’s socially engaged rational design and functionalism. For a chronological Enis Kortan, Türkiye’de Mimarlık Hareketleri ve Eleştirisi 1950–1960 assessment of the planning doctrines of High Modernism (rational study of CIAM, see Eric Mumford, The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, [Architectural Movements and Critiques in Turkey 1950–1960] (Ankara: design, uniformity, sterility, control, order, and simplicity) as an 1928–1960 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000). Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi, 1971), 42. “ultimately devastating” ideology of the 20th century and a “sweeping 21. “1933 CIAM: Charter of Athens: Tenets,” in Programs and 36. Meltem Ö. Gürel, “Bathroom as a Modern Space,” Journal of vision” promoting scientific and technical progress in all aspects of Manifestoes on 20th-Century Architecture, ed. Ulrich Conrads Architecture 13, no. 3 (2008): 226. human activity. James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1964/1999), 137–45. 37. I have argued elsewhere that the contrast between the modern Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven 22. For the design of 7th and 8th neighborhoods, see Bay Kan Günay, family bathroom (equipped with a Western-style toilet bowl, a bathtub, and London: Yale University Press, 1998), 90. “Ataköy 7. ve 8. Mahalleler: Bir Tasarım Deneyimi [Atalöy’s 7th and and a bidet) and the Turkish-style toilet (which accommodates 11. For a similar point, see Monique Eleb, “An Alternative to 8th neighborhoods: A design experience], Mimarlık, no 264 (1995):” traditional toilet practices) illustrates the spatialization of a dichotomy Functionalist Universalism: Ecochard, Candilis, and ATBAT-Afrique,” in 48–49. between the modern and the traditional. See Ibid., 215–33. Anxious Modernisms, 70–71. 23. Ruben Abel Bianchi, “The Work of Luigi Piccinato in Islamic 38. This arrangement is similar to maid’s accommodations proposed 12. Like the housing complex, these motorways were significant Countries 1925–1981,” Environmental Design: Journal of the Islamic in earlier domestic designs, such as the Weissenhofsiedlung (1927). statements of the modernization undertaken by the government. Environmental Design Research Centre (1990): 187. Luici Piccinato, Considered “revolutionary,” this modernist working-class housing Starting in 1948, new road networks were built with U.S. technical and Urbanistica (Roma: Sandron, 1947). prototype also included small maids’ rooms. The so-called “new home” Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 financial support and in 1950, Turkey’s General Directorate of Highways 24. Ibid., 190. and “new forms of living” presented in Weissenhofsiedlung clearly was established. 25. Ertuğrul Menteşe, “Ataköy Sitesi Hakkında Rapor” [Report on the limited its revolution to reflect middle-class, rather than working-class, 13. “Ataköy Sahil Şehri” [Ataköy Seashore City], Mimarlık 15 (1965): Ataköy Settlement], Arkitekt 26, no. 291 (1958): 79. realities. See Karin Kirsch, The Weissenhofsiedlung: Experimental 16–17. 26. For an earlier study of the era, see Mete Tapan, “International Style: Housing Built for the Deutscher Werkbund, Stuttgart, 1927 (New York: 14. The bank’s original intention was to resolve the housing problem for Liberalism in Architecture,” in Modern Turkish Architecture, ed. Holod Rizzoli, 1989), 33. A showcase of modern architecture, this project low-income civil servants. (See Yıldız Sey, “To House the New Citizens: and Evin, 105–18. was composed of 21 structures designed by 17 architects. Fifty-five Housing Policies and Mass Housing,” in Modern Turkish Architecture, 27. Blocks A, C, E, G, I, IB, R are not included in this study. Block architects and interior designers from Germany and other countries ed. Renata Holod and Ahmet Evin (Philadelphia: University of B (88 units) was designed by Muhteşem Giray and Tuğrul Akçura, were involved in the fittings. Pennsylvania Press, 1984), 157.) In 1946, the bank increased capital Block D (112 units) by Ertuğrul Menteşe, and Block F (28 units) by 39. Ferhunde Özbay, “Houses, Wives and Housewives,” in Housing and changed its name to Emlak Kredi Bank with a mission to provide Eyüp Kömürcüoğlu and Muhteşem Giray. “Ataköy Sitesi” [The Ataköy Question of the Others, ed. Emine M. Komut (Ankara: Chamber of long-term low-interest loans, take on production of construction Settlement], Arkitekt 26, no. 291 (1958): 61–66. Architects, 1996), 52–53. materials, and build and sell housing units in response to the endemic 28. See Yurdanur Dülgeroğlu Yüksel, Semra Aydınlı, Gülçin Pulat, Zerrin 40. This assessment, which suggests that a clear distinction between housing shortage developed due to rapid urbanization. Notably, the Yılmaz, and Mustafa Özgünler, Toplu Konutlarda Nitelik Sorunu [Quality the modern and non-modern (or the other) leads to the systematic bank drifted away from its original intention by supporting housing Problems in Mass Housing] (Ankara: Toplu Konut İdaresi Başkanlığı, exclusion of the other, is influenced by Foucault’s notion of otherness projects for middle- and upper middle-income groups. Between 1996), 209. and his critique of the obsession with normality and the construction of 1950 and 1960 urban population growth increased to 80% from 29. For a comparison of Fourier’s phalanstery to Le Corbusier’s Unité knowledge. See Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology 20% between 1940 and 1950. See Ruşen Keleş, “Konut Sorunları ve d’Habitation, see Kenneth Frampton, Modern Architecture: A Critical of the Human Sciences, first published as Les Mots et les Choses, 1966 Politikası” [Housing Problems and Policies], Şehircilik 26 (1978): 619; History (London: Thames & Hudson, 2004), 227. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1970). Sey, “To House the New Citizens,” 165-67. 30. L’Architecture d’Aujourd’Hui 42¬43 (1952): 53. 41. My comments on this idea are not limited to Ataköy residents, but 15. N. Ferah Akıncı, N. Ayşe Özbil, and Özlem Şenyiğit, “Probable 31. Architect Enis Kortan (educated at Istanbul Technical University) are also shaped by interviews carried out with other urban apartment Post Occupancy Problems in Mass Housing Projects: Assessment of and architect Nejat Ersin (educated at the Academy of Fine Arts in dwellers. continued

GÜREL 125 42. A female resident of a Block D unit, interview by the author, the condominium’s wall—to wash and iron their clothes, make their Istanbul, September, 2006. beds, buy and prepare their food, and frequently care for their children 43. A female resident of a Block D unit, interview by the author, all day long. In a context of increased fear of crime in which the poor Istanbul, September, 2006. are often associated with criminality, the upper classes fear contact and 44. Local market owner, interview by the author, Ataköy’s first contamination, but they continue to depend on their servants.” See neighborhood, Istanbul, September, 2006. Teresa P. R. Caldeira, “Fortified Enclaves: The New Urban Segregation,” 45. Scott, Seeing Like a State, 119, 130. Public Culture 8, no. 2 (1996): 303–28. 46. Rabinow, “A Modern Tour in Brazil,” 261. 56. A serviceman is usually responsible for cleaning the building, 47. See İlhan Tekeli, “The Social Context of the Development of running the heating and hot water, collecting the garbage, collecting Architecture in Turkey,” in Modern Turkish Architecture, ed. Holod and the maintenance fees, providing security, and keeping the grounds. He Evin, 26. also helps with grocery shopping on a daily basis. 48. I have addressed elsewhere that this influence was shaped by 57. For this point in the context of block apartments on Atatürk post-WW II aid extended to Turkey (even though the country did not Bulvarı, see “Istanbul Belediyesi, Türkiye Emlak Kredi Bankası Blok participate in the war) and can be followed through oral histories Apartmanları Atatürk Bulvarı” [Municipality of Istanbul and Emlak Kredi and media, newspapers, popular magazines, promotional posters, Bank Multistory Apartments on Atatürk Boulevard], Arkitekt 26, no. advertisements, etc. See Meltem Ö. Gürel, “Defining and Living Out 286 (1957): 12. the Interior: The ‘Modern’ Apartment and the ‘Urban’ Housewife in 58. This conception of modernity is inspired by Marshall Berman, All Turkey during the 1950s and 1960s,” Gender, Place and Culture 16, That Is Solid Melts Into Air (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, no. 6 (2009): 703–722; Meltem Ö. Gürel, “The Modern Home, Western 1982). Fashion and Feminine Identities in Mid-Twentieth Century Turkey,” in Performance, Fashion and the Modern Interior: From the Victorians to today, ed. Fiona Fisher, Trevor Keeble, Patricia Lara-Betancourt and Brenda Martin (Oxford: Berg, 2011), 145–158; Meltem Ö. Gürel, “Consumption of Modern Furniture as a Strategy of Distinction in Turkey,” Journal of Design History 22, no. 1 (2009): 47–67; Meltem Ö. Gürel, “Architectural Mimicry, Spaces of Modernity: the Island Casino, Izmir, Turkey,” Journal of Architecture 16, no. 2 (2011): 165–190; and Meltem Ö. Gürel, “Domestic Space, Modernity, and Identity: The Apartment in Mid-20th Century Turkey,” (PhD dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign, 2007). 49. “Bir Amerikan Mutfağinin Tertibatı” [Equipment of an American Kitchen], Arkitekt 223–26 (1950): 158–161, 166. 50. Susan Henderson wrote, “Shütte-Lihotzky intended to eliminate Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 household drudgery and liberate woman from the kitchen rather than mechanize the domestic space.” Susan R. Henderson, “A Revolution in the Women’s Sphere: Grete Lihotzky and the Frankfurt Kitchen,” in Architecture and Feminism, ed. Debra Coleman, Elizabeth Danze, and Carol Henderson (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996), 245. 51. Sibel Bozdoğan, Modernism and Nation Building: Turkish Architectural Culture in the Early Republic (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001), 200–01. For Margarete Shütte-Lihotzky in Turkey, see also Bernd Nicolai, Modern ve Sürgün: Almanca Konuşulan Ülkelerin Mimarları Türkiye’de 1925–1955 [Modern and Exile], trans. Yüksel Pöğün Zander (Ankara: Mimarlar Odası Yayınları, 2011). 52. Gürel, “Defining and Living Out the Interior,” 707–08. 53. A local real-estate agent, interview by the author, Istanbul, September, 2006. 54. From interviews by the author. 55. Discussing this condition in the context of Brazil’s gated communities, Caldeira writes, “The middle and upper classes are creating their dream of independence and freedom—both from the city and its mixture of classes, and from everyday domestic tasks—on the basis of services from working class people. . . . They also ask their badly paid maids—who often live in the favelas on the other side of

126 Domestic Arrangements This article was downloaded by: [Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture] On: 28 August 2013, At: 04:46 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Architectural Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjae20 Émile Zola's Volatile Utopia Ralph Ghoche a a Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

To cite this article: Ralph Ghoche (2013) Émile Zola's Volatile Utopia, Journal of Architectural Education, 67:1, 32-38, DOI: 10.1080/10464883.2013.767118 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10464883.2013.767118

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The essay explores the role played by anarchist thinking on Zola’s as they are in late nineteenth-century anarchist thought, had only a short-lived effect and have been utopian city in Travail (1901). While Zola did not consider anarchism given little or no attention since.6 This oversight is to be a viable political ideology for the ideal city portrayed in the particularly relevant today given the continued ten- dency to purge the modern utopian imagination of novel, he found it to be a revelatory model for its artistic culture. its internal tensions and complexities. Travail first appeared in December 1900 as daily Drawing from anarchist agitator Peter Kropotkin, Zola conceived of excerpts in L’Aurore, a progressive newspaper with the residential area as the antithesis of the city center. This essay socialist and anarchist leanings. Two years earlier it had published “J’Accuse…!,” Zola’s defiant rebuke will examine the contradictory facets in this piece of early twentieth- of the Third Republic’s handling of the Dreyfus century utopian fiction, and, through this lens, will consider the affair. The serialized delivery of the novel was ap- propriate given that Zola devised it as a fictionalized more salient tensions in modernist utopias as a whole. instruction manual, bringing the reader through the arduous stages of transforming a small town rife with misery and class antagonism into an exemplar I know of no better bomb than a book. those gathered. The symbolist poet Stéphane Mal- of peace and prosperity. In this sense, Zola’s method —Stéphane Mallarmé1 larmé responded with the phrase cited above. departed from the utopian genre as practiced by late Symbolists had long evaded social and political nineteenth-century reformers such as Edward Bel- On the quiet evening of December 9th, 1894, an an- reality in favor of a kind of reverie that only poetry lamy and William Morris, who presented glimpses of archist sympathizer by the name of Auguste Vaillant or fiction could provide. however, that stance was an ideal order as though connected to the real world set off a bomb at the Chambre des Députés in central quickly changing during the turbulent years of the only through dream.7 Paris. The eleventh banquet of the literary journal La fin-de-siècle. Also present among the writers and Travail tells the story of Luc Froment, a young Plume, presided over by the sculptor Auguste Rodin, artists meeting that night was Émile Zola, who engineer whose observations of the social inequity was in mid-session when journalist Paul Brulat en- scribbled: “During troubled times, folly abounds, and that beleaguer the fictional industrial town of Beau- tered the room. Brulat announced the fateful news the guillotine is much less able to effect change than clair compel him to found a new society based on the of the nearby attacks and surveyed the opinions of is a new ideal.”2 A few years later Zola would publish theories of early nineteenth-century social reformer Travail (1901), a utopian novel aimed at addressing Charles Fourier.8 Fourier’s system, grounded in the the conflicts of the period and propagating a vision- belief that one could discover a social correlate to ary society of the future (Figure 1).3 Newton’s law of universal gravitation, purported to Travail has appealed to groups that have sought reveal the perfect combination of personality types to transform the very real shape of the city. Accord- needed to lead society towards a more perfect future. As Zola remarked in the working notes for the novel,

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:46 28 August 2013 ing to one commentator, socialists, anarchists, and the working classes quickly embraced the novel and “No revolution, evolution through Fourier.”9 Zola devoted countless night courses to its study.4 A based his vision of an ideal city on the newly liberated prime inspiration for Tony Garnier and Filippo Tom- passions of its populace, imagining such a system maso Marinetti, the vision of an ideal city described as entailing the destruction of social hierarchies and in Zola’s narrative extended well into the architec- a redistribution of labor according to the specific tural and social imaginary of the twentieth century.5 personality traits of the individual. Despite a precari- And while its farsighted portrayal of political and ous beginning, Froment’s ideal city, aided by hard technological structures had a formative impact on work and the mechanization and electrification of

Figure 1. Johannes Lodeizen, The Book ‘Travail’ by Emile Zola, 1930. Oil progressive factions during the twentieth century, industrial processes, grew rapidly as workers realized on canvas. the aesthetic views advanced in Zola’s novel, based the advantages of a system based on an equitable

32 ÉMILE ZOLA’S VOLATILE UTOPIA social order. By establishing a small enclave where the and social harmony.10 Further, electric cars buzzed made of nature “his servant and paradise.”12 But in passions of free association and just labor were the around the city streets, their energy tapped from the a sense this is only half the story of Zola’s ideal city. norm, one could set an example, Zola believed, that sun’s rays. Following Fourier’s ideas, glass-covered As with all of Zola’s novels, the unstable and obsti- would become contagious throughout the surround- arcades protected residents from seasonal tempera- nate underbelly of society surfaces in Travail. While ing areas. This is exactly what happens in Travail. By ture changes. Plans were even afoot to build an arti- many progressive readers appreciated the highly the novel’s end, the entire city of Beauclair has been ficial light source high up in the sky to keep the city mechanized and ordered character of the ideal city, engulfed by the ideal city, which expands ceaselessly evenly lit at all hours of the night (an idea proposed the artistic culture of the ideal city was of an entirely towards the horizon. for the Parisian Universal Exposition of 1889) and different kind. Zola’s descriptions of this new, prosperous, of controlling the movement of the clouds so as to Zola recorded his impressions upon visiting and highly mechanized city were prescient, albeit have unvarying rain watering the crops. Additionally, Jean-Baptiste André Godin’s Familistère de Guise, largely optimistic. For example, electricity replaced manual labor was rendered obsolete in Zola’s ideal an experimental industrial and residential commu- coal in the ovens that transformed the iron mined city, backbreaking work having been passed on to nity located in the north of France and inspired by near Beauclair into commodities such as rails used to humanoid machines “having arms and legs like the Fourier’s Phalanstery (Figure 2). “House of glass, expand train routes (rather than the weaponry the slaves of old.”11 In short, all of the earth’s forces mistrust of one’s neighbors,” he observed in the town had originally produced); this promoted peace had been harnessed and, as Zola explained, man had carnet d’enquêtes he customarily kept for his liter- ary research. The brick complex, with its introverted layout centered around interior glass-covered court- yards, left “no solitude, no freedom,” and none of the valued “risks of a free and adventurous life.” Zola concluded: “Do not pour all of the lives into the same mold.”13 Zola was well aware of the dangers of communal housing projects. Human individuality and independence, traits so dear to the culture of the fin-de-siècle European metropolis, were put at risk by such restrictive systems. As a counterpoint to the col- lectivist work ethic of the ideal city, Zola paid special attention to the capacity for art and architecture to stimulate variety in the city. Beyond the influences noted above, the blue- print for Zola’s vision of a thriving artistic culture came in large part from the ideas of anarchist writer and agitator Peter Kropotkin. Zola gave his anarchist philosophy voice through the character of Lange, a Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:46 28 August 2013 ceramist of exceptional talent and conviction. But Lange went well beyond the anarchism proposed by Kropotkin; he embraced the more radical wing of an- archic thinking that believed in what was called “pro- paganda by deed,” or the use of violent means to propel society into massive revolt. In the first half of Travail and before the town’s transformation, Lange returned again and again to his cherished dream of setting the town ablaze by fashioning a series of Figure 2. A watercolor of Fourier’s Phalanstery as imagined by an unknown painter in the nineteenth century. (Musée du Temps, Besançon, inv. 978.8.1) colorful ceramic pots with powerful explosives con-

GHOCHE 33 cealed within and depositing them at the doorsteps Zola’s character Lange reiterated Kropotkin’s “the lilac blues, dandelion yellows and poppy reds of the institutions of power and authority.14 commitment to the intrinsic necessity of art; art made them appear as large flourishing bouquets be- Lange’s daydream evoked similar exploits by was “as necessary to human existence as the daily tween the massive greens of the surrounding trees.”22 anarchist groups during the turbulent 1890s. One bread.”20 Like Kropotkin, Lange believed that artistic “On sunny days,” Zola concluded, “the white façades of the most famous anarchic events, the bombing expression should pervade all walks of life, embed- of the houses seemed to giggle amidst of the green- of the Café Terminal adjacent the Gare Saint-Lazare, ded in the very surfaces of objects of everyday use. ery, with no smoke to tarnish the purity of the air.”23 was perpetrated by Émile Henry, an aspiring decora- At the core of the anarchist aesthetic philosophy was Lange’s theory of the arts was no mere utopian tive artist.”15 In Henry’s subsequent letter of defense a tension between the desire for art to be ubiquitous dream wish. Zola’s descriptions of the artistic culture he quoted the character Souvarine, an anarchist and inimitable, an opposition that would eventually of the ideal city mirrored the real-life agitations of saboteur from Zola’s novel Germinal: “All discussions manifest itself in the Deutscher Werkbund debates a number of artists, literary figures and architects. about the future are criminal since they hinder pure between Henry Van der Velde and Hermann Muth- Most influential in Zola’s own circle of friends was and simple destruction and slow down the march esius on the question of aesthetic standards. For the architect Frantz Jourdain, who would design of the revolution.” This quote also encapsulated Zola, that tension was reconciled by sublimating Zola’s tomb in Montmartre.24 Jourdain scrutinized Lange’s outlook when he argued, “No compromise, nature into the very process of production. As Zola the hierarchy between art forms with the same sense it was all rotten, there was no choice but to bomb explained, Lange’s creative control over the pots, of purpose. In 1894, he asserted that the aristocratic the old society, and raze it to the ground.”16 plates, statuettes, vases, and ornamental fantasies traditions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries A contemporary French poet, Laurent Tailhade, he produced was mitigated by “the haphazard effect had unjustly relegated utilitarian art forms to the saw these acts as sublime: “Who cares about the of the firing” (les hasards du feu) which seared the bottom rungs of artistic merit. Understandably, the victims if the act is artistic? Who cares about the effects of uncontrollable natural forces onto the ex- École des Beaux-Arts was detested by Jourdain; he disappearance of vague humanity, if, by that dis- terior finish of his pieces. claimed that it had done more damage to art than appearance, an individual affirms his identity?”17 Lange envisioned his works enlarged to the scale “an epidemic of cholera or an invasion of cossacks.”25 Tailhade thought his words wise until he himself was of the city. The final shape of the residential area One must, according to him, “blow up, and promptly, injured in the anarchist bombing of the Café Foyot in of the ideal city manifested Lange’s main principles this wall impeding the forward movement and steady 1894. But Tailhade’s comments were perhaps not so for the anarchic city. Unlike other parts of the city, march of ideas.”26 Traditions or institutions that strange for a culture that regarded individualism as which followed an orthogonal grid, the residential imposed calcified solutions to contemporary artis- the apogee of historical evolution.18 Although Zola area obeyed no system or overarching logic and its tic practice would have to be done away with. “In did not consider anarchism a viable political ideology exuberant artistic culture devoted to handiwork stood its innermost essence, art is horrified by obstacles, for his ideal city, he did see it as the only appropriate in stark contrast to the technological prowess of the barriers, regulations, dogmas, classifications, codes philosophy for its artistic culture. industrial quarter of the city. “The city resembled an and tyrannies,” Jourdain explained, “That which For Kropotkin, anarchism was the sole political immense garden, where the houses were scattered in restricts it, suffocates it, that which weighs it down, solution to safeguard the individuality and artistic a natural way, amidst the greenery,” Zola explained. squashes it, that which makes it subservient, assas- independence of the populace. In The Conquest of The lack of planning was as much a virtue as it was a sinates it.”27 The mid–nineteenth-century battle cry Bread (1892) he reproached the “ideal communist challenge to the “epoch of tyranny and terror” that for “la liberté dans l’art” had reached a fever pitch.28 Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:46 28 August 2013 societies” for dwelling on “material wants” and for had produced buildings “one against another.” Each Many of those calling for artistic freedom, a call that neglecting to satisfy “higher delights” and artistic resident having chosen a plot of land on this vast and for decades had run parallel to the aims and ambi- desires. “In your communal stores you may perhaps lightly wooded terrain, built up that plot “according tions of Republicanism, had become radicalized and have bread for all,” Kropotkin explained, “but you will to his own fantasy.” The residential area departed disenchanted with the bourgeois aspirations of the not have beautiful pictures, optical instruments, luxu- from accepted planning practices.21 Each house in government of the Third Republic. Jourdain’s call for rious furniture, artistic jewelry.” He continued: “and Zola’s ideal city stood as a kind of personal statement artistic freedom made no compromises; “in art,” he in this way you suppress the possibility of obtaining of that resident’s artistic vision, the white façades exclaimed, “there is but a single type of governance anything besides the bread and meat which the com- used as a canvas of sorts on which were gathered both logical and honest, and that is anarchy.”29 mune can offer to all, and the grey linen in which all “brightly colored faiences and earthenwares: glazed The core idea that Jourdain and Zola held in your lady citizens will be dressed.”19 tiles, gables, moldings, friezes, cornices,” of which common was that decoration was the chief means by

34 ÉMILE ZOLA’S VOLATILE UTOPIA which they saw as particularly well suited to the vaga- ries of street life. These materials fulfilled a number of criteria dear to the proponents of social art: they were hygienic; they represented the triumph of the handi- crafts over academic art; and they were immediately accessible to all since their bright colors and reflective surfaces appealed primarily to the senses. However, Marx was most quixotic in his descriptions of this media. Reporting on the work of the fin-de-siècle decorative artist Émile Gallé in his article “La décora- tion architecturale et les industries d’art à l’Exposition Universelle de 1889,” Marx explained that the eye was fascinated by the “metamorphoses of the porce- lain into precious matter . . . caused by the combina- tions of firing.”35 These “accidents of nature” were Figure 3. A mural painting by Charles Toch featured in Frantz Jourdain, “L’Art dans la rue,” Revue des Arts Décoratifs, 12e année, (1891-1892). the result of what Marx described as “an alchemy of lapidary dissemblance” that “imprisoned fleeting and which man-made constructions expressed a cultural else, and emphasized it as an essential aspect of evanescent reflections, vapors of clouds, streaming moment. Borrowing key concepts from the mid– the communal nature of society. Commercial and haze, echoes deafened by reflections, rippling fumes, nineteenth-century decorative reform movements, capitalist ambitions, though they could be swayed and lunar clarity.”36 The critic turned into a crystal Jourdain explained that “an insatiable thirst de- for the benefit of the public, were often obstacles ball gazer of sorts when confronted with the bril- voured” man and impelled him to “ameliorate, embel- to the real expression of individual creativity.33 As liant play of surface and depth in ceramic glazes. The lish and ornament the house in which his life will run Jourdain explained in “L’Art dans la rue” (published main point of interest in this medium was its ability its course.”30 The illuminator, claimed Jourdain, was in 1891 in La revue des arts décoratifs), the pres- to capture the fleeting, the spontaneous, and the ac- inseparable from the constructor. The color and detail ence of public art and architecture on the street also cidental, and to remain consistently distinctive. Each of decorative motifs was critical to the legibility of served an educational and social purpose (Figure 3). ceramic piece, although a fabricated object, had a architecture and “completed, detailed, explicated and While the aristocracy and bourgeois audience could kind of volatility and vitality to it as though fashioned characterized” its meaning and significance for all to follow the artist into the salons, exhibition halls, by the processes of nature itself. However, the pieces see.31 Furthermore, for Jourdain as for Zola, the call and private galleries, the proletarian masses had produced by Zola’s anarchist potter were somewhat for anarchy in the arts implied that all traditional hi- no access to such exclusive realms. Art would have more modest, and it is significant to note that, at the erarchies be reevaluated and that art be made acces- to come to them. More so than the classroom, the moment when symbolist poets and artists were awak- sible to all. However divergent, the personal artistic street, claimed Jourdain, was the place for educating ening to the social and political realities that charac- vision of each individual should also circulate freely in the masses, or developing their tastes and interests. terized the turbulent years of the fin-de-siècle, Zola’s Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:46 28 August 2013 the public sphere. “The ideal,” Jourdain proclaimed, Like Zola’s character Lange, Jourdain believed that naturalism (the theoretical armature underpinning the “would be to see each and every artist, full of proud the beautification of the street was of moral conse- twenty novels that made up the Rougon-Macquart contempt for the past, bring forth a unique and sin- quence and contributed to forging a public that was series), was transforming itself to include idealist rev- gular formula that would perish with him.”32 honest, compassionate, and just. erie and dream. Jourdain envisioned the main venue for dis- As Meredith Clausen has observed, Jourdain’s As far as we know, no plan was made of Zola’s plays of individual artistic approaches to be the fascination for civic art drew from the more compre- ideal city, although some years earlier Jourdain had street. Like the street life of Zola’s ideal city, with hensive attention to street aesthetics in Belgium.34 In developed a series of architectural drawings for the its white houses colorfully decorated according to France, Jourdain and his cohorts Roger Marx and the fictive department store that would be the setting the individual tastes and fantasies of their inhabit- symbolist poet and polymath Henri Cazalis empha- for Zola’s novel Aux bonheur des dames.37 If we ants, Jourdain’s ideal prized originality above all sized the properties of ceramics and lacquered metals, were to draw a city plan based on Zola’s descrip-

GHOCHE 35 ing the anarchist rejection of a reified and wholly ordered social domain. Within a couple of years of Travail’s publica- tion, an acute sense of realism had set in among the proponents of “l’art dans la rue.” The title of Henri Cazalis’ publication in 1902, L’Art pour le peuple à défaut de l’art part le peuple [Art for the People, in Lieu of Art by the People] signaled the nature of the change. The lack of interest on the part of citizens in creating a popular art form necessitated that the reform of the arts come from above. This shifted the emphasis to proponents of change opening design shops, publishing illustrated journals, and promoting the use of decorative wallpaper for worker hous- ing. The anarchic elements of Zola’s ideal city were largely dropped when it was translated by Tony Gar-

Figure 4. Acknowledging his debt to Zola, Garnier incorporated a long band of quotations from Travail on the walls of the central assembly building nier into his utopian Cité Industrielle, the drawings of the Cité Industrielle. Tony Garnier Une cité industrielle: étude pour la construction des villes (Paris : A. Vincent, c. 1917), plate 15. (Collection Centre for which were first exhibited in 1901. Garnier’s plans Canadien d’Architecture/ Canadian Centre for Architecture, Montréal). adjusted the residential quarters to the prevailing grid of the rest of the city and, while he inscribed passages from Zola’s Travail on the great assembly tions in Travail, what would be immediately striking hall at the center of the city, these celebrated the would be the disjunction between the highly planned industrial prowess and productive promise of the orthogonality of the mechanized city center and the new social order without acknowledging the anarchic dispersed scatter of the residential zones, which from elements (Figure 4). All that remained, as vestiges above might resemble the informality of a shanty- of Zola’s anarchic vision, were the ceramic wares town. As Zola explained, architects were employed that dot the perspectives of the Cité Industrielle’s in his novel to design buildings in established zones quartier d’habitation (Figure 5). Le Corbusier, who in such a way as to employ diverse aesthetic ap- was significantly moved by Garnier’s revisionist ur- proaches in order to create monumental and lasting banism, vehemently rejected the aesthetic promoted works, while those in the residential district were left by Zola. Writing in L’Art décoratif d’aujourd’hui, Le to each resident’s personal expression.38 These dif- Corbusier lambasted the fin-de-siècle decorative arts ferences included the choice of the materials used movement for its “nauseating” handiwork and its Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:46 28 August 2013 for building each sector. While the city center and mystification of imprecision and error. For Le Corbus- industrial sectors were notable for their use of steel Figure 5. Tony Garnier added a number of photographs of his built ier, the absence of precision in the “dripping glazes” projects into Une cité industrielle. The photographs and many of the elements, precisely shaped in electric furnaces, the and “the haphazard effects of kiln,” was evidence of drawings incorporate ceramic pots and statuette, vestiges perhaps polychrome faience that decorated the modest build- what he proclaimed to be an artisanal “cult of fail- of Zola’s anarchic artistic vision. Tony Garnier, Une cité industrielle: ings of the residential quarter were made by hand ure” (“un culte des ratées”)39 (Figure 6). étude pour la construction des villes (Paris : A. Vincent, 1917?), plate 121. (Collection Centre Canadien d’Architecture/ Canadian Centre for and were intentionally crude and unique (makeshift Ultimately, Zola’s literary vision of Beauclair dra- Architecture, Montréal). wood burning kilns were used for the task). However, matized the disjunction between order and disorder, besides ensuring individuality in the residential area, precision and accident, blueprint and chance. In so it also could be seen as a way of standing outside of doing, Zola’s experimental city exposed tensions at industrial capital and commodification, exemplify- the very heart of the early modern utopian project,

36 ÉMILE ZOLA’S VOLATILE UTOPIA tensions that would re-emerge in the late 1950s and 1960s in various utopian movements.40 In Zola’s uto- pian city one can see the tension as being ultimately internalized into the very heartbeat of the populace as it moves daily from the informal and haphazard to regularized patterns and systematized practices.41 And while Zola’s ideal city was among the first of a long line of modern schemes to separate urban functions, none of the modernist utopias, whether projected or actualized, incorporated within their intended fabric both plan and non-plan elements.42 Zola’s utopia thus departs from the geometrical unity that has characterized ideal city plans from Claude- Nicolas Ledoux’s Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans to Le Corbusier’s Ville Radieuse. As such, it remains a provocative urban model for us to consider.

Notes 1. “Je ne sais pas d’autre bombe qu’un livre.” The translation, which deviates slightly from the original, is my own. See: Pamela A. Genova, Symbolist Journals (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2002), 51. 2. “Aux époque troublées, la folie souffle, et la guillotine pourra encore moins qu’un idéal nouveau.” The translation has been borrowed from Genova, Symbolist Journals (see note 1), 51. All further translations in this essay are my own unless indicated otherwise. 3. I would like to thank Mary McLeod and Cesare Birignani for their valuable comments on this piece. I would also like to thank Marc Pitre at the Canadian Centre for Architecture for his advise on image permissions and for his help with photographic reproductions. 4 . Armand Lanoux, Bonjour Monsieur Zola (Paris: Amiot-Dumont, 1954), 379. 5. Shirley W. Vinhall remarks that Marinetti’s passion for machines can be partially attributed to two of Zola’s novels, La Bête Humaine and Travail. See Shirley W. Vinhall, “Marinetti, Soffici, and French Literature,” in International Futurism in Arts and Literature, ed. Günter Berghaus (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2000), 25. 6. Of the many scholarly works that refer to the architectural legacy of

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:46 28 August 2013 Zola’s ideal city in Travail the only detailed discussion of the novel is found in Anthony Vidler’s essay “The New World: The Reconstruction of Urban Utopia in Late 19th Century France,” Perspecta 13–14 (1971): 243–56, reprinted in The Scenes of the Street and Other Essays (New York: The Monacelli Press, 2011), 244–57. 7. By the mid–nineteenth century the word utopian became an accusation of flightiness or of lack of realism, a damning charge for a period permeated with materialist and positivist values. In The Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels disparagingly referred to the social thinkers of the early part of that century (men such as Charles Fourier, Saint- Simon, and Robert Owen) as “social utopians” and derided their “castles in the air” which they felt were lacking a larger historical analysis. Karl Figure 6. Le Corbusier, L’Art decorative d’aujourd’hui (Paris : G. Crès, 1926), 153. © 2013 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris/F.L.C. Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto (New Haven: Yale

GHOCHE 37 University Press, 2012). See also Edward Bellamy, Looking Backward, 21. Zola’s Travail, it should be noted, appeared two years before the 38. The architects, Zola explained, “built immense and superb palaces 2000–1887 (Boston: Ticknor and Co., 1888) and William Morris, News French translations of Ebenezer Howard’s Garden Cities of To-morrow and for the people, made in the image of the people of a scale and a majesty from Nowhere: Or, an Epoch of Rest, Being Some Chapters from a Camillo Sitte’s Der Städtebau Nach Seinen Künstlerischen Grundsätzen, that was as varied as the multitudes, with the adorable fantasies of the Utopian Romance (London: Reeves & Turner, 1891). both translated into French in 1902. thousands of voices that they summarized.” Zola, Travail (note 11), 644. 8. As Frederick Ivor Case has noted, Zola did not read Fourier directly 22. Zola, Travail (see note 11), 591. 39. The complete citation reads: “Écoeurant. Écoeuré, LE BON AMATEUR but acquired his knowledge of Fourier’s views from a short pamphlet, 23. Ibid., 590. D’ART DIT: Il faut retourner à la nature. La nature est belle parce qu’elle Solidarité: Vue Synthétique sur la Doctrine de Charles Fourier, written 24. Frantz Jourdain (1847–1935) was at the center of the Parisian est sensible. Et par un syllogisme impeccable, on conclut: ‘la nature’ by Hippolyte Renaud. This was given to him by Monsieur J. Noirot, who architectural world for well over three decades. His sharp criticisms of the c’est le travail à la main, parce que la main est sensible et du reste la was a friend and collaborator with Jean Baptiste André Godin, founder École des Beaux-Arts (which he had attended in the 1860s) drew wide main est naturelle. Travail tout à la main: face aux produits innombrables of the Familistère, an experimental phalanstery in Belgium. See Frederick attention and launched him as an architectural critic of note during the de l’industrie, produits de la machine, voici la parade: travail à la main. Ivor Case, La Cité Idéal Dans Travail d’Émile Zola (Toronto: University of fin-de-siècle period. Jourdain’s theories on decoration and structure, Mystique. Évocation de Bernard Palissy. Invention des coulées en émaux. Toronto Press, 1974), 18. which he believed were consistent with those of Henri Labrouste and Le hasard du four, c’est la nature; la coulée d’émail qui rate, c’est la 9. Case, La Cité (see note 8), 28. Viollet-le-Duc, were displayed in his most ambitious built project, a large nature: culte des ‘ratées’.” Le Corbusier, L’Art Décoratif d’Aujourd’hui 10. The expansion of train routes was an idea championed by the Saint- art nouveau department store facing the Seine (La Samaritaine). See (Paris: Flammarion, 1996), 61. Simonians who believed in facilitating global communication in order to Meredith Clausen, Frantz Jourdain and the Samaritaine: Art Nouveau 40. One thinks of Constant Nieuwenhuys’s New Babylon, which bring about an “organic” epoch of world peace. Theory and Criticism (Leiden: Brill, 1987) and Arlette Barré-Despond, challenged the productive efficiency of the city at large, and, with the 11. The complete passage reads: “What great work, easy and delicious! Jourdain: Frantz 1847-1935, Francis 1876-1958, Frantz-Philippe radical impermanence of its internal spatial configuration, divorced Barely a few hours per day of surveillance were needed since these 1906–1990 (New York: Rizzoli, 1991). habitation from its dependence on habit. powerful and ingenious machines had ended up having arms and legs 25. Frantz Jourdain, “L’École des Beaux-Arts,” Revue de l’Époque 1 41. Or, to use a contemporary designation for such wholly distinct like the slaves of old. They lifted mountains and manipulated the most (October–November 1894): n.p. experiences, one can see the discrepancy as one between smooth and delicate of objects, shaping them with infinite care. They walked and 26. Frantz Jourdain, “L’Indépendance en Art,” Le Livre Vert 3 (December striated space. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, “1440: The Smooth and obeyed like beings ignorant of their own suffering, wearing themselves 1896), reprinted in Frantz Jourdain, De Choses et d’Autres (1902), the Striated,” in A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia out without tiring. Thanks to the machine, man had accomplished the 155-158. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), 474–500. conquering of nature, and had made it its servant and its paradise.” Émile 27. Ibid. 42. It is interesting to note that while mid-century modernist city plans Zola, Travail (Paris: Harmattan, 1993), 643. 28. See César Daly, “De la Liberté dans l’Art,” Revue de l’Architecture et such as Le Corbusier’s plan for Chandigarh and Lúcio Costa’s plan for 12. Zola, Travail (see note 11), 643. des Travaux Publics 7 (1847): 392–408. Brasília projected a unified geometrical order, they did not properly 13. Ibid., ii. 29. Jourdain, “L’École des Beaux-Arts” (see note 24), 366. account for subsequent growth, and, in the case of Brasília, for the 14. Only from a clean slate can the anarchist imagine rebuilding. Lange 30. Jourdain explained this idea in the preface to the publication of proper housing of workers that built the city. Today, both cities have had explained: “there are too many poor inhabitants suffering and one of Charles Garnier’s exhibition L’Histoire de l’Habitation Humaine held at the geometrical idealism of their plans significantly challenged by the these mornings we will have to blow up Beauclair in order to properly the Paris universal exposition in 1889. See Charles Garnier, L’Histoire de vast sectors (in the case of Chandigarh) and outer rings (in the case of rebuild . . . one fine day . . . we are strolling down all the streets and l’Habitation Humaine (Paris: Librairie Centrale des Beaux-Arts, 1889). Brasilia) of unplanned and informal housing. This was also the case in there is a bomb hidden in each cooking pot, we drop one off at the 31. According to Jourdain, decoration acted as a kind of social leveler Paris where Haussmann’s dramatic modernization produced large “zones” governmental offices, another at the town hall, one at the courthouse, and gave as much voice to the lowly proletarian as the idle rich. Jourdain of squatter settlements beyond the 1844 fortifications of the city. One one more at the prison, and one at the church, one at each place where explained: “For a long time we have attributed to decoration the wonders if Zola, an attentive critic of Second Empire Parisian culture, there is an institution of authority needing to be destroyed. The slow significance of luxury, wealth, majesty that it does not possess. In reality, might have considered the stark contrast produced by Haussmann’s Paris burning wicks give us the needed time. And then, all of a sudden, decoration remains at the disposal of all, the insignificant and the great, when he conceived of Beauclair’s disjunctive plan. Beauclair bursts, a terrifying volcanic eruption burns it down and the humble and the powerful, the workers and the princes, the bourgeois eradicates it.” Zola, Travail (see note 11), 191. and the artists, the savages and the civilized. We would not be able to 15. Ernest Alfred Vizetelly. The Anarchists: Their Faith and Their Record define where exactly it begins and where it ends, and we would not dare (Edinburgh: Turnbull and Spears Printers, 1911), ch. 8. Vizetelly was also restrict it to any given role or function. Its domain extends so far that it responsible for translating Travail into English in 1901. Interestingly, seems impossible to assign limits to it.” Frantz Jourdain, “La Décoration Vizetelly explains that at age sixteen Émile Henry received a grant et la Campagne,” in Des Choses et d’Autres (note 25), 197–198. Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:46 28 August 2013 for admission to the École Polytechnique, an opportunity he turned 32. Jourdain, “L’Indépendance en Art” (note 25), 155–56. down due to his opposition to militarism. He later entered into an 33. One such instance in which commercial and artistic aims coincided apprenticeship with a clockmaker and finally entered employment as a was the erection of a mural painting by M. Toché on one of the façades sculptor of ornamental work. Apparently it was during this period of his of the old building housing the store La Samaritaine. Frantz Jourdain, career that Henry turned to a virulent strain of anarchism. “L’Art dans la Rue,” La Revue des Arts Décoratifs (1891–92): 211-214. 16. Ibid., 283. 34. Meredith Clausen, Frantz Jourdain and the Samaritaine of 1905, 17. Cited and translated by Genova, Symbolist Journals (see note 1), 50. Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley (1972), 125. 18. The fierce sense of individuality infin-de-siècle Parisian culture is the 35. Roger Marx, “La Décoration Architecturale et les Industries d’Art à subject of Debora Silverman’s brilliant essay “The 1889 Exhibition: The l’Exposition Universelle de 1889,” Revue des Arts Décoratifs (note 32), 36. Crisis of Bourgeois Individualism,” Oppositions 8 (Spring 1977): 71–91. 36. Ibid., 39. 19. Peter Kropotkin, The Conquest of Bread (New York: New York 37. See Atsuko Nakai, “Architecture et Littérature: L’Influence University Press, 1972), 125. Réciproque entre Émile Zola et Frantz Jourdain,” Doshisha Studies in 20. Ibid., 604. Language and Culture 2, no. 4 (2000): 547–83.

38 ÉMILE ZOLA’S VOLATILE UTOPIA This article was downloaded by: [Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture] On: 28 August 2013, At: 04:47 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Architectural Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjae20 Who's Afraid of Ludwig Hilberseimer? Daniela Fabricius a a Princeton University Published online: 05 Mar 2013.

To cite this article: Daniela Fabricius (2013) Who's Afraid of Ludwig Hilberseimer?, Journal of Architectural Education, 67:1, 39-51, DOI: 10.1080/10464883.2013.767123 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10464883.2013.767123

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The metropolis as imagined by Ludwig Hilberseimer has long served so often associated with irrational images of dread. To understand the effects of the spectral it is useful as the quintessential example of the urban dystopia. In reconsidering to return to Freud’s theory of the uncanny. For Freud, Hilberseimer’s Groszstadt the vacant, haunted qualities of his city the uncanny was a special category of fear produced by a number of experiences rooted in the instability of that are so often criticized will instead become a point of departure the boundary between the heimlich (referring to that which is homely but also secretive) and the unheimlich for exploring the “spectral” potentials of the metropolis. This (unhomely, unfamiliar).4 Two particular instances of reading will demonstrate the irrational qualities of this rationalist the uncanny as described by Freud are relevant here. One is the “double,” associated with “reflections in project, and how it reveals a deeply ambivalent and critical attitude mirrors, with shadows, guardian spirits,” but also with towards utopian urbanism and the role of the city in capitalism. involuntary repetition and return in time.5 The other is the confusion of the animate and inanimate thought to characterize automatons, dolls, and ghosts. A simi- lar set of aesthetic effects, which will be characterized here as “spectral,” can be found in Hilberseimer’s To its critics the urban visions of Ludwig Hilberseimer work, particularly in the themes of repetition and mul- have conveniently stood in for received ideas about tiple temporalities evoked by his drawings. The ghostly failed utopias, the brutality of absolute form, and appears in multiple guises, particularly in the unstable the excesses and failures of the modern movement. relationship between subjects and objects, and the The work of his Berlin period in particular has been animate and inanimate, which will be discussed in the described as “horrifying,” “having the power to context of Weimar aesthetics and politics. bring on a shudder,” “gloomy, menacing,” “grim,” The contradictions and possibilities of the and “disturbing.”1 Hilberseimer himself famously spectral suggest a way of avoiding the unanswerable later reflected on his early projects with repentance, question of whether Hilberseimer’s project was one describing the Hochhausstadt as “more a necropolis of critical, realist detachment, or if it was guided by than a metropolis, a sterile landscape of asphalt and a genuine conviction in rationalism and progress. cement, inhuman in every aspect.”2 The obvious The notion of the spectral takes into account both problems raised by the total planned city distract what is most rational and what is most irrational from the more compelling question of how Hilber- about Hilberseimer’s project, both what is based in seimer’s work represented, and projected, changes the real and what is utopian.6 That which at first ap- to labor, habitation, and urban form that would come pears rational and orderly is eventually undermined by its excess; it becomes, as Sol LeWitt himself once

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 with the abstraction of capitalism after industrializa- tion. In other words, with the series of transitions described his work, “irrational thought . . . followed that eventually took place in postindustrial cities: absolutely and logically.”7 Similarly, Hilberseimer’s the dematerialization of labor and commodities, the use of abstraction and repetition appears less as a introduction of space and subsequent atomization display of the prowess of the rational mind than a of bodies and buildings, a crisis in questions of pub- demonstration of its crisis. In doing so it provides a lic space and the public sphere, and a new role for representation of the inherent contradiction of ratio- abstraction as numbers, codes, and diagrams substi- nal and irrational tendencies in capitalism. tuted for “real” social and economic processes.3 In order to understand this quality in Hilber- Perhaps it is this spectral quality of Hilber- seimer’s work it is useful to situate it historically. Figure 1. Ludwig Hilberseimer with pipe, date unknown. seimer’s rationally planned city that has led it to be Many urban utopias of the early twentieth century, in

FABRICIUS 39 Figure 2. Ludwig Hilberseimer, “Hochhausstadt,” 1924. Perspective drawing.

Figure 3. Ludwig Hilberseimer, Groszstadtarchitektur (Stuttgart: Julius Hoffmann, 1927). Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013

trying to address the chaotic and destructive effects festo, specifically in the image “all that is solid melts were historically situated during Weimar Germany’s of nineteenth-century industrial capitalism, also cre- into air.”8 For Berman, the “activist” force of the tremendous political and economic instability and ated the conditions for its mutation into a new form. nineteenth-century bourgeoisie—the organization revolutionary energies. Hilberseimer’s most iconic These proposals for the city sought to seamlessly and implementation of capital into material form— and often-reproduced project, the Hochhausstadt integrate the technological and economic processes accelerated the apocalyptic, destructive force of pure (High-Rise City) of 1924, was developed during of modernization with the culture and ideology of change that was the basis of cultural modernism. this time, and published as a series of illustrations modernism. Marshall Berman has argued that these It is within these phase changes in the capital- in Groszstadtarchitektur (1927), his first major work two facets of modernity—modernization and mod- ist city that we can contextualize Hilberseimer’s outlining a theory of the city (Figures 2 and 3).9 For ernism—coalesced in Marx’s 1848 Communist Mani- urban visions. Hilberseimer’s first significant works Hilberseimer, the Groszstadt (“big city” or metropo-

40 WHO’S AFRAID OF LUDWIG HILBERSEIMER? Figure 6. Ludwig Hilberseimer, detail of plans and sections for a Figure 4. Ludwig Hilberseimer, “Project for the Construction of a City,” Hochhausstadt, 1924. From Groszstadtarchitektur. 1930.

lis) was the natural and necessary product of global The Groszstadt industrialization and modern economic develop- In 1924 Hilberseimer completed the drawings ment. Its tendency was to spread universally, even if of the Hochhausstadt for one million inhabitants opportunistically, until every human was part of its that would be prominently featured in Groszstadt ar- “collective economic organism.”10 It was not defined chitektur. While a specific site for the city was never by its size or form so much as a new scale in the declared, Hilberseimer used Berlin as one example massing together of humans and capital for industrial Figure 5. Ludwig Hilberseimer, “Integrated Smoke-Producing where his city would effectively replace the entire exploitation. Like Marx’s self-destructive capitalism, Industries,” from The New City, 1944. historic center. The project was significantly inspired Hilberseimer believed this model would inevitably by Le Corbusier’s 1922 Ville Contemporaine for three implode as a result of its tendency towards chaos, million inhabitants, to which Hilberseimer devotes overproduction, and exploitation: “the Groszstadt change—one from solid to gas—suggesting dissolu- several pages. While Le Corbusier celebrates stable, has emerged, above all, as the creation of omnipo- tion and dispersal. While for Marx all historical pro- monumental forms, for Hilberseimer form is purely tent big capitalism, as the form of its anonymity, as cesses must take place on a material basis, this image the product of calculation, and is, like capital, able an urban type of singular socio-economic and psy- nevertheless describes a form of dematerialization as to shift and adjust with changing needs. The Hoch- cho-collective elements, allowing, at the same rate, a metaphor for revolutionary change.14 Hilberseimer’s hausstadt, in contrast to Le Corbusier’s core-periph- for the greatest isolation and closest consolidation of city is similarly based in a dialectic between matter ery model, is divided by functions vertically, forming its residents.”11 and its dissolution. On the one hand, the city was two cities on top of one another: the Geschäftsstadt For Hilberseimer, the problem was not the for Hilberseimer the material result of the dynamics (commercial city) on the bottom, and the Wohnstadt metropolis itself but how it was formed by the ex- of capitalism, a product of the “will to form” that (residential city) on top (Figure 6). ploitative nature of capitalism. He thus proposed emerged from the changing needs of economic ex- In order to let in light and air, both the residential reorganizing the metropolis along functionalist and pansion. Hilberseimer seems to produce a fixed world and commercial layers of the city are organized around organicist principles in order to transform the de- of planned masses—a return to order—meant to courtyards reminiscent of Berlin’s residential blocks. structive tendencies of capital into productive ones. withstand the chaotic tendencies of capitalism. Yet The blocks are divided by stair and elevator cores, Hilberseimer’s early projects for cities show a compact that solid vision nevertheless succumbs to forces of which serve the apartments above. The long residen- grid for a well-organized urban core. His postwar dematerialization. Grids expand and contract entro- tial slabs are designed to optimize east- and west- North American work, by contrast, suggested a radi- pically, scale becomes relative, and units reproduce facing exposure, making the buildings so narrow that cal expansion and opening of that grid, producing a promiscuously (Figure 4). In his later work the city they seem to be all façade. The length of the buildings Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 decentralized city seemingly organized less around itself appears to dissolve as its grid is eroded and re- is determined by the distance between subway stops, the exigencies of labor and capital than apocalyptic placed by the geometry of smoke, wind, and ghostly and they are geometrically distributed such that that geometries of nuclear and industrial fallout. This shift black clouds (Figure 5). City becomes region and the height of the buildings is exactly the same dimen- also accompanied a new tendency in the nature of region becomes nation—the city is dissolved in the sion as the width of the avenue. labor and capital: one towards dematerialization.12 irresistible new expansion of capital.15 Not only the In this strategy of segregating and reassembling Marx’s famous phrase—“all that is solid melts city is caught in this flux of dematerialization. The parts of the city by function, Hilberseimer offers an into air”—reads differently in German: “Alles Stän- urban subject, as we shall see, acquires ghostly qual- early proposal for what would later become CIAM’s dische und Stehende verdampft.”13 Unlike the image ities as it is caught between physical presence and urban model organized into zones of transporta- of meltdown, the reference to steam (Dampf) is a absence, unable to separate itself from the processes tion, leisure, work, and housing. In contrast to later less apocalyptic, more industrial image of material of modernization taking place in the city. CIAM cities, Hilberseimer nevertheless proposes a

FABRICIUS 41 proximity, an intimacy even, between work and resi- dential areas. Hilberseimer was concerned with the long, wasteful hours spent by commuting workers, and interested in promoting a form of “simplified” communal living in which all life takes place indoors, and “one need not set foot in the street.”16 But Hilberseimer’s is not a form of communal living like that proposed by his Russian contemporaries (Moise Ginzburg’s 1928–1930 workers’ housing project, Narkomfin, comes to mind). In Hilberseimer’s city there are no shared facilities; every apartment is designed for a single family, with a separate kitchen and bath. Nor is there mention of “social condenser” programs like clubs or theaters. Communal life, it seems, is economic, not social or political. The in- spiration for Hilberseimer’s residential model was the hotel, which he saw as most adequate for mass living. Special rooms are reserved on each floor for service employees who clean and maintain the apart- ments, and apartments come with built-in furniture, so that “if one should move apartments, one packs not the moving truck but the suitcases.”17 Hilberseimer seems to consider density a defining quality of the true metropolis, yet he consistently op- erates against centralized accumulation. In his projec- tion of the possible role of the city and specifically the megacity in relationship to the region, Hilberseimer introduces a compelling model of decentralization, setting up what is a constant dialectic in his work: the demand for labor and materials to be concentrated Figure 7. Bruno Taut, Die Auflösung der Städte; oder, die Erde eine Gute Wohnung (Hagen: Folkwang, 1920). on the one hand, and the expansionary tendencies of capital on the other. Hilberseimer’s attempt to bring Bruno Taut’s notion of the “dissolution of cit- nung (The Dissolution of the Cities; Or, The Earth, A

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 order to the city led him increasingly towards a model ies” becomes actual, especially when the ad- Good Home), which begins with the collapse of cities of decentralization, especially in his postwar work. Hil- vances in technology, radio and television im- (“let them fall apart, the built brutalities—stone berseimer’s 1927 city was formally still an autonomous prove, and transportation can thus be reduced houses make stone hearts”), and continues with the and a seemingly closed space, though politically and to a minimum.18 dissolution of nations, states, and borders; the end economically already part of a larger structure: of war and peace; and the establishment of networks This passage brings to mind Hilberseimer’s fascina- of communication and settlements inspired by the The city, and furthermore the state contribute tion with creating continuities across scales (and geometries of stars, snowflakes, flowers, and crys- harmoniously to the construction of the greater thus, scalelessness). This continuity however eventu- tals (Figure 7).19 Hilberseimer’s vision of expansion collective of mankind. From this point of view ally leads to the destructive image of urban dissolu- too suggests the destruction of the old order, but city planning becomes regional planning. City tion. Hilberseimer refers to Bruno Taut’s 1920 Die without recourse to nature or mysticism. For Hilber- planning becomes state planning. Only then Auflösung der Städte; Oder, Die Erde Eine Gute Woh- seimer, the old model of the city—constrained by

42 WHO’S AFRAID OF LUDWIG HILBERSEIMER? ramparts and gates—would have to be replaced by a Hochhausstadt. These two large drawings, measur- Chirico’s paintings are achieved through similar means new urban typology of openness. ing 96.5 × 148 cm and 97 × 140 cm, are the main in Hilberseimer’s drawings. Buildings and pedestrians, Hilberseimer’s willingness to submit to the ab- representation of the project. Markus Kilian has like ghosts, do not cast shadows. The buildings are straction of numbers challenges the notion that the pointed out the dominant role played by perspectival rendered in a uniform grey color, punctuated by black Groszstadt was a project of form or monumentality. representations during this phase in Hilberseimer’s windows.25 This scheme is shown without clouds, and, It also puts in question the functionalism that at first work, especially when compared to the comparatively as is often noted, does not include anything green or appears to lie at the heart of the project. For ex- smaller plans and sections.22 This seems to contradict otherwise organic. In contrast to expressionist archi- ample, Hilberseimer’s plan for the Groszstadt for one Hilberseimer’s stated interest in abstract organiza- tects, Hilberseimer does not emphasize the ephemeral million residents is simply a re-scaling of an earlier tional systems, and makes a convincing case for the or reflective qualities of glass, but instead shows the plan (the 1923 Trabantenstadt), designed for only importance of the realist aesthetic in his work during windows as voids. These voids unavoidably evoke 125,000 residents. In another example Hilberseimer this time. In these precise drawings the city is shown the image of the eyes of a mask, but also a haunted proposes that a high-rise tower be made of six of his in the dramatic, low-lying sun that marks daybreak house, adding to the impression that Hilberseimer’s 15-story buildings, stacked. This seems to contradict or dusk; it is not the hour of maximum productivity, city too is haunted (Figure 8).26 One of the qualities his idea that the Groszstadt should not just be dif- but rather when the mechanisms of capital are warm- of ghosts, Jacques Derrida reminds us, is the ability ferent quantitatively (i.e., big), but also qualitatively. ing up or winding down. The drawings strongly recall to see us without being seen. In Specters of Marx, But there is no real sense of scale because the city Giorgio de Chirico’s dramatic use of light and per- Derrida describes the ghost of the dead king Hamlet itself remains an abstraction. Hilberseimer himself spective, which Hilberseimer described as “primitive” speaking from behind the visor of his helmet; the stated that the proposals should not be taken as de- and “elementary”—concepts that he wrote of in mask serves as a prosthetic for the incorporeal spirit.27 signs for a city. According to Hilberseimer, his projects relation to his own architecture. In a 1921 art review The windows of the Hochhausstadt produce the same are “theoretical examinations and a schematic appli- he describes the “magical” relationship between past effect, offering neither reflection nor transparency. cation of the elements from which a city builds itself. and future evoked by de Chirico’s paintings: The buildings seem abandoned, but we feel that they It is a stipulation of their relationships to one another. look back at us. An attempt to make possible a more economic forma- To us contemporaries the primitive central per- This ghostly effect of Hilberseimer’s archi- tion of a city organism through the new organization spective, as de Chirico in particular uses it, has an tecture is part of what I refer to as “spectral.” It and use of these elements.”20 Referring to himself in elementary effect. The question here, however, is the product of a series of absences or displace- the third person, he writes “the plan, developed by is that of mimicry, which is nevertheless very ef- ments—partial objects or figures, mood and affect, Ludwig Hilberseimer, for a city for around 1 million in- fective in contrast to today’s geometric painting. dissonances in space or time, and a decentering of habitants, which constructs itself out of its elements, The heavy, artificially darkened coloring that subjectivity—that renders objects animate and sub- attempts to realize this demand for a model purely magically lights up from the geometric shapes jects inanimate. Hilberseimer’s city is spectral—in its theoretically and without any intentions of design.”21 have an effect that is geheimnisvoll (mysterious). relationship to history, in its construction of a social The city, it would seem, is constructing itself. For all of their archaism these paintings neverthe- body, and in its construction of a subject. Manfredo less do not lack Americanisms, mechanical dolls, Tafuri described as “allegorical” this city’s combina-

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 Spectral Time and Revolution stereometric figures of curious construction, that tion of rational laws and metaphysical excesses, each Critics frequently comment on the emptiness also bring the present into tension. Through this of which undermine the other: of Hilberseimer’s city, even if urban schemes from mixture of heterogeneous elements this strange, this period were rarely shown filled with crowds, ad- fantastical bizarreness materializes, which is The heavy “presence” of the metropolitan or- vertisements, or traffic. Automobiles and figures are perhaps what constitutes the very fascination of ganization is mirrored in the “absence” of the depicted in Hilberseimer’s renderings, but the feeling these images. The magically conjured past serves forms that give it body. . . . In Hilberseimer the is nevertheless that of a ghost town. Hilberseimer’s to support modernistic speculations.23 abstraction is “double”: it has a value per se, “necropolis” evokes not just a future city but also a and it suggests something else. The urban the- ruin of the past. What is especially relevant here is a description of orem, in search of a law, immerses itself in the The spectral qualities in Hilberseimer’s work the ability of the paintings to evoke an ambiguous hermetic space that marks the border between are especially evident in his 1924 renderings of the temporality.24 The uncanny effects described in de asceticism and metaphysics: only “metaphysi-

FABRICIUS 43 cally” can the law be achieved, and this renders empty the phrases that designate the law.28

The spectral is a hollow, irrational force that constantly undermines the seeming rationality of Hil- berseimer’s city. The question that remains is whether it also undermines its material basis and real social context, rendering it impotent to enact change. Ghostliness and the spectral were already persistent themes in nineteenth-century bourgeois culture, when advances in technology paradoxically gave rise to an increase in cultist behavior such as séances and spirit photography. The “miraculous” effects of film and photography later found their way into the surrealist and Dadaist works of Hil- berseimer’s contemporaries.29 This occult side of Figure 8. Ludwig Hilberseimer, “Hochhausstadt,” 1924. Detail from perspective drawing. nineteenth-century urban culture would have still been a recent phenomenon for Hilberseimer. Nine- teenth-century Europe also was the scene for one of differs from the “revolutionary” time of modernism: not consist in undoing this opposition, or even the most famous evocations of the ghostly—Marx’s “Haunting is historical, to be sure, but it is not dated, this dialectic, between actual, effective pres- Communist Manifesto of 1848, which begins with it is never docilely given a date in the chain of pres- ence and its other.34 the famous lines: ents, day after day, according to the instituted order of a calendar. Untimely, it does not come to, it does The “spectrality effect” of Hilberseimer’s work, A spectre is haunting Europe—the spectre of not happen to, it does not befall, one day, Europe.”31 if we follow Derrida, would indicate that the ques- Communism. All the powers of old Europe have In light of Hilberseimer’s project, this would tion of linear history and its redemption become entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spec- suggest several urban temporalities: a past haunting irrelevant. tre . . . It is high time that Communists should the future, an unheimlich (unhomely) presence in the What are the political consequences of this? openly, in the face of the whole world, publish present, or the future haunting the present.32 These The Groszstadt was loosely conceived within a social- their views, their aims, their tendencies, and models of “time out of joint” sets Hilberseimer’s ist framework, yet seemingly without investment in meet this nursery tale of the Spectre of Commu- project apart from the naïve futurity of most urban an ideal revolutionary future, which is perhaps what nism with a Manifesto of the party itself.30 schemes of the 1920s. Hilberseimer’s process of makes it seem gloomy when compared to other proj- repetition, whereby his schemes constantly process ects from the period. When or how Hilberseimer’s While in the beginning of this essay we saw how through past ones, reinforces the notion that this is city would come about is left unanswered. Hilber- Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 for Marx the old order “vaporizes” under capitalism’s not the city of the future, but of multiple temporali- seimer seems as interested in stability as he does in internal pressure, here there is the reverse process— ties.33 This, according to Derrida, is one of the quali- change: caught in the revolutionary momentum of all that is spectral becomes solid. The specter arrives ties of spectrality: Weimar Germany on the one hand, but simultane- as a spirit from the past haunting the present, but ously seeking a return to order, a solution to the once Communism ceases to be just a “fairy tale” it If there is something like spectrality, there are excesses that threatened to destabilize the already becomes corporeal and real. Derrida discusses this reasons to doubt (the) reassuring order of pres- precarious sovereignty of the state. paradox in Specters of Marx, likening the specter to ents. . . . Before knowing whether one can dif- Is Hilberseimer’s city thus to be read as mere a foreign presence that has always “occupied the do- ferentiate between the specter of the past and apparition, a simulation of the real detached from mesticity of Europe” like a ghost haunting a house. the specter of the future . . . one must perhaps political processes? Michael Hays has similarly Derrida evokes an atemporal historical model that ask oneself whether the spectrality effect does argued that the repetition and reproduction found in

44 WHO’S AFRAID OF LUDWIG HILBERSEIMER? Hilberseimer’s work, the loss of origin and referent, is tom public sphere indicate public places that have these suspended walkways could foster some sort evidence of such a process of simulation.35 Spectral- been voided of people (spaces without actors), or of street life, albeit one of relentless linearity. What ity, with its associations of projection, deception, and a people without a place? One clue may lie in the is notably absent is a square, plaza, or other gather- repetition—the ghost as revenement (returning)— notion of the “phantasmagoria,” a construction of ing place. While one could argue that the vehicular could conceivably be read this way. However, one of “phantasm” and “agora.”40 With this term we return streets below could possibly be the scene of pro- the more important observations made by Derrida is once again to a nineteenth-century preoccupation cessions or parades, there are no spaces for monu- that the specter is not merely a simulacrum. Even if it with ghostly matters. The same bourgeois culture ments, gatherings, idleness, or protest. After all, resembles the body of the deceased, it is still some- that Jürgen Habermas identified as having produced Hilberseimer frequently warns us of the “ungeheuere thing entirely unheimlich, not of this world, and thus the public sphere also created the technologically Menschenmassen” (immense masses of people) that beyond the limits of representation. It is not just enhanced notion of the phantasmagoria. Moreover, would accumulate in the metropolis of the future.41 more (or less) of the same; not just the absence of a the same communications media that contributed to There is no room for crowds, for the forms of public body, with a ghostly remnant appearing in some sad the creation of the public sphere were used in the life that only exist when there is a place of accumula- state of perpetual unsuccessful mourning. There is production of popular spectral entertainment. Could tion as opposed to movement. In Hilberseimer’s city, also the addition of something altogether other, with it be that the spectral has always been part of the one must constantly be in motion. a menacing potentiality like Marx’s specter. To read mechanism of representation that is part and parcel We saw that in Hilberseimer’s Hochhausstadt Hilberseimer’s city as spectral is not to suggest that of what is considered “the public sphere”? this is reinforced by the strict separation, and man- it lacks political content, but rather that it is open to Like Hilberseimer’s city, the phantasm as agora agement, of public and private forms of life such that a different set of political possibilities. is simultaneously an image of a utopia and its disil- the city is organized around the exigencies of capital lusion. The first thing we notice when we look at and production, not civic government. If there is a The Spectral Public almost any urban proposal by Hilberseimer is open- public in Hilberseimer, where would it reside? In the In 1925, one year after the publication of Gro- ness, the space of the street and the exterior, not narrow stratum between habitation and work, where szstadtarchitektur, the American journalist Walter the domain of the private individual. But it is an we are located as the observer in the perspective Lippmann published The Phantom Public.36 If for Derri- openness without actors, without the spaces of sub- drawings of the city? Hilberseimer describes a city da the specter is a symptom of time being out of joint, jectivity necessary for a public sphere. The spectrality that seems to tell us that the public sphere has al- for Lippmann it is used to describe a mythical condition of Hilberseimer’s city refers not just to its historical ready been lost. in the present. Lippmann uses the term “phantom” indeterminism, but also to the production of its own to indicate both the illusion that a public subject phantom public. Hilberseimer’s work is absent of The Spectral Subject exists, and the quality of that public as only partially representational or symbolic spaces that produce a What is the status of the subject in this spectral represented. The disenchanted citizen “knows that his public or a people. Hilberseimer rejects this form of city? There are two ways to approach this question. sovereignty is a fiction” and “lives in a world he cannot civic life and instead offers a representation of the The first concerns the subject who perceives the ar- see or direct.”37 The public is represented only partially, immaterial flows of capital. This, he seems to insist, chitectural object. The second, which is not necessarily for “modern society is not visible to anybody, nor intel- is a more realistic representation of politics in the isolated from the first, concerns the subject construct- ligible continuously and as a whole.”38 Thus instead modern metropolis. ed and represented by architecture. Michael Hays has Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 of appearing at the scene of the political “in person” One of the most notorious attributes of Hil- argued that Hilberseimer’s work is produced by and the public appears as a specter. This phantom public berseimer’s proposal is his treatment of the street for a “posthumanist” subject—that is, the human- is the ghost of Hobbes’ body politic—a fragmented, (Figure 9). With its vertical separation from vehicular ist subject is no longer at the center of the cognitive disorganized body, neither fully corporeal nor spiritual. traffic the pedestrian street becomes pure sidewalk, reception of architecture as “experience” detached Like a ghost, it observes but cannot act on the material hovering at the considerable height of five stories from history or context, but is instead displaced, de- world, its ghostliness a form of impotence. over the traffic below. We are told by Hilberseimer centered, and unable to separate itself from the mael- More recently, the question of the phantom that the sidewalks are lined with shops and restau- strom of history and society.42 Indeed for Hilberseimer, public has been discussed in terms of the notion of rants, but this is difficult to envision. The strangeness architecture not attached to the demands of industry, a “phantom public sphere.”39 If the public sphere of the proposal does not necessarily stem from an economy, and society was “cult-religious,” while suggests both a place and a people, does a phan- absence of streets, for one can imagine that even Groszstadtarchitektur was “the expression of a new

FABRICIUS 45 awareness for life that is not subjective and individual, but objective and collective.”43 This posthumanism, according to Hays, involves an “immersion in particu- larity,” or the subject “giving itself over to the object.” The notion of the subject becoming an object was a strong theme in Neue Sachlichkeit painting, in which life, machines, and objects are rendered with equally mechanical precision such that they take on a shared ontological status. This was extended to the process of painting itself: Neue Sachlichkeit painters sought to remove any traces of brush strokes or naturalism from their canvases, preferring to work in their studios and 44 producing urban scenes from memory. Hilberseimer’s Figure 9. Ludwig Hilberseimer, “Hochhausstadt,” 1924. Detail from perspective drawing. drawings are similarly characterized by a precise, ma- chined quality in which any trace of a hand is absent.45 trace of context and history, creating “a self-gener- modern urban subject, one which perhaps arrives at a Hilberseimer’s work approaches what Hays calls “fac- ating model that obeys only its own logic.”50 different understanding of Hilberseimer’s city. Hilber- tural indexicality”—a direct trace or registration of the For Hays, this quality in Hilberseimer is evi- seimer’s serious work as an art critic between 1919 materials and processes of reproduction, which gener- dence for a process of simulation, in which the refer- and 1925, when he wrote for several publications and ates a representation “without authorial mediation.”46 ent drops out, severing a direct relationship to the had a regular column in Sozialistische Monatshefte, The author, in that sense, becomes spectral. In scenes real. However, rather than tying the work to the would have given him great familiarity with the art of of Hilberseimer’s city there seems to no longer be a problem of mimesis within a closed system, it may be his time. Hilberseimer wrote on most of the leading subject intervening in what is an apparently automatic useful to “open” the project by returning once again avant-garde movements in Germany and in neighbor- process of serial reproduction. Rosalind Krauss could to its ghostly quality of incomplete representation, or ing countries, including Dada, Constructivism, Ex- be describing Hilberseimer when she writes of Sol to the excess of meanings released by the process of pressionism, De Stijl, and the return of Neoclassicism; LeWitt: “to get inside the system of this work . . . is repetition. The critical question is not, as Hays later many artists were included in his circle of friends.52 precisely to enter a world without a center, a world of suggests, one of authenticity and inauthenticity, Neue Sachlichkeit in the context of architecture is substitutions and transpositions nowhere legitimated which is another derivative of the question of source often synonymous with Neues Bauen—but this was by the revelations of a transcendental subject.”47 and simulation. In arguing that Weimar culture is only a small part of a much larger cultural move- This would correspond to Hilberseimer’s in- authentic precisely because it is inauthentic, Hays ment.53 The term “Neue Sachlichkeit” was coined and terpretation of the notion of Kunstwollen, whereby perhaps overemphasizes its sober, disenchanted made popular by Gustav Hartlaub, then the director architecture arises out of a collective economic will qualities at the expense of more fully exploring the of the Mannheim Kunsthalle, who in 1923 began which is brought into form. For Hilberseimer archi- ambiguity and unease of a period “dominated by organizing the exhibition Neue Sachlichkeit: Deutsche tecture becomes the Sichtbarmachen, Realisierung, Malerei Seit dem Expressionismus (New Objectivity:

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 spooks, imitators, [and] remote-controlled ego ma- Formwerden (“making visible, realizing, becoming chines.”51 While it is crucial to rescue Hilberseimer German Painting After Expressionism), which opened form”) of social conditions.48 However, when Hilber- from the easy humanist critique that brands his work in 1925.54 The artists participating in the traveling ex- seimer argues that Groszstadtarchitektur is an ar- as totalitarian, it seems just as easy to locate him hibition included Georg Schrimpf, Alexander Kanoldt, chitecture that “reveals the form of today’s relevant firmly within the bosom of an idealized historical Max Beckmann, Otto Dix, and Georg Grosz.55 In the economic system”49 one wonders if it is perhaps less avant-garde. When Hays refers generally to “the cog- same year, the critic Franz Roh, who had collaborated an index of “real” economic processes, which are nitive project of Neue Sachlichkeit” he perhaps too on the preparation for the Mannheim exhibition, clearly more complex and “dirty,” than an idealized quickly gives unity to a movement that was as full of published Post-Expressionism: Magic Realism: Prob- representation of the abstraction that makes labor, contradictions as Weimar Germany itself. lems of the Most Recent European Painting (Figure money, and production—in short, flows of capital— A closer look at the paintings of New Objectiv- 10).56 While both “objectivity” and “magic realism” possible. In his drawings Hilberseimer removes all ity provide us with a slightly different proposal for a refer to the same movement, they reveal a polarity

46 WHO’S AFRAID OF LUDWIG HILBERSEIMER? that transcends right- and left-wing politics, geog- raphy, and style. Neue Sachlichkeit had no single political ideology or center; it was thus in many ways representative of the political diversity (and tension) of Weimar Germany. What is perhaps most significant in this work is the new status of the object. In the art of Neue Sachlichkeit, objects and subjects (a man and a machine, for example), and industrially fabricated objects and natural objects (a plumbing elbow or the stem of a flower) are given the same status. This does not mean that objects are anthropomor- phized, but, more radically, that subjects are given the status of objects. This expresses what Giorgio de Chirico had said in his own discourse on painting: “every thing, even a human being, is seen as only an object.”57 The “Verist” wing of New Objectiv- Figure 10. Franz Roh, Nach-expressionismus; magischer Realismus: Probleme der neuesten Europäischen Malerei (Leipzig: Klinkhardt & Biermann, 1925). ity, which included Otto Dix and Georg Grosz, was centered around Berlin (where Hilberseimer was also tive rationality and residues of irrationalities of expres- terial plays itself out in the precision of the rendered based). The wing known as the “Magical Realists” sionistic and national imprint.”61 In these paintings scene and its simultaneous emptiness. came mostly from the south and were influenced “there is no past or future, and the world is strange This brings us to the question of the subject by the pittura metafisica movement of de Chirico, and uncanny.”62 Here we return once again to the that is actually represented. The Hochhausstadt is Carlo Carrá, Giorgio Morandi, and Mario Sironi. The uncanny temporality of the spectral. Hilberseimer’s populated with bodies. Hilberseimer shows small “magic” in “Magical Realism” is not meant to sug- proposals for cities are routinely described as utopian black figures in silhouette, clustered in groups of two gest something mystical or ideal, but the presence of or dystopian, but perhaps the notion of the uncanny or three, spread evenly across the scene. One level an irrational (one could say uncanny) element. Ac- present, and an ambivalence towards progress, best below them cars appear in a similar manner, atom- cording to Franz Roh, “‘Magic,’ as opposed to ‘mys- explains Hilberseimer’s position within modernism ized into the wide expanse of the street. The figures, tical’ indicates that the mystery does not enter the and in relation to utopianism. Hilberseimer’s sparse the cars, the windows, and the urban plan all reveal a represented world, but hides behind it.”58 Magic can realism, it seems, was arrived at following the exhaus- logic of maximum, even dispersion, an atmosphere of be understood less as a surface effect than part of tion of a succession of utopian artistic movements contingency without coherence. Air has entered the the mechanics of representation operating “behind” beginning with Expressionism.63 Even if Hilberseimer city, and threatens to dissolve it completely. These the world. had more contact with the Berlin circle of Neue Sa- atoms of subjectivity—the individual body, the in- Neue Sachlichkeit was at times referred to as chlichkeit, his method of rendering the city is more dividual apartment, the car—are organized without Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 post-Expressionism; as such it rejected the utopia- closely aligned with de Chirico and the painters of hierarchy in a space poised between the density of nism of Expressionism.59 Hilberseimer himself de- Magical Realism who, unlike the Berlin school, did not masses representative of the nineteenth century scribed Expressionism as “pure escapism” (“vollkom- show the anxiety of Weimar urban life in the form of (the “thick” masses of worker housing, factories, or mener Weltflucht”), and by contrast praised the the grotesque, but rather as a sublimated and hollow organized protest), and the total dissolution of those “Verist” paintings of Otto Dix as marked by both force. Hilberseimer had written in the review of de masses into a gaseous, dematerialized form. The “microscopic precision” and “dream-like vision.”60 Chirico’s work that in the paintings the “magically bodies in Hilberseimer seem to barely stick to one According to Sergiusz Michalski, Neue Sachlich- evoked past serves to support modernistic specula- another, as if under the pressure of an irresistible, keit “was ultimately a mirror of German society of that tion.”64 Hilberseimer’s urban scenes share this quality expansionary force. Hilberseimer represents a solitary time, split between the will to absolute modernity and of the uncanny lurking beneath the surface of modern subject that is typical and anonymous, yet organized the simultaneous fear of it, between sober and objec- realism. The dialectic between the material and imma- into the mechanisms of the city.

FABRICIUS 47 This subject—the typical urban dweller—ap- pears with frequency in the work of Anton Räders- cheidt (1892­–1970), a Cologne painter whose work in many ways epitomized the contradictions of Neue Sachlichkeit (Figure 11).65 The work of Räderscheidt in particular shows great affinity with the urban scenes proposed by Hilberseimer.66 Räderscheidt’s paintings not only portray a Hilberseimerian urban subject, but, perhaps more significantly, portrays the mood of the uncanny, the partial presence of the subject, the combination of the rational and irratio- nal, that permeates Hilberseimer’s work. By 1921 Räderscheidt began a series of paintings that de- picted still, doll-like figures, either alone or in pairs, usually dressed in black suits, which seemed to hover in more than inhabit flat urban landscapes. What strikes one immediately is the resemblance between Räderscheidt’s urban landscapes and those of Hil- berseimer.67 These are not the exuberant glass con- fections of the Expressionists, nor do they resemble the houses of pre-war Cologne, but rather are build- ings without reference to either a past or a future. In one painting, “Das Haus Nr. 9” (1921) (Figure 12), Räderscheidt’s own house at Hildeboldplatz 9, which had an ornate neoclassical façade, is shown erased of all historical reference and only identified by the number 9. The door of the house is a gaping black hole. One critic at the time described the painting as follows: “The figures stand in the shoreless limits and cold order of their environment, at orthogonal street corners, as lost as lanterns in daylight, mute and detached. The lethargy of neutrality arises out of the perfectly-straight-edged floor plan, applied as Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 smoothly as linoleum.”68 Other paintings, such as “Begegnung” (Encoun- ter) (1921) (Figure 13), “Junger Mann mit gelben Handschuhen” (Young man with yellow gloves) (1921), and “Mann mit steifem Hut” (Man with stiff hat) (1922) (Figure 14) show similar buildings without qualities, drawn as if using a stencil, in a sparse, drab style. This architecture, which too bears an uncanny resemblance to that of Hilberseimer, serves as a neutral backdrop to the equally neutral figures. As Günter Figure 11. “August Sander,” Anton Räderscheidt, 1927.

48 WHO’S AFRAID OF LUDWIG HILBERSEIMER? Figure 12. Anton Räderscheidt, ”Das Haus Nr. 9,” 1921. Figure 13. Anton Räderscheidt, “Begegnung (Encounter),” 1921 Figure 14. Anton Räderscheidt, “Mann mit steifem (Man with Stiff Hat),” 1922.

Herzog describes “Begegnung”: “In this key painting, Economic calculation subsumes both humans and ar- seimer evokes the “physics” of Marx’s revolutionary the people, the man and the woman, stand facing chitecture; both become reduced to standard typolo- model—the transition from a solid to a gaseous one another like two anonymous, typological modern gies. The austerity of the work of both Räderscheidt state—and with it the changes that would befall houses, where the merciless rationality of the archi- and Hilberseimer emerges from a critique of those the bourgeois city of early capitalism. Similarly, he tecture contends with the merciless irrationality of the conditions of objectification, but also from a com- evokes Marx’s “metaphysics”—the category of the situation.”69 The comparison between standard archi- mitment to austerity itself as an alternative to deca- spectral and the disturbances to temporality, history, tectural typologies and standard human typologies is dence. The paintings of Magical Realism offer a way and presence that it brings. Hilberseimer’s city still not so far off. In numerous self-portraits, Räderscheidt of understanding the impetus behind Hilberseimer’s raises the question of whether it represents a more fashions himself as the prototypical, generic modern representational language and how it might have been abstract, and thus efficient, form of capitalism, or if urban man—“the man with the stiff hat”—and his received at the time. To conceive of Hilberseimer’s portrays capitalism pushed to an irrational limit, to wife as the prototypical woman.70 Figures in Räders- work within the either-or of utopia or dystopia is to the point where it “steams” away into entropy. Thus cheidt’s paintings are represented in a primitive, stiff deny its ability to both represent real conditions and we hesitate to call the project utopian, for it appears manner, like wooden dolls, in pairs but utterly de- leave space for alternatives. Like Räderscheidt’s art to already contain the anxiety of its own realization. tached from one another, “like two magnets repelling it demonstrates how objectivity and magic can exist one another, in opposite polar fields.”71 within the space of the same painting. Notes Räderscheidt’s figures never confront or face Hilberseimer’s is a rare architectural project that 1. Hilberseimer became a strong critic of his early work beginning in Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 1959, when his approach to the city took a decidedly humanist turn. In a one another, whether it is two men in a street, or a is able to represent the destructive and anxious pro- 1959 interview Hilberseimer said of his 1924 Hochhausstadt: “It is more a husband and wife in a domestic scene; the possibility cesses of modernization without glossing them over city for corpses than for living people.” “Profile: Ludwig K. Hilberseimer,” of dialogue and true encounter has been evacuated. with a naïve modernism. It is a project in which these Der Aufbau 14 (March 1959): 107–10. In 1963 Hilberseimer continues to do penance in Entfaltung einer Planungsidee, in which he reflects The figures do not relate to one another as subjects two categories can be seen in relation to, and often on his life work, stating “I had to discover that man is more important to subjects, but as subjects to objects or even objects out of synch with, one another. Sometimes we think than technics. This purpose of technic is to serve man not rule him. to objects. If there were a relation between the two we are seeing a projective vision for a future city My ideas, therefore, had to change, and I began to think of his human it seems it would be in the purely economic realm of that is leaps and bounds ahead of actual material environment.” Originally written in English. (Berlin: Verlag Ullstein [Bauwelt Fundamente 6], 1963), 147. Hilbersimer’s postwar work was exchange. Like Räderscheidt, Hilberseimer presents a processes. At other times we think we see a call for criticized several times in the pages of Progressive Architecture from 1945 world in which the urban inhabitant is indistinguish- a return to order in the midst of Weimar Germany’s through 1957 as being too “abstract.” The Hochhausstadt came under able from the material processes that define the city. destructive and chaotic modernization. Hilber- attack by Peter Blake in Form Follows Fiasco (Boston: Little, Brown and

FABRICIUS 49 Company, 1977) and by Josef Paul Kleihues, “Zeile oder Block?” Neue rationalist architects, including Aldo Rossi and Oswald Mathias Ungers, 21. Ibid. Heimat, no. 11 (1978): 29. In 1984 Joseph Rykwert described the project whose work is discussed in Martin’s book. 22. Markus Kilian, Großstadtarchitektur und New City: Eine as “barren, gloomy, and menacing.” Joseph Rykwert, “Die Stadt unter 7. Rosalind Krauss, “LeWitt in Progress,” in The Originality of the Avant- Planungsmethodische Untersuchung der Stadtplanungsmodelle Ludwig dem Strich: Eine Bilanz,” Modelle für eine Stadt (Berlin: Schriftenreihe Garde and Other Modernist Myths (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1986), 245–58. Hilberseimers, Doctoral dissertation, Universität Karlsruhe (Technische zur Internationalen Bauaustellung Berlin, 1984), 126. The Hochhausstadt 8. Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts Into Air: The Experience of Hochschule), 2002. was also attacked by contemporary critics like the Berlin art historian Modernity (London: Penguin Books, 1988 [1982]) 23. Ludwig Hilberseimer, “Valori Plastici,” in Sozialistische Monatshefte Max Deri (“When one sees these constructions, blood may congeal, and 9. Groszstadtarchitektur is a 108-page illustrated book that is in (1921), Jg. 27, Bd. II, 629–30. My translation. marrow freeze in [the] bones”). Max Deri, “Novembergruppe,” Berliner some ways more about Architektur than the Stadt. The first 20 pages 24. In a review of Otto Dix’s work just several months later Hilberseimer Zeitung am Abend, Beiblatt, June 6, 1925. Hugo Häring stated that he are devoted to the subject of the “Großstadt” and “Städtebau” (city is less enthusiastic about the Valori Plastici paintings, and specifically was “appalled” by Hilberseimer’s results. Hugo Häring, “Zwei Städte,” planning). The rest of the book is organized by different architectural criticizes their “historicism” and “artificial antiquation.” “Berliner Die Form 1 (1926): 172–75. For criticism before 1981 see David Spaeth, typologies (housing, commercial buildings, high-rise buildings, industrial Ausstellungen,” Sozialistische Monatshefte (1921), Jg. 27, Bd. II, 1001. Ludwig Karl Hilberseimer: An Annotated Bibliography and Chronology buildings, etc.), which are discussed in relationship to the metropolis. 25. This lack of color is, according to Hilberseimer, entirely deliberate and (New York: Garland Publishing, 1981). Deri and Häring are cited in It is only in the last pages (in a section called “Groszstadtarchitektur”) befitting of the modern city after Expressionism: “The haze that floats Richard Pommer, In the Shadow of Mies: Ludwig Hilberseimer: Architect, that Hilberseimer returns again to the city itself. Ludwig Hilberseimer, over every city chases away color and makes the base color of all cities an Educator, and Urban Planner (Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 1988). Groszstadtarchitektur (Stuttgart: Julius Hoffmann, 1927). All translations indeterminate grey.”Hilberseimer, Groszstadtarchitektur (note 9), 102. Nevertheless, just as Hilberseimer’s project was being discredited from this book are mine. 26. Hilberseimer’s bare mask-like facades can be compared to his it was “rediscovered” by leftist Italian critics and historians in the 1960s, 10. Hilberseimer, Groszstadtarchitektur (note 9), 1. criticism of the “classicist game of masks” in the “dummy facades” of including Manfredo Tafuri, Vittorio Gregotti, Giorgio Grassi, Aldo Rossi, 11. Ibid., 1–2. American architects like McKim, Mead & White and Daniel Burnham. He and Marco de Michaelis. See, for instance, Rassenga no. 27, “Ludwig 12. “Dematerialization” is a broad term that can be applied in several regarded this architecture as the architectural expression of the “growing Hilberseimer 1885/1967” (Sept. 1986). Italian translations of Hilber- spheres. In economics it refers to the substitution of physical objects trustification and monopolization of production” and the “change seimer’s books began appearing in the 1960s, beginning with Un’ Idea di or money by abstract monetary instruments like credit or electronic from industrial to financial economy” (“Amerikanische Architektur,” Piano, trans. Sonia Gessner (Venice: Marsilio, 1967). transfers of funds. In architecture it is most often used metaphorically Sozialistische Monatshefte (1926), Jg. 32, 276. My translation. 2. Quoted in Richard Pommer, In the Shadow of Mies (note 1), 17. to describe glass, but it has also been used to characterize the turn to 27. Jacques Derrida, Specters of Marx: The State of the Debt, the Work of The major English-language monograph on Hilberseimer shows clear conceptual architectural practices in the 1970s. See Bernard Tschumi, Mourning, and the New International (London: Routledge, 1994), 8. disdain for its subject, which is already evident in its title. English- “The Architectural Paradox” (1975) in K. Michael Hays, ed., Architecture 28. Manfredo Tafuri, The Sphere and the Labyrinth: Avant-Gardes and language scholarship on Hilberseimer has been comparatively sparse, Theory Since 1968 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998), 218–28. This meaning Architecture from Piranesi to the 1970s, trans. Pellegrino d’Acierno and though that may change with the recent publication of a translation of is likely borrowed from art criticism: Lucy Lippard used the term to Robert Connolly (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987), 221–22. Groszstadtarchitektur. Metropolisarchitecture and Selected Essays (New describe conceptual art practices that “dematerialized” the “art object” 29. An example is Hans Richter’s 1927 film Vormittagsspuk (Ghosts York: GSAPP Books, 2012). by placing emphasis on concept or process. Lucy Lippard, Six Years: Before Breakfast), which Hilberseimer was likely familiar with. Richter, 3. The significance of Hilberseimer’s work as a diagrammatic The Dematerialization of the Art Object from 1966 to 1972 (Berkeley: who was a friend of Hilberseimer’s, used primitive special effects like representation of capitalism and an accomplished example of rational University of California Press, 1997 [1973]). stop-motion and reversal of the film to produce an abstract narrative of architecture was similarly defended by Italian architects and historians 13. Marx plays with the similar-sounding words “ständisch” and inanimate objects including clocks and hats that move according to their in the 1960s, especially Manfredo Tafuri. Recently, perhaps related “stehend.” “Ständisch” refers to the traditional notion of “Stand”—class, own will, and against that of the humans that surround them. to scholarship on the neo-rational architecture of the 1970s, new position, or rank. “Stehend” means “standing.” Thus the phrase translates 30. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, trans. assessments of Hilberseimer’s work have begun to emerge. See, e.g., Pier literally into the slightly less poetic “all that is class-based and standing Samuel Moore (1888; London: Penguin Books, 1967), 218. Vittorio Aureli, “Architecture for Barbarians: Ludwig Hilberseimer and the vaporizes.” In other words, the old corporative order based on privilege 31. Derrida, Specters (note 27), 3. Rise of the Generic City,” AA Files 63 (2011): 3-18. dissolves in the mechanism of industrial production itself (i.e., steam). 32. Reinhold Martin describes ghosts in terms of “boundary problems”: 4. The “homely,” in one definition quoted by Freud, is a place “free from 14. According to Berman, this destructive change would also dissolve as figures of projection that “rearrange” the past, present, and future but ghostly influences.” Sigmund Freud, “The ‘Uncanny’,” inThe Standard the city: “the pathos of all bourgeois monuments is that their material also as bridges between spaces that exist and those that do not. Utopian Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, trans. strength and solidity actually count for nothing and carry no weight at projection is thus tied to the concept of the spectral. Martin, Utopia’s James Strachey (London: Hogarth Press, 1955), 225. For more on all, and that they are blown away like frail reeds by the very forces of Ghost (note 6), 147–49. architecture and the uncanny, see Anthony Vidler, The Architectural capitalist development that they celebrate.” Berman, All That Is Solid 33. This is also suggested in the irrepressible classicism of Hilberseimer’s Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 Uncanny: Essays in the Modern Unhomely (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992). (note 8), 99. urban schemes. This is especially apparent in his early architectural 5. Freud is describing Otto Rank’s concept of the “double.” Freud, 15. A similar reading was proposed by Manfredo Tafuri. In Tafuri’s reading, drawings, which resemble the Heimatstil of Heinrich Tessenow. “Uncanny” (note 4), 235. the architectural object in Hilberseimer’s work is “completely dissolved,” Hilberseimer was also influenced by the neoclassical architecture of his 6. The role of the spectral in postmodern architecture, especially in and the architect is no longer the “producer of objects” but an organizer teacher Josef Durm. See Pommer, In the Shadow of Mies (note 1), 22. relationship to utopia, has recently been examined in Reinhold Martin’s of cycles of production. Manfredo Tafuri, Architecture and Utopia: Design 34. Derrida, Specters (note 27), 48. Utopia’s Ghost: Architecture and Postmodernism, Again (Minneapolis: and Capitalist Development, trans. Barbara Luigia la Penta (Cambridge: 35. K. Michael Hays, Modernism and the Posthumanist Subject: The University of Minnesota Press, 2010). While in Hilberseimer’s city a MIT Press, 1976), 104–08. Architecture of Hannes Meyer and Ludwig Hilberseimer (Cambridge: MIT premonition of spectral capitalism is evident, in Martin’s postmodernism it 16. Hilberseimer, Groszstadtarchitektur (note 9), 18. Press, 1995), 180. is fully manifest, appearing architecturally both in the “hollow” facades of 17. Ibid., 19. 36. Walter Lippmann, The Phantom Public (Piscataway, New Jersey: neo-rationalist architecture, and in the mirrored curtain walls of corporate 18. Ibid. Transaction Publishers, 1993 [1925]). Similar treatises were also written architecture. According to Martin, “the eternal return of repressed utopian 19. Bruno Taut, Die Auflösung der Städte; oder, die Erde eine Gute in Germany at the time, describing a crisis in the effectiveness of future, haunts postmodernism and to some extent defines it” (xxi). The Wohnung (Hagen: Folkwang, 1920). democratically-elected governments. See Bruce Robbins, “Introduction: formal language of Ludwig Hilberseimer was appropriated by several neo- 20. Hilberseimer, Groszstadtarchitektur (note 9), 20. The Public as Phantom,” in Bruce Robbins, ed., The Phantom Public

50 WHO’S AFRAID OF LUDWIG HILBERSEIMER? Sphere (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993). representing a “hatred of imagination” and “hostility to utopia.” Bloch 37. Lippmann, Phantom Public (note 36), 4–5. saw the movement as regressive: “the fascination of the formal rigidity 38. Ibid., 32. still corresponds to the delight of capital when it is establishing itself.” 39. The term is derived from both Lippmann and Jürgen Habermas’s Quoted in Emilio Bertonati, “Neue Sachlichkeit in a Wider Cultural “public sphere.” See Robbins, The Phantom Public Sphere (note 26); Context,” German Realism of the Twenties: The Artist as Social Critic Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: (Minneapolis: The Minneapolis Institute of Arts, 1980), 58. An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. Thomas Burger 60. Ludwig Hilberseimer, “Von der Wirkung des Krieges auf die Kunst,” (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1989). Sozialistische Monatshefte (1923) Jg. 29, 730-732. 731. Ludwig 40. Robbins, Phantom Public Sphere (note 26). Hilberseimer, “Dix,” Sozialistische Monatshefte (1924) Jg. 30, 66. 41. Hilberseimer, Groszstadtarchitektur (note 9). 61. Sergiusz Michalski, Neue Sachlichkeit (Cologne: Taschen, 1992), 13. 42. Hays, Modernism and the Posthumanist Subject (note 35). My translation. 43. Hilberseimer, Groszstadtarchitektur (note 9), 98. 62. Beate Reese, “Zeitnah Weltfern,” in Zeitnah Weltfern: Bilder der 44. Wieland Schmied, “Neue Sachlichkeit and the German Realism of the Neuen Sachlichkeit (Würzburg: Städtische Galerie Würzburg, 1998), 10. Twenties,” in Neue Sachlichkeit and German Realism of the Twenties: 63. By 1924 Hilberseimer was critical of what he saw as the descent Hayward Gallery, London, 11 November 1978–14 January 1979 (London: of the avant-garde art into kitsch. For instance: “No poster, no bar, no Arts Council of Great Britain, 1978). cinema or theater without Expressionism or Constructivism. It seems as if 45. Compare this to Hilberseimer’s writing on Constructivism: “The purity is perceived to be boring. One thus escapes behind all manner of machine makes possible the most exact execution, and thus corresponds decoration, dabbles in mysticism and primitivism.” Ludwig Hilberseimer, completely to the compositions of the present, which strive for the most “Kitsch,” Sozialistische Monatshefte (1925): 781. Or: “Today the square unveiled clarity. Exceptional objectivity, mathematical clarity, geometric is the object of kitschification. At least some do it with taste; most out rigor, and exact constructiveness are not only technical but also of the banal need to have been a part of it. From the Bauhaus to the eminent artistic problems. They make up what is truly significant in our smallest ‘revolutionary’ want-to-be painter today everything is done as a epoch.” Ludwig Hilberseimer, “Konstruktuvismus” (1922), Sozialistische square.” Ludwig Hilberseimer, “Raumgestaltung” (1924), Jg. 30, 65–66. Monatshefte Jg. 28, Bd. II, 831-832. My translation. 64. Hilberseimer, “Valori Plastici” (note 23), 629. 46. A term he uses in reference to Hannes Meyer’s work. Hays, 65. Räderscheidt was included both in Hartlaub’s Mannheim exhibition Modernism (note 25), 155. and in Roh’s book. He was for some time a member of a Cologne group 47. Here Krauss is commenting on LeWitt and his contemporaries. Krauss, with a fabulously blasé name—“Stupid”—that also included Franz “LeWitt” (note 7), 258. Wilhelm Seiwert, Heinrich Hoerle, and Wilhelm Fick. Räderscheidt was 48. Hilberseimer, Groszstadtarchitektur (note 9), 100. later influenced by the work of Max Ernst, de Chirico, and Carrà. 49. Ibid., 98. 66. Juan José Lahuerta, who also wrote on de Chirico, makes an 50. Hays, Modernism (note 25), 196. interesting comparison between the paintings of Räderscheidt and a 51. Ibid., 245. photograph of Hilberseimer’s 1927 house in the Weißenhofsiedlung, 52. According to Kilian, Hilberseimer “is probably the only significant The photograph similarly showing a figure from behind in the abstract, urban planner of classical modernism who concerned himself intensively blank composition of walls making up Hilberseimer’s house. See and professionally with art theory and art criticism at the beginning of his Juan José Lahuerta, 1927: La Abstracción Necesaria en el Arte y la career as a planner.” Kilian, Großstadtarchitektur (note 22), 13. Arquitectura Europeos de Entreguerras (Barcelona: Anthropos, Editorial 53. The term seems to have traveled between art and architecture del Hombre, 1989). Manfredo Tafuri included an image of Räderscheidt’s several times. However, Hermann Muthesius is generally credited with “Begegnung” (1921) in The Sphere and the Labyrinth, comparing the the earliest uses of the term “Sachlichkeit” in 1902. See Lois Parkinson “empty sign” in the work of Aldo Rossi with that of the “oneiric realism” Zamora and Wendy B. Faris, eds., Magical Realism: Theory, History, of Neue Sachlichkeit. The Räderscheidt painting is placed in comparison Community (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995). with a photo of Rossi’s residential block in the Gallatrese 2 Quarter in 54. Ibid., 9. Mention of the exhibition does not seem to appear in Milan (1970–73). See Tafuri, The Sphere and the Labyrinth (note 28), Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 Hilberseimer’s reviews. Hilberseimer also began to focus less on art during 273. this time. 67. I have not come across evidence of mutual awareness between 55. In a version of the show in Essen work by de Chirico was also Hilberseimer and Räderscheidt, though it is likely considering included. Dennis Crockett, German Post-Expressionism: The Art of the Hilberseimer’s activities as an art critic. Great Disorder, 1918–1924 (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State 68. Willi Wolfradt, in 1928. Quoted in Herzog, Räderscheidt (note 57), University Press, 1999). 27. My translation. 56. Franz Roh, Nach-expressionismus; Magischer Realismus: Probleme 69. Ibid., 29. My translation. der Neuesten Europäischen Malerei (Leipzig: Klinkhardt & Biermann, 70. Photographer August Sander’s famous studies of universal human 1925). typologies in Weimar society had included several photographs of Anton 57. Quoted in Günter Herzog, Anton Räderscheidt (Cologne: Dumont, Räderscheidt. He appears much as the figures in his paintings—alone on 1991), 24. the strangely empty streets of Cologne, stiffly standing in a suit, coat, 58. Quoted in Herzog, Räderscheidt (note 57), 20. and hat. 59. Neue Sachlichkeit, by contrast, was described by Ernst Bloch as 71. Herzog, Räderscheidt (note 57), 26–27.

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To cite this article: Olivier Vallerand (2013) Home Is the Place We All Share, Journal of Architectural Education, 67:1, 64-75, DOI: 10.1080/10464883.2013.767125 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10464883.2013.767125

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In the early 1990s, feminist challenges to mainstream architectural typically understood as being lesser than masculine, typically public, spaces.5 Inspired by the emergence discourses were taken upon by queer space theorists, who of queer theory in the early 1990s, queer space theo- broadened the focus from understanding how space is gendered rists took up feminist claims, arguing that these divi- sions were not relevant; domestic spaces most often and sexualised to suggest new ways of inhabiting space. In the discussed as private are in actuality shared with one’s community. Notions of public and private still exist, last decade, a new generation, exemplified by artists Elmgreen & but they are understood as overlapping. The assumed Dragset’s transformation of architectural spaces, further pushed safety of the domestic realm therefore has to be rethought, shifting from a dialectical and normative the challenges, offering a communitarian ideal that puts aside approach to one where the same space must sustain traditional public and private divisions. These spatial experiences both public and private acts and acknowledge in its design the different ways in which people experience can be linked to the ideas of queer theorist José Esteban Muñoz (or are made to experience) privacy, publicness, and who proposes a queer futurity tainted with political idealism which the interrelation between the two. I examine how these critiques are developed in exhibitions that focus can inspire architecture to emulate a queer collectivity. not only on underlining how space is gendered or sexualized, but also attempt to suggest new ways of inhabiting space. They underline the importance of thinking about architecture in terms of relationality Queerness is not yet here. Queerness is an ide- of contrasting utopian desires, visions of domesticity and to consider critiques coming from outside the ality. Put another way, we are not yet queer. We that implicitly and explicitly address gender and sex- discipline. While the queer movement lost some mo- may never touch queerness, but we can feel it uality. From Le Corbusier’s dream of “a machine for mentum in architectural academia in the last decade, as the warm illumination of a horizon imbued living in” fueled by the changing values of modernity a new generation working between art and archi- with potentiality. We have never been queer, to the radical networks of controlled environments of tecture, exemplified by artists Elmgreen & Dragset’s yet queerness exists for us as an ideality that the 1950s and 1960s, these critical projects most of- transformation and creation of architectural spaces, can be distilled from the past and used to imag- ten aimed at transforming the individual living cell to further pushes the challenges, offering a communi- ine a future. The future is queerness’s domain. make it more efficient and protective, even if often tarian ideal that puts aside traditional divisions. These —José Esteban Muñoz1 anchored in larger social critiques. While these uto- spatial experiences can be linked to Muñoz’s proposal pias have been repeatedly challenged from various for a queer futurity tainted with political idealism and In his 2009 Cruising Utopia, queer theorist José Es- points of view, I focus here on recent queer utopias a queer collectivity. They suggest that queer space teban Muñoz suggests that queerness is essentially that suggest a radically new way of building collec- theory is more than a tool to think about space in utopian, that it can only exists as an ideality. With tivity. These utopias call for the blurring of traditional relation to identity; it offers a powerful framework to Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 this suggestion Muñoz adds another layer to an understandings of public and private, and attempt to rethink the way we design our collective environment, already complicated definition of “queer” that has open windows onto new potentialities, towards free- as exemplified by new communities designed by ar- evolved and diffused throughout various disciplines ing queer futurity. chitects that have long worked with the intersection since it was reclaimed by activists and theorists in the Queer critiques build from work undertaken by between identity and design. late 1980s.2 In architecture, however, the influence feminist historians and theorists in the 1960s, who of queer theory has been fairly limited, after an ini- started to challenge the public and private divisions Queering the Limits tial burst of interest in the mid-1990s.3 This disinter- that discourses on domesticity followed; these cri- Since the 1960s, feminist historians have shown est in queerness is surprising, considering the history tiques argued that divisions between public and pri- how the construction of architectural discourse of domestic spaces in the twentieth century. Looking vate spaces were shaped and positioned according to through oppositions is inherently gendered and back at this history one is confronted with a series gender.4 Further, spaces understood as feminine were sexualized, by either working within the influence of

64 HOME IS THE PLACE WE ALL SHARE separate spheres theory or trying to counterargue it.6 binary that mostly ignores its impact on people living ties.15 This extended understanding focuses on the Queer space theorists have built upon this critique of in these houses. boundary, the interface, and the adversarial owner- the division between public space and private space, Queer theory, which started influencing the ship of place, without however questioning the nor- but have challenged its conceptualization as a binary study of space in the early 1990s, innovatively chal- mativity of these boundaries. Another understand- opposition. “Separate spheres” is a metaphor that lenges identity categorization, and particularly dia- ing, fueled by some geographers’ early enthusiasm has been used in reaction to Alexis de Tocqueville’s lectical ones, through the concept of performativity, with performativity theory, positions queer space as description of nineteenth century America, to de- as proposed by Judith Butler. She argues that there overtly sexualized space.16 It focuses on sexual acts scribe “a historically constituted ideology of gender is no preexisting identity by which an act or attribute and tension, not sexual identity or ownership, where relations that holds that men and women occupy can be measured, but that gender is created through the sex act defines the construction and dissolu- distinct social, affective, and occupational realms.”7 sustained social performances, through speech and tion of an ephemeral queer space. Although this is a Although the separate spheres metaphor is initially corporeal acts, most often unconsciously.11 While useful point of entry, it underestimates the impacts a social and political idea, as a spatially constructed these performances can support the norm, they can and experiences of the social community. A final concept it deeply shapes many discussions and un- also subvert it. Queer theory has since extended understanding of queer space enlarges the previ- derstandings of space and architecture, opposing the Butler’s understanding to deconstruct other identity ous ones to define queer space as challenging and public/outside/corporate/masculine to the private/ categories that, like gender, have been understood imminent. As Christopher Reed argues, “no space is inside/domestic/feminine. Feminist critiques have as being part of the essence of one’s identity to in- totally queer or completely unqueerable. . .. Queer argued that these binaries are historically and socially stead propose that they are constituted by a perfor- space is space in the process of, literally, taking constructed and do not reflect how space is designed mative repetition of acts that form one’s self-iden- place, of claiming territory.”17 This approach echoes and lived.8 Initially, only a few feminist architects tification.12 Further, the influence of queer theory queer theory’s challenges to normative views and extended the analysis architecturally to argue that on queer space theory has been marked by different envisions queer space as continually in the process better spaces for everyone could only be created by conceptualizations, all positioned in varying degrees of being constructed in opposition to heteronor- understanding the physical implications of normative against the normativity of much architectural dis- mativity, but also to broader prescriptive norms. As discursive oppositions, often doing so by challenging course. Queer space theory critiques the assumption such, queer space is sometimes understood as en- traditional architectural history that focuses on public that spaces can be designed, or analyzed, without compassing any architecture that is odd or different, buildings to instead consider the value and qualities considering how an individual’s self-identification inspired by David Halperin’s definition of queer as of everyday domestic architecture.9 Contemporary (in relation to gender and sexuality, but also to age, “whatever is at odds with the normal, the legitimate, architecture still relies on a binary system, even when race, and class categories) influence their use of their the dominant.”18 Importantly, this understanding of trying to deconstruct or refuse it, as demonstrated environment. Most of these approaches have come queer space positions it as performative; it is built for example in The Un-Private House exhibition from geography, with relatively few scholars in archi- out through time, existing not only in the physical (1999) curated by Terence Riley at the Museum of tecture exploring such themes.13 space, but in the intersubjectivity of the relations, Modern Art in New York. Riley gathered a group of A first understanding suggests that queer through verbal, nonverbal, and physical interactions. projects that, in his view, no longer considered the space is the physical manifestation of a gay com- “Queer politics is about relations rather than identity. household and the public realm as separate entities. munity, a gay or lesbian territory as demarcated from In queer space there are multiple identities that are Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 However, if a few of the houses questioned how heteronormative territory.14 This approach has been constructed from these relations. It is a politics of this impacts understandings of self-identification, criticized for not challenging the assumptions that relating rather than claiming rights.”19 Queer space especially in projects for single men or women that such “queer” space exists separated from “hetero- thus positions context as essential in shaping how disrupt the traditional family model, such as Simon sexual” space, that ”queer” spaces are fundamentally people experience space: it is defined by when and Ungers and Thomas Kinslow’s T-House (1992) or different from other “non-queer” spaces, and that how space is encountered, through which earlier Joel Sanders’s House for a Bachelor (1998), most queer space can only exist within gay enclaves. The experiences, and by whom, taking into account were only superficial experiments in integrating elec- discourse is also sometimes broadened by consider- issues of gender, race, class, and sexuality. Identity tronic media technologies in the home to, according ing queer space as the contested “other” between in relation to architecture thus cannot be reduced to Riley, erode the politics of privacy.10 The focus was lesbian or gay space and straight space, using queer to the users’ or designer’s identity, it is constantly definitively on a formalist view of the public/private as a broader vision of non-heteronormative identi- becoming through its uses. Extending queer theory’s

VALLERAND 65 lessons to a study of space can further underline broader discourses on all identity categories. It has Exhibiting Utopias the political importance of the built environment also engaged in a larger anti-oppression struggle, The few queer space critiques that exist in the in identity building; space is an important aspect in and broadened to include divergent views. A more architecture world are often developed through the construction of self-identification, but it is also encompassing understanding of queer theory’s installations, unlike many architectural shows that a vector of power relations. “The tolerance of sexual potential has prompted theorists like Muñoz to rely on models or drawings of built or speculative oppression requires room. . . . Many physical aspects reformulate queer theory’s interest in performativ- projects. They thus position themselves outside of of our communities reflect only incomplete adapta- ity in terms of collectivity and relationality, often a traditional schemes but within architectural discourse. tions of spatial archaeologies of repression.”20 Archi- reaction to antisocial queer theories inspired by Leo Queer space theorists were not the first to present tecture can not only be linked to a physical represen- Bersani’s Homos (1995).22 Muñoz calls for a return architectural theories or critiques through exhibi- tation of (bodily) identities, but also to the potential to a political idealism by pointing to what could and tions or installations.28 Where they differ is in their repression of these identities. Katarina Bonnevier should be, by unearthing the utopian potentiality insistence on social collectivity and on the impact suggests that queer space theory can help architects, signified by quotidian acts.23 He is careful, however, of architecture on self-identifications. The utopias to present a version of queer social relations that “is they exhibit cannot be understood without thinking … find strategies for resistance to, and trans- critical of the communitarian as an absolute value about the ways we build our identifications in relation gression of normative orders. . . . Queer implies and of its negation as an alternative all-encompassing to others. They are also often curated or designed inter-changeability and excess; the possibility to value.”24 This approach has not been explicitly part of collectively, in shows such as Queer Space (1994) move, make several interpretations, slide over, architectural readings of queerness’s potential up to organized by Beatriz Colomina, Dennis Dollens, Eve or reposition limits. To understand buildings as now, even if its collective longing is directly related Kosofsky Sedgwick, Cindi Patton, Henry Urbach, and queer performative acts, and not static precon- to our experience of space. Furthermore, Muñoz Mark Wigley at the Storefront for Art and Architec- ditions, opens architecture to interpretation and builds his argument through a look at the aesthetic, ture in New York (Figure 1).29 The group of design- makes it less confined within normative con- stating that “turning to the aesthetic in the case of ers and theorists behind Queer Space envisions the straints. It is a key both to accomplish a shift in queerness is nothing like an escape from the social exhibition itself as a “queer space,” an exhibition how architecture can be understood or analyzed realm, insofar as queer aesthetics map future social space that extends the gallery space (with the inten- and . . . to contribute to a transformation in relations.”25 Muñoz, and others from his generation tion that the project would include, in osmosis with future building; thereby presenting in a broader of queer theorists, write about the broader potential the gallery exhibition, a symposium, a book, and the sense, enactments of architecture.21 of queer as a coalitional and global anti-oppression use of “non-traditional venues like storefront window approach.26 This has impacted spatial work, for ex- displays, broadcast media, posters and postcards”) to Queer space theory is thus far from being lim- ample, in how recent feminist architectural theory become a space of discussion on the role of gender ited to gay- and lesbian-oriented architecture, but and practice attempts to build from interdisciplinary and sexuality in shaping our environment (Figure 2).30 instead suggests that lessons learned from critically approaches to bridge over dialectical conceptions of Although the organizing team was not able to fully queer occupation of space by LGBT people could space. Informed, among others, by queer theory and complete these ideas, in part due to the unavailability be of use to rethink how our environments are de- race studies, these theories and practices envision of external funders (the project was rejected by every signed, used, and analyzed. spaces in more complex relationships, either by trying

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 institution approached), a number of installations The evolution of queer space conceptualizations to understand historic spaces in less dialectic ways extend the show in the city.31 For example, REPOhis- reflects changing positions within queer theory itself. or by questioning the ways in which architecture is tory’s Queer Spaces Sign Project, a series of triangular The relatively limited discussion of queer theory in taught and practiced, bringing back to the forefront signs dispersed through New York to reveal unheard architectural discourses means that in the world of issues surrounding the role of architects in the con- queer political histories, proposed a reclaiming of architecture there is a narrow understanding of how struction industry, once again often in relation to public space through the revelation of a previously sexuality shapes space, and vice versa, and on how domestic spaces, but also to wealth.27 Thinking about latent queer community.32 Similarly, in House Rules self-identifications are performed through space. architectural spaces through queer theory, at the in- (1994) at the Wexner Center for the Arts, curator If queer theory initially developed from a rethink- tersection of the social and aesthetics, can therefore Mark Robbins called for theorists and architects to ing of gender and sexuality categories and their reveal a queer utopian potential. work together on rethinking the typical North Ameri- performativity, it quickly has evolved to encompass can suburban house from minority and mainstream

66 HOME IS THE PLACE WE ALL SHARE Figure 1. Queer Space exhibition poster, 1994, Storefront for Art and Architecture, New York. Image courtesy of Storefront for Art and Architecture.

Figure 2. Gordon Brent Ingram. “Open Space”, Queer Space exhibition, 1994, Storefront for Art and Architecture, New York. Credit: Gordon Brent Ingram.

points of view, with a focus on social issues (gender, race, sexuality, etc.). Robbins linked his project to what he described as the recurrent theme of “archi- tecture as a social tool,” from Fourier’s phalansteries to Le Corbusier’s housing projects, or the Case Study houses, projects all engaged with the importance of dwelling for the healthy functioning of society.33 Most projects in the exhibition used the rare op- portunity of a collaboration between architects and theorists to suggest radical rethinking of the ways we experience life in society in relation to the domestic, be it through critiques of the legal constraints on housing lots (in bell hooks, Julie Eizenberg and Hank Koning’s, or in Heidi J. Nast and Mabel O. Wilson’s projects), in a reflection on how queers explore and subvert the public in order to survive in the private (in Michael Moon, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Benjamin Gianni, and Scott Weir’s project), or in a physical de- construction of the mirage of suburban homogeneity (in Jonathan Crary and Joel Sanders’s project).34 The tensions between the modes of thinking (practice and theory) are sometimes themselves the collateral object of the proposal, most explicitly in hooks, Eizenberg, and Koning’s project, for which a letter exchange between hooks and Eizenberg was repro-

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 duced in the catalogue.35 In these exhibitions the projects suggest that a queer utopia is not one where different groups exist within separate spheres, but one where space is un- derstood and used as a collective sphere where they interact in full relationality. As Moon and Sedgwick suggest in their essay for House Rules, any queer utopian impulse is underpinned by an intense realism. “Queer lives and impulses do not occupy a separate social or physical space from straight ones; instead, they are relational and conditional, moving across and

VALLERAND 67 transforming the conventional spaces that were de- signed to offer endless narcissistic self-confirmation to the unstable normative systems of sex, gender, and family.”36 The project developed by Gianni and Weir to dialogue with Moon and Sedgwick aims to support queer kids’ and adults’ survival habits, to explore the uses of secrecy and exposure, and to use the leverage of access to the public sphere as a way to survive in the private sphere.37 They also attempt to create queer private space in a private domestic space, while simultaneously insisting that “no spatial/ domestic manifestation of the issue of queerness” can be designed: “The same space might be lived in and experienced in a variety of ways.”38 This can be Figure 3. Benjamin Gianni and Scott Weir. “Playing It Straight”, House Rules exhibition, 1994, Wexner Center for the Arts, Columbus, OH. Credit: interpreted, however, as being itself an important Benjamin Gianni and Scott Weir. character of queer space. Making safe spaces for ev- eryone implies creating enough flexibility to support terplay of public and private that does not determine ‘power structure’ is misleading since no structure can any uses and the over-layering of private and public. use, but that allows spatial opportunities for dwellers impose authority in itself. It is only the acceptance of Therefore, designing for queer users means first de- to perform their own self-identifications. Designed the structure that creates the notion of power.” Their signing for any user in a way that also permits queer for everyone, these queer utopias are, however, of projects thus become attempts to demonstrate that uses, eschewing the normative systems of familial particular importance to queer users who gain spatial “any structure can be altered, interchanged, mutated, organizations to permit subdivisions, zoning, separate possibilities that normative spaces repress. etc . . . and basically become something else.”40 Their circulations, and non-exposed spaces, as Gianni and Since 1995 Scandinavian artists Michael El- work is also constantly engaged in understanding the Weir explore (Figure 3). The project and Moon and mgreen and Ingar Dragset have developed a multi- complex relationships between people and space; Von Sedgwick’s essay underline how architects must learn medium career explicitly engaged with issues of Hantelman suggests that Elmgreen and Dragset “ex- to harness realism to create spaces that encourage all gender, sexuality, class, and race. They are especially hibit and stage artistic and social ideas of production self-identifications. critical of how spatial structures shape these issues, set in a performative relationship to each other—and with many of their works physically transforming space that is where the politically interesting aspect of these Building a Domestic Collectivity on an architectural scale. The experience of these works lie—a relationship that can constantly be re- The first generation of queer space thinkers often ephemeral spaces deconstructs the assumed configured without being entirely controllable.”41 For focused on developing theoretical critiques and neutrality of the modernist environment, undermining example, their Cruising Pavilion/Powerless Structures, projects, or installations on a relatively limited scale how all spaces are designed and understood in rela- Fig. 55 (1998), an ephemeral pavilion built in a Danish

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 (although some projects, like REPOhistory’s, are dis- tion to self-identification. Unlike the North American park to offer shelter for cruising and sex between persed over cities). The current generation embraces exhibitions discussed earlier, Elmgreen & Dragset were men, is a paradigmatic example of their interest in the realism described by Moon and Kosofsky Sedg- not initially directly inspired by queer theory, their the complex interrelationship between space, time, wick by designing and building large-scale installa- continental European position isolating them from a and action. It transforms a publicly coded site into a tions (such as those by artists Elmgreen & Dragset), movement that was originally Anglo-American. Only performative and subcultural space newly occupied or actual buildings and communities (as exemplified after their work gained some international recogni- time and again. Presented as art, the activities taking by the BOOM communities), that create potentials tion did critics link them to queer theory.39 From place in the pavilion are simultaneously “real and for queer uses and sustain queer utopian collectivity. early in their career they shared with queer theorists staged.”42 It moves queer activities, usually hidden, As such, they concur with Muñoz’s belief that queer- an interest in Michel Foucault’s thinking, visible, for into the daytime “public,” reformatting the collectivity ness is a potential, not here yet, but increasingly ap- example, in their Powerless Structures series. Trying to include new relationships between subcultures and proaching; they do so by creating an overlapping in- to understand Foucault, the artists write: “the term the mainstream.

68 HOME IS THE PLACE WE ALL SHARE Figure 4. Elmgreen & Dragset. Celebrity: The One and the Many, 2010–2011, ZKM. Credit: Didier Leroi / www.vernissage.tv.

Figure 5. Elmgreen & Dragset. The Collectors, 2009, Danish Pavilion, Venice Art Biennale. Credit: Anders Sune Berg.

The trilogy of large-scale installations de- veloped by Elmgreen & Dragset since 2005—The Welfare Show (2005–06), The Collectors (2009), and Celebrity: The One and the Many (2010–11)—ad- dress similar issues to those defined in the Powerless Structures works. The latter two challenge common understandings of domesticity by transforming art spaces into fictitious domestic spaces, accessible by visitors only through mediated experiences. In Ce- lebrity: The One and the Many, Elmgreen & Dragset insert a replica of an industrially prefabricated four- story apartment building into an exhibition space. In this project visitors could get a look through the windows from the outside (Figure 4), to witness empty apartment interiors (only one is occupied by a human figure, a mannequin of a gay teenager) that seem to have been vacated only a moment ago: televisions are on, empty beer bottles and cigarettes packs are on the table, newspapers are open. In the earlier The Collectors project, the artists transform the Venice Biennale Danish and Nordic pavilions into houses, one for a traditional, albeit dysfunctional, A. Family and one for Mr. B, a bachelor, apparently gay.43 The two houses exhibit very different spatial organizations: the family house has more traditional room divisions, while the bachelor inhabits one

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 large open space around a central glazed bathroom (Figures 5 and 6). While the invented apartments in The One and the Many can only be seen from a dis- tance, in The Collectors visitors are guided through the family house by actors playing real estate agents in charge of selling the house after the family has abruptly left. They are then invited to enter the bachelor pad which is occupied by young male actors (also working as security guards for the exhibition) playing the bachelor’s guests/lovers (Figure 7). The tour ends at an outdoor pool where a mannequin,

VALLERAND 69 Figure 6. Elmgreen & Dragset. The Collectors, 2009, Nordic Pavilion, Venice Art Biennale. Credit: Anders Sune Berg.

assumed to be representing the owner of the house, Participants also experience the two houses with all their senses, transforming the visitors into par- Figure 7. Elmgreen & Dragset. The Collectors, 2009, Nordic Pavilion, floats face down. The fake realtors describe the ar- Venice Art Biennale. Credit: Anders Sune Berg. chitecture of the house in terms such as: “This mar- ticipants. Elmgreen & Dragset choose to represent velous house was designed in 1930 by Carl Brummer. space in three dimensions, the fictitious inhabitants It’s in the neo-classical style at the rear, with some not being visible. However, the artists paradoxically Visitors are forced to reconcile contradictory under- delightful late modern extensions by another Danish insist on leaving traces of the absent users to help standings, to distance emotional responses, and to architect,” and comment on the inhabitants, stating visitors understand the spaces. Carefully designed challenge presuppositions about domestic space. that “The teenager who lived here was a bit crazy as by Elmgreen and Dragset and collaborators, their In The Collectors and Celebrity, Elmgreen and teenagers tend to be, so please disregard the rather installations are always slightly off, underlining the Dragset address domesticity by alternating between Gothic nature of the room.”44 The script, written by constructedness of space (Figure 8). The installations utopia and dystopia, by creating fictional realms for the actors themselves, with cues by the artists, is invite visitors to imagine how life in these dwellings specific characters. Interestingly, they develop these complemented by a letter from the “dead” bachelor, could be and what values the inhabitants share. two imagined places while translating their questions written by the artist Dominic Eichler, describing the The artists underline the need to imagine a relation about queer domestic realms in the design for their bachelor’s vision of how his own house tells a story between dwellers and their environment, to assume own down-to-earth utopia, the Pumpwerk Neukölln about his life.45 By offering visits of apparently lived- an adequacy between them, echoing other works studio-house in Berlin, a former water pumping in spaces, in an international art fair context, the such as Robbins’s Households project in which the station converted in 2006–2008 in collaboration artists question common assumptions about private architect exhibits paneled photographic montages of with architect Nils Wenk. Although their profes- space, by confusing accepted symbols of domestic- families and single men and women and their living sional partnership evolved from an initial romantic ity, by recontextualizing viewers, and by blurring the environments.46 By doing so, Elmgren and Dragset engagement, by 2005 Elmgreen and Dragset were usual limits and barriers between private and public also suggest that exposing one’s “private” domestic no longer in a personal relationship. The project is a

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 acts and spaces. space, and its presumed meanings, to an outsider single building that combines two lofts for the art- In these projects, the visitor is invited to dis- has impacts, without, however, explicitly describing ists, guest rooms and shared living spaces (kitchen, cover decontextualized domestic spaces in the physi- them. The installations suggest that it is possible to bathrooms, lounge, and offices) that can be used by cal absence of their inhabitants. The “public” domain understand one’s identity from its belongings, but the artists, their guests, and their studio employees. of art pavilions or galleries is transformed into also that people can become themselves items in The design attempts to create an ideal space that es- “private” spaces. In The One and the Many, visitors someone else’s collection, no longer living their lives chews the usual dichotomy between (private) living view the intimate environments of the dwellers from in assumed “privacy,” but being part of a “public” and (public) working, while simultaneously present- a distance, through the use of binoculars. In The social system. The art biennale context, the absence ing a clear critique of common domestic planning, Collectors, the relation between viewer and space is of the fictitious inhabitants, and the strangeness setting aside traditional family models in the layering more ambiguous; participants are guided through of the furniture and spatial organization create a of its different functions (Figures 9 and 10). While the spaces as if they were prospective buyers. shift towards a more analytical view of the projects. the main working and gallery space is adjacent to the

70 HOME IS THE PLACE WE ALL SHARE primary entry, a second space in the attic mirrors it but can only be reached by going through all of the building’s spaces, putting the visitor in close proximi- ty to the artists who may be performing intimate acts or working. The attic space, serving as both lounge and exhibition space, echoes the Venice bachelor pad with its cold Scandinavian design, and reverses private and public expectations (Figure 11). Unlike The Collectors’ glass house, the space is invisible from the outside, fully controllable by the artists. The unusual spatial organization of the building positions queer lives, long forbidden to be seen, as worthy of being visible to all. Their experimentation with domesticity brings Elmgreen & Dragset into both convergence and divergence with examples of houses drawn from ca- Figure 8. Elmgreen & Dragset. The Collectors, 2009, Nordic Pavilion, Venice Art Biennale. With Simon Fujiwara. Desk Job, 2009 (left), and Nina Saunders. Payload, 2009 (right). Credit: Anders Sune Berg. nonical high modernism, houses that demonstrate an ambiguous relation to queerness and privacy. Alice Friedman, for example, discusses the importance of assumptions about gender and sexuality in the design of Philip Johnson’s Glass House and Guest House (both 1949, with an interior remodeling of the Guest House in 1953) as the gay architect’s commentary on the invisibility of homosexuality in mid-twentieth century society. She compares John- son’s blurring of interior and exterior to Mies van der Rohe’s house for Edith Farnsworth, a single woman doctor, where the architect’s conservative views on gender shape the design as he attempted to stage a woman’s life and her control over her domestic space.47 Annmarie Adams discusses in similar terms the contradictory aspects of Harwell Hamilton Har-

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 ris’s Weston Havens House (1941), arguing that the house plays a protective role for its original owner’s queer “private” life, while simultaneously presenting a very strong “public” image.48 Eileen Gray’s E.1027 (1926–29) is also often discussed in queer space analysis, not only because of the struggle between Gray and Le Corbusier to claim ownership over the house, but most importantly because of Gray’s care- ful design of spaces where privacy can be shaped in the pockets between public spaces.49 In Elmgreen & Figure 9. Wenk und Wiese Architekten. Pumpwerk Neukölln, third floor plan (second loft and studio space), 2007–2008, Berlin. Credit: Niels Wenk. Dragset’s case, the Pumpwerk alters ideas of what is

VALLERAND 71 and architecture by architect Matthias Hollwich and are planned by his firm Hollwich Kushner Architects, whose partners previously worked with, among others, J Mayer H and Diller + Scofidio, both as- sociated with queer space theory. The communities’ designers include, among others, Joel Sanders, Diller Scofidio + Renfro, J Mayer H, and Nigel Coates, who have all engaged at various points in their career the intersection of gender, sexuality, and space. However, the move from concept to actuality has not been as fluid, as some of the more radical criticality of the earlier exhibition work seems to be gone; for, if the marketing images are any indication, the project is aimed at a rich and probably predominantly white clientele.51 The website also underlines the predomi- nantly male state of the architectural profession with only one woman architect, Madeline Gins of Arakawa + Gins, presenting part of the project; this is also Figure 10. Wenk und Wiese Architekten. Pumpwerk Neukölln, section, 2007–2008, Berlin. Credit: Niels Wenk. evident in the promotional material that depicts a large majority of male couples.52 The planners’ wish to focus on how “the LGBT community is poised to visible in the domestic realm and underlines the need they critique in The Collectors and Celebrity: The One take advantage of . . . our powerful sense of com- to make queer lives public, as such constructing and the Many. While they are aware of this context munity, tendency to consider friends family, an in- critiques always present in their work. However, the and even underline in their works how gender, race, creased health consciousness, and willingness to fight actual experience of living in the Pumpwerk has not and class assumptions play into an outsiders’ un- for change within society” echoes, however, queer functioned as well as expected, with the loft spaces derstandings of domestic spaces (for example, the utopian desires, if in a more mainstream language.53 being too small and the experience of working and maids in the Venice family house or the opposition While Elmgreen & Dragset focus on how the single living constantly in the same environment being too of a high society cocktail party and social housing in domestic environment is part of a larger collectivity constraining, although temporary use of the living Celebrity), their own status as celebrated white male that cannot be ignored, and that seemingly private space has proved successful and the exhibition of artists allows them to attempt in the Pumpwerk ex- self-identifications are in fact created in relation to private life to coworkers and guests has had some periments that others could not. others, BOOM attempts to build a communitarian impact.50 Public and private are no longer separated, If Elmgreen and Dragset experiment with how utopia where traditional family definitions dissolve

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 they coexist and share one space to merge into a queer collective impulses play into the design of through varying degrees of publicness, although in single collective experience, a queer utopia. The single buildings, others have attempted to approach a setting problematically isolated from surrounding spaces as designed do not, however, disappear to the design of communities with similar goals. Al- communities. The blurring of private and public also be replaced by a third space, but instead overlap to though most architects involved in early queer space appears as a recurrent theme in the communities’ ma- allow simultaneous uses. Because they are explicitly exhibitions have since moved to other interests, terial, for example in J Mayer H’s project where “the interrelated, private and public acts become more the shift from queer utopian propositions to actual continuous smooth lines maximize the confusion be- conscious and can thus be more easily controlled inhabited spaces unexpectedly reappeared recently tween outdoor and indoor, between privacy and pub- and used by the occupants to present themselves with the development of BOOM, a series of planned licity.”54 In another example, Diller Scofidio + Renfro’s when they want to. Elmgreen and Dragset’s do- communities for aging people aimed particularly at The Waves, the architects underline formally, with un- mestic environments are, however, located within a lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transgenders (LGBT). dulating ribbons, the separation between inside and specific, privileged, context, very similar to the one The communities come out of research on aging outside. The landscape created has the peaks shaping

72 HOME IS THE PLACE WE ALL SHARE tional, coming from outside architecture suggest ways for rethinking architecture by employing queer theory. The evolution of queer theory towards a more rela- tional understanding, exemplified by Muñoz, suggests that, as some of these questions move from theoretical investigations to buildings and communities, it is time to renew our understandings of queer utopia’s archi- tectural potentiality. No longer focusing on underlining how spaces construct human relations from normative assumptions about gender and sexuality, queer space theory can become practice by creating spaces that refrain from relying on the normative “here and now,” to instead bring a potential for a performative provo- cation, to use Muñoz’s words, that allows everyone, regardless of their self-identifications, to experience fully, and safely, spaces, both collectively and individu- ally. However, as Elmgreen & Dragset’s and BOOM’s attempts show, utopian desires and liveable spaces are Figure 11. Wenk und Wiese Architekten. Pumpwerk Neukölln, attic lounge, 2007–2008, Berlin. Credit: Udo Meinel, Berlin. in tension and do not always produce a positive poten- tial, especially when it comes to including everyone’s desires or when a space is used primarily by privileged groups. Queer utopias must strive for a more multifac- interior programs, including glazed domestic spaces, an open-mindedness, but also material and financial eted “then and there” that counterbalances the total- and the troughs occupied by private or communal means. Dwellings are designed to blur private and izing rendering of reality, of the here and now. gardens. Adjacent ribbons are offset to create private public, but simultaneously this blurring is depen- spaces for each dwelling, but can also be opened to dent on the owner’s desire. Meanwhile, however, it Acknowledgments the streets to blur public space (Figure 12).55 If some demonstrates some architects’ desire to translate the The research conducted to prepare this article would of the language used to describe the design strate- potential of queer space theory into reimagined com- not have been possible without the architects, art- gies involved appears superficial—for example, de- munities that appeal to all, at least by design. The ists, and organizations who have contributed docu- scribing a dwelling’s “elastic space” that “invites you next step will be to bring these communities to a less mentation and interviews. I thank Ingar Dragset, Jan to create new connections between spaces,” echoing isolated setting, to explode and diffuse Elmgreen & Sauerwald, and Anja Schiller at Studio Elmgreen & the language used in the Un-Private House exhibi- Dragset’s experiment in an urban setting. Dragset; Anette Østerby at the Danish Agency for

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 tion—then other references to the “strong social Culture; Elena Cazzaro at Archivio Storico delle Arti network that exists in the gay community,” or to the Conclusion Contemporanee / Fondazione La Biennale di Vene- diverse lifestyle needs that compose “gay identity,” If early queer space theory writing and projects zia; Nils Wenk; Jürgen Mayer; Mark Robbins; Erica show an opening to the collective ideal that sustains in architecture focus on how gender and sexuality are Freyberger and Eva Franch I Gilabert at Storefront for a queer utopia.56 As the first community, in Palm performed through space and how space contributes to Art and Architecture; Gordon Brent Ingram; and Mat- Springs, is not planned to be completed for another a definition of self-identifications, later projects more thew Hoffman and Matthias Hollwich at HWKN / few years, it is too early to tell if it will successfully directly engage with the collective relationality inher- BOOM. I also thank Annmarie Adams, Amelia Jones, approach this ideal.57 However, although open to all, ent to the queer project that Muñoz describes. Un- Nik Luka and two anonymous reviewers for their in- the community, designed as an isolated space, will fortunately, a slowing down of interest in architectural sightful comments and ideas on the research. probably attract large numbers of wealthy white gay discourse for these issues has meant that this potential men. In BOOM, all inhabitants are assumed to share remains largely ignored. Recent projects, often fic-

VALLERAND 73 of Feminist Designs for America Homes, Neighborhoods and Cities (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1981); Pauline Fowler, “The Public and the Private” (note 5); Linda K. Kerber, “Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman’s Place: The Rhetoric of Women’s History,” The Journal of American History 75, no. 1 (1988): 9-39. 9. Steven Harris and Deborah Berke, eds., Architecture of the Everyday (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1997); Hilde Heynen and Gulsum Baydar, eds., Negotiating Domesticity: Spatial Productions of Gender in Modern Architecture (London: Routledge, 2005); Dolores Hayden, “What Would a Non-Sexist City Be Like? Speculations on Housing, Urban Design, and Human Work,” Signs 5, no. 3 (1980): 170- 187; Katherine Shonfield, Adrian Dannatt, Rosa Ainley, + MUF, This Is What We Do: A Muf Manual (London: Ellipsis, 2001). 10. Terence Riley, The Un-Private House (New York: The Museum of Modern Art and Harry N. Abrams, 1999), Exhibition catalog, 20. 11. Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2006 [1990]), 192. 12. For foundational queer theory texts, see Judith Butler, “Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory,” Theatre Journal 40, no. 4 (1988): 519-531; Butler, Gender Trouble (note 11); Judith Butler, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of “Sex” (New York: Routledge, 1993); Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Andrew Parker and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, “Performativity and Performance,” in Performativity and Performance, ed. Andrew Parker and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick (New York: Routledge, 1993), 1-18; David M. Figure 12. Diller Scofidio + Renfro. The Waves, BOOM Community, townhouses, completion on hold, Palm Springs. Credit: Diller Scofidio + Renfro. Halperin, Saint Foucault: Towards a Gay Hagiography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). More recent developments are exemplified by David L. Eng, Judith Halberstam, and José Esteban Muñoz, “What’s Notes intimacy, unwaged labor, and reproduction, and the latter with the Queer About Queer Studies Now?,” Social Text 23, no. 3/4 (2005): 1-17. 1. José Esteban Muñoz, Cruising Utopia: The Then and There of Queer disembodied, the abstract, the cultural, rationality, citizenship, waged 13. Although this classification covers various sources, it was initially Futurity (New York: New York University Press, 2009), 1. labor, production, and the polis. Nancy Duncan, “Renegotiating Gender inspired by Richard Borbridge, “Sexuality and the City: Exploring 2. “Queer” is a term initially used pejoratively that was reclaimed in the and Sexuality in Public and Private Spaces,” in Bodyspace: Destabilizing Gaybourhoods and the Urban Village Form in Vancouver, Bc” (Master’s 1980s by activists and academics. Its emergence is a reaction to the Geographies of Gender and Sexuality, ed. Nancy Duncan (London and thesis, University of Manitoba, 2007); and developed in Olivier Vallerand, perceived conservative views of the gay liberation movement, seen as New York: Routledge, 1996), 127-145. While I focus on understandings “Homonormative Architecture & Queer Space: The Evolution of Gay too assimilationist, but also to governmental and public reactions to the that oppose the domestic and the polis, other domains are also Bars and Clubs in Montréal” (M.Arch. research project, McGill University, AIDS crisis. It represents a direct attempt to offer an alternative to visions inextricably linked to the discussion. 2010). A partial bibliography of queer space discourse in architecture of sexuality and gender as binaries, building on feminist critiques. Is has 5. Pauline Fowler, “The Public and the Private in Architecture: A Feminist includes Henry Urbach, “Peeking at Gay Interiors,” Design Book Review since been used to describe an identity category, an activist/political Critique,” Women’s Studies International Forum 7, no. 6 (1984): 449–454. 25 (1992): 38-40; Henry Urbach, “Spatial Rubbing: The Zone,” Sites movement, and an academic theory. The differences and similarities 6. For a comprehensive review of feminist challenges to architectural 25 (1993): 90-95; Ricco, “Coming Together” (note 3); Christopher between these uses underlie often divergent discussions of “queerness,” history, see Sherry Ahrentzen, “The Space between the Studs: Feminism Reed, “Imminent Domain: Queer Space in the Built Environment,” Art

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 and, by extension, of “queer space.” See Annamarie Jagose, Queer and Architecture,” Signs 29, no. 1 (2003): 179-206. Journal 55, no. 4 (1996): 64-70; Urbach, “Closets, Clothes, Disclosure”; Theory: An Introduction (New York: New York University Press, 1996). 7. Cathy N. Davidson and Jessamyn Hatcher, “Introduction,” in No sections of Joel Sanders, ed., Stud: Architectures of Masculinity (New 3. See for example Beatriz Colomina, ed., Sexuality and Space (New York: More Separate Spheres!, ed. Cathy N. Davidson and Jessamyn Hatcher York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996); Betsky, Queer Space (note Princeton Architectural Press, 1992); John Paul Ricco, “Coming Together: (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002), 7, in reference to Alexis de 3); Gordon Brent Ingram, Anne-Marie Bouthillette, and Yolanda Retter, Jack-Off Rooms as Minor Architecture,” A/R/C, Architecture, Research, Tocqueville, De la Démocratie en Amérique (Bruxelles: Meline Cans & eds., Queers in Space: Communities | Public Places | Sites of Resistance Criticism 1, no. 5 (1994): 26-31; Henry Urbach, “Closets, Clothes, Cie, 1840). (Seattle: Bay Press, 1997); Ricco, “Fag-O-Sites” (note 3); John Paul Disclosure,” Assemblage, no. 30 (1996): 63-73; Aaron Betsky, Queer 8. Estelle Freedman, “Separatism as Strategy: Female Institution Building Ricco, The Logic of the Lure (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Space: Architecture and Same-Sex Desire (New York: William Morrow, and American Feminism, 1870–1930,” Feminist Studies 5, no. 3 (1979): 2002); Katarina Bonnevier, Behind Straight Curtains: Towards a Queer 1997); John Paul Ricco, “Fag-O-Sites: Minor Architecture and Geopolitics 512-529; Gwendolyn Wright, Moralism and the Model Home: Domestic Feminist Theory of Architecture (Stockholm: Axl Books, 2007); Annmarie of Queer Everyday Life” (Dissertation, University of Chicago, 1998). Architecture and Cultural Conflict in Chicago, 1873–1913 (Chicago: Adams, “Sex and the Single Building: The Weston Havens House, 1941– 4. Private and public are discussed here as a binary opposition historically University of Chicago Press, 1980); Gwendolyn Wright, Building the 2001,” Buildings & Landscapes: Journal of the Vernacular Architecture constructed as two ideal types, the former being associated and conflated Dream: A Social History of Housing in America (Cambridge: MIT Press, Forum 17, no. 1 (2010): 82-97. Important anthologies in geography with the domestic, the embodied, the natural, the family, personal life, 1981); Dolores Hayden, The Grand Domestic Revolution: A History include David Bell and Gill Valentine, eds., Mapping Desire: Geographies

74 HOME IS THE PLACE WE ALL SHARE of Sexualities (London: Routledge, 1995); David Bell, Jon Binnie, (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2010), 1-15. For comments on contemporary The ambiguity of this position continues their career-long critical and Ruth Holliday, Pleasure Zones: Bodies, Cities, Spaces (Syracuse, issues, see for example Annmarie Adams and Peta Tancred, Designing experimentations with disciplinary divisions, but is also inscribed in the NY: Syracuse University Press, 2001); Kath Browne, Jason Lim, and Women: Gender and the Architectural Profession (Toronto: University of expanded scale of their recent projects. Gavin Brown, Geographies of Sexualities: Theory, Practices and Politics Toronto Press, 2000); Lori A. Brown, “Introduction,” in Feminist Practices: 44. Script excerpts by Trevor Stuart from Jannik Splidsboel, How Are You (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2007). Interdisciplinary Approaches to Women in Architecture, ed. Lori A. Brown (Denmark: Radiator Film, 2011). 14. See, e.g., early work by Barbara A. Weightman, “Gay Bars as Private (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2011). 45. The letter was available in the limited edition Bagalogue/Calendar Places,” Landscape 24, no. 1 (1980): 9-16; Manuel Castells, “Cultural 28. For more on architectural installations and social discourses, see Jane distributed to Biennale visitors and is republished in Dominic Eichler, Identity, Sexual Liberation and Urban Structure: The Gay Community in Rendell, Art and Architecture: A Place Between (London: I.B.Tauris, 2006); “Another Death in Venice,” in Elmgreen & Dragset Trilogy, ed. Peter San Francisco,” in The City and the Grassroots: A Cross-Cultural Theory Sarah Bonnemaison and Ronit Eisenbach, Installations by Architects : Weibel and Andreas F. Beitin (Köln: König/ZKM, 2011), 268–75. of Urban Social Movements (Berkeley: University of California Press, Experiments in Building and Design (New York: Princeton Architectural 46. Mark Robbins, Households (New York: The Monacelli Press, 2006). 1983), 138-170; Maxine Wolfe, “Invisible Women in Invisible Places: Press, 2009). 47. Alice T. Friedman, “People Who Live in Glass Houses: Edith Lesbians, Lesbian Bars, and the Social Production of People/Environment 29. John Paul Ricco has also explored this potential in the collective Farnsworth, Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe, and Philip Johnson,” in Women Relationships,” Architecture & Comportement / Architecture & Behaviour show Disappeared (1996) he curated at the Randolph Street Gallery and the Making of the Modern House: A Social and Architectural History 8, no. 2 (1992): 137-158. in Chicago. More recent works, for example Elmgreen & Dragset’s (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998), 128-159. 15. See, e.g., chapters 6 to 9 of Stephen Whittle, ed., The Margins of the architectural transformations (discussed in the next section), the Toxic 48. Adams, “Sex and the Single Building” (note 13). City: Gay Men’s Urban Lives (Aldershot, UK: Arena, 1994); Moira Kenney, Titties’ performances, or Robbins’s photographic panels in Households, 49. Beatriz Colomina, “Battle Lines: E.1027,” in The Sex of Architecture, Mapping Gay L.A.: The Intersection of Place and Politics (Philadelphia: continue this approach, but emphasize a broader discourse around all ed. Diana I. Agrest, Patricia Conway, and Leslie Kanes Weisman (New Temple University Press, 2001). identity categories. York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996); Katarina Bonnevier, “A Queer Analysis of 16. See for example the foundational texts in David Bell, Jon Binnie, Julia 30. Beatriz Colomina, Dennis Dollens, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Cindi Eileen Gray’s E.1027,” in Negotiating Domesticity: Spatial Productions Cream, and Gill Valentine, “All Hyped Up and No Place to Go,” Gender, Patton, Henry Urbach, and Mark Wigley, Queer Space (New York: of Gender in Modern Architecture, ed. Hilde Heynen and Gulsum Baydar Place & Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography 1, no. 1 (1994): 31-47; Storefront for Art and Architecture, 1994), Exhibition catalog, n.p. (London:Routledge, 2005); Rault, Eileen Gray and the Design of Sapphic David Bell and Gill Valentine, “Introduction: Orientations,” in Mapping 31. Beatriz Colomina, “Introduction,” in Queer Space (note 30). Modernity (note 27). Desire: Geographies of Sexualities, ed. David Bell and Gill Valentine 32. Betti-Sue Hertz, Ed Eisenberg, and Lisa Maya Knauer, “Queer Spaces 50. Ingar Dragset, interview with author, Berlin, June 8, 2012; Nils Wenk, (London: Routledge, 1995), 1-27. in New York City: Places of Struggle/Places of Strength,” in Queers in interview with author, Berlin, July 1, 2011. 17. Reed, “Imminent Domain: Queer Space in the Built Environment” Space: Communities | Public Places | Sites of Resistance, ed. Gordon 51. BOOM, Design: Architecture, accessed July 13, 2012, http:// (note 13), 64. Brent Ingram, Anne-Marie Bouthillette, and Yolanda Retter (Seattle: Bay boompalmsprings.com/design/#5. 18. Halperin, Saint Foucault (note 12), 63. Halperin’s definition has been Press, 1997), 356-370. 52. BOOM, Design: Architecture / Arakawa + Gins, accessed November widely repeated, for example in Nikki Sullivan, A Critical Introduction to 33. Mark Robbins, “Building Like America: Making Other Plans,” 20, 2012, http://boompalmsprings.com/design/arakawagins/#4. Queer Theory (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2003), 43; and in Assemblage, no. 24 (1994): 9. 53. BOOM, It Is All About You!, accessed July 12, 2012, http://www. Adams, “Sex and the Single Building” (note 13), 82. 34. bell hooks, Julie Eizenberg, and Hank Koning, “House, 20 June boomforlife.com/. 19. “A Kind of Queer Geography/Räume Durchqueeren: The Doreen 1994,” Assemblage 24 (1994): 22–29; Heidi J. Nast and Mabel O. Wilson, 54. BOOM, Design: Architecture / J Mayer H, accessed July 13, 2012, Massey Reading Weekends,” Gender, Place & Culture: A Journal of “Lawful Transgressions: This Is the House That Jackie Built,” Assemblage http://boompalmsprings.com/design/jmayerh/#5. Feminist Geography 13, no. 2 (2006): 178–79. 24 (1994): 49–55; Michael Moon, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Benjamin 55. BOOM, Design: Architecture / Diller Scofidio + Renfro, accessed July 20. Gordon Brent Ingram, Anne-Marie Bouthillette, and Yoalanda Retter, Gianni, and Scott Weir, “Queers in (Single-Family) Space,” Assemblage 13, 2012, http://boompalmsprings.com/design/dillerscofidiorenfro/#5. “Strategies for (Re)Constructing Queer Communities,” in Queers in 24 (1994): 30–37; Jonathan Crary and Joel Sanders,“Sight Specific,” 56. BOOM, Design: Architecture / J Mayer H (note 54); BOOM, Space: Communities | Public Places | Sites of Resistance, ed. Gordon Assemblage 24 (1994): 40–47. Design: Architecture / Rudin Donner, accessed July 13, 2012, http:// Brent Ingram, Anne-Marie Bouthillette, and Yoalanda Retter (Seattle: Bay 35. hooks, Eizenberg, and Koning, “House, 20 June 1994” (note 34). boompalmsprings.com/design/rudindonner/#3; BOOM, Design : Press, 1997), 456. 36. Moon et al., “Queers in (Single-Family) Space” (note 34), 30. Architecture / Joel Sanders Architect, accessed July 13, 2012, http:// 21. Bonnevier, Behind Straight Curtains (note 13), 22. 37. Ibid. boompalmsprings.com/design/joelsandersarchitect/#3. 22. Muñoz, Cruising Utopia (note 1), 11; Leo Bersani, Homos 38. Ibid., 34. 57. Design for the Palm Springs community started in 2011. The project is (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995). 39. Ingar Dragset, interview with author, Berlin, June 8, 2012. currently on hold until the housing market recovers. (Matthew Hoffman,

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 23. Muñoz, Cruising Utopia (note 1), 6. 40. Michael Elmgreen, Ingar Dragset, Jochen Volz, Jens Hoffman, and e-mail message to author, November 26, 2012.) 24. Ibid., 10. Dorothea Von Hantelmann, Spaced Out: [Anläßlich Der Ausstellungen 25. Ibid., 1. Michael Elmgreen & Ingar Dragset : Powerless Structures, Fig. 111; 3. 26. Eng, Halberstam, and Muñoz, “What’s Queer About Queer Studies Februar - 18. März 2001 Und Michael Elmgreen & Ingar Dragset : Spaced Now?” (note 12). out / Powerless Structures, Fig.211; 23. Mai 2003 Im Portikus Frankfurt 27. For recent examples of scholars rethinking oppositions of the public Am Main] (Frankfurt Am Main: Portikus, 2003), Exhibition catalog, and private spheres in past contexts, see, e.g., Despina Stratigakos, 34–35. A Women’s Berlin: Building the Modern City (Minneapolis: University 41. Dorothea Von Hantelmann, “Production of Space—Space of of Minnesota Press, 2008); Jason Edwards and Imogen Hart, “The Production,’ in Spaced Out (note 40), ed. Michael Elmgreen et al., 63. Victorian Interior: A Collaborative, Eclectic Introduction,” in Rethinking 42. Ibid., 62. the Interior c. 1867–1896: Aestheticism and Arts and Crafts, ed. Jason 43. A first experience of collaboration between the two national pavilions Edwards and Imogen Hart (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2010), 1-24; Jasmine at the Biennale, the project also unusually positions Elmgreen & Dragset Rault, Eileen Gray and the Design of Sapphic Modernity: Staying In as artists/curators/interior designers/industrial designers/directors.

VALLERAND 75 This article was downloaded by: [Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture] On: 28 August 2013, At: 04:47 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Architectural Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjae20 The Car Factory, Post-Industrialism, and Utopia Michael Faciejew a a McGill University Published online: 05 Mar 2013.

To cite this article: Michael Faciejew (2013) The Car Factory, Post-Industrialism, and Utopia, Journal of Architectural Education, 67:1, 52-63, DOI: 10.1080/10464883.2013.767126 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10464883.2013.767126

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The architectural figure of the factory, having historically func- tioned as a space for the unravelling of utopian ideals, endures as a physical and symbolic place for the production of culture both material and immaterial. Expanding on Vilém Flusser’s architectural and mediatic understanding of post-industrial culture as presented in his text “The Factory,” this essay posits that the dematerialized nature of the contemporary factory, while still functioning as a schema of social existence, limits the possibilities for the ideation of utopia by disengaging the subject from the regimes of knowledge and production. A case study centered on the virtual nature of Fer- rari’s new assembly facility in Maranello, Italy, designed by Ateliers Jean Nouvel is used to examine architecture’s evolutionary relation- ship to the dominant means of production and material culture in the industrial and post-industrial eras.

Introduction entity that also challenges the role of the human Figure 1. Renderings of Ateliers Jean Nouvel’s Ferrari Factory, Maranello, Despite its relative obsolescence in the post-indus- in the production of culture (Figure 1). The images Italy (image courtesy of Ateliers Jean Nouvel). trial world, the typology of the factory endures as a describe a fully interiorized utopian landscape in physical and symbolic place, the site for the produc- which seemingly nothing is actually being manufac- representations point to a rupture from the industrial tion of culture both material and immaterial. Em- tured. Businessmen stroll through tall grasses and past, the actualization of this net-zero ontology—a bodying not only the loaded issues that have shaped vehicles exist only as pixelated blurs of red and black. will to nothing—is possible only in the realm of medi- our institutions and our social bearings, notably the Aimlessly positioned in a meadow that recalls a pre- ated images. The implications of the Ferrari factory struggles of the individual versus the collective, and industrial era, these subjects are mere flâneurs in a and the broader techno-consumer world it projects world of reflective immaterial boxes they had no role must instead be viewed as part of the charged history Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 the cultural pandemic of mass production and mass consumption, the contemporary factory also offers in constructing but nevertheless inhabit. This is a fac- of the factory as a site of technological exploration a conflicting portrait of the post-industrial subject, tory that no longer produces workers and no longer and social utopianism, wherein organization cease- whose day-to-day existence demands an immutable produces things—a model of society in which man lessly reshapes the human experience. mediation between the material world that is inhab- is but a witness to autonomous forces of production. Phase I of Nouvel’s project consists of a new ited and the virtual technologies that facilitate it. Functioning as more than simple architectural render- assembly lines building organized on two 7.5-meter- The renderings produced for Ateliers Jean Nou- ings, these images depict the contemporary desire for high levels with offices, meeting rooms and relaxation vel’s winning 2006 competition entry for the design an existence that is unbound from corporeal reality, a areas (Figures 2 and 3). Located in the historical part of a new assembly facility at the Ferrari compound utopia of detachment in which processes of manufac- of the compound, reflective red panels are used as in Maranello, Italy, problematize the factory’s on- turing cease to have an impact on the environment cladding as well as a visual limit wherever the addition tological shift towards an autonomously fabricative and exert no force on human subjects. While these interferes with existing buildings. The mirror-finish

52 THE CAR FACTORY, POST-INDUSTRIALISM, AND UTOPIA Figure 2. Plan Level +12.24, Ateliers Jean Nouvel, Ferrari Factory, Maranello, Italy, 2006. Drawing courtesy of Ateliers Jean Nouvel.

Figure 3. Longitudinal Section, Ateliers Jean Nouvel, Ferrari Factory, Maranello, Italy, 2006. Drawing courtesy of Ateliers Jean Nouvel.

Figure 4. Exterior View of Ferrari Factory, Maranello, Italy. Photograph courtesy of Ateliers Jean Nouvel, photographer Philippe Ruault.

stainless steel façades are complemented by a lou- vered roof, the upper face of which is covered by an immense Ferrari logo that is reflected into the interior of the building. Together, these surfaces construct an architecture that concerns itself primarily with the virtual production of images, ultimately succeeding in creating form beyond matter (Figures 4 and 5). The gardens that permeate the building façades, dis- solving the boundary between interior and exterior, create a continuous greenscape that also serves as usable space for circulation and recreation, disen- gaging the factory from its industrial program and conflating the natural with the consumable (Figure 6). While Nouvel’s realized factory does not replicate the renderings perfectly, nevertheless, the images’ depiction of workers wearing red (identified with the objects that are being manufactured), of the pre- industrial meadow (unspoiled by the production of culture), and of a fully interiorized context (a closed, autonomous utopia) are apt in their representation of the contemporary desire to collapse material space into a virtual realm. In this architecture, subjugated to the status of a post-industrial medium, the subject is arrested in the gap between the material world and the images it projects, initiating a condition between the perceptible and the conceptual. Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 From the widely publicized opening of the steam-driven Albion Mill in the heart of London in 1786 to the present-day industrial architectures that blur the boundaries between research and develop- ment, assembly, and marketing, the factory has engaged in the world as a shifting model in which evolving systems and structures are tested and cali- brated; the factory has also been a place where the role and power of the human is put into question. The portrayal of the manufacturing industry in the

FACIEJEW 53 media today clearly indicates that the architectural figure of the factory has not yet been liberated from its dark industrial past. The recent uprisings, riots, and suicides that have arisen at Foxconn Technology manufacturing plants in China—throwbacks to the atrocious labour conditions of mill towns in the eigh- teenth and nineteenth centuries—are but one coun- terpoint to the suburban, bucolic luxury factories that have been celebrated since the Second World War in North America and Europe as optimistic views of technological liberation. Because the relationship between the produc- tion, dissemination, and acquisition of culture lies at the basis of social activity, the broader historical Figure 5. View of Reflective Ceiling, Ferrari Factory, Maranello, Italy. Photograph courtesy of Ateliers Jean Nouvel, photographer Philippe Ruault. framework that engages the struggles of the worker and the consumer is capable of revealing the aspira- tions of a civilization in any particular era. The fol- lowing pages situate the contemporary factory as a space which produces an ambiguous relationship between the dematerialized nature of post-industrial culture and the material world that we have yet to abandon. By focussing on the automobile and its place of assembly, the purpose of this essay is to examine the factory as a place that, while disen- gaging the contemporary subject from the lived-in world, plays a greater role in the production of a virtual culture than a material one. In this regard, it is the architect—more so than the worker—who participates in this cultural production, ultimately reducing the post-industrial object to the status of a simple carrier of information.1 A historical reading of the factory through its evolution from a place for the construction of utopia to an anti-utopian space of Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 exception (from the age of industrialism to the pres- ent-day paradigm of immateriality) will contribute to an understanding of the contemporary factory as a space that is capable of fabricating a utopian reality by transforming the dominant modernist themes of transparency, materiality, and machines to unrecog- nizable architectural figures. In an essay entitled “The Factory,” media phi- losopher Vilém Flusser writes of factories as being Figure 6. Exterior View of Ferrari Factory, Maranello, Italy. Photograph courtesy of Ateliers Jean Nouvel, photographer Philippe Ruault. not only places where “things are turned into other

54 THE CAR FACTORY, POST-INDUSTRIALISM, AND UTOPIA of Character, which opened at the New Lanark Twist Company in 1816. Founded on the guiding principles of a type of industrial humanism, the Institute pro- vided full-time education for children until the age of ten, curfews, sick funds, and kitchens and dining rooms, all of which functioned as a plea for a radical Factory Act that would ensure more humane employ- ment standards in factories. While Sir Robert Peel’s Cotton Mills and Factories Act, which was passed in Britain in 1819, would be far less prohibitive (out- lawing the employment of children less than 9 years of age and limiting the hours worked by children 16 years old or younger to no more than sixteen hours per day), Owen’s utopia existed as a means of pro- moting change in society and to realize the aspira- Figure 7. Claude Nicolas Ledoux, Plan Général de la Saline de Chaux, 1774. tions of the working class.5 As was the case for many industrialists whose attempts at realizing visions of a things,” but also as places where the manufactures architecturally idealized scheme for the modeling of new society would exist only as experiments, Owen’s themselves persistently create new kinds of human a workforce (Figure 7). A diagram of a self-contained ideas and blueprints for an improved society would beings—the shoemaker makes shoes, and also makes universe in both literal and figurative senses, the only truly become implemented at New Lanark. Per- a shoemaker out of himself. “So anybody who wants architecture of the Saltworks served to inflict ideas haps the most apt description of the limits of social to know about our past should concentrate on exca- of perfect social order, economic efficiency, and con- utopianism in the closed system of the factory was vating the ruins of factories. Anybody who wants to trol on the two hundred workers that inhabited the penned by the English novelist Anthony Trollope know about our present should concentrate on ex- compound.4 Cut off from the outside and guarded at after his visit in the 1860s to the city of Lowell, Mas- amining present-day factories critically. And anybody all times, the highly circumscribed society that was sachusetts, a city that, through its moral idealism who addresses the issue of our future should raise the created would serve as a foreshadowing of the ratio- and quality of living and working conditions, served question of the factory of the future.”2 Originally pub- nal form of industrial organization in the nineteenth as a counterpoint to the bleak English manufacturing lished in the 1970s, Flusser’s essay, while undermining and twentieth centuries and of Foucauldian spaces experience. Upon consideration of the clean, more the many brilliant thinkers that had previously taken of control like the Panopticon. The nineteenth cen- egalitarian city of Lowell with its improved working the issue of the factory head-on,3 enables a mediatic tury factory, and factory town, was well described by conditions, Trollope, pointing to the inability of this interpretation of the relationship between human and Friedrich Engels, the son of a German manufacturer, closed system to expand beyond its limits to the tool, between nature and culture. in his landmark study The Condition of the Work- greater world, wrote: “It is Utopia. . . . Lowell is a very wonderful place and shows what philanthropy Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 ing Class in England published in 1845, as a place A Brief History of the Car Factory that neglected basic needs like cleanliness, air, and can do; but I fear it also shows what philanthropy In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth health, and rendered the working class defenseless cannot do.”6 centuries, prior to the introduction of the mass- against the operative schema of the factory system. Whereas Detroit in the beginning of the twen- market automobile, deliberate attempts were made While the image of the factory in the city would tieth century is generally understood to be the true to embed new forms of social utopianism in the en- become increasingly menacing throughout the de- birthplace of the modern factory due to the radical closed world of the factory through severe rational- cades of the nineteenth century, industrialists such architectural and organizational experimentation ization, reform, and structural and political idealism. as Robert Owen experimented in reforming the fac- that was necessary for the rapid development of Claude-Nicolas Ledoux’s Royal Saltworks at Arc-et- tory system by taking an often literal approach at the the automotive industry, the pre-Fordist history Senans—a neoclassical oeuvre that is described in formation of new human beings. Owen’s progressive of the factory is telling in its direct attempt in the plan by the pure trajectory of the sun—provides an ideas took shape in his Institute for the Formation creation of new human beings, based on the moral

FACIEJEW 55 Internally organized as a group of nine build- ings based on new spatial relationships and social patterns, Kahn’s complex allowed for the total specialization of tasks and was the site of the first experiments with the moving assembly line. Stan- dardization, mechanization, speed, efficiency and careful control of workers and production were at the forefront of the architecture, taking precedence over the general well-being of workers (Figure 8). Spa- tially, the greatest reflection of the specialized nature of individual tasks was the separation between ad- ministration staff and factory workers into separate buildings. Each year, as productivity and production increased, the new system of repetitive movements forced the rhythm of the workers to merge with that of the machine. By the end of 1914, rationalization had changed almost everything in the factory, reduc- ing every task to unnatural regularity. A conveyor

Figure 8. Assembly line at the Ford Motor Company Highland Park Plant, 1914. Photograph courtesy of Ford Motor Company archives. belt, supplemented by a craneway used for handling materials, reduced the movement of workers around and intellectual standards of a desired population. zational machine, they could easily be replaced when the factory, eliminated the need for a portion of the The creation of various utopian worker communi- they ceased to function as desired. In Ford’s model, workforce and imposed a mechanical speed and re- ties in the nineteenth century was predicated on the the factory was truly understood to function as a petitiveness upon the laborers, allowing the assembly intentional repositioning of the worker as he or she whole rather than as disparate parts comprising indi- time of the chassis of the Model T to fall from 12.5 relates to the tools, manufactures, and architecture vidual machines and workers—a fully systematized hours to less than 3.9 This aggressive and dehuman- of the factory. Despite this humanistic approach technology that demanded deliberate experimenta- izing struggle for total efficiency, which enabled the to the organization of the factory, the influence of tion in organization. In 1905—prior to the introduc- success of Ford through the control of production, theories of the machine had already been the indus- tion of the Model T in 1908, which would be the only became the exact image that factories in the postwar trialists’ most prominent model since the beginning car that Ford produced for 18 years—the company period would attempt to counteract. of the nineteenth century. The British writer and had already begun sequentially arranging its produc- In 1917, as a result of the lack of available scientist Andrew Ure’s publication Philosophy of tion machines in the order in which they were used, space at Highland Park and its imperfect location Manufactures established in 1835 that the organiza- reducing time and labor costs. The plant at Highland for the delivery of materials, construction of Ford’s tion of the factory was not merely technological but Park, designed by Albert Kahn in 1908 and com- River Rouge plant began in Dearborn, Michigan. Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 one that was dependent on the “distribution of the pleted in 1910, made it clear in its incorporation of With Kahn once again acting as the architect for the different members of the apparatus into one coop- innovations in technologies that the factory building project, the primary concern for the architecture and erative body.”7 While the machine metaphor would had to be planned around production rather than planning of the site was the movement of materials. only come to its full realization in the dynamic years the humans that it housed.8 With the notion of the The secluded environment of the factory allowed of the Ford Motor Company, already in the period systems engineer coming to the forefront of factory River Rouge to develop into a veritable industrial preceding them rationalism imposed the metaphor of planning in the years leading up to the First World empire over the next five years; the construction of a the machine on things social, cultural, and religious. War, the architecture of Highland Park was a straight- processing plant, a paper mill, a glass plant, a rubber The factories of the Ford Motor Company forward manifestation of the technological and mana- plant and a textile mill, followed by the acquisition changed more than those of any other corporation gerial innovation advanced in Frederick Taylor’s The of coal fields, forests and rubber plantations, meant between 1904 and 1920; as parts of a large organi- Principles of Scientific Management of 1911. that every material that went into the Model T could

56 THE CAR FACTORY, POST-INDUSTRIALISM, AND UTOPIA be controlled by the Ford Motor Company. While this tion in Europe rather than in America, where the as- If the synthetic environment of the twentieth utopia of self-sufficiency, the realization of corporate sembly line was a dark day-to-day reality rather than century modernist factory was to become a model for centralization, would continue to increase the ef- an aesthetic dream.12 an egalitarian architecture, the machine aesthetic, ficiency of production through a seemingly infinite For modern European architects like Le Corbus- pure and legible in its function, was to provide the supply of natural resources, its location in an area ier, the paradoxical role of architecture was both that modalities for the formation of an altogether new without a true neighborhood or commercial area dis- of an enabler of social action as well as an inhibitor in type of human being. In this sense, the use of glass regarded the well-being of its workforce.10 The Ford- its subjugation to the laws of efficiency and produc- and the less literal dissolution of the boundary be- ist control of work at the beginning of the twentieth tivity enforced by the principles of Fordism and Tay- tween inside and outside would become a metaphor century thus recast human subjectivity not through lorism. The centrality of the factory as a paradigmatic for the transparency between the forces of capital- a relationship to other humans, or manufactures, but space for the unravelling of political action provided ism and society at large, an archetypal cliché of the by the inflexible systematization of the technology a utopian model of practice, engaging the discipline modern movement’s ideology of social justice. In The and machines that regulated the pace of life. of architecture with an ideology of revolution that Architectural Uncanny, Anthony Vidler discusses this Despite the oppressive political topology of could be achieved through the aestheticization of the notion of moral exhibitionism in modernism, wherein Ford’s empire, it would become the object of fas- dominant means of production.13 As Mary McLeod “transparency opened up machine architecture to cination for industrialists and architects all over the elaborates in the essay “‘Architecture or Revolution’: inspection—its functions displayed like anatomical world. His notion of an industrial utopia, achieved Taylorism, Technocracy and Social Change,” far from models, its walls hiding no secrets; the very epitome through the mechanical circulation of materials, critiquing the rationalizing tendencies of mechani- of social morality.”17 The generous glazed facades would inspire the Fiat Lingotto in Turin, one of the cal production, for Le Corbusier “the assembly line, of the Van Nelle Factory in Rotterdam, designed by earliest and most faithful replicas of Highland Park. standardization, and the expansion of a mass market architects L. C. van ver Vlugt, Johannes Brinkman, Designed from 1915 onward by company engineer through higher wages and lower prices gave impetus and Mart Stam and completed in 1930, provides one Giacomo Matte Trucco following Albert Kahn’s work to the belief that social problems could be alleviated such example of the virtuosity of openness, albeit in Detroit, the plant was an architectural rendition of within the boundaries of capitalism.”14 for a company producing tea, coffee, and tobacco. the moving assembly line—a ramp that spiraled up The aesthetic dimension of machinistic archi- Functioning as an optimistic landmark for the city’s through the building, allowing for the entire manu- tecture that was to evolve over the course of the future, the lights were left on in the building on facturing process to occur in a fluid sequence until early decades of the twentieth century in Europe Tuesday and Friday evenings, the cleanliness and the fully assembled vehicle emerged on the roof for a thus favored technical rationalization with the hope transparency of the architecture working to convey victory lap on a one-kilometer test track.11 This sen- of providing social justice through an improved cor- the idea of a visible modernity and a human atmo- sationalized architecture functioned as the ultimate porate capitalism.15 These visions of industrial utopia sphere to the general public while impacting sales.18 temple to progress, rationalization, and speed—the were a bipartisan endeavor between architect and Modern architecture’s infiltration of the factory, dominant themes that the modern movement as a corporation, as demonstrated by Kahn, and others, and its subsequent appropriation of the aesthetic whole would appropriate as means of introducing including Le Corbusier, whose public pleas for sup- principles of standardization as a universal language the machine aesthetic to the world. It is in this same port to industrial behemoths Peugeot, Citroen, and for architecture, thus also marked the metaphorical period that Le Corbusier and Gropius would publish Renault are to be found in his catalogue of the Esprit dissolution of the political space of the factory to the Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 images of industrial architecture and engineering Nouveau Pavilion.16 The avant-garde proposition metropolis in the years following the Second World marvels as the new emblems of society. For the that the architect place him- or herself within the War, as theorized by thinkers such as Antonio Negri avant-garde architect, the architecture of the fac- dominant system of production in order to transform and Mario Tronti.19 Through the subordination of tory and its rationalized processes of manufacturing it also restored a proximity of the discipline to the human architecture to that of machines, the space pointed to the elimination of the useless—a utopia materials and flows of information that were struc- of the factory, which once acted as an autonomous of the non-human. As David Gartman elucidates in turing the world, linking the realms of politics and model of society at large, extended its reach to the his revision of the history of modern architecture, architecture at the site of production. The factory, totality of social relations. With the myth of the ma- From Autos to Architecture: Fordism and Architec- as locus of society, became an autonomous instance chine fully translated from the distant future into ev- tural Aesthetics in the Twentieth Century, it is not of appropriation and occupation not only for the eryday existence, the utopian dimension of industrial surprising that the machine aesthetic came to frui- worker, but for the architect as well. architecture was rendered fully antiquated. No longer

FACIEJEW 57 capable of critiquing the very system it had infiltrat- ed, modern architecture was relegated to the status of a standardized design ideology that perpetrated social homogeneity and technological triumphalism, even at the site of industrial production. Coinciding with the emergence of high mo- dernity and its obsession with purity, functionalism, and cleanliness, the diminution of manufacturing industries in the postwar years redistributed the place of labor from the central factory to a diffuse urban territory. In its place, the explosive growth of immaterial labor—professions engaging cybernet- ics and computer controls as well as cultural and artistic standards like fashion, taste, and consumer norms—implied that, prior to being manufactured, a product needed to be sold. The Fordist method of mass production, having become outdated as a result of changing consumer demands, engendered a new logistics of manufacturing that implicated a con- trolled interaction between suppliers and customers. The Toyota Production System (also known as the Lean Production System), which was developed by Taiichi Ohno and Shigeo Shingo between 1948 and 1975, responded to changing cultural norms through a flexible workforce that could be developed through continuous training, and a leveled production that eliminated the need for inventories. Catering to customer demand, various car models could be pro- duced on the same production line according to the ratio of their demand on the market. The success of this production philosophy, still at work today, would significantly alter global manufacturing processes in the post-industrial period. Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 Following the Second World War, as working

Americans moved away to the new suburbs, modern Figure 9. Eero Saarinen, General Motors Technical Center, Warren, Michigan, 1956. Photograph courtesy of Michigan State Historic Preservation architecture in urban centers became increasingly Office, Lansing, Michigan. tolerated. In fact, many aspects of the suburban culture of consumption, especially those associ- the machine aesthetic.20 This broader acceptance of typically American concern with process.”21 Theorized ated with the automobile, adopted a more modern modernism spurred the development of research and by Reinhold Martin as a “mirror of the supposedly aesthetic as the emphasis on economic planning development campuses like Eero Saarinen’s project objective technological, economic, and aesthetic in government and industry shifted from entrepre- for the General Motors Technical Center of 1956, in conditions under which it was produced,” Saarinen’s neur–owners to managers and professionals, who Warren, Michigan, moving “the European modernist campus architecture was one of the earliest examples were preoccupied by the instrumental rationality of preoccupation with the image of technology [to] a of a corporate headquarters that blurred the bound-

58 THE CAR FACTORY, POST-INDUSTRIALISM, AND UTOPIA a whole population which appropriates them as a purely magical object.”25 Alison Smithson’s personal ode to the Goddess, AS in DS: An Eye On the Road, “a diary of car-move- ment recording the evolving sensibility of a passen- ger in a car to the post-industrial landscape” mirrors Barthes’s portrayal of the car as an image-machine that sold not only itself, but the very idea of move- ment and communication.26 No longer seen as fixed within the confines of a factory (an object around which the human circulated like the Fordist assembly line), the machine instead became a circulatory body, a liberating extension of the human that redefined his or her relationship to the tool. During this period, with the growing influence of knowledge-based pro- fessions such as the industrial designer, it becomes Figure 10. A line of Citroen DS cars in the main Citroën showroom on the Champs Elysées in Paris, mid-1960s. Photograph courtesy of Citroën clear that appearance, instead of substance, sells Communication. things. Just as the Model T functioned as an analogy to the bare-bones, undecorated, standardized, and ary between production and consumption (Figure to a rising wave of consumer culture. The fetishiza- efficient building machine of the Ford factory, the 9).22 In fact, the architectural hyper-specialization of tion of the automobile as a commodity illustrates sleek, stylish cars of the post-industrial period were manufacturing tasks that dominated the rationalism the architectural transfiguration of the machine from successful products in their ability to engage the of Ford’s plants would be inverted in buildings like a programmatic and aesthetic object that engaged symbolic nature of material culture. Kevin Roche and John Dinkeloo’s 1973 Components directly with the material system of production to a The products of the post-industrial age, cyber- Plant for the Cummins Diesel Engine Company, in communicative structure that formed relationships netic structures in themselves, coincided with the in- Darlington, UK, wherein physical demarcations be- between social, economic, and technological forces.23 filtration of the computer into architectural discourse tween factory floor and offices were fully dissolved. Fundamentally different from the ubiquitous Ford T as a new communication machine made of silicon In this post-industrial period, as the boredom of Model that was reproduced as an aura-less tool, the rather than steel. Shifting from hardware to software, the assembly line became an increasingly distant Citroën DS is an example of a post-industrial ma- a parallel may be drawn between Barthes’s magical memory, the transformation of factory planning from chine that became a collective apparatus, an imma- object of the car and the magical object of the com- industrial estate to business park would continue terial shell that could be replicated while maintaining puter. Whereas the machine of the early modernist over the course of the following decades, building up unique divine properties (Figure 10). The object of era portrayed a kind of transparency between its architecture’s concern with corporate image-making. fascination for many thinkers, the DS (the Goddess) function and its use, the post-industrial machine, as a Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 Engaging as a universal condition of life, the spa- was perhaps best illustrated by Roland Barthes who tool for the deployment of images, provided no such tialization of post-industrial culture and politics thus spoke of it as an object that was “totally prosti- direct material legibility. The car thus became media. shifts from the regimented factory to the indetermi- tuted, appropriated: originating from the heaven of For architecture, the issue of what a machine should nate space of the post-industrial compound. Metropolis, the Goddess is in a quarter of an hour look like was not of “a first order of figurative resem- The motor of the political and spatial trans- mediatised, actualizing through this exorcism the blance . . . but of a second order resemblance, based formation of production in the postwar years is re- very essence of petit-bourgeois advancement.”24 For on a machine’s capacity to integrate itself into a com- flected in the evolutionary nature of machines (from Barthes, cars were “almost the exact equivalent of munications network also populated by humans—to legible to opaque ones), which expanded their ma- the great Gothic cathedrals: I mean the supreme cre- disguise itself, as it were, in representations resem- terial appearance into disposable wish-images that ation of an era, conceived with passion by unknown bling those produced by humans.”27 The fact that promised a better society and a happier life, speaking artists, and consumed in image if not in usage by post-industrial machines compute, that they almost

FACIEJEW 59 autonomously produce immaterial culture in the form Ferrari’s Post-Industrial Production in work actions must “give the impression of” a qual- of text and images (as both the computer and the Founded in 1929 by Enzo Ferrari, Ferrari S.p.A. ity product and great involvement on the part of its Citroen DS have done), renders their status as mere began producing street-legal vehicles in 1947 at the employees.31 Implemented in 1997 as the “Formula objects unstable. In this paradigm, the notion of ma- site of its current manufacturing facilities in Ma- Uomo” initiative, this self-proclaimed “industrial neo- teriality is fundamentally reformulated in that through ranello, Italy. In the 1970s, its assembly line hall was humanism” combines technological excellence with this process, the immaterial emerges as a commodity enlarged to twice its size and a test track was built superb craftsmanship in the workplace while allowing and trumps the value of the material. It is however alongside the existing Gestione Sportiva Building. The Ferrari employees to benefit from a range of educa- crucial to point out that the material is not in any way 1990s brought about another expansion with a new tion, fitness, and well-being programs.32 Like all fac- rendered useless; rather, its function is to posit the foundry and halls for processing composite materials tories that rationalize labor in order to maximize the immaterial through visible cues.28 In the space of the and Formula One machining. Ferrari’s architectural efficiency of the production line, Ferrari exists in the metropolis, fully consumed as a factory for immaterial transfiguration into a virtual aesthetic venue began in realm of the principles of scientific management that culture, the subject is doubled—virtual and physical: 1997 under the guidance of the company’s chairman came to the forefront of the manufacturing indus- Luca Cordero di Montezemolo, whose aims were to try in the period during World War I. Workers in the Contrary to what is often claimed, it is not “create the best possible working conditions for em- new assembly lines building, for example, exert 60% the risk of dematerialization that looms over ployees to reach excellence in their jobs,” to remodel less movement than in the previous building, thus contemporary architecture, but rather the loss the brand’s identity “in accordance with altered dramatically reducing assembly time. Continuing the of all political and social bearings, in a world socioeconomic conditions” and “not to abandon the lineage of the post-industrial factory, the necessary where devotion to programmatic and economic Factory to its staked-out destiny of disappearing from blurring of the boundaries between research, design, efficiency is king. In such a world, architecture the face of the Earth.”30 Over the course of the next production, and marketing is achieved through the no longer seems equipped to engage anything decade, one by one, a series of designer buildings inauguration of the Product Development Center. In more than the physical individual and the con- were added to reinforce an interactive brand experi- an attempt to reforge Ferrari’s identity, the modern sumer: the body and the credit card.29 ence and to overpower an anachronistic industrial corporate ideology developed by Toyota in the 1950s, program. Ateliers Jean Nouvel’s new Assembly Lines which integrates material and immaterial processes of With the increasing influence of digital technologies on building, Renzo Piano’s Wind Tunnel, Luigi Sturchio’s manufacturing into a socio-technical system, is ex- material culture and of post-industrial urbanization on Logistics building, Massimiliano Fuksas’s Product tended into the twenty-first century in the form of an the city, it has seemingly become more difficult to lo- Development Center, and Mario Visconti’s new Paint architectural compound. cate the site of politics in architectural discourse. When Shop and Mechanical Workshop together contribute The greatest difference between the updated one imagines a virtual utopia, ideas of total dematerial- to a Ferrari factory that engages in transnational mar- Ferrari Factory and the factories of the past is rooted ization inevitably arise as a by-product of the assumed kets instead of local communities. The architectural in the ambiguation of the relationship between placelessness of network culture, as though material response of the designer factory comes as a necessary human and machine, the conflation of nature and reality played only a secondary role to our telematic acknowledgement of the post-industrial shift from culture, and the discordance between the material existence. However it is important to remember that, standardization to mass customization and enables reality of architecture and its mediated, virtual ex- despite the dissolved factories of Mario Tronti and istence. If we look specifically at Nouvel’s addition

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 the commodification of the experience of Ferrari in- Archizoom, this intangible utopia would be impossible stead of the object itself. to the compound and the renderings from the 2006 without tools, machines, and the actual sites that prop- The basis for the transformation of this histori- competition entry, the desire to create a factory agate immaterial culture through material means. As an cal automotive complex into an artificial micro-city that “gives the impression of” quality paradoxically emblem of the forces of production that organize our encapsulates the multifarious principles of the fosters a new kind of visual culture through virtual world, the architecture of the factory, which remains industrial utopias of the past. In line with the think- means. With the transformation of political space a site for the production of much of the world’s ing of great nineteenth century industrialists like and architecture through immaterial culture, the knowledge and culture (both “real” and “virtual”), is Robert Owen and Jean-Baptiste Godin in France material/immaterial paradigm involves a dialectical persistently subject to technological revolutions and (who followed Charles Fourier’s notion of a utopian motion between the two poles. Di Montezemolo’s theories of efficiency and hence functions still today as socialism), di Montezemolo stipulates that light, air, revamping of the factory result from the accurate a primordial space for the instigation of subjectivity. greenery, absolute cleanliness, and a certain freedom understanding that architecture as a post-industrial

60 THE CAR FACTORY, POST-INDUSTRIALISM, AND UTOPIA utopian ideal in which the human is relieved from the difficulties of labor and work, this futuristic artisanal manufacturing process is at variance with Ferrari’s other spaces, where the role of the worker is still to serve and maintain the machine. The totalizing space of the Ferrari compound, in which architecture functions as an extension of the technologies that generate material and immaterial culture, also functions to propagate the notion of an environmental utopia, emphasizing the contempo- rary desire for a net-zero ontology. Like the culture of paperlessness that substitutes supplies of paper with electronic products that inevitably become e- waste, the image of the high-performance, ecological

Figure 11. Interior view of Ferrari Factory, Maranello, Italy. Photograph courtesy of Ateliers Jean Nouvel, photographer Philippe Ruault. environment of the factory challenges the wasteful ethos fostered by postwar consumerism and material- ism. The architectural emphasis on the sustainable medium ceases to function at a strictly material level, dexterity of the human hand, drastically marginalizing technologies that permeate the various buildings in and instead hints at the unrealized potential of virtu- the need for human workers. As the singular space in the compound contribute to a “green factor” in an ally constructed realities: the entire Ferrari compound that situates the worker attempt to form an ecological self-sufficiency that at the center of the manufacturing process, Nouvel’s exonerates the factory from the environmental dev- I have to show them a blend of high technology Assembly Lines building functions as the most critical astation of industries past. Humidity and temperature and a natural and human environment. I want space for the mediation of the Ferrari image. Be- control, internal green spaces, devices that reduce them to see trees, growing in spotless factories. cause part of the Ferrari mystique is indebted to the acoustic emissions, large windows for natural light Above all, I want them to understand that our brand’s reputation for hand-crafted workmanship, the and ventilation, a visual correspondence between charm lies in this blend of old and new, in the skilled tradesperson must remain in the spotlight as a inside and outside, bio-climatic technologies, and symbiosis between a very manual job and highly counterpoint to the dehumanizing assembly line that heat storage technologies are embedded in the logic sophisticated tool machines. It is like seeing became so menacing in the twentieth century (Figure of this infinitely marketable architecture. In contrast a work of contemporary art and a Tintoretto 11). Over the course of the last three days in a man- to Ford’s River Rouge plant, where self-sufficiency hanging side by side. This is our way of convey- ufacturing process that takes altogether three weeks, implied the absolute control over, and unlimited ing and fueling the Ferrari legend.33 technicians in the Assembly Lines building, assisted supply of, all materials required for the manufacturing by robots, install engines into the body, bolt in top process, the self-sufficiency of Ferrari acts to release Ferrari’s “warm” technology, a merger between panels, and install selected seating materials, dash- its factory from the material world. This will to noth- Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 robotic high technology and a sophisticated artisanal boards, and any special inserts. From the construc- ing—to exist immaterially—reflects a sustainable process, projects the factory worker into a future tion of the bodywork and chassis, to the engine and utopianism that negates industry’s depletion of natu- realm, wherein woven man-machine interactions gearbox assembly, to the painting and finishing, labor ral resources, and transforms the factory into a ver- enable creativity, passion, and enthusiasm—an op- in general has been taken over by automation and sion of “progressive industrial architecture as expres- timistic view of technological liberation that builds robots in the other buildings of the Ferrari compound sionist liberation from the material worth of goods.”35 upon a luxury brand’s historical contingency on hand- and in nearby Maranello.34 Because the cooperative icraft. This reciprocal relationship between human and structure between robots and workers exists primarily Conclusion machine differs from other contemporary models of in the assembly lines building, the minimal amount If we are to address Flusser’s query about the production such as the Tesla factory, in Fremont, Cali- of manual procedures mentioned here is rendered factory of the future seriously, we must not only fornia, where highly skilled robots have surpassed the public in the mediated space of Nouvel’s factory. As a ask ourselves what kind of human the car factory is

FACIEJEW 61 temporary city, the utopian dimension of the Ferrari compound’s site lies in the disconnect between mate- rial reality and the material autonomy that it portrays, privileged by a mediated experience of the space. To appreciate the factory of today in terms of its architecture is to discern in its design a prevailing trend that speaks of a transparent and dematerial- ized technological utopianism, the immense glassi- ness of which provides a blinding concealment of the places that actually produce most of the world’s things (those factories that have been relegated to other parts of the world) and of the materials re- quired in their manufacturing—a distortion of the attempts at moralistic transparency of early modern factories like the Van Nelle. Incorporating theme parks, museums, and leisure venues into a constant marketing event, the car factory has become a veri- table stage for “production.” This notion of the fac- tory-as-utopian-concept has been appropriated by Figure 12. Henn Architekten, Volkswagen Glass Factory, Dresden, Germany, 2002. Photograph courtesy of HENN, photographer H. G. Esch. a number of the world’s largest car manufacturers, notably in the well-documented cases of the BMW producing today, but more importantly whether the ency between means of production and anticipated Leipzig Plant by Zaha Hadid (2002–2006) and Volk- car factory is producing cars at all, and if not, then outcome. The design of the dream car and of the swagen’s Glass Factory in Dresden by Henn Architek- what is it producing? The ability to trace societal or custom-built car has become a part of everyday con- ten (2002), both of which employ a highly aestheti- political topology through the architecture of the temporary history; you do not have to own one to cized “stroll through the garden” approach to dis- factory is contingent on the relationship between the be a part of its history; you just have to consume the mantle the idea of the factory as a place for human human and the processes by which culture is manu- image, the brand and its symbolic values. It is not control and environmental devastation (Figure 12). factured. Flusser reconstructs human history through surprising that roughly 20 percent of Ferrari’s profit Another more recent striking example is the revamp- the evolutionary nature of manufacturing from hand results from branded articles and activities.37 The ing of the McLaren Production Center in Surrey, UK, to tool to machine and finally to robot, continuously company’s factory workers, in their participation in by Foster + Partners, into a pure architectural image. disrupting the subject’s relationship to “things.” the manufacturing of vehicles, play an equal role in Completed in 2011, the building, equipped with the Because factories “are places in which new kinds of the production of technological images. familiar rainwater collection system, photovoltaic human beings are always being produced,” revolu- The danger that is presented in di Montezemolo’s panels, and displacement ventilation, is marketed as Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 tions in factory architecture fundamentally recon- attempt at a full realization of post-industrial utopia a “further leap forward in the evolution of industrial figure our relationship to the material world.36 This (and in the images that communicate its architecture) buildings, both socially and in terms of working post-industrial, post-historical view of homo faber is that the subject’s role is reduced to that of a viewer conditions and technologically in its flexibility and positions the human at the center of the factory of who need not engage in the material world. Whereas the sophistication of its services integration.”38 In the future, which reinstates a utopian dimension to the factory of the machine city endures as a collective an information age where the factory has seemingly its architecture as enabled by the weaving of man- image of the modern era, the factory of the computa- lost its central role as an objective political space and machine interactions. While the process of manufac- tional city functions as a complex mechanism whose as a spatial schema of labor relations and cultural turing may once again become an act of producing virtuality takes precedence over its material state, a production, these are the types of places that are new information (and thus of exerting free action), place where the manufacture of culture prioritizes celebrated in popular media for their non-hierarchical an optimistic view is predicated upon the transpar- information over things. As an emblem of the con- organization and ethical manufacturing practices,

62 THE CAR FACTORY, POST-INDUSTRIALISM, AND UTOPIA evoking nostalgia for a time when the material world 4. Gillian Darley, Factory (London: Reaktion Books, 2003), 51. 34. “Ferrari Factory Tour: Assembly Line,” Designboom, http://www. correlated more directly to the systems of power that 5. Ibid., 60. designboom.com/design/ferrari-factory-tour-assembly-line/. 6. Anthony Trollope, North America (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1862), 35. Casciani, “The Last (and Latest) Factory” (note 30), 22. managed it. If the history of the automobile and its 249. 36. Flusser, The Shape of Things (note 2), 44. place of assembly provides us with an analogy to the 7. Andrew Ure, Philosophy of Manufactures or An Exposition of the 37. John Tagliabue, “The Prestigious Design of Ferrari’s Factory,” evolutionary nature of society, what does it mean for Scientific, Moral, and Commercial Economy of the Factory System of New York Times, November 27, 2008, http://www.nytimes. Great Britain, 3rd ed. (1860; reprint, New York: Burt Franklin, 1969), 20. com/2008/11/28/business/28ferrari.html. the realm of iconic industrial architecture to be domi- 8. Lindy Biggs, The Rational Factory: Architecture, Technology, and 38. “McLaren Production Centre by Foster + Partners,” Foster + Partners, nated in this day and age by the luxury vehicle? Work in America’s Age of Mass Production (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins http://www.dezeen.com/2011/11/17/mclaren-production-centre-by- Our notion of the information society and University Press, 1996), 105. foster-partners// its handheld devices that generate culture upon 9. Ibid., 117. 10. Ibid., 136. request has coalesced us into believing that all 11. Darley, Factory (note 4), 85. culture—be it material or immaterial in nature—is 12. David Gartman, From Autos to Architecture: Fordism and Architectural produced as effortlessly as the data that permeates Aesthetics in the Twentieth Century (New York: Princeton Architectural all facets of our existence. In this sense, the Ferrari Press, 2009), 15. 13. Felicity Scott, “On Architecture Under Capitalism,” Grey Room 6 factory is the utopia that engages our present-day (Winter 2002): 57. aim at virtual emancipation, inhabiting a world that 14. Mary McLeod, “‘Architecture or Revolution’: Taylorism, Technocracy, is but a mediated construction of the material reality and Social Change,” Art Journal 43, no.2 (Summer 1983): 135. 15. Ibid., 137. that exists. Just as the factory of the industrial era 16. Ibid., 140. once acted as a model of the subject’s relationship 17. Anthony Vidler, The Architectural Uncanny: Essays in the Modern to the manufacturing of culture, once again we see Unhomely (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992), 217. the contemporary factory acting as such a model, 18. Darley, Factory (note 4), 122. 19. See Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire (Cambridge, MA: though it is one that extends the confusion between Harvard University Press, 2000), as well as Mario Tronti, “Workerism and production and consumption that has pervaded the Politics,” Historical Materialism 18, no.3 (2010): 186–89, which discuss a metropolis of the twentieth century into a virtual transformation of the dominant productive processes from industrial labor to communicative, cooperative, and effective labor. realm. If the factory of the future is to function as a 20. Gartman, From Autos to Architecture (note 12), 21. model of the future city and once again foster a spir- 21. Murray Fraser, “Eero Saarinen and the Boundaries of Technology,” it of opposition to the dominant forces of our time, it The Oxford Review of Architecture 1 (1996): 59. becomes essential that it assert itself as a discursive 22. Reinhold Martin, The Organizational Complex: Architecture, Media and Corporate Space (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005), 128. architecture that situates itself between the regimes 23. See Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of of contemporary knowledge and production. Man (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994 [1966]), which situates everyday material culture like cars and clothing as communicative extensions of Acknowledgments man in an era of mass consumption. 24. Roland Barthes, Mythologies (London: Random House, 2009), 103. I gratefully acknowledge the editors at the Journal of 25. Ibid., 101. Architectural Education for their astute commentary, 26. Alison Smithson, AS in DS: An Eye on the Road (Baden: Lars Muller, Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:47 28 August 2013 with particular indebtedness to the generous support 2001), 1. 27. Martin, The Organizational Complex (note 22), 174. of Christina Contandriopoulos. I am also thankful for 28. Wendy Hui Kyong Chun, “On Software, or the Persistence of Visual the critically constructive comments of two anony- Knowledge,” Grey Room 18 (Winter 2005): 44. mous JAE reviewers. 29. Antoine Picon, “The Ghost of Architecture: The Project and Its Codification,” Perspecta 35 (2004): 19. 30. Stefano Casciani, “The Last (and Latest) Factory,” Domus 872 (July– Notes August 2004): 22. 1. Vilém Flusser, “The Photograph as Post-Industrial Object: An Essay on 31. Stefano Boeri, “The Ferrari City,” Domus 872 (July–August 2004): 27. the Ontological Standing of Photographs,” Leonardo 19, no. 4 (1986): 331. 32. “New Assembly Lines,” Ferrari S.p.A., , http://www.ferrari.com/ 2. Vilém Flusser, The Shape of Things (London: Reaktion Books, 1999), 44. english/about_ferrari/ferrari_today/the_factory/gt_car_production/ 3. Flusser has recognized in interviews that his thinking is deeply pages/new_assemply_lines.aspx. indebted to Hannah Arendt and Walter Benjamin. 33. Boeri, “The Ferrari City” (note 31), 27.

VALLERAND 63 This article was downloaded by: [24.34.163.121] On: 28 August 2013, At: 04:34 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Architectural Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjae20 Integrating Structures and Design in the First-Year Studio Catherine Wetzel a a Illinois Institute of Technology Published online: 04 Dec 2012.

To cite this article: Catherine Wetzel (2012) Integrating Structures and Design in the First-Year Studio, Journal of Architectural Education, 66:1, 107-114, DOI: 10.1080/10464883.2012.715980 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10464883.2012.715980

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Introducing structures learning to the first-year architectural design site, and formal composition. Our ambition is to create professionals who speak the language of the studio situates structures as fundamental to both the design engineer, while leading a design team that has the broadest cultural ambitions for architecture. In this process and architectural expression. At the Illinois Institute of article, I will describe six years of our experience with Technology, we use dynamic modeling techniques and large-scale this approach, and assess its results.

installations to help students develop a visual and tacit structural Context intelligence, and to encourage students to take a greater interest At the Illinois Institute of Technology we are concerned, among other things, with the in structural systems as a design concern. Similar to a design-build idea of structure, structure as an architectural teaching model, our approach relies upon active experimentation concept. We do not design buildings, we construct them, develop them. We are for with structural models and installations, and reveals the latent this reason concerned with the right use of design potential in structural systems. materials, clear construction, and its proper expression. Since a building is a work to be done and not a notion to be understood, we believe that a method of work, a way of Introduction that the architect and engineer must have a common doing, should be the essence of architectural Architects from Frank Lloyd Wright and Louis I. vocabulary if they are to work together productively.2 education.3 Kahn to Renzo Piano and Rem Koolhaas have In the graduate Master of Architechure program at designed structurally advanced buildings that frame IIT, we approach Salvadori’s challenge by integrating A Miesian legacy that emphasizes a rational a contemporary understanding of technology and structures instruction with the design process in the approach to architectural design developed through culture.1 These architects use sophisticated structural foundation design studios. Our approach emphasizes material properties, structural systems, and spatial concepts along with innovative material applications the development of a tacit understanding of definition is central to studio-based teaching at to design buildings that engage engineering and structures, so students can focus on the engineering Illinois Institute of Technology. From 1938 to1978, Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 structures as a decisive form of expression. Within knowledge needed for design development. We the teaching of materials and methods and short- the academy, we tend to view these collaborations as teach structural design skills, which are distinct from and long-span structures was the focus of the the exception rather than the rule, and routinely limit the analytical skills taught to engineers, through beginning undergraduate studio sequence (years structures instruction to a lecture-based sequence an iterative process that relies upon experiment, two and three).4 At its core, building technology of physics, statics, strength of materials, and modeling, and full-scale installations. was firmly understood as fundamental to the making structural analysis, as if calculation offers the only In contrast to the current propensity for of architecture, and the word “design” was never means of understanding structures. These courses, specialization within both the academy and the used in the vocabulary of the curriculum.5 Under often taught by engineers, struggle to reach their profession, our approach to integrating structures the direction of Myron Goldsmith, Fazlur Khan, audience, and isolate structures knowledge from and design encourages students to inform their and David Sharpe, the graduate program extended the design studio. At best, the topic reappears as an design decisions with an understanding of material this pedagogy through individually directed studies obligatory exercise in the comprehensive building properties, structural systems, and spatial definition of structural analysis and building tectonics that project near the end of the program of study. As in equal measure. Here, the contemporary virtue advanced research in high-rise and long-span a consequence, structural design tends to become of structural expression resides in its capacity design.6 a burden for the student, the faculty, and the to contribute to material and spatial expression. In recent years in both the graduate and professional. Our objective is to develop a particular sensibility undergraduate programs, the early studios have More than 50 years ago, Mario Salvadori, the among our students, one that allows them to place shifted to new methods of teaching that respect the acclaimed structural engineer and educator, argued structural design on an equal footing with program, continued

WETZEL 107 relationship of material, construction, and structure but abandon the exacting linearity of the original curriculum. New faculty, with varied backgrounds, have broadened the previously narrow tectonic ideal to include a range of contemporary design methods.7 We have introduced site, context, ecology, and culture to the design studio, as a complement to the practices of building science. Technology continues to define the core studio sequence in the

undergraduate and graduate programs, however. Figure 1. Testing a dynamic force model of the Lueutschenbach School, 2011 (Christian Kerez architect). Case study model by James McNally The six-semester studio sequence in the Master and Justin Otanicar. (Photograph by author.) of Architecture first professional degree program progresses from Vocabulary and Materiality in year structural proportioning methods, and large-scale realities, and has resulted in a number of remarkable one, to Structurally Determinant Architecture and installations introduce structures from a visual and discoveries for our students, our colleagues, and Comprehensive Building Design in year two, and intuitive perspective, as opposed to a quantitative ourselves. finishes with Urbanism and a Master’s Project in year one. Based on his own education at the University three. An eight-week structures module at the end of Illinois and the University of California Berkeley, Instruction of the first-year second semester, in the Materiality Paul Endres, in his desire to incorporate the two Over the course of three lectures, instructors Studio, provides a transition from year one to disciplines, recognized the wide gap between his give an introduction to structural forces at the scales year two. Paul Endres, FAIA, principal engineer/ structural and architectural knowledge. Neither of the particle, the structural member, and the architect of Endrestudio, collaborates with the his architecture nor his engineering degrees had system. We use the acronym BATS as a mnemonic year-long architecture faculty, Professor Richard provided a means of defining a common ground for the four primary forces, bending, axial, torsion, Nelson and me. The team-teaching format inculcates between the two disciplines. Faced with the and shear. We make the significance of structural a common vocabulary and a culture of combined constraints of early digital modeling software, behavior and simple structural analysis accessible in Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 expertise; we teach structures within the studio as Endres initiated and developed a simple flexible or a very limited time through visual demonstration and a fluid component of the design process and an “dynamic” physical method of structural modeling hands-on learning. integral determinant of architectural design. The that paralleled computational model deformation We associate the basic vocabulary of structures module’s three components—studio-based lectures, and performance predictions without significant with common objects and their behavior so that case studies of innovative structural designs, and data input.8 These dynamic physical models are students have a qualitative understanding of design-build installations—have developed from the basis of his professional practice and are useful terminology. During lectures, students model with our understanding that active learning is needed to tools for demonstrating structural behavior to a string and a single weight a bending moment advance the integration of structure in the design architecture students. His own research in stress diagram. The diagram is modified through the process. This studio-based teaching complements, gradient patterns has led to a series of unpublished addition of distributed weights. We compare shear but does not significantly alter, the required Statics, studies in member proportioning derivations.9 force in paper and fabric so that students have a Strengths of Material and Structural Analysis Richard Nelson and I apply these dynamic modeling concrete visual reference for this phenomenon. coursework. techniques and member-proportioning criteria Throughout each lecture, students manipulate We emphasize a qualitative, empirical to a design process that directs students in the string, paper, fabric, and pliable wood strips, all approach to understanding structures that focuses conception, design, and fabrication of large familiar objects, demonstrating structural concepts. on understanding forces and the mechanisms of installations. Our six-year long collaboration has The instructors make simple blackboard drawings resistance through disciplined experimentation and produced a wide range of investigations that test of stress gradient patterns to help students locate ambitious fabrication. Dynamic physical modeling, material applications, construction, and structural tension and compression in structural members and

108 Integrating Structures and Design in the Studio joints with hot glue. We reveal force Application flow with real-time model deformation. These studies culminate in large-scale In class presentations, students use the structurally determined installations initiated, models and their structural vocabulary directed, and built by teams of five or six students. to identify bending, axial, shear, and Our primary objective is the fabrication of a torsional force, and the means of structural and material investigation at the largest resistance. Structural engineers from scale manageable, financially and physically. Our SOM often join student teams, and method of structural design is based on knowledge contribute professional expertise to the of stress patterns, along with the associated knowledge that students have gained proportions of structural members (Figure 2). from their models.10 Each year ten to The installations are located in and around fifteen models demonstrate the force Crown Hall; open systems capitalize on local flow and deformation of buildings such opportunities for anchorage, and closed systems as the dia-grid communication towers move freely until students find a good fit. The open of Vladimir Shukov, the tetrahedron plan of Crown Hall and the expanse of the campus

Figure 2. Stress gradient diagram of installation, 2010, by Diane Hoffer-Schurecht. (Courtesy trusses of the United States Air Force landscape showcase the installations, providing of Diane Hoffer-Schurecht.) Academy Cadets Chapel by SOM, both backdrop and contrast. Students make initial and the post-tensioned Saransuns proposals of their ideas, considering their formal, systems. We provide examples of sample structural Footbridge by Conzett, Bronzini, Gartmann. The structural, and experiential concepts, and we systems in the natural and built environment which dynamic force models form a broad investigation of resolve siting questions as the team advances their form a set of member-proportioning ratios based 20th and 21st century structural applications, and design investigations, accommodating the all- on force identification and connection conditions. we retain the best models to use as teaching tools in school year-end exhibition, which occurs when their There are no quizzes or calculations. All concepts subsequent years. continued are drawn, diagrammed, or modeled in less than six hours, compressing the breadth of structural knowledge into a limited number of key concepts. Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 Investigation The lecture content is the basis for the second component of the module, case studies of significant structural work from the shells of Eduardo Torroja and Eero Saarinen, to the hybridized tensile work of Peter Rice and Santiago Calatrava. From a faculty- generated list of more than 150 structures, students are guided in their choice of case studies such that each studio will address a broad range of shells, domes, truss, tensegrity, and torsion systems. Pairs of students build dynamic force models that visually demonstrate the flow of forces through structural members using flexible scalar materials for each case study (Figure 1). With materials such as

thread and springs, students actively model tension. Figure 3. Installation; quarter-scale model of a concrete cantilever shell, 2007, designed and fabricated by John Castro and Stephen Claeys. They use paper to describe shear, and construct pin- (Photograph courtesy of Richard Nelson.)

WETZEL 109 material did not provide sufficient redundancy in the overall structural system, and as a result the student team could not maintain construction tolerances within the maximum eccentricity of the compression tube. With a 100-foot long “working” model, the action of the forces was fully visible. The bridge failure produced invaluable evidence of the dynamics of structural behavior for the studio. Figure 4. Installation; reciprocal frame parabolic vault of reclaimed dimensional lumber, 2007, designed and fabricated by Ayisha Fryer, Stefani Guerra, Katie Hart, Kevin Krebel, Trudy Mesik, Sayaka Nanko, Iteration Tasneem Saeed, Tyler Waldorf, and Camille Yu. (Photograph courtesy of Based on this experience, we altered the design Paul Endres.) process. Now students are required to produce dynamic force models of their installations, which installations are in place. Other project constraints test their ideas at increasing scales, and fabricate include schedule, labor, material acquisition, budget, additional full-size prototypes of members and and construction sequencing. The door openings connections. We did not alter the basic objectives in Crown Hall limit unit fabrication sizes. The desk of the studio, however; the studio investigation removal and floor-cleaning schedule for the year-end continues to move from the application of the show limits building access. Project locations are lecture content to case studies using dynamic continuously negotiated up to the final week before modeling techniques, and then to design and the opening of the year-end show. construction of full-scale installations. Figure 6. Testing a proof of concept model for a three dimensional arch, Our first design-build installations, six years self-anchored by cantilevers, 2012, designed and fabricated by Kuan-ju We realized that moving directly from a ago, set an ambitious agenda with respect to our Chen, Weibin Li, Caitlin Mehta, Surambika Pradhan, Elliot Stevenson, Tim small-scale formal model to full-scale construction Wang, and Tongyu Wu. (Photograph by author.) schedule and the students’ construction skills. compromised the learning process and the final Student mastery of logistical issues determined opportunity to isolate force resolution and test result. When we introduced iterative structural success, while over-ambitious minimization of design details prior to construction. Students models of increasing scale, students had the structure and the lack of rigorous testing of all now use successive “proof of concept” dynamic Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 installation elements led to failure. One team force models to evaluate decisions at the scale of of students developed a quarter-scale model the structural system, while full-scale models of of a concrete cantilever shell through repeated members or structural components and joint details material testing (Figure 3). The students used a allow them to test material configuration and CNC fabricated form to produce a minimal three- performance (Figures 6–7). We test all models to eighths-inch-thick concrete shell. A second project, failure for the purpose of revealing the force flow, a reciprocal frame parabolic vault of reclaimed design flaws, and material efficiencies. This iterative dimensional lumber, succeeded because students process generates crucial insights for both students used a process of incremental additions and strategic and instructors alike because it makes explicit the planning of the construction sequence (Figure 4). experimental character of the design process, creates However, a 100-foot span cable-trussed bridge, definitive physical evidence of student testing and using a steel tube arch, with a pair of structural experimentation, and integrates tacit and empirical plywood decks and cable in a tubular truss knowledge of structural and material performance. configuration, failed to stand on its own (Figure Figure 5. Installation; 100-foot span bridge showing shoring removal Rigorous exploration of the proposed installation 5). The failure occurred because the bridge team and steel tube deformation, 2007, designed and fabricated by Sabrina through prototyping means that students must Andisco, Michael Borter, Ryan Dooley, Cynthia Dosoretz, Douglas compromised performance strength by using inferior Hindley, Matthew Lacey, Megan Lawler, David Rochlen, and Michael produce multiple versions of most components, and material in order to stay within budget. The inferior Wilcox. (Photograph by author.) can advance their ambitions in a manner that is both

110 Integrating Structures and Design in the Studio 140 pounds. These first year student teams applied a range of techniques—structurally determined form, material efficiencies, meticulous proportioning, and dimensional tapering—with genuine intelligence and careful aesthetic consideration. The first project, a 20-foot by 30-foot Vierendeel truss space frame, with an 8-inch actual depth and 4-foot virtual depth, used spanning members with elongated and shortened cables at the upper and lower wood chords to create inflection points and two-directional curvature. The virtual depth of the double curvature increased the spanning capacity of the truss, which was hung from only four points within the frame (Figure 9). The second project, a parabolic cantilever spanned an 80-foot curvilinear length and projected 36 feet beyond its based foundation, a monolith of

Figure 7. Testing a proof of concept model; four-point floating double curvature Veirendeel truss, 2011, designed and fabricated by Spencer Alexander, lockers (Figures 10–12). This self-anchored closed Chong Cho, Fotini Halvatzis, Kiyomi Kumazawa, Maraya Morgan, and Christopher Pollard. (Photograph by author.) structure, influenced by the work of structural engineer Jorg Schlaich, used a ring cable to resist adventuresome and pragmatic. for studio reference, while students from previous the torsional forces of the cantilevered span. We continuously direct the students to years share their resources, help with heavy lifting, The ring cable, positioned above the inner deck balance the aesthetics of the three scales of and stay connected to these yearly endeavors. As edge, pulled inward as the bridge deck pushed structural design—the overall system, the individual a result, students maintain an affinity for informing outward, counteracting the torsional force by members, and the connections—relative to material their work with investigations of structural design lifting only the inner edge. Cables attached to performance, fabrication techniques, budget, throughout the curriculum. In addition, the body wood struts supported the innovative cantilever Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 schedule, and site constraints. We ask students of work challenges each group to measure up to or vertically. Students derived the parabolic shape of to use their initial concepts, informed by multiple exceed the work of the previous year. This healthy the cantilever from the evenly distributed support experimental models and prototypes, to direct their competition actually encourages structural expertise points and the parallel force loading. The plywood design decisions. Often this experimental process and ambition as students progress through their struts changed in proportion relative to the load produces radical changes as a design is developed. program of study. The audacity of building at full- and were configured as elongated triads to separate For example, one project, which began as a vertical size makes apparent the relationship of abstract the lifting cables from the torsional resisting ring cantilever, evolved into a study of post-tensioned concepts and material realities. As one student later such that the structure appears to be floating. The repetitive units using milk crates to form beams and described the process, “It is scary exciting.” lifting and tensioning of the cantilever included a arches. The milk crates satisfied the need for an Two recent projects, a double curvature truss team-built tension gage and a series of coordinated inexpensive volumetric material that could withstand and a parabolic cantilever, demonstrate the rigor multi-person, multi-prop staged support removals. significant compressive force (Figure 8). and intensity produced by the direct application of This project is believed to be the first constructed The success of a project is directly complex but accessible structural concepts. Designed parabolic ring cable of its kind. proportional to each team’s willingness to engage and fabricated by teams of five to six students, both The success of the curriculum is most apparent in experimentation and investigation. Students are projects maximize spatial and material effect. After in comparing the students of the three-year full energized by the challenge of finding a structural three weeks of prototyping, the projects were built in program with the advanced standing students that application for their initial concepts.Course nine days with the cantilever weighing nearly 1400 enter in the third semester of the MArch program. instructors maintain a database of past projects pounds, and the double curvature truss less than continued

WETZEL 111 The students who have participated in the second semester Materiality studio structures module have greater success in their third studio, Structural Determinant Architecture, and maintain structurally informed design strategies in each of their successive semester studio projects, including their Master’s Project. Based on their affinity for full-scale work begun in the first year, several students have joined together to direct their own design-build Master’s Project. The first year Materiality studio has other, subtler effects on how students approach their subsequent coursework. For example, our students use BIM software to create digital models of their installations, but their limited knowledge of both the software and fabrication techniques constrains the role the BIM models play in design and fabrication in the first year studio. However, later on in the curriculum, these students often use BIM in elective coursework to achieve greater productively in digital fabrication processes. In addition, students use these digital tools in the design-build Master’s Project, particularly for project management, complex dimensioning, and iterative model making.

Conclusion After six years, our accumulated expertise Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 and resources—including our database of student work, and professional and industry support— has advanced our approach to the integration of structural teaching in this second semester design studio. One hundred and thirty-eight students have completed 26 projects of varying scope, complexity, material composition, and structural rigor (Figures 13–15). From folded paper membranes to sheet metal shells, post-tensioning to tensegrity, each project has provided the opportunity for a learning experience that exceeds an individual student’s efforts. The quality and ambition of our design-build

installations demonstrate that students can achieve Figure 8. Installation; post-tensioned cantilever beams, using milk crates, 2008, designed and fabricated by Matthew Blewitt, Jeremiah Collatz, an understanding of complex structural ideas in a Frederick Grier, Kyle Hopkins, and Ben Spicer. (Photograph by author.) limited time if they have the opportunity to develop Figure 9. Installation; four-point floating double curvature Veirendeel truss, 2011, designed and fabricated by Spencer Alexander, Chong Cho, tactile, interactive, visual knowledge of structural Fotini Halvatzis, Kiyomi Kumazawa, Maraya Morgan, and Christopher Pollard. (Photograph courtesy of Richard Nelson.)

112 Integrating Structures and Design in the Studio performance. Our approach creates an architectural understanding of structures, one that is developed to align with our discipline’s practices and expertise. Each successful installation champions a sense of wonder, a commitment to craft, and an honesty of material expression. Each failure contributes to a growing body of knowledge produced by our studio, and confirms the role that the design process plays in the advancement of structural inquiry. Within the context of the design studio, we create a culture that views structural expertise as a valuable asset for the design and practice of architecture. Our choice to make structures a fundamental component of design in the beginning design studio equips our students to confidently navigate the space between architecture and engineering throughout their professional education and careers. As Salvadori pointed out, architects must bridge the gap between architecture and engineering if we want to lead the design and construction process.11 Assuming that structural logic and technical expertise remain central to architectural innovation and expression, asserting our ability to contribute to structural design helps legitimize our leadership. When architecture schools integrate design and structures, they increase the working vocabulary Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 and expertise of students, as well as the potential for innovative collaborations in the academy and the profession. Given the complexity of contemporary structures technology, we cannot expect architectural students and professionals to develop a specialized mastery of the topic; instead we must use our expertise as designers—our ability to experiment, intuit, visualize, model, and synthesize—to integrate architecture and structural design, and produce innovations that complement and extend the advances developed through the engineer’s analytical methods. Force identification, stress gradient patterns, member-proportioning ratios, Figure 10. Installation; parabolic cantilever, 2011, designed and fabricated by Brendan Casidy, Ju Eun Hong, Marissa Luehring, Goran Simic, and dynamic modeling are all techniques that can Jeffrey Snodgrass, and Adam Wolf. (Photograph courtesy of Richard Nelson.) help us translate structural performance directly into Figure 11. Installation; parabolic cantilever, ring cable detail. (Photograph courtesy of Richard Nelson.) design. Our approach locates an architectural domain Figure 12. Installation; parabolic cantilever detail of closed self-anchoring system. (Photograph courtesy of Richard Nelson.) continued

WETZEL 113 within structures knowledge, integrates all aspects of design rather than optimizing to a particular objective, and synthesizes and materializes the various logics of materials, construction, experience, composition, site, and structure.

Acknowledgements Thank you to the 138 students of ARCH 542 Materiality Projects, Professors Paul Endres and Richard Nelson, Christian Stutski, and Jesse Vogler at IIT, and William Baker and his team of engineers at SOM.

Notes 1. Kenneth Frampton, Studies in Tectonics Culture (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1995). 2. Mario Salvadori and Robert Heller, Structure in Architecture (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986), 7–8. 3. Mies van der Rohe, “Architectural Education,” The Architecture Review (1950), as quoted by Kevin Harrington, “Order, Space, Proportion— Mies’s Curriculum at IIT,” in Mies van der Rohe: Architect as Educator,

Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 ed. Rolf Achilles and Kevin Harrington (Chicago: Illinois Institute of Technology, 1986), 67. 4. Alfred Swenson and Pao-Chi Chang, Architectural Education at IIT, 1938–1978 (Chicago: Illinois Institute of Technology, 1980), 24–25, 67–100. 5. Harrington, “Order, Space, Proportion,”, 49–68. 6. Edward Windhorst, High-Rise and Long-Span Research at Illinois Institute of Technology: The Legacy of Myron Goldsmith and David C. Sharpe (Chicago: Illinois Institute of Technology, 2010), 1–5. 7. Ben Nicholson, “Renouncing Autistic Word,” in The Presence of Mies, ed. Detlef Mertins (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1994), 118–29. 8. R. Gary Black and Stephen Duff, “A Model for Teaching Structures: Finite Element Analysis in Architectural Education,” Journal of Architectural Education 48, no. 1 (1974): 38–55. Paul Endres was a student of both Black and Duff. Figure 13. Installation; stressed skin deck, cable truss bridge, 2008, designed and fabricated by Thomas Boerman, Joel Burkhart, Linda Chlimoun, 9. See Eduardo Torroja, Philosophy of Structures (Berkeley: University of William Hutchison, and Adriana Irby. (Photograph courtesy of William Hutchison.) California Press, 1967). Figure 14. Installation; post-tensioned canted brick arch with brick net, 2009, designed and fabricated by Scott Collier, Adi Kohn, Shasha Ma, 10. William Baker, Structural and Civil Engineering Partner, SOM, has Christopher Phillips, Paul Rumschlag, Mykel Terada, and Tim Zeitler. (Photomontage courtesy of Scott Collier and Christopher Phillips.) a strong interest in these models as an innovative technique useful for engineers in practice. Figure 15. Installation in progress; folded metal, repetitive unit shell, 2009, designed and fabricated by Ruxandra Antea, Yalin Fu, Anna Rymarz, and 11. Salvadori and Heller, Structure in Architecture, 7–8. Shengli Xiong. (Photograph courtesy of Jesse Vogler.)

114 Integrating Structures and Design in the Studio This article was downloaded by: [24.34.163.121] On: 28 August 2013, At: 04:34 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Architectural Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjae20 Foldout Drawing: A Projective Drawing for Fabric Forming Kentaro Tsubaki a a Tulane University Published online: 04 Dec 2012.

To cite this article: Kentaro Tsubaki (2012) Foldout Drawing: A Projective Drawing for Fabric Forming, Journal of Architectural Education, 66:1, 98-106, DOI: 10.1080/10464883.2012.719821 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10464883.2012.719821

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Foldout Drawing argues for the agency of representation . . [H]is analogy gave an exceptionally clear demonstration of the interaction between three as a form of mediation between materials and design. The key varieties of geometry that apply in different project uses full-scale drawings to design fabrication and spaces: non-Euclidean (Riemannian spherical), projective (stereographic perspectival), and form simultaneously. It demonstrates that a hybrid projective Euclidian.4 drawing, operating between notational and geometrical logics, Here, the habit of “seeing” performs a can integrate conceptualization, visualization, and fabrication. theoretical balancing act that rests on the fulcrum of projective geometry. It stabilizes the relationship between abstract non-Euclidian geometries and the habituated conventions of quantifiable Euclidian Introduction any extraordinary difficulty we can illustrate the space. In other words, representing the Riemannian The imagination works with eyes open. It alters theory of a finite universe by means of a mental manifold requires more than a simple stationary and is altered by what is seen. The problem is picture to which, with some practice, we shall soon pictorial depiction or a static spatial configuration; 3 that if we admit this, then the relation between grow accustomed” (Figure 1). In response to this it is a dynamic process of mediation, involving a ideas and things turns mutable and inconstant. evocation of a “mental picture,” Evans remarks: conjectural projection between the unimaginable and Such destabilization is bound to affect our its precise and measurable geometric expression. understanding of architectural drawing, which Visualization, in the sense invoked by Einstein, Evans also dedicates significant attention to occupies the most uncertain, negotiable is more than just a picture therefore. It involves an older example, the seventeen-century French position of all, along the main thoroughfare a balancing of sensations, motor activities, technique of stereotomy, or stone cutting, and its between ideas and things. For this same reason, and concepts that will continue to corroborate distinctive form of geometric drawing called trait, to drawing may be proposed as the principal locus the sharable, local truth of classical space as show how drawing can directly engage fabrication of conjecture in architecture. long as we maintain the particular balance. . and construction (Figure 2). Evans writes: “Traits —Robin Evans, Translations from Drawing to Building and Other Essays1 Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013

In architecture, drawings are not static entities, pictures marking a conceptual end to the design process; rather they are means, mediating between the act of making and design. In his 1995 book, The Projective Cast: Architecture and Its Three Geometries, Robin Evans describes how architectural drawings operate as active agents linking ideas and things, imagination and reality.2 Referencing a network of disciplinary and extra-disciplinary sources, Evans examines the multiplicity of geometries that inform architectural discourse and practice. Einstein’s thought experiment for visualizing the Riemannian manifold, a non-Euclidean space that, by definition, cannot be described by Euclidean geometry, is one of Evans’s examples. Einstein describes the experiment as follows: “I want to show that without Figure 1. Analogy of spherical spaces, using stereographic projection. Albert Einstein, Sidelights on Relativity (London: Methuen, 1922), 51.

98 Foldout Drawing Initially, I asked students to make conventional architectural drawings (plan, section-elevation, and axonometric drawing) to document how the formwork was fabricated prior to being deployed for casting. My intention was to understand how the qualities of the fabric forms were registered in the concrete surface. In order to achieve this goal, after a few attempts using conventional drawings, we realized that we needed to record how the formwork was fabricated. Without drawings for the earliest versions of the project, we had lost valuable information about the fabrication process and the figurations of the formwork preserved in the casting Figure 2. Trait for the trompe at Anet. Philibert Delorme, L’architecture de Philibert de l’Orme, cõseillier & aumosnier ordinaire du roy, & abbé de S. surface. As the studio evolved, I directed students Serge lez Angiers (Paris: Chez Hierosme de Marnef, & Guillaume Cauellat, 1576), 93. to study clothing patterns and to translate their are not illustrations and yield little to the casual revives Evans’s inquiry into the role of drawing as notation to formwork fabrication. Students then observer. They are orthographic projections, but the critical disciplinary practice for architecture, and used drawing in a projective manner, controlling the they are not like other architectural drawings.”5 attempts to amplify its operation by making the outcome of subsequent castings more deliberately These drawings organize and direct the precise and drawing a virtual form for the construction. continued complex fabrication of masonry blocks. The trait is This article describes how the foldout drawing, a surface determined by projective subtraction—a a particular form of notational drawing, emerged Boolean operation between two volumes that out of my studio teaching and further evolved precedes the actual subtractive material process in my research. It demonstrates the subtle, yet of stone cutting. Reflecting both the material and critical role the slow notational drawing plays conceptual processes, the trait projects an imaginary in stabilizing the dynamic relationship between vault that unfolds into a series of measurable section the ideal (design intent) and the real (fabricated Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 profiles. These profiles then become the template outcome). It contemplates an alternative position to for stone cutting, negotiating the translation from contemporary design-fabrication practices governed imagination to fabrication. As a drawing, the trait by precision and speed. is never an end in itself, nor a picture of some anticipated formal result. It is its own artifact that The Mutable and Inconstant both anticipates and directs the act of making. As a means of exploring new forms of Foldout Drawing explores the generative role fabrication, I conducted a studio in the spring of projective representation in a contemporary of 2008 focused on the properties of concrete. context. As both a pedagogical program and a design Students in this third year core technology studio project, Foldout Drawing argues for reactivating the at Texas Tech University began by casting scaled agency of drawing as a primary means of mediation building components such as columns, walls, and between design and fabrication. Operating between slabs.6 We used fabric formwork to develop a notational and geometrical logics, this work mines physical understanding of the gravitational and projection as an essential tool for conceptualization, hydrostatic forces of the concrete in a liquid state. visualization, and fabrication, and renews the Students then speculated upon the expressive Figure 3. Deformed wall: casting process, the formwork and the partial detail of the formwork drawing. Project by Lauren Rutherford, Texas drawing’s role as a means for realizing and exploiting potential of their concrete casting in a building Tech University Technology Studio. 2008. (Image courtesy of Lauren the complex relation between ideas and things. It design project (Figure 3). Rutherford.)

TSUBAKI 99 Figure 4. Smocking V5: Composite image of the plaster cast and fabric formwork. 2008. (Image by author.)

than before. The notation became an integral part to record and engage the mutable and inconstant single notion: funicular geometry, or the “shape” of the design process, encouraging reflection and potential of material. I conducted a series of scaled of tension. Fabric is a dynamic material that resists speculation, and generating the feedback necessary experiments using Hydrocal plaster in lieu of stress through pure tension. It naturally seeks to advance the designs. concrete. To manipulate the fabric formwork, I used configurations that uniformly distribute stress in all All materials have the capacity to change states, a pleated surface articulation technique commonly directions, which is also the most efficient structural to assume form, to transform, and they require referred to as smocking in the clothing industry. use of materials. Light, inexpensive, and capable representational techniques capable of documenting Smocking has a utilitarian origin. It was of producing a continuous surface, fabric is an these transitions. Given a design palette that a technique for gathering fabric in a manner ideal material for forming concrete into complex included cement, aggregate, water, fabric, wood, and that produced form-fitting but flexible farmers’ three-dimensional geometries. On the other hand, metal in various states, the student projects engaged garments. As elastic became readily available, concrete is an ideal material for resisting stress in transitory and fluid affects and effects. The student the technique was appropriated for ornamental compression. This reciprocal relationship is central to drawings, with their combination of geometrical and purposes, articulating the surface of the garment. West’s investigation, resulting in efficiently graceful notational logics, captured these transitory and fluid I used smocking to produce surface articulation structural forms. operations, while affording everyone an opportunity that registered the interaction of the fluid fabric My smocking project is an extension of West’s to deliberate and reflect. Students confronted and liquid concrete in a cast concrete panel. The research, with an emphasis on the exploration the reality of basic material behavior and the soft rippling surface that results from the smocked of surface articulation. I use a “foldout drawing” Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 constraints of construction, while the drawings acted formwork is an index of the equilibrium reached to control the surface articulation of the fabric as a flexible medium for design exploration. The between the surface tension of the fabric and the formwork, while documenting, visualizing, and unpredictable process of casting concrete in fabric omnidirectional hydrostatic pressure of the plaster designing the fabrication process itself; the result was exciting for beginning design students, because in a liquid state. This type of surface articulation is a process that integrates fabrication and design they explored a process rather than representing has the potential for technical applications beyond through the projective agency of the drawing. an outcome. After ten iterative castings, the level the aesthetic qualities of the surface geometry. This technique lends new qualities to the funicular of sophistication in the fabric formwork improved Pleating—or smocking—increases the surface area geometry of fabric-formed concrete, while still remarkably as the drawing system evolved. However, within a given volume. At the architectural scale, maintaining the technical advantages of the process the students’ appreciation seemed to be directed increasing the surface-volume ratio of a material (Figure 4). primarily to the distinctive formal quality of the near such as concrete can have significant structural and Through precision and speed, digital tools full-scale building components and their substantial thermal performance advantages. predict and minimize various risks associated with materiality. It was not yet directed toward the Mark West, director of the Center for the construction of complex contemporary buildings. conscious understanding of their skill in navigating Architectural Structures and Technology (C.A.S.T.) Simulation is, by definition, about “predicting the mutable and inconstant realities of design, at the University of Manitoba is the leading expert the predictable.” The process of simulation sets material, and fabrication through drawing. on the fabric forming of concrete; he fabricates boundary conditions by estimating a range of This realization propelled me to focus my and tests fabric-formed concrete in his industrial- outcomes based on what is known, rather than what research on developing a dynamic drawing system scale lab.7 His body of research revolves around a is possible or desirable. These abstract, empirical

100 Foldout Drawing tests are made accessible and economical by cheap computational “muscles,” and aspire to universal application. In contrast, design decisions based on feedback from material resistance in the fabrication process are typically limited to the domain of craft production, and operate within the predictable constraints of tradition. Foldout drawing is a means of exploring risk and speculation contrary to the reality of current building practices and the conservative traditions of craft production. It does so by embracing imperfection, material resistance, and experiment. As a design strategy foldout drawing appropriates the material engagement native to craft, but relies upon the projective qualities of the architectural drawing to propose a disciplinary approach to fabrication.

Destabilized Control In the smocking experiments, I used two- Figure 5. Plaster casts from five versions of the smocking project. From left to right: V2, V3, V5, V4, V4.1. V4 failed to register long crease lines due to shallow folding depth and long folding distance on the y-axis. In V4.1, the amount of plaster is adjusted. 2008. (Image by author.) dimensional drawings to define surface articulation. The drawings allowed me to experiment with the formwork. Line work indicates the location and of the formwork’s folds. I also altered smocking potential of the formwork material, controlling direction of folds and stitches, while lighter patterns by varying the number and arrangement the tendency of the fabric to settle into funicular regulating lines describe the organization of the of the pick points, in order to vary the crease geometries. Static representational media and smocking pattern. I also recorded the relative lines traveling on the formwork surface. Before deterministic computational technology could dimensions of the various points and lines, and the I fabricated each iteration, I refined the working not provide the feedback I needed to explore the steps required to fabricate the formwork within the drawings, based on outcomes from the previous Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 interaction of the liquid concrete and the tensile drawing. test. The iterations produced a progressively more fabric. Instead, I relied on full-scale orthographic To date, I have produced four unique fabric intricate and expressive surface. In my experience, drawings of the fabric formwork, rather than digital formworks, and five prototype casts (Figure 5). this type of generative design cannot be conjured or analog models of the cast object. The drawing, as In order to focus these experiments on surface from the imagination or depicted pictorially as a pattern for the formwork, defined the fabrication articulation, certain attributes were held constant. I a predetermined constructed geometry. In this process itself, along with the form and detail of the maintained the fabric size at 33 inches by 33 inches sense, the drawing is literally and figuratively a casting. While a three-dimensional model could and produced uniform frames to stretch the fabric. I “working drawing” (Figure 6). Over time, the prototype the final product, the drawings became a also made no alterations to the fabric surface other drawing preserved all traces of change, becoming means for designing both the fabrication process and than the smocking patterns. Finally, each drawing a palimpsest of points and lines describing the the casting simultaneously. The drawings operated was completed prior to the fabrication of the process of design; it offered a cumulative description as a hybrid experimental apparatus, determining formwork and served as a map to guide each test. of every variation. In addition to extending the the geometries of the casting, and notating each The results of each iteration of the experiment were projective agency of representation to fabrication, and every operation performed to the surface of the recorded in the subsequent drawing set, and refined these foldout drawings materialized the difference fabric form during its fabrication. in two dimensions before the next cast. between design intent and its outcomes. The result was a two-dimensional, measurable, I varied a number of elements of the process, I refined my notational method as the iterations and notated working drawing, constructed as including the dimensions of the point matrix for proceeded, visually documenting the knowledge an unstitched, unthreaded, and unfolded fabric the smocking, which changed the length and depth continued

TSUBAKI 101 Figure 6. Reading the foldout drawing: In this example, the notation (circled) on the above image calls for four points out of five to be picked, leaving one point out of the smocking pattern in the middle of the array. The semicircles notate the sectional move of the thread Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 perpendicular to the fabric surface and its orientation to the fabricator. The lower semicircle indicates thread below the fabric surface; the upper semicircle indicates thread above the fabric surface as shown in the bottom right image. These also correlate to the nature of the fold (peak fold or valley fold and folding depth) created as a result (see bottom left image). The blue line indicates the direction of the major (deep) valley fold, governing the overall characteristics of the smocked surface. (Image by author.)

Figure 7. Smocking V1: Test smocking on cotton muslin. The drawing explored the folding depth and the length of the pleats, at constant half-inch increments on the x-axis and variable dimensions based on the golden ratio on the y-axis. The fabric was ironed carefully according to the drawing to “record” the folds on the fabric surface. Every two pleats were threaded at midpoints of the folding depth determined by the “eye” and tied together, collapsing the folded fabric surfaces into a single point. (When this drawing was produced, I did not understand how the process of picking points for a stitch related to the shape of folds those stitches produced.) Distribution of the “thread points” alternating from row to row remained consistent. (Image by author.)

102 Foldout Drawing Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013

Figure 8. Smocking V2: Fabric formwork constructed with smocked cotton muslin. (See Figure 2 for a cast of this version of the formwork.) The drawing was modified to indicate the threading points (pick points). It reflects the discovery from the previous test that spacing of the picking points automatically establishes the folding depth and remained constant at half an inch. The folding lengths on the y-axis were altered. At this point, however, the drawing method did not accurately predict the location of creases in the formwork. This crucial defect in the notational system is resolved in the design drawing of V5. (Image by author.)

Figure 9. Smocking V3: Plaster cast and foldout drawing. A second cast is shown, which was produced using a smocked nylon fabric. In order to resolve problems with releasing the cast, I changed the fabric for the formwork. I assigned a shorter folding length to the middle section to control bulging. The estimated crease line (peak fold) in the drawing accurately correlates with the cast results. The stiffness of the fabric itself affected the surface articulation, and resulted in an inflection in the fold. (Image by author.)

TSUBAKI 103 Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013

Figure 10. Smocking V4: Fabric formwork and foldout drawing. This drawing was used to fabricate formwork for the third and fourth casts (see Figure 2 for the casts). In this version, I also used rip-stop nylon fabric, which is thinner and softer than nylon flag fabric. I used the formwork a second time to test its capacity to produce multiples. No dramatic changes were observed in the repeated cast. In this version the folding depth was dramatically shortened to a quarter of an inch to test how far the crease line will travel. It was observed to be (plus or minus) two inches in the given condition. (Image by author.)

Figure 11. Smocking V5: This version was used to produce the fifth and the final cast. The base dimensions for the point matrix remained relatively unchanged. I paid careful attention to the deployment of the variation in the way points are picked. (Image by author.)

104 Foldout Drawing Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013

Figure 12. Smocking V5: Plaster cast result. (Image by author.)

Figure 13. Smocking V5 analytical composites: Previous picking methods were evaluated and a notational system was developed to depict those conditions. The estimated crease lines were compared and analyzed against the crease of the actual cast. The revised crease lines begins to form a “logic” of crease lines from the various methods for picking points. This is a particularly important issue for future fabrication projects based on this method. (Image by author.)

TSUBAKI 105 I acquired (Figures 7–10). Smocking Version V and context? How can we transfer the agency of the If we go around and measure the shadows, they will get bigger as the represents my synthesis of the knowledge produced foldout drawings into the workings of digital media? distance from the point of contact with the globe increases. But if our measuring rod behaved in exactly the same way as the shadows from by Versions I through IV, an attempt to compose the The foldout drawing embraces Evans’s the globe, enlarging as it moved outward, then its user would survey a range of effects produced by the prior four versions argument for the power of uncertainty in spherical surface, not Euclidian surface.” Evans, The Projective Cast, 345. (Figures 11–13). The drawings produced an active, architectural drawings. It demonstrates the virtue 5. Ibid., 352. 6. An overview of the studio is presented in Kentaro Tsubaki, “Concrete/ engaged form of thinking about the actual dynamics of physical drawings for design and fabrication, Fabric: Materiality Caught In-Between,” in Material Matters: Making of fabrication, ranging from the dimensions of point proffering an alternative to deterministic digital Architecture [Proceedings of the ACSA West Fall Conference], ed. Gail matrix, to the length and depth of the pleats, to the design and fabrication processes. Although many Peter Borden and Michael Meredith (Washington, DC: ACSA Press, 2008), rules for picking points. As the project progressed, would claim that digital tools have the potential 58–65. 7. An overview of the fabric formwork as an emerging area of studies in I made subjective decisions about the composition to restore control over design production to the architecture is presented in Kentaro Tsubaki, “Smocking: Pleated Surfaces of each surface, tested the fabrication process, and architect, these tools rely upon a static notion of and Fabric Formwork,” in Rebuilding [Proceedings of the 98th ACSA then extended the results experimentally in each the world. Without a conscious effort to reflect Annual Conference], ed. Bruce Goodwin and Judith Kinnard (Washington, subsequent cast. upon and engage the unpredictable, the novelty DC: ACSA Press, 2008), 462–68. 8. John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: The Macmillan of digital control can easily turn into overindulgent Company, 1916), 169. Reflection and Relation formal excess. If fabrication is to become part of our Thought or reflection . . . is the discernment disciplinary repertoire, we need to use it to create of the relation between what we try to do and new design knowledge, rather than replicating a what happens in consequence.” certain, limited reality. —John Dewey, Democracy and Education, Acknowledgments 19168 I would like to thank Professor Mark West for In my teaching, I introduced full-scale drawing generously sharing his research on fabric forming to my students as a means of documenting the and for encouraging my studio teaching. I would also fabrication of concrete formwork. The exercise gave like to acknowledge the following individuals who them insight into the manipulation of the fabric were students in the technology studio I taught at surface and the resulting cast. This documentation Texas Tech University in Spring 2008: Adrianna Alter, Downloaded by [24.34.163.121] at 04:34 28 August 2013 strategy evolved into a notated drawing of the Jonah Auhoy, Victor Cruz, Christopher Davis, Crystal unthreaded, unfolded fabric itself. Subsequently, Davis, John Griffith, Sean-Paul Kelly, Robert J. I systematically explored this technique in the Lopez, Holly Matthews, Nick Mayor, Nathan Moeller, smocking experiments, gradually distilling a Chris Powtzky, Lauren Rutherford, Mario Silva, Seth notational vocabulary. My design intention emerged Stevens, and Joel Storrs. Finally, I would like to thank as I drew the foldout drawing, prior to the fabrication Dean Kenneth Schwartz of the Tulane School of of the actual formwork and the cast. With a little Architecture for his support in my research agenda, mental effort and imagination, the drawings and the JAE reviewers and editors for their guidance produced direct design feedback, expanding the through the publication process. formal repertoire of the casting process. As I worked, the drawing occupied a poetic dimension between Notes 1. Robin Evans, Translations from Drawing to Building and Other Essays the design’s inception and its fabrication. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997), 154. Looking ahead, lessons learned in these 2. Robin Evans, The Projective Cast: Architecture and Its Three Geometries experiments revive questions about the role of craft (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1995). in contemporary architectural design practices. What 3. Albert Einstein, Sidelights on Relativity (New York: Dover, 1983), 32. 4. The type of projection Einstein resorted to was a stereographic other indexical material relationships can we exploit projection mapping a sphere onto a plane surface. Evans explains: “The through drawing? Are there implicit limits to scale shadows of all disks on the globe will project as circles on to the plane.

106 Foldout Drawing This article was downloaded by: [Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture] On: 28 August 2013, At: 04:48 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Architectural Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjae20 Eco-topia Igea Troiani a a Oxford Brookes University Published online: 05 Mar 2013.

To cite this article: Igea Troiani (2013) Eco-topia, Journal of Architectural Education, 67:1, 96-105, DOI: 10.1080/10464883.2013.767129 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10464883.2013.767129

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Through the presentation of a design research project inspired by was conceived and executed in collaboration with the narrative “Edilia, or ‘Make of it what you will’” in Spaces of Andrew Dawson and Esther Rivas-Adrover. The studio invited students to reconsider the relation- Hope by the cultural geographer David Harvey, this article shows ship between capitalist society, industry, nature, and a contemporary resurgence of interest in visionary utopian design. human inhabitation in the future. Students were encouraged to explore associations based, not on the Springing from Harvey’s Neo-Marxist position, the design studio consumption and exploitation of energy resources and labor, but rather, on the potential to create a and ecotopia design presented explore an alternative relationship symbiotic, sustainable ecology and community locat- between nature and urbanization. That association is based not ed at the Jökulsárlón—a lagoon at the base of the Vatnajökull glacier in Iceland. Laden with icebergs on exploitation of energy resources, but on the potential to that break off from the melting glacier, Jökulsárlón create a sustainable ecology and community at the Jökulsárlón, is located near a volcano, and is a haven for under- ground geothermal gases and energy. It is a fragile a lagoon located at the base of the melting glacier, Vatnajökull in site where the environment is raw and natural. southeastern Iceland. The studio pedagogy and methodology will be illustrated through the design research project of one student, Oliver Cooper, whose project is entitled, “City of Interwoven Power Structures.” Eco-topia: “Living With Nature” in Edilia, gests that the city also represents and embodies Cooper’s project was selected for its engagement Iceland our attitudes towards nature. Expanding on his with transdisciplinary methodologies and its proac- The city […] Robert Park once wrote, is: earlier writings, Harvey challenges both historic and tive intellectual proposition, responding to Harvey’s modern formal visions of cities created by architects call to architects to be environmentally sensitive. man’s most consistent and on the whole, his and urban designers. In his chapter “The Spaces of Specifically, Cooper used animation to incorporate most successful attempt to remake the world Utopia,” Harvey uses Baltimore as the case study to natural elements into the design process in an effort he lives in more after his heart’s desire. But, if argue for alternative visions of our cities and societ- to embed nature’s processes as active agents in his the city is the world which man created, it is ies.3 His Neo-Marxist framework underpins his argu- drawings. He designed utilizing moving images so the world in which he is henceforth condemned ment for a more just society, “a more equitable world that the gaseous environment in motion became the to live. Thus, indirectly, and without any clear of work and living with nature.”4 Uneven divisions site in which he designed his project. In addition, sense of the nature of his task, in making the of wealth, class, labor and gender, and the capitalist the project is an aesthetically modest and poetic city man has remade himself.1 modes of production and consumption that underpin environmental design proposal filled with fantasy and perpetuate these inequalities, are areas Harvey and beauty, exemplifying the potential of sustainable Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 If Park is right, then the question of what kind asks the designers of cities to question. Harvey design to move beyond pragmatic agendas. Cooper’s of city we want cannot be divorced from the ques- offers his own utopian vision in “Edilia, or ‘Make of project epitomizes a contemporary resurgence of tion of what kind of people we want to be, what it what you will,’” the Appendix of Spaces of Hope.5 interest in visionary utopian projects in architectural kinds of social relations we seek, what relation to Here, he invites architects to explore the notion of education. Given the timeliness and urgency of nature we cherish, what style of life we desire.2 utopia differently, emphasizing social equality and global climate change, architectural design instruc- In “The Freedom of the City” in The Politics environmental responsibility. tion has the opportunity to encourage architects to of Making, David Harvey uses the contentions of Between September, 2010 and May, 2011 I led continue to take up Harvey’s invitation to design an early 20th century American sociologist, Robert E. a postgraduate architectural design studio inspired alternative more just society that is “a more equi- Park to argue that the cities we construct represent by Harvey’s invitation to architects. The studio was table world of work and living with nature.”6 our vision of ideal societal relations. Harvey sug- titled “Edilia: A Futurist Experimental Society,” and

96 ECO-TOPIA Writing Utopianism Around 400 years ago ships began arriving at it, had been changed due to a situation or critical Jökulsárlón, and many people on board settled event—environmental, social, political, financial, Jökulsárlón is an old city: it’s even possible there there. The new inhabitants of the city had a dis- technological, scientific, biological, etc.—which each were dwellings here before the fall, though it tinct culture that had developed over centuries student was asked to invent for themselves and de- can’t be said if anything from that period is of nomadic existence, sailing the seas. […] Our scribe in the text. That event means Edilians require still sitting here today. The city is like a twisted culture believes in existing within the grasp of prostheses to support their living in the newly altered old juniper tree that’s been shaped by many nature—at her will. In our records of the time world. Cooper’s utopian literary vision of Edilia was seasonal shifts and climatic events; by many dif- prior to the great darkness we can see that peo- motivated in part by Cloud Atlas by David Mitchell.9 ferent birds inhabiting its branches and foraging ple believed their salvation was in the control of Cloud Atlas is a fictional work describing six differ- its fruits; by its adjacency to all the other sur- nature, in mastering it. But we enjoy living in ent worlds stretching from the nineteenth century to rounding trees that shade its branches, each one and alongside nature and hence we power our a post-apocalyptic future. The diachronic structure competing for the same drops of sunlight. ships by the wind. brings to the foreground questions about human nature, nature, fate, evolution and progress. Seeing […] If you speak for any length of time with I think the most important thing in our society the cloud and the atlas as constantly evolving enti- inhabitants of Jökulsárlón you will undoubt- is playfulness. We have seen that the pre-fall ties, the book explores questions of the predatory edly hear them refer to the fall and the long society had forgotten how to play, being only ‘nature’ of human beings and our “will to power.” darkness. Every inhabitant will have a different caught up in competition. Their leaders out- By writing urbanism before drawing it, a precise story to tell you about the events that took lawed playing because it couldn’t be recorded design solution was prompted and suspended rather place that triggered the famines, the war, and in their value-system. Perhaps only the children than immediately concretized. In essence students the loss of all contact. of those times were able to play. wrote design manifestos that incorporated history, rituals of everyday life, their attitudes to technology You will hear whisperings of those pre-fall We like to play in the land-sea-scape, let its and nature, preservation etc. This pedagogical ap- inhabitants of earth; their immense electronic forces inhabit our own bodies. Living in the proach and its use of creative fiction writing affords depositories that pooled information; their abil- world involves both nurturing and exploiting students the opportunity to articulate a specific sce- ity to communicate instantly across the entire nature, but it also equally means being nurtured nario that is later expanded into their own unique and earth; their vital life-line called the inter-web and exploited by her. Play is a way of illuminat- individual design brief.10 Allowing students the oppor- that spread out around the world; their giant ing this relationship. tunity to take ownership of the projects they design, aluminium birds that lifted 100’s of people into to set their own social and cultural frameworks, while the air and transported them between conti- Our existence is formed in discourse with the liberating, can also be a daunting endeavor. Whatever nents within hours. Other.”7 the writer-architect’s journey, this exercise encourages students to develop their own socio-political agendas. […] Jökulsárlón became a kernel of survival, As a methodological starting point for this Cooper’s narrative offers a picture of a fictitious, Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 resistance & renaissance. studio, students were asked to write a city—a new society whose cultural history is intertwined with textual vision of Edilia—evoking a future urbanism an imaginary fishing people. Cooper’s Edilians are Our ancestors first started to utilize the geo- much as a science fiction writer conjures places of inspired by the power of their sails. Sails allow them to therms back before the fall. They were the first the future. This prose, like the utopian vision Harvey travel and live at the Jökulsárlón. In the subsequent that learned how to economically grow vegeta- offers in “Edilia, or ‘Make of it what you will,’” is exercise “Prosthesis for the Future” Cooper develops a bles even in the cold airs of this island, just by delivered in the literary form of what David Halpin wind-powered device as a prototype assisting survival. channeling water from the hot springs. We’ve defines as ‘utopianism.’8 Edilia students wrote a perfected the art & science of that now — we piece of ‘utopian’ prose no longer than 1,000 words Prosthesis Prototyping get higher yields in these greenhouses than in any style of their choice. Their story had to be Prototypes are not the thing, they are the story they could before the fall. based on the premise that Iceland, as we know or the fiction about the thing that we hope to

TROIANI 97 build. We often use these fictions to get our minds around what that thing might one day be and we also use it to explain together what we hope to build.11

Although it aspires to be a high-tech memory device and emerges from an already existing unit, the SQUID (Super-conducting Quantum Interfer- ence Device) prosthesis worn by Lenny Nero (played by Ralph Fiennes) in the cyberpunk science fiction film, Strange Days, was offered to the students as a prosthetic exemplar.12 For this exercise, students were asked to engage ergonomic design and climate issues from a low-tech vantage point. The cost for the production of the prosthesis prototype was set at £5.00 (US $8.00). The prosthesis also needed to be portable, meet airline luggage restrictions, and adhere to airport security regulations. Figure 1. View of the Jökulsárlón, October 2010. © Oliver Cooper, 2010. Cooper’s prosthesis prototype expanded the notion of playfulness as a bodily act capable of ex- ploiting and nurturing our relationship with nature. beaches, white, snow topped glaciers, turf houses became fundamental to the speculative architectural He accomplished this through the design of a pros- buried by the grassy earth—until finally we arrived proposition for Cooper’s first architectural design thetic kite. He conceptualized the kite as the ulti- at our destination. On that glorious sunny day, the project, “Marker in the Landscape: Geothermal Bal- mate extension of the human body, harnessing the lagoon was hauntingly beautiful, a breathtaking loon Filling Dock & Temple to Earth” (Figure 3). power of the wind. At his presentation, “Playing with landscape (Figure 1). The icebergs floating in the the Wind: An Edilian Prosthetic Device for harmoniz- lagoon are fragments of the melting glacier, consti- Geothermal Balloon Filling Dock ing with the wind,” Cooper screened a short film, tuting a continually shifting, “vanishing landscape” and Temple to Earth combining found footage of a man being humor- that is mesmerizing to behold.13 As the icebergs ously propelled by a kite and footage of Cooper at a melt they float like huge whale-like ships toward Having existed through an age of severe de- sewing machine making his red kite. the ocean outlet nearby. The students filmed their stabilization, destruction and de-globalization The six-day field trip to Iceland took place in prosthesis on site. On our return from our Icelandic brought about by rapidly shifting climates and October 2010. During this time we visited some sig- field trip, Cooper produced another short film titled the sharp decline of fossil fuel availability, distinct nificant and inspirational architecture in and around “Gildi Landslags (Force of the Landscape)”. A critical cultures have emerged from “the darkness” at Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 Reykjavik. We also visited the spectacular natural visual essay, the short film combined site footage of Jökulsárlón on the Southern coast of the former sites of Gullfoss waterfall, Þingvellir National Park and the power of the waterfall, the geyser steaming and unitary republic of Iceland. A group of people Geysir. We toured the Hellisheiði Geothermal power then exploding, and finally, the slow moving icebergs. who practiced sedentary farming and re-learned station and swam in the Blue Lagoon geothermal Cooper’s film concludes with footage of a lone figure to harness the power of geothermal vents have pool. We then embarked on a long bus journey from flying the prosthetic kite on the eastern hilltop over- mingled with a wind-worshipping nomadic fishing Reykjavik to the Jökulsárlón. Throughout this trip, looking the lagoon (Figure 2). At one point the kite community. Edilian praxis produces a balance be- the sun rose in front of us to reveal spectacular land- flier is lifted off the hillside by the wind’s power. tween consumption and regeneration of nature; scape after spectacular landscape. We passed what As a prototype, the kite was a realizable design, it collects and then redistributes the landscape’s Cooper described as consecutive versions of “differ- one that did not push the limits of fiction. However, power in cycles; it constitutes an ever-evolving ent worlds”—moss covered basalt stone, black sandy the kite prosthesis contained an incipient idea which conversation with the living world.14

98 ECO-TOPIA At the “Sci-fi Eco-Architecture” Exhibition held at Chetwoods Architects in London in January 2011, Cooper exhibited his Geothermal Balloon Filling Dock & Temple to Earth (Figures 4 and 5). The design is a docking station located in the symbolic heart of Edilia for balloons to be refilled with hot air sourced from geothermal gases underground. The filling dock also has a symbolic function. It is a “marker in the landscape,” a symbol of power, as both physical energy and the social force activated by coming to- gether as a community. The “square” that surrounds the site is created by the edge of the Jökulsárlón and is the designated territory for political protests, gath- erings and celebrations. The Balloon Filling Dock aspires to a 600-year life expectancy, while the balloon fabric envelope is Figure 2. Flying Cooper’s Prosthetic Kite on site at the Jökulsárlón, October 2010. © Oliver Cooper, 2010. designed to last for fifteen years. The balloons are exchange carriers for grain and agricultural prod- ucts. Based on his independent reading of Martin Heidegger’s “The Question Concerning Technology,” William McDonough and Michael Braungart’s Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things, Lewis Hyde’s The Gift: How the Creative Spirit Transforms the World and Carolyn Steel’s Hungry City; Cooper proposes Edilia as a gift and barter based economy where all tradable goods are perishable.15 From Hei- degger, Cooper takes the notion of “Nature as Stand- ing Reserve,” in which modern technology reveals nature to us as nothing more than a resource waiting to be consumed. Cooper’s design proposal questions that assumption. From McDonough and Braungart, Cooper takes the idea that design should keep tech- nical nutrients separate from organic nutrients; based Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 upon their “Cradle to Cradle” theory that settlement strategies should be healthful and restorative, rather than consumptive and destructive. At the end of the Docking Station’s life, the technical components including metals, synthetic materials, non-biode- gradables can be disassembled and re-used while the organic components can be left on site to merge into the natural landscape. From Hyde, Cooper ap- propriates the notion that in gift cultures the power Figure 3. Design for Geothermal Balloon Filling Dock & Temple to Earth. © Oliver Cooper, 2010. of the gift is lost if it is hoarded and not passed on

TROIANI 99 or kept in circulation. From Steel, Cooper adopts the idea that cities co-evolve with their particular means of sourcing food. The balloons spread grain seeds across the land, compensating for the fact that cli- mate change has destroyed most natural pollinators. How best, then, can the architectural designs of Edilia be explored to show time, motion and the natural processes that go with seasonal shifts or cycles of everyday life?

Edilian Animations During the second half of the year, students were encouraged to elaborate Edilia into a more explicit settlement through a series of filmmaking exercises. I asked students to produce three short animations. The first animation should reveal information about the anatomy of the architectures. The second should disclose something about the environmental servicing proposed for the architectures. The third animation should expose aspects of the social interior of the Edilian architectures. Prompted in part by the writ- ings of London based academics Neil Spiller and Nic Clear, the animation exercises were devised to explore how animation might overtake the conventional ar- chitectural design development process, resulting in tangible design.16 Rather than use static conventional architectural drawings, animations have the capacity to actively embed environmental conditions such as steam and wind into the representation of the design. Typically used only after the design is resolved, could animation contribute to the process of architectural design development? How can the natural elements become active participants in the architectural design Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 experience of living in Edilia? How can architecture be designed in-situ in its animated setting? Throughout the year, Cooper operated using a design process that was fluid. If he felt his project could explore his utopian design approach different- ly, he would change tack to expand societal design possibilities in an alternate way. So as to comple- ment his strategy for the Geothermal Balloon Filling

Figure 4. Photograph of Cooper’s Exhibiton panel with Balloon model in centre at “Sci-fi Eco-Architecture” exhibition12-13 Clerkenwell Green, London . Dock & Temple to Earth, in the second semester © Jonathan Todd, December 2010. Cooper proposed a settlement titled “City of Inter-

100 ECO-TOPIA woven Power Structures.” Cooper produced a series of films culminating in a final animation of the utopia (Figure 6). His animated vision of Edilia is designed for 2609 CE. The film reveals details about the socio- spatial relations, the anatomy of his architectures, and the proposed environmental servicing. Cooper’s “City of Interwoven Power Structures” is inspired in part by the masques created by American poet and architect, John Hejduk.17 Using Hejduk’s method of creating fictitious characters with specific house requirements, Cooper described, sketched and tectonically resolved a series of small-scale, personal- ized houses (Figure 7). Edilia is designed as a network city that aims to visibly express the social relations be- tween the households. Each house is dependent on its neighbors. Structurally this makes each tower stable, and provides access via the suspension bridges. Each edifice is uniquely crafted to express the needs of its occupants. Individualism and collectivism is symbol- ized spatially in the city. The linear network of houses is located on the high point of the mountainside of Breiðamerkurjökull, capturing different wind condi- tions for the balloons, and optimizing geothermal energy. The houses overlook one another, and are spaced to give views as required. Suspended bridges offer avenues for movement above the hostile terrain, too volatile to walk on because of the constantly rising steam and lava from the earth. Influenced by his reading of the works of American engineer and futurist, Buckminster Fuller (Figure 8), Cooper demonstrates a desire to have the towers “tread lightly on the ground” (Figure 8). Referred to in Cooper’s notes on the sketchbook Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 page, Fuller’s Cloud Nine is a proposal for airborn, tensegrity spheres that float over a mountainous landscape.18 By heating the air temperature inside each tensegrity sphere, Fuller’s “clouds” levitated. In Cooper’s Edilian society, the structures tread lightly, occupying the site in a transient manner, much as organisms do. Only the stone geothermal chimneys weigh heavily upon the site. Imagined to have been there for generations, they are conceptualized exten- Figure 5. Geothermal Balloon Filling Dock. © Oliver Cooper, 2010. sions of the site’s unique geologic formations.

TROIANI 101 The houses use vernacular materials and ty- pologies. They are built of volcanic stone, a material harvested from the site. Their rusticity echoes that of Heidegger’s primitive hut. The architectural aes- thetic is reflected in the ambiance of Cooper’s final animation, resembling the filmic version of Italian writer, Umberto Eco’s The Name of the Rose.19 The houses feel as if non-architects could build them if required. In this utopian vision, one is trained by the unique environmental conditions of the site, not ac- cording to prescribed pedagogical orientations. The structures are built simply. Strategically, they use “appropriate technology,” only occasionally resorting Figure 6. Still of Edilia from animation, “City of Interwoven Power Structures.” © Oliver Cooper, 2011. to high-tech devices. Technologies are deliberately small-scale, locally controlled, and energy efficient. Just as the prosthetic kite was frugally built, Cooper encourages Edilians to build their houses with locally available materials. When using materials that need to come from afar, those materials are respected, greatly valued and used sparingly. Designing the character houses using anima- tion rather than static architectural drawings allowed Cooper to represent the architecture’s engagement with the natural environmental conditions (Figure 9). For instance, steam rises up from the continuously active mountain surface. The Bird Keeper’s Tower an- imation shows birds fluttering out of it, accompanied by a mixture of hissing steam and bird noises (Figure 10). Balloons take off from the Agriculturalist’s Tower on their seed-spreading journey. They return, drop- ping seedpod bags into the Merchant’s Tower (Figure 11). The Shaman’s Tower occupies the summit because it is the most significant wind catching Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 tower, and as such is capped with a decorative wind turbine, opening and closing continuously. Powered by its wind paddles it appears to be animate, like a bird flapping its wings (Figure 12). This is an Edilian utopia in motion, a vision of a future society in dia- logue with its natural environment.

Eco-topia Edilia Figure 7. Page from Cooper’s sketchbook showing Hejdukian style sketches. © Oliver Cooper, 2011. I have presented the architectural design proj- Figure 8. Page from Cooper’s sketchbook showing Buckminster Fuller influence. © Oliver Cooper, 2011. ect, “City of Interwoven Power Structures” in this

102 ECO-TOPIA Figure 9. Section through “City of Interwoven Power Structures.” © Oliver Cooper, 2011. The animation site section includes, from top left to bottom right, the Shaman’s Tower (a resting/gathering chapel space occupied by the Shaman and heated by geothermal steam); a Horticulturalist’s Tower (which aims to overcome the harsh climate by using geo-thermally heated water that flows to the greenhouses via cranes); an Agriculturalist’s Tower (from which ‘pollinator’ balloons are launched each spring and return late autumn, at the end of the harvest); a Bird Keeper’s Tower (which has a dovecote structure; the birds are both sacred, being creatures of the wind and useful for carrying messages); a Baker’s Tower (which contains ovens heated by geothermal steam) and a Merchant’s Tower (which receives grain dropped from gatherer balloons, heats it geo-thermally to remove moisture and then stores it).

Figure 10. Stills of the Bird Keeper’s Tower taken from animation. © Oliver Cooper, 2011.

article as an exemplar of how we might envisage the utopias of the twenty-first century. It emerges from Harvey’s invitation in “Edilia, or ‘Make of it what you will’” to design an alternative, more just society that is “a more equitable world of work and living with nature.”20 It does so by designing an ecological utopia or an eco-topia. Positioning the project within the discipline under the larger umbrella of eco-topia, ren- ders it unlike the ecological utopias of other eras. This difference emerges in part from its transdisciplinary method of production, but equally from its political and environmental positioning. It also emanates from our current commitment to environmentally respon- sive architecture. The transdisciplinary methodology of using fiction-writing, prosthetic design and prototyping, and architectural filmmaking was an essential aspect

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 of creating utopian design possibilities. By writing utopia as descriptive prose, fabricating an environ- mentally reactive prototype that is explored on site, and developing the design of the architectures in Edilia through animation; the conventional architec- tural design process was challenged and modified. Using practices that are not seen as part of the stan- dard architectural and urban design process, students were able to move seamlessly between reality and fantasy, between the actual and the possible. This al- lowed them to work more freely and experimentally.

TROIANI 103 Figure 11. Stills of balloon’s being released from the Agriculturalist’s Tower taken from animation. © Oliver Cooper, 2011.

Cooper’s political and environmental attitude is in the future. Still, the fiction enables a realizable Cooper’s design has much to tell us about our con- seminal to his design of eco-topia Edilia. He designed design that does not spring from formalist utopian as- temporary context. It is an optimistic utopian twenty- dreaming of the seasons, the flora and fauna, the pirations. While the technologies are only suggestive, first century vision in which the value of a more natu- landscape and its energies, and the everyday life of they evoke feasible strategies for utilizing Iceland’s ral existence is a seminal priority. It aspires to a better, its users. The scheme is accommodating rather than renewable energy sources. The technology deployed more respectful, and sustainable future way of living. imposing, its architectural proposition of settlement is Heideggerian and humble. It is also playfully He- acquiesces rather than colonizes. The eco-topia is jdukian. This is not the utopian island of More reacting Notes Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 equal parts realistic and unrealistic. In this ‘Age of to the political and social injustices of the sixteenth 1. Robert E. Park, On Social Control and Collective Behavior (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1967), 3. Predictions’ to quote Renata Tyszczuk in her “Future century; but rather, an eco-topian island settlement 2. David Harvey, “The Freedom of the City,” in The Politics of Making, Worlds—To-ing and Fro-ing” our imagining of the yearning for socially responsible design exhausted by eds. Mark Swenarton, Igea Troiani and Helena Webster (London: predicted earth landscape due to climate change our contemporary addiction to capitalist consumption. Routledge, 2007), 15. 21 3. David Harvey, Spaces of Hope (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, should be treated with caution. We will never know If we return to Harvey’s summation of Park’s 2000), 133-181. if the fictitious scenario that Cooper predicts for Ice- theory and his assertion that “the question of what 4. Ibid., Back cover. land’s southeast lagoon will be realized or not as we kind of city we want cannot be divorced from the 5. Ibid., 257-281. are not currently able to know the environmental situ- question of what kind of people we want to be, what 6. Ibid., Back cover. 7. Oliver Cooper, “City of Interwoven Power Structures” [unpublished ation in 2609 CE. Nor is his settlement of characters kinds of social relations we seek, what relation to prose], written 5 October 2010. exemplary of those who might be living at Jökulsárlón nature we cherish, what style of life we desire,” then 8. David Halpin, “Utopianism and Education: The Legacy of Thomas

104 ECO-TOPIA Figure 12. Stills of ‘flapping wings’ of the Shaman’s Tower taken from animation.© Oliver Cooper, 2011.

More,” British Journal of Educational Studies 49, no. 3 (September 12. James Cameron and Jay Cocks, Strange Days, DVD. Directed by Architecture and Film,” Architectural Design 75, no.4 (2005): 104-109 2001): 300-301. Halpin argues that “utopianism as a distinctive literary Kathryn Bigelow (Lightstorm Entertainment, 1996). 17. John Hejduk, The Lancaster/Hanover Masque (London: Architectural genre” was the achievement of lawyer and social philosopher, Sir Thomas 13. Robert Adams, Edward Burtynsky, Thomas Struth, Jem Southam, Association, 1992). More. Thomas More, Utopia (London, New York: Everyman’s Library, Giovanni Castell, Paul Graham, Per Bak Jensen, Hiroshi Sugimoto, Mette On my recommendation Cooper looked at Hejduk’s work. He took from 1974, First published in 1516). Tronvoll, Walter Niedermayr, John Berger, Vanishing Landscapes (London: Hejduks’ methodology that which he wanted, choosing instead to embed While More was not the first to write utopian literature his work greatly Frances Lincoln, 2008). himself more in Heideggerian philosophy. influenced later writers who engaged with socialist critiques of capitalism 14. Oliver Cooper, Exhibition label text for his “City of Interwoven Power 18. James Baldwin (1997) Buckyworks: Buckminster Fuller’s Ideas for and urbanism often imagining the future. Some include: Karl Marx and Structures” design exhibited in the “Sci-fi Eco-Architecture” exhibition. Today (London: John Wiley and Sons), 190. Friedrich Engels, Communist Manifesto (Oxford: Oxford University Press, The exhibition was hosted by Chetwoods Architects and held in the 19. Umberto Eco, The Name of the Rose (London: Secker & Warburg, Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 1998, First published in 1848); Ebenezer Howard, Garden Cities of To- ‘Green Room’, 12-13 Clerkenwell Green, London from 4th January to 1983, First published in Italian in 1980); Alain Godard, Andrew Birkin, morrow (London: Faber and Faber, 1946, First published in 1898); William 28th January 2011. Gérard Brach, Howard Franklin, Umberto Eco, The Name of the Rose, Morris, News from Nowhere or an Epoch of Rest (London: Routledge & 15. Martin Heidegger, “The Question Concerning Technology,” in ed. DVD. Directed by Jean-Jacques Annaud (Twentieth Century Fox Film Kegan Paul, 1970, First published in 1890). David Farrell Krell, Martin Heidegger: Basic Writings from “Being and Corporation [US], 2004/1986). 9. David Mitchell, Cloud Atlas (London: Sceptre, 2004). Time” (1927) to “The Task of Thinking” (1964) (San Francisco: Harper); 20. David Harvey, Spaces of Hope (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University 10. Use of creative fiction writing is a technique Dawson and I have William McDonough and Michael Braungart, Cradle to Cradle: Remaking Press, 2000), Back cover. continued to explore in our studio teaching and which I explore in my the Way We Make Things (New York: North Point Press, 2002); Lewis 21. Renata Tyszczuk, Joe Smith, Nigel Clark and Melissa Butcher, Atlas: own research. The possibilities of this method of critical project framing Hyde, The Gift: How the Creative Spirit Transforms the World (Edinburgh: Geography, Architecture and Change in an Independent World (London: used in studio teaching as a creative research practice are still in the Canongate, 2007); and Carolyn Steel, Hungry City (London: Chatto & Black Dog Publishing, 2012), 132-139. early stages of comprehension although the shift from writing to drawing Windus, 2005). offers students alternative media through which to visualise their designs. 16. Neil Spiller, “Towards Animated Architecture against Architectural 11. Brian David Johnson, Science Fiction Prototyping: Designing the Animation,” Architectural Design 71, no. 2 (2001): 82-85; Nic Clear, Future with Science Fiction (Morgan & Claypool Publishers, 2011), 12. “Concept Planning Process Realisation: The Methodologies of

TROIANI 105 This article was downloaded by: [Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture] On: 28 August 2013, At: 04:48 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Architectural Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjae20 Material Manifestations Andrew Saunders a a Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

To cite this article: Andrew Saunders (2013) Material Manifestations, Journal of Architectural Education, 67:1, 86-95, DOI: 10.1080/10464883.2013.767128 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10464883.2013.767128

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Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms- and-conditions ANDREW SAUNDERS Material Manifestations Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Cultural and Material Affects of Shaker Artifacts

filled with devils and sins”. The second outside world, the experienced, “was the one in which Shakers con- Material Manifestations argues that Shaker culture provides a rich ducted business and interacted with those outside of context to reassess the past through a contemporary lens. Analyz- the village sphere.”5 The culturally postulated world had no part in the Shakers’ heaven on earth and had ing how Shakers transformed their physical environment to express to be eschewed from their Utopia. Not only did the Shakers incorporate the physical or experienced world the values of the Society and influence the daily routine of its into their Utopia, but the intentional transformation members provides unique insight into the powerful role of the af- and ordering of it through the tenets of Shakerism was an obligatory act of worship. fective in design. Motivated by the maxim “Hands to work and hearts to God,” every material possession of the Shak- ers embodied a complex duality. Not only was each artifact highly functional, critical to supporting and Introduction Paradoxical Utopia: Integration fostering daily communal life, but additionally, it was The immense popularity of Shakers today, defined by of the Temporal and Spiritual conceptualized as a device for the religious perfor- contemporary consumption of Shaker aesthetics and Founded in England in 1747, the United Society mance of Shakerism. As a result, Shakers transformed artifacts, often downplays or entirely overlooks the of Believers was referred to by outsiders pejoratively everyday objects into instruments of worship, distin- radical nature of the society, their religious rituals as the “Shaking Quakers” due to their exuberant and guishing them through the precise manner in which and spirituality, and the widespread fear, hatred and highly emotional bodily acts of worship. Led by the they were made and used. The core tenets of simplic- persecution they encountered as they struggled to charismatic Ann Lee, the sect fled persecution and ity, integrity, durability, cleanliness, frugality, order and develop as a religion.1 Born of a desire for religious eventually started a settlement in upstate New York. dedication to craftsmanship were essential to the con- liberty, the wish to escape the problems of a newly Ann Lee’s religious convictions regarding sexuality led struction and maintenance of the Shaker utopia. The industrialized Europe, and the millennial beliefs of to the adoption of celibacy as one of the key tenets Shakers found the design of their environment “the certain Christian denominations, over one hundred of Shakerism, rendering the Shakers reliant on the only activity broad enough in scope to accommodate utopian societies materialized in North America outside world for both converts and general economic their aspiration to turn heaven to earth.”6 during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.2 sustainability. Historically, from Plato’s Republic to The first officially established Shaker village These societies, many of which were short-lived, Sir Thomas More’s Utopia, utopias are tabula rasa epitomized quite literally this ambition to create sought to withdraw from the community at large in constructions, free from existing societal habits and heaven on earth. Located on the border between order to experiment with new social patterns as dif- practices.4 The Shakers believed they were creating the states of Massachusetts and New York, the ferent models for ideal living. The United Society of heaven on earth. This seemingly paradoxical desire Shaker Village at Mount Lebanon was “the equiva- Believers, commonly known as the Shakers, was the created a tension, both productive and adverse, be- lent of Vatican City for the Shakers”.7 Hosting the quintessential and most successful of the American tween the Shakers and the outside world, and had a central governing body of the Society for 160 years Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 utopian experiments. The Shakers attracted over profound influence on the aesthetics of their Utopia. from 1787 to 1947, Shakers believed it to be “God’s 20,000 members, and at the height of the movement Steven Taysom describes how the Shakers de- redemptive city on Earth.” On March 16, 1843, a in 1840 the Society governed eighteen separate veloped a dual view of the outside world to negotiate member of the village, channeling the spirit of Adam, communities from Kentucky to Maine. (Sabbathday this complex relationship and preserve the sanctity was given specific instruction to draft a plan of the Lake Shaker Village in Maine is still active today with of their Utopia. He posits that two distinct outside City of the New Jerusalem called the Holy City. The three remaining members.)3 The relevance of the worlds existed simultaneously for the Shakers: the cul- highly elaborate plan detailed a symmetrical and Shakers to the field of design today resides in the turally postulated and the experienced. The culturally ordered twelve-mile square city complete with the distinct aesthetic of their extensive material culture postulated was “that which they wrote about in their riches of life including gold streets as the reward and the manner in which it conveys different aspects tracts and railed against in their sermons, a culturally for a stringent life on earth.8 The Shakers were of the Shaker utopian experience. postulated world of absolute danger and absolute evil, convinced that the divine city existed directly above

86 MATERIAL MANIFESTATIONS Pedagogical Design Approach to Shaker Utopia Penetrating the iconography of Shaker culture and focusing on the latent spirit of the work, a spe- cific design pedagogy was developed in order to ana- lyze how Shaker artifacts perform as dynamic and af- fective mechanisms, embodying the patterns, values, successes and struggles of the utopian experiment. The approach drew from the social science discourse of material culture, a transdisciplinary practice that analyzes the interrelationships between artifacts and the societies that make them. Anthropologist Henry Glassie describes the practices of material culture as follows: “Culture is an abstract and immaterial con- cept that is inward, invisible and constantly shifting. Material artifacts offer a unique physical recording of these human thoughts and actions because they op- erate as spatial and material experiences.”10 Research began with the rigorous recording, documentation and analysis of Shaker material culture at multiple design scales, including village planning, buildings and artifacts. Over one hundred individual Shaker artifacts were analyzed through in- formation gathering, accurate recording, documenta- tion, and the precise reconstruction of dimensionally accurate digital models (Figure 2).

Analysis Through Affect One approach to accessing the material culture of the Shakers might be through stylistic analysis, reveal- ing traces of influence from other styles of the period, imported from converts and the skills they brought into the community. While this accounts for certain Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 aspects of the Shaker aesthetic, it does not access what distinguishes Shaker artifacts from their worldly Figure 1. Spiritual map. The Holy City, 1843. Polly Jane Reed. New Lebanon, NY. Ink and watercolor on paper, 31 x 24 ¾ in. (78.7 x 62.9 cm). Philadelphia Museum of Art, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Julius Zieget, 1963. counterparts, and risks acculturation with other pre- industrial design typical of eighteenth and nineteenth century rural America. Therefore, more importance was New Lebanon and their village was to be a plainer stages of planning, invited the Rensselaer Architecture placed on interpreting how the artifacts “acted” as earthly reflection of it (Figure 1). School9 to speculate on the design for a contemporary mechanisms for a highly defined communal culture of Recently, a large portion of the remaining Mount facility to house and display their artifact collection in ritual and performance. Lebanon Shaker Village was annexed to the Shaker this context. The collaboration presented a unique op- Along with the high-spirited dance and song Museum | Mount Lebanon. The museum, in the initial portunity to engage this utopian legacy. (Figure 3), for which the Shakers were known, their

SAUNDERS 87 Figure 2. Digitally reconstructed models of Shaker Artifacts (modeled and rendered by Rensselaer School of Architecture second year students).

rituals also included clairvoyance, clairaudience, The immediacy of the physical phenomena mani- ty, to Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, to explain the speaking in unknown tongues, telepathies, prophe- fested through these acts of worship played a specific way knowledge is gained through the experiential or cies and automatisms. The majority of these spiritual role in propagating the Shaker religion. When distin- perceptual. The term affect is increasingly being using encounters took place from 1837 to 1853 in what guishing the different functions of manifestation and in many fields including psychology, politics, anthro- was known as “Mother Ann’s Work” or the “Era of proclamation in religion, theologian and philosopher pology, design and architecture to describe how ob- Manifestations.” During this period of increased Paul Ricoeur begins his definition of manifestation jects can influence society through a more immediate, spirituality, certain members of the society, initially with Rudolf Otto’s characterization of a sacred experi- direct and visceral engagement of the senses. Anthro- Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 young women, were compelled to shake, tremble, ence as “shaking” (tremendum) and “fascinating” pologist, Robert Plant Armstrong, describes affective whirl, draw, write and speak as instruments channel- (fascinosum). Ricoeur points out that it is the “power” presence as “an artifact’s immediate and direct ability ing divine spirits. According to Shaker tradition, the of the actual experience that distinguishes manifesta- to assert its self-contained, self-perpetuating actions in oracles delivered direct messages from a wide range tion from proclamation: “The numinous element does our presence through the interior condition of feelings, of spirits including Jesus, Mother Ann, former Shak- not pass over completely into articulation since it is or the presence of felt ‘visceral’ values”.13 ers, George Washington and even Native American the experience of efficacy par excellence.”12 It is important to point out that an affective ap- spirits. The communion produced a spectrum of An operative design technique based on affect proach does not exclude signified meaning through spiritual “gifts” to be incorporated into Shaker ritual was developed to analyze the more immediate way language, but rather posits that representational including intense ceremonial acts of whirling, sing- Shaker artifacts transmit values through experience. forms of information are secondary and preempted ing, fasting, smoking, planting, marching, chanting, The concept of affect has been developed in philoso- by the more basic perceptions of the senses.14 feasting, bathing, cleaning, and harvesting.11 phy, from Baruch Spinoza, and Maurice Merleau-Pon- Although Shaker material culture can be read as

88 MATERIAL MANIFESTATIONS Figure 3. Religious Exercises, Frank Leslie’s illustrated Newspaper, 1873, Shaker Museum | Mount Lebanon.

symbolic through its formal geometries and meta- and generative capacities embedded in these pro- innovative hybridization of sitting, working, and stor- phorical references to biblical constructs, an affective cesses of construction. To be effective, the diagrams ing in the cobbler’s bench; the multi-functioning, approach to analysis utilizes the experiential and could not simply represent or illustrate the genera- swift-folding portability of work surfaces; the ap- Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 sensorial to unlock the transformative capacity of the tive forces. Instead, the actual act of diagramming paratus accommodating large assemblies, efficient artifacts in the daily life of the utopian community. reproduced the affects through simulation, allowing harvesting, and the fabrication of raw materials; and the organizational capacity of the affects to be em- the particular tailoring of shoes for precise and multi- Diagramming Affects bedded within the graphic assemblages.15 directional rotational dance motifs; all embodied the Within the spatial, material, and tectonic as- Distinct patterns embedded within the routine prescribed tenets of Shakerism. The diagrams exhib- pects of Shaker culture, five general territories for endeavors and everyday objects of the rural commu- ited strictly choreographed, rhythmic patterns of com- affects were established: utility, geometry, ergonom- nity began to emerge from the diagrams. The relent- munal life, the traces of bodies in continuous motion, ics, materiality and fabrication. Once identified, less pursuit of perfection in linear geometry; the erect the mastery of the technologies that produced them, these affects were diagrammed. In order to decipher posture and delicate balance and lightness of meeting and the daily periodic toil of Shaker ritual. these invisible traits, the studio adopted an idea of benches; the highly calibrated, less inclined oscillation Each artifact revealed a carefully designed mi- diagramming that championed the latent dynamic of the Shaker rocker; the quest for efficiency through crocosm of the larger Utopian vision. As a collection,

SAUNDERS 89 Figure 4. Digital reconstruction of a Shaker sewing basket and transposition diagrams of affects (Analysis and drawings by Kieran Martin; design critic Andrew Saunders).

Figure 6. Digital reconstruction of a Shaker sewing desk and transposition diagrams of affects (Analysis and drawings by Michelle Lahnemann, design critic Andrew Saunders).

Figure 8. Digital reconstruction of a Shaker stand with drawers and transposition diagrams of affects (Analysis and drawings by Nicholas Stipinovich; design critic Andrew Saunders). Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013

Figure 10. Digital reconstruction of a Shaker web back chair with arms and rockers and transposition diagrams of affects (Analysis and drawings by Kateri Knapp; design critic Andrew Saunders).

90 MATERIAL MANIFESTATIONS Figure 5. Architectural affects from Shaker Museum proposal motivated by affects of a Shaker sewing basket (Designed by Kieran Martin; design critic Andrew Saunders).

Figure 7. Architectural affects from Shaker Museum proposal motivated by affects of a Shaker sewing desk (Designed by Michelle Lahnemann; design critic Andrew Saunders).

Figure 9. Architectural affects from Shaker Museum proposal motivated by affects of a Shaker stand with drawers (Designed by Nicholas Stipinovich; design critic Andrew Saunders). Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013

Figure 11. Architectural affects from Shaker Museum proposal motivated by affects of a Shaker web back chair with arms and rockers (Designed by Kateri Knapp; design critic Andrew Saunders).

SAUNDERS 91 Figure 12. Digital reconstruction of a Shaker knitting swift and transposition diagrams of affects (Analysis and drawings by Hyatt Tortorella; design critic Gustavo Crembil),

Figure 14. Digital reconstruction of a Shaker clothing wringer and transposition diagrams of affects (Analysis and drawings by Lisa-Christin Laue; design critic Andrew Saunders).

Figure 16. Digital reconstruction of a Shaker butter worker and transposition diagrams of affects (Analysis and drawings by Shen Li; design critic Andrew Saunders). Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013

Figure 18. Digital reconstruction of a Shaker jelly shear and transposition diagrams of affects (Analysis and drawings by William McGeever; design critic Andrew Saunders).

92 MATERIAL MANIFESTATIONS Figure 13. Architectural affects from Shaker Museum proposal motivated by affects of a Shaker knitting swift (Designed by Hyatt Tortorella; design critic Gustavo Crembil).

Figure 15. Architectural affects from Shaker Museum proposal motivated by affects of a Shaker butter worker (Designed by Lisa-Christin Laue; design critic Andrew Saunders).

Figure 17. Architectural affects from Shaker Museum proposal motivated by affects of a Shaker clothing wringer (Designed by Shen Li; design critic Andrew Saunders). Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013

Figure 19. Architectural affects from Shaker Museum proposal motivated by affects of a Shaker jelly shear (Designed by William McGeever, design critic Andrew Saunders)

SAUNDERS 93 they consistently divulged how every action of the affects began to take on three-dimensional temporal the proposals (Figures 6 and 7). The productive insta- society became an opportunity to express honesty, signatures of their own. As dynamic traces of the bility of a rectilinear seed sorting work surface with a prudence and perfection. Shaker aesthetics were not habits of Shakerism, they were freed from the repre- tripod base produced a subtle, transient and shifting aimed at stylization, but rather, at a heightened sen- sentation and dimensionality of the original artifact. structural grid of multi-directional columns (Figures 8 sorial awareness. Shaker artifacts were not created The new patterns were then used to guide digital and 9). The steady and exact oscillating of the web as symbolic representations of the Shaker faith, as fabrication tools (including laser cutting, routing and back rocker generated a concatenation of radial lou- much as they were intended as actual presentations stereolithography) to produce new speculative mate- vers that both blurred the massive profile of a vertical of a very specific morality that pervaded every activ- rial assemblages. These new models become vehicles tower proposal and calibrated views of the landscape ity of the Shakers from the mundane daily chores to of transposition for a multitude of Shaker affects. and village from the interior (Figures 10 and 11). The the sacred rituals of worship and dance. Mimi Zeiger describes the role of the contem- expandable and shape-shifting qualities extracted porary museums to “architecturally engage their con- from the knitting swift induced a flexible space frame Digital Shakers text, urban or rural, with a sensitivity that refuses to and amorphous lightweight envelope that wrapped The coupling of twenty-first century innova- bore, alienate, or pander to the public.”17 Liberated one of the projects (Figures 12 and 13). Patterns of tion with a culture typically associated with nine- from the representation of the original artifacts, the variant densities developed from the slow periodic teenth century antiques may seem counterintuitive signature traits and operations of the artifacts and churning and emulsification process of the butter at first. To the contrary, the Shaker culture was their operators motivated a wide variety of original worker. These were articulated in a dynamic rain extraordinarily innovative and constantly employing architectural expressions and spatial experiences di- screen that constantly changed the perception of the technology to perfect the nature by which things rectly rooted in the ethos of Shaker culture. The new building from the exterior and curated unanticipated were made. This attitude can be summed up by early architectural affects responded to an array of criteria views of the village from the interior (Figures 14 and Shaker leader Joseph Meacham, “We have the right both intrinsic and extrinsic to the project including 15). The crenulated surface expansion and compres- to improve the invention of man, so far as is useful structure, form, environment, circulation, context, sion affects of the clothing wringer modulated scale and necessary, but not to vain glory or anything and program organization. through a new landscape tectonic that orchestrated superfluous.” Unlike other communal groups such These new patterns bore the signature of the the exhibition of artifacts as well as panoramic vistas as the Amish who reject most technology, the Shak- digital paradigm and contemporary tools associated of Mount Lebanon (Figures 16 and 17). The hing- ers embraced technological advances. Shakers are with it. Compared with the analog tools of the nine- ing cadence of the jelly shear formed a hyperbolic linked to the invention of the flat broom, wrinkle re- teenth century, the digital repositioned affects found sequence of motion from horizontal to vertical that sistant fabric, circular saw and condensed milk.16 This in the Shaker artifacts with opportunities afforded became a method to veer from the strict orthogonal perspective was critical to the way their utopia was by advanced design techniques including transitions nature of the village planning at moments and reaf- perceived and their ability to produce products for from standardization to customization, representa- firmed the straight lines at others (Figures 18 and 19). economic stability and trade to the outside world. tion to simulation, static to dynamic, subtractive to The exuberance of these new interventions may To convey this spirit of innovation and to unlock additive, and rigid to pliable. From these new design come across as antithetical to the clean and ordered the potential of Shaker affects to influence strategies sensibilities, a novel and unexpected engagement appearance of the Society that upon visiting, Charles with the Shaker culture emerged. The following are Dickens once described as overly “grim.”18 However,

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 for a contemporary museum, it was important to uti- lize current design techniques to move the diagrams a few examples of the architectural consequences there is an argument to be made that the appearance into a more speculative realm. Through the use of yielded by merging digital and Shaker culture. of simple, perfected order served as a protective parametric software, affects mined from the artifacts The analysis of a sewing basket produced blend- mechanism for the society to conceal their uncon- were orchestrated and repeated using looping, condi- ing through a monocoque structure. The modular ventional and extreme religious practices. John tional statements and mathematical operators. The packing inspired nested gallery sequencing (Figures Kirk suggests the Millennial Laws of 1821, the first very nature of computation and its propensity for 4 and 5). The particular way the Shakers positioned systematic codification of regulations within Shaker- pattern recognition and repetition correlated directly drawers in order to access them on multiple sides of ism, were invoked partially to protect their practices with the precise rhythmic flows of labor and the their sewing desk denies the two-dimensional compo- from “those ready to judge the Shakers’ beliefs institutional scalar patterns of the Shaker artifacts. sitional reading of the piece and yielded a continuous and religious behavior odd.”19 Stephen Stein goes Through their amplification and multiplication, these rotational massing and circulatory strategy in one of further stating, “The laws went beyond the practi-

94 MATERIAL MANIFESTATIONS cal needs of a growing organization and established culture, manifesting the various ways in which the process. Without their enthusiasm and collaboration, clear lines of demarcation between the sect and the Shaker legacy can simultaneously preserve, transmit none of this would have been possible. Finally I would larger American culture.”20 Nearly 200 years after the and promote its unique cultural identity. like to thank Dean Evan Douglis for his sincere sup- introduction of the Millennial Laws, designs from the In an educational paradigm in which parametric port and encouragement of the research and pedago- studio acknowledged the Shakers’ legacy by break- modeling and fabrication techniques are ubiquitous, gy and the JAE reviewers and editors for their insight ing down this barrier, bringing the struggles and the default deployment of this technology can in- and direction through the publication process. radical identity of the Shakers to the surface. advertently lead to formal homogeneity. Utopian Just as the original artifacts all provided a societies, real or imagined, offer salient critiques of Notes 1. John T. Kirk, The Shaker World: Art, Life, Belief (New York: Harry N. glimpse into the larger whole of the Shaker utopia, the existing structures of society. The immense pop- Abrams, 1997), 230-26. each of the studio projects generated unique but re- ularity of the American utopian societies in the nine- 2. Mark Holloway, Heaven on Earth: Utopian Communities in America lated architectural affects. As a symphony, the pro- teenth century was largely due to the unanticipated 1680-1880 (New York: Dover Publications, 1966), 20-30. 3. Sabbathday Lake Shaker Village official website (http://www.shaker. posals from the studio revealed how digital instru- social injustices brought about by the ruthlessly lib.me.us/). ments could be used to purge, produce and intensify competitive economic system of the early industrial 4. Yale University Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, America distinctly Shaker affects from the society’s artifacts revolution. The communal societies offered refuge and the Utopian Dream (http://brbl-archive.library.yale.edu/exhibitions/ utopia/intro.html). in order to create innovative strategies for engaging and a better way of life for many. The Shakers were 5. Stephen C. Taysom, Shakers, Mormons, and Religious Worlds: the Shaker legacy in the twenty-first century. acutely aware of the impact and influence the arti- Conflicting Visions, Contested Boundaries (Bloomington: Indiana facts they made had on both their everyday activities University Press, 2010), 8-18. 6. Dolores Hayden, Seven American Utopias: the Architecture of Legacy and their cultural identity. Paradoxically, the critique Communitarian Socialism, 1790-1975 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1976), 66-69. In an increasingly pluralistic and global world, embedded in their material culture may be more en- 7. David Stocks, interview held during visit to Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, January 2010. architects and designers use the immediacy of sensa- during than the religious beliefs that occasioned it. 8. John T. Kirk, “Contextualizing the Gift Drawings” in Heavenly Visions: tion and experience as a universal means to engage Shaker Gift Drawings and Gift Songs, ed. F. Morin (Minneapolis: society. Shaker culture provides a rich context to Acknowledgments University Of Minnesota Press, 2001), 113-115. 9. Rensselaer School of Architecture is located in Troy, New York within reassess the past through this contemporary lens. As coordinator of the second year architecture design Proximity to three of the most important Shaker sites, Watervliet Shaker Although the Shakers did not operate independent studio at Rensselaer School of Architecture, I would Historic District (first settlement of Shakers with gravesite of Mother Ann of external influence, their utopia provided a breed- like to acknowledge the 96 students who participated Lee), Mount Lebanon Shaker Village, and Hancock Shaker Village. 10. Henry Glassie, Material Culture (Bloomington: Indiana University ing ground for the incubation and shaping of a in the studio, Michael Villardi, Caressa Siu, Shima Press, 1999), 41. distinctive material culture. Analyzing how Shakers Miabadi, Lauren Thomsen, Joey Fala and Chelsea An- 11. Edward Deming Andrews, The People Called Shakers (New York: transformed their physical environment to express derson for collecting and organizing the photographs, Dover Publications,1953), 152-176. 12. Paul Ricoeur, Figuring the Sacred: Religion, Narrative and Imagination the values of the Society and influence the daily rou- drawings and renderings for this article in addition (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1995), 48-55. tine of its members, provides unique insights into the to the section design critics Jeremy Carvalho, Erik 13. Robert Armstrong, The Affecting Presence: An Essay in Humanistic powerful role of the affective in design. Carver, Lonn Combs, Gustavo Crembil, Fareh Garba, Anthropology (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1971), 23. 14. Patricia Clough, “The Affective Turn” in The Affect Theory Reader, ed. Using digital technology to reinterpret Shaker Florencia Vetcher and Julia Watson for their contribu- M. Gregg and G. Seigworth (Durham, NC: Duke Universtiy Press, 2010), affects reveals their potential to continue to gener- tions and investment in the studio discourse. I would 207-210. Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:48 28 August 2013 ate contemporary affects, and opens up questions like to thank the leadership of Hancock Shaker Village 15. Stan Allen, “Diagrams Matter,” Any, no. 23 (1998): 16-19. 16. Timothy D. Rieman and Jean M. Burks, The Encyclopedia of Shaker about how we transfer cultural information through for allowing the studio to access their collection and Furniture (Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, 2003), 25. the artifacts we make. In many ways, the archi- grounds as well as Executive Director Starlyn D’Angelo 17. Mimi Zeiger, New Museums: Contemporary Museum Architecture around the World (New York: Rizzoli, 2005),15-17. tecture studio environment is not dissimilar to the of The Shaker Heritage Society of Albany New York 18. Charles Dickens, American Notes and Pictures from Italy (Oxford: patterns of learning and making in the craft-based for her contributions to the studio. I would like to Oxford University Press, 1957 [1842, 1846], 214-18, (http://xroads. community of the Shakers. Isolated from the exter- express deep gratitude to the leadership of the Shaker virginia.edu/~HYPER/DETOC/fem/dickens.htm; Kirk, “Contextualizing the Gift Drawings” (note 8), 113-15. nal pressures of budgetary limitations, conservative Museum | Mount Lebanon including President David 19. Stephen J. Stein, The Shaker Experience in America (New Haven: Yale preservationist policies, and community and museum Stocks and Director of Collections and Research Jerry University Press, 1994), 95. board approval, the architectural design studio is its Grant for allowing the studio intimate access to their 20. Richard Fairfield,Communes USA: A Personal Tour (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books, 1972), 13-14. own utopia. The students created their own material grounds and collection of artifacts throughout the

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Journal of Architectural Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjae20 Pruitt-Igoe, Now Nora Wendl a a Portland State University Published online: 05 Mar 2013.

To cite this article: Nora Wendl (2013) Pruitt-Igoe, Now, Journal of Architectural Education, 67:1, 106-117, DOI: 10.1080/10464883.2013.767131 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10464883.2013.767131

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What is Pruitt-Igoe, now? Forty years after the cinematic blast of When Pruitt-Igoe tower C-15 was cinematically de- molished on April 21, 1972, architectural theorists tower C-15, the site of the housing complex still lays fallow, labeled and architects themselves did the work of dissemi- dystopian by postmodern architectural discourse and ignored by nating the idea that the failure of the project was architectural in its nature (Figures 1 and 2). Images contemporary St. Louis politics. In June 2011, a non-profit agency of the “trial demolition” of tower C-15 entered ar- chitectural discourse almost immediately upon its launched an international ideas competition soliciting proposals for implosion, and in place of Pruitt-Igoe’s thirty-three this site: Pruitt-Igoe Now. The submissions received and juried sug- towers, they built the myth of bad architecture—see Oscar Newman’s Defensible Space (1973), Colin gest what Pruitt-Igoe is, now, to a global community of designers— Rowe and Fred Koetter’s Collage City (1976) and both literally, as they imagine the future of this allegedly failed uto- Charles Jencks’s The Language of Postmodern Ar- chitecture (1977).1 These authors tied the failure of pian site and, unavoidably, metaphorically, as nearly every proposal Pruitt-Igoe to its formal and material qualities—qual- advances a utopian framework of systems in which architecture ities that were deemed “inhuman”—as well as to the systems within the buildings.2 Systems of skip-stop takes a secondary or even tertiary role. elevators that operated according to efficiency rather than human convenience, and open-air galleries on every third floor exacerbated what were, in the words Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:49 28 August 2013

Figure 1. Pruitt-Igoe Housing Complex in context, St. Louis, Missouri, Figure 2. The second, widely televised “trial demolition” event at Pruitt-Igoe on April 21, 1972 takes down Building C-15. Source: United States U.S.A. Airphoto taken March 3, 1968. Source: United States Geological Department of Housing and Urban Development. Public domain. Survey. Public domain.

106 PRUITT-IGOE, NOW of Architectural Forum contributor James Bailey, the maintenance, staggering vacancy rates, and a racially “human problems of the occupants.”3 segregated population proved fatal. By the spring of Since the 1970s, numerous studies conducted 1972, all residents had been moved into 11 towers from outside the discipline of architecture—from the and “test” implosions were being administered in perspectives of sociologists, political scientists, doc- rehearsal for the April 21st blast that would be re- umentarians and others—have exposed Pruitt-Igoe’s corded in Life magazine as evidence of the end of demise as a federally programmed failure.4 By the the Pruitt-Igoe story in a two-page spread captioned: time the decision was made to begin demolition—a “Instant demolition in a St. Louis slum.”6 mere 18 years after the buildings were initially inhab- In truth, the demolition that began that day ited—the St. Louis Housing Authority was in a fiscal would take years to complete. And today, just over crisis, attempting to maintain the structures through forty years after the first implosive blasts were de- rent monies paid by inhabitants during an exponen- livered, the site comprises thirty-three densely for- tially steady population decline. By the year 1970, ested acres just north of downtown St. Louis, in the the units were only 30% occupied, and the median very midst of an urban neighborhood. New debris annual income of the remaining residents was below is deposited here daily by demolition trucks—piles the poverty level.5 The combination of flawed and of building rubble, fax machines, old office furni- Figure 3. The former Dickson Street at the former site of Pruitt-Igoe, rapidly changing federal policies on housing ad- ture. Beneath this, traces of the site’s past are still 2012. Photo courtesy the author. ministration, local mismanagement, long-neglected evident—a gravel trail indicates the former Dickson Street, an electric sub-station still powers part of St. Louis, and one lone lamppost stands, as though waiting. It is in precisely this spirit that the Pruitt- Igoe Now ideas competition was conceived—to actively eschew any possibility of ending, to open Pruitt-Igoe up to a utopian state of perennial aspira- tion (Figures 3 and 4). The aforementioned stories and proclamations of failed utopias and the “end” of Pruitt-Igoe are themselves failed. They are unsuccessful in their in- sistence that architecture is autonomous, that form itself has agency, and that systems alone—without human intervention or involvement—can occasion happy occupation. The architects Hellmuth, Leinwe- ber & Yamasaki were, indeed, passive “in the face of Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:49 28 August 2013 a much larger social agenda that had its roots not in radical social reform, but in the political economy of post-World War II St. Louis and in practices of racial segregation.”7 However, in order to end this passiv- ity (one that still pervades the discipline) we need to see what the architects of Pruitt-Igoe failed to see—that the planning, design, construction, inhabi- tation, and eventual demolition of architecture is a cycle of events dependent upon deeply intertwined Figure 4. Electric substation on the former Pruitt-Igoe site, 2012. Photo courtesy the author. systems—institutional, economic, political, envi-

WENDL 107 Figures 6–7. Recipe Landscape, by Aroussiak Gabrielian and Alison Hirsch of Foreground Design Agency. Basing their recreation of the site on domestic and ritualistic systems, animal husbandry and apiculture yield literal milk and honey—ingredients critical to the production of ice cream as a “landscape of loss is transformed into one of production, growth, and sustenance,” in the entrants’ words. Architecture is not designed, but re-used, as they propose transforming the Pruitt School into both a dairy and creamery where ice cream is made, as well as an educational center for the study of urban agriculture, environmental stewardship, and the cultural rituals of food preparation. Perhaps the most intensively designed set of systems in this competition, this proposal anticipates not only growing all ingredients, but producing ice cream (“the 31 flavors of Pruitt-Igoe”) and distributing city wide to stores.

ronmental, societal and cultural systems—of which Pruitt-Igoe site—one which had already been, in turn,

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:49 28 August 2013 architects must claim authorship. both utopian and dystopian? As countless other social housing projects across the country are torn down and Pruitt-Igoe Now Ideas Competition rebuilt in the idiom of new urbanism, the site of Pruitt- Figure 5. St. Louis Ecological Assembly Line: Pruitt-Igoe as a Productive In the summer of 2011, one year after a series of Igoe remains untouched. To prompt new visions for the Landscape. Designed by Heather Dunbar and Xiaowei R. Wang. visits to the densely forested site, I formed a non-profit site, we simply asked: “What is Pruitt-Igoe, now?” organization with Michael R. Allen, director of the St. The design and administration of an ideas Louis-based Preservation Research Office. Together, competition is an overt, discursive practice—and St. we launched the Pruitt-Igoe Now ideas competition: Louis has a history of them. It was a design competi- if prompted, how would contemporary architects, tion that brought Eero Saarinen’s Gateway Arch to designers, urban designers, writers, artists, and uni- St. Louis, and it was another, more recent design versity students visualize the future life of the former competition, The City + The Arch + The River, that

108 PRUITT-IGOE, NOW The New Utopia Is a Systems Utopia The hundreds of submissions received and juried suggest what Pruitt-Igoe is, now. Literally, the com- petition entries propose a new future for the site; and unavoidably, metaphorically, nearly every proposal advances a new utopian framework to supplant this allegedly failed utopian project.9 In nearly all of the 31 finalists’ proposals, which reflect the ethos of the larger body of submissions, architecture is secondary or tertiary to intricate utopian systems of remediation and production—from agriculture and horticulture to light industry. In fact, 20 out of the 31 finalists priori- Figure 8. In Pruitt-Igoe: The Forest of Floating Minds, Clouds Architecture Office presents a very literal response to the configuration of the former tize agriculture or recreational gardening as a means buildings on the site as a system designed and driven by a desire for population density. In their proposal, the 33 footprints are elevated on concrete of phyto-remediation, while three focus on commu- structures and covered in vegetation. Within these structures are ambiguous “programs connected by bridges with various mixed-use functions that serve the community,” intended to foster the collective memory of the site. The formality of the proposal prevents it from engaging utopian systems in nity-based frameworks, and two on specific programs a meaningful way. for infrastructural or entertainment purposes—one proposing a brick factory, and another the construc- tion of an artificial moon on site, respectively. What awarded Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates the the site are neighborhoods whose histories are inex- the Pruitt-Igoe Now entries suggest together is that honor of re-designing the surrounding Gateway Arch tricable from Pruitt-Igoe. Finally, we acknowledged in a contemporary vision of utopia, architecture grounds by 2015—a mere two miles from the site of that the solution a team would propose might not is negated in favor of systems. Where the original Pruitt-Igoe. Our competition, however, promised no be a product at all, but rather a process; invented Pruitt-Igoe building systems are predicated upon vari- opportunity for actual intervention. Instead, in the or emergent architectural typologies were welcome, ous forms of economy—of materials, of energy, and competition brief we authored and disseminated, along with media ranging from text (manifesto, of space—the systems proposed in these entries are we encouraged entrants to propose bold ideas—this prose, poetry) to image to film.8 As competition predicated upon the user’s deep involvement within a request for “ideas” was critical to the city’s approval organizers, we did not intend to bring new develop- system; indeed, as a key agent in its success. Inhabit- of the project. Ideas, after all, are themselves a uto- ment to the site—that was quite impossible without ants and users of these systems are cast as farm la- pian premise. Ideas are not always discipline specific, the political power or necessary capital to effect borers, urban gardeners, brick makers, forest rangers, nor are they best realized in any one form—or form actual change. Rather, our primary goal was to use employees, or consumers. While these systems are at all, for that matter. Ideas are prompts suggest- the vehicle of an ideas competition—which gener- remarkably different than the original Pruitt-Igoe sys- ing possible courses of action. In the early stages ated conversations, texts, images and ultimately, tems in their advancement of the inhabitant’s agency

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:49 28 August 2013 of organization, when we described our project as a an exhibition—in order to broaden the truncated and mobility, they raise important questions: How do “design” competition, the threat of actual develop- discourse surrounding Pruitt-Igoe and, in turn, affect these new systems escape the exploitation, failure ment seemed quite real to city officials; in response, the future development of the site. and blame of those original systems? And though we located the competition purposefully in the realm Forty years ago, architectural theorists turned intriguing, how accurate are they? Even the intricate of speculation. Further, we required that entrants Pruitt-Igoe into a symbol. We learned that this systems proposed here in text, image, and film are choose and define the specific site of their proposal, symbol was still powerful enough to attract a broad substantial reductions of the political, financial and leaving as an open inquiry what part of the Pruitt- and international discourse when presented as open legal systems that would be necessary to underwrite Igoe site—or its surroundings—required intervention to reinvention. By the time the competition closed them and to ensure their effectiveness (Figures 5 or contemplation. We encouraged entrants to visit, on March 16, 2012—the fortieth anniversary of the through 20). meeting them on the site as often as possible so first building implosion on the site—we had 348 The new utopia is nearer to Thomas More’s they could see that just beyond the official border of submissions from around the world. vision than to Corbusier’s or even Archigram’s. It

WENDL 109 Figures 9–10. With Hinterland, Jaewoo Chon responds to the ongoing cycle of St. Louis’s population decline with a more radical cycle of exodus, expansion, and reclamation—suburban dwellers are pushed back into the city core and the suburbs are un-developed into hinterlands, some of which are repurposed into wetlands, bio-swales, and other productive landscapes that encourage recreational inhabitation. This system of urban landscapes—from inhabited to intentionally wild—strategically reverses decades of urban population flight. Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:49 28 August 2013

110 PRUITT-IGOE, NOW proposal plays upon both St. Louis’s historic signifi- cance as a manufacturing and industrial heart along the Mississippi River, and the tactless 1987 plan for the Pruitt-Igoe site to become the center of an industrial warehouse complex. Through ecological and agricultural strategies, they reclaim the motif of the assembly line, which evokes a capitalist vision of utopia, and exploits the productive potential of the site to create a new product—biodiversity for the surrounding urban fabric—while developing educa- tion, recreation, and employment possibilities for St. Louisans. Vacant houses in the neighborhood sur- rounding the site are re-purposed in order to house these activities, folding educational and recreational facilities into a “green corridor,” radiating from the former site of Pruitt-Igoe to the unused and vacant lots surrounding and to the north of the site. This Assembly Line boasts several interlocking systems that are far more revitalizing and self-reliant than architecture—agricultural systems that harness solar energy for the production of trees, aquaculture that re-generates endangered species to join and diver- sify waning animal ecologies, systems of education, recreation, and employment. In fact, nowhere in this proposal do we see the suggestion of new architec- tural form. Within architectural discourse, utopia is a con- stantly evolving notion. The static architectural form of the 1920s modern social utopia was replaced with the mobile mega-structures of Archigram and others in the 1960s. Fifty years later, our contem- porary vision of utopia almost completely abandons architecture, opting instead to find form through the human development of and ongoing engagement with systems. And, just as the paper utopias of the 1920s were realized, formally, in the 1954 Pruitt- Igoe towers, the utopian proposals advanced in this competition, too, have the potential to be built— Figure 11. In Infiltrate the [Water] System: Pruitt-Igoe Pilot Program for the Missouri Sewer Department, Cari Alcombright and Anna Yoder engage the existing infrastructure of St. Louis’s sewer systems, developing a “water blanket,” a permeable skin that covers the entire site and draws storm water sparked? started? planted?—in another twenty from the existing sewer system to nourish the remediating plants that target and clean out the site’s toxins—mulberry to remove PAHs and PCBs, and years, perhaps less. While the contemporary utopia violet to remove metals. While this system remediates the physical and environmental ramifications of the site’s history it seems not an end unto itself, but rather a phase that might precede another, more lasting intervention on the site. neutralizes the architectural object, are we prepared Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:49 28 August 2013 to understand, imagine, and build what will ultimately take its place? These new systems utopias raise as is, in the case of the first-prize winning proposal the former site of Pruitt-Igoe as the epicenter of an many questions as they answer. Though denying any St. Louis Ecological Assembly Line: Pruitt-Igoe as a “ecological assembly line,” proposing tree and plant resolute architectural form, the contemporary eco-, Productive Landscape, designed by Heather Dunbar nurseries that capitalize on the favorable growing agro- and econo-topias are as all-encompassing as and Xiaowei R. Wang, driven by decidedly “low” conditions of St. Louis, and provide vegetation to Ville Radieuse, or any other modern utopian project, technologies with complex (and often invisible) over 13,000 acres of St. Louis parks—while using and far more prescriptive in their instructions for in- institutional, economic, political, environmental, one-third of the site for aquaculture basins that habitant behavior. In competition renderings, we see societal and cultural systems behind them (Figure 5). grow native fish and mussels species that have been Northside St. Louis residents farming Pruitt-Igoe’s In their Assembly Line, Dunbar and Wang re-imagine rendered endangered by industrial pollution. Their acres, milking cows, making bricks. Who is organiz-

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Figures 12–13. In Pruitt-Igoe National Park, Jill Desimini builds upon the systems of tree re-colonization already taking place on the site, but argues that maintaining it in its current condition would deny present and future generations’ fullest use. She proposes another system, a rich and layered “fourth nature,” or “new wilderness,” that would maintain and encourage ecosystem services by allowing woodlands to take over some areas of the site, while programmatically intervening in other places with picnicking and camping platforms, and elevated walks. This proposal is an elegant reminder of what contemporary ecologists advocate for—exploiting the rich potential of the urban wilderness in compact and diversified land use patterns to allow for many habitats in a relatively small area—benefiting both the environment and generations of future inhabitants.

112 PRUITT-IGOE, NOW Figures 14–15. In Urban Expedition(s), Djamel Kara proposes something approximating architecture: an infrastructural system of ephemeral micro-architectures, urban furniture, and minimal landscape interventions that support a cyclical system of events, or “Urban Expeditions.” These space-based interventions are nomadic—they can be disassembled, moved elsewhere and reprogrammed into community centers, neighborhood labs, city farms, urban centers for discourse, and exhibitions about urban development. While a playful turn on the status quo, simple questions inspired by Pruitt-Igoe’s past arise and open it up to critique: Where is the urban furniture stored? What are the social and political processes by which residents determine what will be built? And who is responsible for the assembly and disassembly?

ing these utopias? How are workers compensated for Igoe Now suggest that although architectural educa- Acknowledgments labor? Whose economic stimulus sets the wheels in tion has not changed dramatically since Comerio’s My deepest thanks go to Michael R. Allen, Director motion? And who benefits the most from these inter- speculation in 1981, architects are already designing of Preservation Research Office and co-organizer of ventions? At stake in these questions is the expanded complex, systems-based solutions to complex design Pruitt-Igoe Now, the competition jurors, our advisory role of the architect, and the most effective expendi- questions. Rather than seeing “systems” as a neces- committee, and those who entered the competition. I

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:49 28 August 2013 ture of design intelligence in systems utopias. sary evil—autonomous from buildings yet dutifully also thank my colleagues at Portland State University Preparing to build these systems will certainly integrated—architects are interpreting systems for their collegiality and support, and the JAE review- necessitate a recalibration of architectural education. within a larger context, relying not on technology, ers and editors for their close reading and sound edi- In “Pruitt-Igoe and Other Stories,” Mary C. Comerio but on the latent potential within existing and often torial advice. Charlie Vinz and Eric Rogers provided a speculates upon the future of the architectural pro- renewable resources. Such choices, even in the con- beautiful space in which to work on the first draft of fession, imagining a world in which architects assume text of a competition, suggest a contemporary shift this essay, and many inspired conversations. roles that are not limited to building production, within the discipline’s vision of itself, as architects musing upon what she calls that “mysterious part change their mode of practice from building-centric of architectural education that enables architects to systems-centric—designing frameworks for insti- to assume roles which were not intended by their tutional, economic, political, environmental, societal, education.”10 The systems utopias proposed in Pruitt- and cultural sustainability.

WENDL 113 Figures 16–17. Carr Square Brickyard, by Sina Zekavat, draws attention to the northside St. Louis neighborhoods surrounding Pruitt-Igoe that are preyed upon by cycles of “brick eaters” who disassemble vulnerable, abandoned brick buildings and sell the bricks back to the unsuspecting city for a profit. This proposal intervenes in that cycle by proposing a manufacturing system—a brickyard that accommodates both a storage site for salvaged bricks as well as facilities for the production of new brick. Unanswered by this proposal is the question of whether the act would interrupt, or rather perpetuate, cycles of theft and destruction in the area. Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:49 28 August 2013

114 PRUITT-IGOE, NOW Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:49 28 August 2013

Figure 18. The Museum of Attempted Utopias [A Burial Mound for Modern Architecture], by Tyler Survant, proposes a metaphorical system. The Museum—a colossal burial mound, a smooth, grass-covered tumulus—harbors a subterranean labyrinth of passages that formally reference the vertical and horizontal systems of circulation within the former Pruitt-Igoe. Three exhibition chambers buried within the mound showcase the history of efforts to realize ideal communities. Though not explicit in its reference, this metaphoric system critiques, participates in, and extends the modern tradition of speculative museum design—in particular, Le Corbusier’s ongoing obsession with the museum, originating with his Mundaneum (1929). For subsequent iterations of the endless museum, Corbusier, too, imagined that the visitor would enter the museum through an underground passage and that s/he would encounter exhibits detailing the history of civilization.

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Figure 19. In Double Moon, by Clouds Architecture Office, systems of human navigation and their historic reliance upon celestial bodies inspire the construction of an illuminated, artificial moon that hovers over the site, beckoning to St. Louisans who might otherwise ignore the site from a distance. This proposal is aware that the site is largely invisible (and thus forgettable) from other, more prominently visited sites in the city, and that the installation of one novel structure in the midst of the existing acres of wilderness would undoubtedly garner attention, visits, and future development of the land.

116 PRUITT-IGOE, NOW Notes 1. Many architectural theorists used Pruitt-Igoe as a symbolic failure to advance their own agendas. Oscar Newman used images of Pruitt- Igoe in its most vandalized, pre-demolition state to argue that its architectural design was the culprit for its failure as it lacked the physical characteristics that would allow the inhabitants to ensure their own security—his theory of defensible space. Colin Rowe and Fred Koetter used Pruitt-Igoe in their polemic on postmodern architecture as evidence that the modern architectural movement failed because of its impulses toward social engineering. One year after Collage City was published, Charles Jencks strategically placed a photograph of the implosion of Pruitt-Igoe building C-15 at the beginning of his polemic, The Language of Postmodern Architecture, using it to dramatically announce the demise of modern architecture and the beginning of the postmodern era. 2. Peter Blake, Form Follows Fiasco: Why Modern Architecture Hasn’t Worked (Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1977), 154–55. 3. James Bailey, “The Case History of a Failure,” Architectural Forum 123, no. 5 (December 1965): 22–25. The “human problems of the occupants” were the staggering poverty, unemployment, and racial discrimination that the inhabitants of Pruitt-Igoe faced. These human problems, of course, originated in policies such as the Missouri law that prohibited mothers from receiving public assistance for their children if the father lived at home, a law that reduced the adult male population at Pruitt- Igoe to less than 10% of total inhabitants. 4. See Eugene Meehan, Public Housing Policy: Convention versus Reality (New Brunswick, NJ: Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers University, 1975). Political scientist Meehan argues that the evolution of housing policies from the 1940s to the 1960s were from the outset “programmed for failure.” 5. Mary Comerio, “Pruitt-Igoe and Other Stories,” Journal of Architectural Education 34, no. 4 (Summer 1981): 27. Comerio’s is among the very first published essays to draw attention to the sociopolitical, racial, economic, and political turmoil that contributed to the demise of the Pruitt-Igoe housing complex. 6. Katharine Bristol, “The Pruitt-Igoe Myth,” Journal of Architectural Education 44, no. 3 (May 1991): 166. See also “Instant Demolition in a St. Louis Slum,” Life, May 5, 1972, 6–7. 7. Katharine Bristol, “The Pruitt-Igoe Myth” (note 6), 170. 8. Submissions were to be delivered as either a single 24” × 36” layout or a video 120 seconds in length, maximum. 9. Seven jurors—Teddy Cruz (University of California San Diego), Sergio

Downloaded by [Association of Collegiate Schools Architecture] at 04:49 28 August 2013 Palleroni (Portland State University, BASIC Initiative), Theaster Gates Jr. (University of Chicago and Founder, Rebuild Foundation), Diana Lind (Next American City), Bob Hansman (Washington University), Joseph Heathcott (The New School), and Sarah Kanouse (University of Iowa)— selected three winning entries: first place, St. Louis Ecological Production Line, Heather Dunbar and Xiaowei R. Wang; second place, Recipe Landscape, Aroussiak Gabrielian and Alison Hirsch; and third place, The Figure 20. Though not a finalist,What If? by Kerry-Anne Vesselle was the only proposal to take seriously the notion that Pruitt-Igoe itself was the result of a political attitude toward the perceived “emptiness” of the site—though there were hundreds of homes there before it was designated a Fantastic Pruitt-Igoe! Social Agency Lab—and 31 finalists out of 348 slum and leveled for the housing project. In a subtle critique of this position, Vesselle designs a situation in which emptiness is real and reigns. Here an total submissions. absence of gravity requires the creation of intricate systems to navigate space, creating a new world in which the ground is only a point of reference. 10. Mary Comerio, “Pruitt-Igoe and Other Stories” (note 5), 31. This project reinvents the site by asking, simply, what if?, in the most utopian spirit.

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Appendix 03

Board Guide

Editorial Board Guide Journal of Architectural Education

01 October 2013

Table of Contents

Policies and Procedures ...... 01

At-Large Members ...... 07

Associate Editor: Design ...... 08

Associate Editor: Reviews ...... 09

Associate Editor: Theme ...... 10

Managing Editor ...... 11

Annual Production Deadlines ...... 12

Editorial Board Members ...... 13

Recent Themes ...... 15

Appendices 01 Guide for Authors (not included) 03 Letter to request Image Permission 04 Scholar One Reviewer Guide 04 Scholar One Editor Guide

Policies and Procedures

The Journal of Architectural Education (JAE) has been published since 1947 for the purpose of enhancing architectural design education, theory, and practice. The ACSA Board of Directors (ACSA Board) supports the development of the JAE as the leading blind-refereed scholarly journal in the field, presenting thoughtful discussion about the state of architecture and architectural education.

The ACSA shall be listed as publisher of the journal and has final authority over policies governing publication of the journal, including, but not limited to, budget and appointment of personnel.

A. Editorial Board 1. Role. The Editorial Board serves as the primary peer-review body for submissions to the journal and advises the Executive Editor regarding editorial policy and content. The Editorial Board is comprised of the Executive Editor, Associate Editors, and At-Large members.

The Executive Editor shall seek the advice and counsel of the Editorial Board on issues including, but not limited to, the editors and content of theme issues, the nomination of Associate Editors and At-Large Editorial Board members, and other issues related to the operation of the journal. Final decision on such issues shall remain, however, with the Executive Editor; recommendations or resolutions by the Editorial Board shall always remain advisory. In the case that serious concerns cannot be addressed within the Editorial Board, these concerns should be directed to the chair of the Publications Committee.

2. Size. The size of the JAE Editorial Board shall be a minimum of 6 and a maximum of 23 members, including the Executive Editor and Associate Editors but excluding ex officio members. Editorial Board members are appointed for a three-year term, renewable to a maximum of two consecutive terms. The composition of the Editorial Board should represent a diversity of expertise, opinion, and geography. Possible areas of expertise for the editorial board may be: history/theory/criticism, design, technology, computer applications, pedagogy, professional practice, and administration.

3. Appointments. a. General Provisions. All members of the JAE Editorial Board are appointed by the ACSA Board of Directors. Only the ACSA Board of Directors may officially dismiss a JAE Editorial Board member before the end of a term of appointment.

Editorial Board members, with the exception of the Executive Editor, shall not serve for more than six consecutive years as Associate Editor or At-Large member.

1 The names and brief curriculum vitae of nominees shall be forwarded each year to the ACSA Board of Directors through the Publications Committee before the beginning of its spring meeting. All Editorial Board members receive an appointment letter from the national office that outlines the term of the appointment and its duties. Appointed Editorial Board members begin their terms on July 1 of the year in which they are appointed, unless otherwise specified in the appointment letter.

b. Eligibility. Editorial Board members are normally university faculty in architecture or related disciplines with a demonstrated record of publication or other scholarly activity.

ACSA Board members shall not serve concurrently as Editorial Board members, except in an ex officio capacity as described in section F below.

4. Terms. a. At-Large Members. At-Large members are normally appointed for a three-year term, renewable to a maximum of two consecutive terms or the equivalent number of years of continuous service. Years of service as At-Large member count against the maximum of six consecutive years of continuous service.

b. Associate Editors. Associate editors are appointed for fixed-length terms not to exceed three years. At-Large members of the Editorial Board who are appointed to serve as Associate Editors shall vacate their position and term on the Editorial Board upon starting the new position. Years of service as Associate Editor count against the maximum of six consecutive years of continuous service.

c. Vacancies. Should a position on the Editorial Board become vacant before its expiration, the Executive Editor shall have the option to nominate a replacement to complete the term or to wait until the term’s expiration.

5. Duties. a. Associate Editors. The Executive Editor recommends appointment of a number of Associate Editors responsible for different departments or topic areas covered by the journal. Associate Editors normally receive a stipend for service. Depending on the area of appointment, the Associate Editors have responsibility for review and editing of peer-reviewed and invited content for each issue.

i. Associate Editor: Reviews. The Reviews Editor is responsible for soliciting, assigning, and ensuring completion of reviews of books, events, exhibitions, buildings, and projects. The Associate Editor coordinates with the Executive Editor to plan for reviews in each issue and to ensure timely completion of each section of the journal.

2

ii. Other Associate Editors. The Executive Editor nominates Associate Editors to oversee peer review of manuscripts submitted to different subject areas covered by the journal. The Associate Editors will work with a subgroup of At-Large members to review and recommend articles for acceptance and publication. The Associate Editors may, with approval of the Executive Editor, invite external reviewers to enhance the editorial process.

b. At-Large Members. The Executive Editor recommends appointment of At-Large members to review manuscripts and participate in subcommittees and other activities related to the Editorial Board’s advisory role. At-Large members will return manuscript reviews in a timely manner and may be asked to work on revision of manuscripts. At- Large members are expected to attend Editorial Board meetings and otherwise participate in Editorial Board discussions and processes.

6. Meetings. The Executive Editor is required to convene and attend two meetings of the Editorial Board each year—one in conjunction with the ACSA Annual Meeting and one at a location of the Executive Editor's choosing during the fall academic term.

The Executive Editor shall chair the meetings and be responsible for the agendas. Within one month of the Editorial Board meeting, the Executive Editor shall report in writing to the Editorial Board and Publications Committee about major discussions, decisions, or action items arising from the meeting.

B. Executive Editor 1. Role. The Executive Editor is appointed by the ACSA Board and has final responsibility for the editorial and graphic content of the publication as well as responsibility for managing a budget allocated for the editorial operations of the journal. The Executive Editor shall seek the counsel and assistance of the JAE Editorial Board (JAE Board) regarding manuscript review and article selection, reviews, and other issues related to the content and editorial policy of the publication. The Executive Editor reports to the ACSA Board via the ACSA Publications Committee.

Two issues of the JAE must be published in each academic year. Each issue shall consist primarily of blind-refereed articles under two broad categories: Scholarship of Design and Design as Scholarship. The Executive Editor may also include reviews, letters to the editor, editorial commentary, interviews, translations, and other content appropriate to the mission of the journal. It is expected that all unsolicited content published in the JAE has undergone a blind review process (where neither authors nor reviewers know each other’s identities) and that invited content has been reviewed by one or more members of the Editorial Board.

2. JAE Executive Editor Appointment Procedure. A search committee shall review applications and send its final recommendation to the full ACSA Board for a simple

3 majority approval. The Search Committee shall consist of the Publications Committee plus two JAE Board members who are not on the ACSA Board. These two JAE Board representatives shall be selected by the JAE Board.

The position of the Executive Editor shall be advertised broadly using ACSA’s communications channels as early as possible to provide for an overlap year of transition.

Qualifications shall include a strong vision for the journal, a recognized research record, significant editorial experience, active involvement in architectural education, and a keen insight into the broad issues affecting architectural education, culture, and practice now and in the future.

3. Terms of Employment of JAE Executive Editor. The Executive Editor shall normally be appointed for a four-year term and shall be eligible for a second four-year term, after which a new editor shall be selected. A contract or appointment letter shall outline the specific terms of the appointment. Subject to such contract or letter ACSA Board retains the option of altering the appointment length or terms for whatever period it deems appropriate.

The Publications Committee shall review the performance of the Executive Editor annually, normally following publication of the final issue of a volume year. Notification of satisfaction or dissatisfaction shall be received by the editor annually in written form and signed by the ACSA President and chair of the Publications Committee. Selection of a new Executive Editor may be conducted so as to typically allow for a one-year overlap with the outgoing Executive Editor. In this transition year, the new editor shall have the title "Executive Editor-Designate" and will be responsible for the review of all new manuscripts submitted during that transition year.

4. Duties. a. Editorial. The Executive Editor has primary responsibility for the editorial and graphic content of each issue of the JAE and for the timeliness of its publication. The content is developed through the peer-review process, which the Executive Editor manages, and through work with Associate Editors, Editorial Board members, theme editors, staff, the publisher, and others, at the Executive Editor’s discretion. The Executive Editor works with staff to deliver material for each issue according to the publication schedule and requirements established by ACSA in conjunction with the publisher.

ACSA reserves the right to review, manage, or halt publication of content in cases where ACSA believes breaches of law or ethics may be implicated or as otherwise deemed necessary by the ACSA Board of Directors in its discretion.

4 b. Peer Review. The Executive Editor has primary responsibility to ensure the integrity of the blind peer-review process for articles submitted for general consideration or in response to published calls. The Executive Editor nominates Associate Editors and Editorial Board members for appointment to review submissions and, at the Executive Editor’s discretion, work with authors on their revisions. The Executive Editor may invite additional external reviewers as needed. Final decision on manuscripts shall be made in writing by the Executive Editor.

c. Management—Personnel. The Executive Editor manages and collaborates with Editorial Board members, ACSA staff and board members, press staff, and others. The Executive Editor is responsible for managing the JAE Board through regular communication and meetings held twice each year. The Executive Editor is responsible for recruitment and nomination of Editorial Board members, according to the policies set out below. The Executive Editor may invite additional external reviewers and theme editors to enhance the editorial process. Such invitations should be accompanied by a written set of expectations.

The Executive Editor shall liaise with the ACSA Board of Directors by serving as a member of the Publications Committee and may be invited to participate in other ACSA board activities. The Executive Editor works with ACSA staff on the administration of the journal’s processes and on production of each issue.

d. Management—Budget. The Executive Editor manages funds allocated by ACSA to support the production of the JAE. Prior to each new fiscal year, the Executive Editor is required to propose a budget, developed in conjunction with the ACSA Executive Director and Publications Committee, to cover stipends, travel, meeting costs, publication enhancements, and other expenses.

C. National Office Role. Staff resources in the national office shall be allocated to the management, production, and distribution of the journal as needed, including, but not limited to, a managing editor for the journal. These resources shall be reviewed annually by the Publications Committee, and recommendations for changes to staffing patterns or the amount of staff time shall come from the committee. Written job descriptions for the staff working on the JAE shall be maintained and reviewed prior to the beginning of each fiscal year.

D. Press Role. ACSA shall contract with a commercial or academic press to handle production, printing, and/or distribution of the journal. Contracts with the press shall be approved by the ACSA Board through the Publications Committee. The Executive Director or other national office staff shall serve as the liaison with the press.

5 E. ACSA Publications Committee Role. As described in the ACSA Bylaws, Article XVI.5, the Publications Committee is responsible for the planning, organization, and implementation of all published material of the association. In this role the Publications Committee shall act as a liaison between the JAE Editorial Board and the ACSA Board. It shall receive recommendations of the JAE Board and communicate them to the ACSA Board with any recommendations, as appropriate. As described above in section A.3, the Publications Committee is responsible for annual evaluation of the Executive Editor.

The ACSA Executive Director shall serve as an ex officio member of the JAE Editorial Board, attending editorial board meetings regularly for the purpose of liaison between the Publications Committee and the JAE Editorial Board. The ACSA Board of Directors may appoint additional board members currently serving on the Publications Committee as ex officio members of the JAE Editorial Board for the same purpose.

6 At-Large Members

A. Description

Along with the Executive and Associate Editors, At-Large Members constitute the Editorial Board of the JAE.

B. Responsibilities

1. Work with the Executive Editor and the Associate Editors to ensure the quality of the journal content as well as the integration of its constituent parts. 2. Maintain the JAE standards for blind peer review with all content. 3. Attend and participate in biannual meetings. 4. Work with other members of the board on various committees. 5. Help to solicit design, general, and theme-related content. 6. Review manuscripts as requested by Executive and Associate Editors in a timely fashion. 7. Present any new initiatives to the Executive Editor and general board for discussion and approval.

7 Associate Editor: Design

A. Description The Associate Editor, Design is responsible for soliciting, assigning, and ensuring completion of all design-related content in each issue and online. The Associate Editor coordinates with the Executive Editor to plan for design content in each issue and to ensure timely completion.

B. Responsibilities

1. Work with the Executive Editor and the Associate Editors to ensure the quality of the journal content as well as the integration of its constituent parts. 2. Maintain the JAE standards for blind peer review with all content. 3. Assign Design as Scholarship manuscripts for review among the design committee members to include peer-reviewed and solicited submissions. 4. Run biannual design-committee meetings in which the design submissions are deliberated upon. 5. Work with authors of accepted manuscripts to edit and format manuscripts. 6. Work with members of the design committee to schedule and procure Guest Curators for each issue. 7. Invite Guest Curators. 8. Work with Guest Curators to edit and format manuscripts. 9. Collaborate with design committee members on new initiatives. 10. Present any new initiatives to the Executive Editor and general board for discussion and approval.

8 Associate Editor: Reviews

A. Description The Associate Editor, Reviews is responsible for soliciting, assigning, and ensuring completion of all reviews-related content in each issue and online. The Associate Editor coordinates with the Executive Editor to plan for reviews in each issue and to ensure timely completion.

B. Responsibilities

1. Work with the Executive Editor and the Associate Editors to ensure the quality of the journal content as well as the integration of its constituent parts. 2. Work with members of the reviews committee to schedule and procure reviewers for each issue. 3. Invite reviewers. 4. Assign reviews to appropriate experts. 5. Run biannual review-committee meetings in which review topics are deliberated upon. 6. Work with authors of review manuscripts to edit and format manuscripts. 7. Collaborate with reviews committee members on new initiatives. 8. Present any new initiatives to the Executive Editor and general board for discussion and approval.

9 Associate Editor: Theme

A. Description The Theme Editor is responsible for soliciting, assigning, and ensuring completion of all theme-related content in each issue and online. The Theme Editor coordinates with the Executive Editor to plan for theme content in each issue and to ensure timely completion. It is not a requirement that the Theme Editor be an At- Large member of the Editorial Board. If not an At-Large member, the Theme Editor will work in conjunction with an Editorial Board member to ensure continuity.

B. Responsibilities

1. Work with the Executive Editor and the Associate Editors to ensure the quality of the journal content as well as the integration of its constituent parts. 2. Maintain the JAE standards for blind peer review with all content. 3. Assign theme-related manuscripts for review among the design committee members to include peer-reviewed and solicited submissions. 4. Run theme-committee meetings in which the theme submissions are deliberated upon. 5. Work with authors of accepted manuscripts to edit and format manuscripts. 6. Work with members of the theme committee to solicit Opinion pieces. 7. Invite authors to solicit material. 8. Collaborate with theme committee members on new initiatives. 9. Present any new initiatives to the Executive Editor and general board for discussion and approval.

10 Managing Editor

A. Receive and process manuscripts (MS). 1. Process 100% of manuscripts within 5 days of submission. a. Review new submissions against requirements; conduct Scholar One (S1) administrative checklist. Executive Editor will then review manuscripts for appropriate content and assign to Associate Editor

B. Track MS peer review. 1. Report on a monthly basis using S1 standard reports, or as requested. Issue monthly reports to JAE Executive Editor and ACSA Executive Director by the 15th of the following month. 2. Create MS reports for Editorial Board meetings and Publications Committee meetings, and annual reports to ACSA Board of Directors.

C. Coordinate Production Process. 1. Assemble materials required for each JAE issue from Associate Editors, authors, and Executive Editor: text, images, publication agreements, table of contents, list of contributors, forthcoming issues information, etc. 2. Work with publisher’s production editor to route materials in production process. a. Deliver materials in total to production editor. b. Receive and distribute proofs. 3. It is expected that all authors be responsible for securing all images and text for publication according to deadline. The Managing Editor is not responsible for securing permissions, adjusting image quality, or researching or verifying content in the publication.

D. Maintain internal and external communications. 1. Respond to general author questions about JAE manuscripts and process; refer questions about manuscript content to Executive Editor. 2. Maintain email list of Editorial Board and Publications Committee. 3. Coordinate appointment letters for Editorial Board members. 4. Ensure timely and accurate content on ACSA website a. Review content monthly for accuracy. b. Work with Director of Communications and Media Strategies on online publication of print content

E. Assist with management of Editorial Board. 1. Maintain calendar and schedule of deadlines for the journal by coordinating with Executive Editor, Associate Editors, and publisher’s production editor. 2. Ensure the proper functioning of the Manuscript Central software, working with publisher as needed to resolve problems.

11 Annual Production Deadlines

Issue: 1 (March) February 15 Call for Submissions Issued August 1 Deadline for Submissions (5.5 months) September 12 Deadline for Blind Peer Reviews (6 weeks) September 26 Decisions by Editorial Team/Letters to Authors (2 weeks) October 24 Revised Manuscripts from Authors (4 weeks) October 31 Papers due to Kevin/Pascale for processing (1 week) November 7 Papers due to T&F, copyeditor (1 week) November 28 Papers from copyeditor / to layout (3 weeks) December 12 First proofs due / sent out to authors and editors (2 weeks) January 1 Author and editor corrections due to T&F (10 days + Xmas) January 10 Marked corrections sent back to layout team by Kate B. (10 days) January 19 Revised proofs from layout / revised proofs to editors (10 days) January 29 Final corrections due (from editors only) (I0 days) February 8 Final files to press (10 days) March 1 Issue ships (3 weeks)

Issue: 2 (October) October 15 Call for Submissions Issued March 1 Deadline for Submissions (5.5 months) April 12 Deadline for Blind Peer Reviews (6 weeks) April 26 Decisions by Editorial Team/Letters to Authors (2 weeks) May 24 Revised Manuscripts from Authors (4 weeks) June 7 Papers due to Kevin/Pascale for processing (2 weeks) June 14 Papers due to T&F, copyeditor (1 week) July 5 Papers from copyeditor / to layout (3 weeks) July 19 First proofs due / sent out to authors and editors (2 weeks) July 29 Author and editor corrections due to T&F (10 days) August 8 Marked corrections sent back to layout team by Kate B. (10 days) August 18 Revised proofs from layout / revised proofs to editors (10 days) August 28 Final corrections due (from editors only) (10 days) September 9 Final files to press (10 days) October 1 Issue ships (3 weeks)

12 JAE: Annual Production Deadlines 01 March issue ships 01 October 15 February 10 call for papers 15 October days

to press

10 days

final corrections

5.5 10 months days

proofs to editors

10 days

ACSA / corrections

01 August 10 submission 01 March days T+F / corrections 6 weeks 2 weeks

review proofs to authors

3 2 weeks weeks ACSA layout

decisions 1 week

4 T+F / copyedit weeks 1 week revised essays 1 24 October ACSA format 24 May solicited essays week Editorial Board Members

2013-2017 Executive Editor Marc J Neveu Wentworth Institute of Technology

2013-2014 Associate Editor: Design Amy Kulper University of Michigan

2013-2014 Associate Editor: Reviews Michelangelo Sabatino University of Houston

At-Large Members

2013-2016 Christina Contandriopoulos Université du Québec à Montréal

Grace La Harvard University

Ivan Rupnik Northeastern University

Georgeen Theodore New Jersey Institute of Technology

Franca Trubiano University of Pennsylvania

13 2012-2015 Tom Avermaete Delft University of Technology

Murray Fraser University College of London

Aaron Sprecher McGill University

John Stuart Florida International University

2011-2014 Marshall Brown Illinois Institute of Technology

Sheila Crane University of Virginia

Nicholas de Monchaux University of California, Berkeley

Mason White University of Toronto

14 Recent Themes

Neveu 2014__68.1 design+ (design)

Livesey 2013__67:2 General issue

Livesey / Grimes 2013__67:1 Utopia, c. 2016 (history, theory, design)

Grimes 2012__66:1 General issue 2012__65:2 Beginning Design (pedagogy, history) 2011__65:1 Ending Design (pedagogy, history)

Dodds 2011__64:2 Beyond Precedent (history, theory) 2010__64:1 Diacritical | Dialogical (design, history) 2010__63:2 Changing Asia (globalization) 2009__63:1 Vernaculars in the Age of Digital Reproduction (design) 2009__62:4 Alternative Architectures | Alternative Practices (design, practice) 2009__62:3 Criticism in Architecture (theory) 2008__62:2 Immateriality in Architecture (materials/technology) 2008__62:1 General issue 2008__61:4 Performance/Architecture (theory) 2008__61:3 Collateral Damage: War & Architecture (history) 2007__61:2 Engaging the Recent Past (history) 2007__61:1 Architectural Design as Research, Scholarship and Inquiry (scholarship)

Allen 2007__60:4 Sustainability (theory) 2007__60:3 General issue 2006__60:2 Design Build (pedagogy) 2006__60:1 New Orleans and Katrina: One Year Later (urbanism) 2006__59:4 Installations by Architects (design) 2006__59:3 1966: Forty Years After (history)

15 2005__59:2 Recycling (design) 2005__59:1 General issue 2005__58:4 Design Building (pedagogy) 2005__58:3 Globalization Now (globalization) 2004__59:2 Medium (theory) 2004__58:1 Architecture, Technology and Education (technology) 2004__57:4 General issue 2004__57:3 Architecture and Landscape (landscape) 2003__59:2 Surface (design) 2003__57:1 Public Realm (design, practice) 2003__56:4 Transparency (theory, design) 2003__56:3 Marking Domain (design) 2002__56:2 General issue 2002__56:1 Digital Design (design) 2002__55:4 Latin America (history) 2002__55:3 General issue 2001__55:2 Gender and Architecture (theory) 2001__55:1 General issue

16 Appendix

01 Guide for Authors (not included) 03 Letter to request Image Permission 04 Scholar One Reviewer Guide 04 Scholar One Editor Guide

JAE: Journal of Architectural Education

Permission Request for Images (Include a photocopy of the image you wish to reprint with your request.)

[From:]

[To:]

[Date]

Dear ,

I am writing to request permission to use the attached image from your [museum / collection / publication]. I also wish to request a [black-and-white / color] digital file of the image at 300 dpi. The image will be used in my forthcoming article, “______,” to be published in the [vol:issue] issue of the Journal of Architectural Education.

Title of image: ______

Author: ______

Year: ______

The Journal of Architectural Education is (JAE) is published by the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture (ACSA) and Taylor & Francis. The ACSA is a 501 (c) (3) non-profit association and articles in the JAE are for an academic audience only. Approximately 4,000 copies of the JAE are printed and distributed free of charge to ACSA faculty at member schools. Approximately 300 copies are provided via subscription to libraries, institutions, and individuals. I am requesting that you grant the JAE worldwide, English-language rights, on a non-exclusive basis, to publish the image with my article in print format, electronic databases, and online services in perpetuity.

Please specify below any credit line you require.

Kind regards,

[your name]

PERMISSION IS GRANTED, as requested above:

Signature Date

Printed Name

CREDIT LINE:

SCHOLARONE MANUSCRIPTS REVIEWER GUIDE

CONTENTS

Receiving and Responding to an Invitation ...... 1

Logging Into Your Reviewer Center...... 2 Forgot Your Password?...... 3 Help Documentation ...... 3

Reviewer Center Overview ...... 4

Reviewing Manuscripts...... 4 Tabs...... 4 Summary Header...... 4 Viewing Proofs...... 4 Performing External Searches...... 4

Scoring & Submitting Your Review...... 5

The View Manuscripts Page...... 5 Scores Submitted Section...... 5 Review and Score Section...... 6

For detailed information on other aspects of the ScholarOne Manuscripts reviewer experience, please consult the Online User Guide for Authors and Reviewers, available through the Get Help Now tab or the Resources section on the Log In and Welcome pages . REVIEWER GUIDE

RECEIVING AND RESPONDING TO AN INVITATION

As a reviewer, you will be notified by email of an invitation to review a manuscript. Text of the email can be customized so its appearance may vary by journal. The email might come embedded with hyperlink invitation responses. Selecting the appropriate hyperlink sends the response to the journal (see yellow highlighting below). The editor is notified and the manuscript is forwarded to your Reviewer Center. You will receive an Invitation Response email containing any specific instructions you may need in order to proceed.

If emails do not come with embedded response links, respond directly to the editor by email.

NOTE: Some journals have a link in the Invitation Response – Agreed email to you that allows you to access the manuscript and scoresheet directly from the email, without logging into ScholarOne Manuscripts.

Page 1 REVIEWER GUIDE

LOGGING INTO YOUR REVIEWER CENTER

Each journal’s ScholarOne Manuscripts site has a unique Web address (URL). Typically, you are given that address in the invitation or invitation-response email sent by the journal. If the URL is hyperlinked, simply select the link within the email. You can also enter the web address in the address field of your browser and press the Enter key on your keyboard. The journal’s Log In page is displayed.

Access to the journal site may be provided in one of two ways: 1. The journal may create your account and email you instructions on how to login. 2. Some journals may use the existing account and send you account details along with the invitation to review. If you do not receive your account details, please check instructions on how to obtain your password.

To keep your account information current, use the Edit Account link in the upper right corner. Create Account changes to Edit Account after your account is created. You can also change your User ID and password using Edit Account.

NOTES: You can log out of ScholarOne Manuscripts at any time by selecting Log Out at the top right corner of the page. You will be returned to the Log In page.

Page 2 REVIEWER GUIDE

FORGOT YOUR PASSWORD?

For security reasons, ScholarOne Manuscripts will not email your current password. Instead, by entering your email address in the Password Help field and selecting , the system will send you an email containing your account details or instructions on how to reset your password. Help Documentation Online training documentation is available through the Get Help Now link at the top right of all pages and through the Resources section of the Log In and Welcome pages.

Page 3 REVIEWER GUIDE

REVIEWER CENTER OVERVIEW

After logging in, the Welcome page opens. Select the link to enter the Reviewer Center. Locate the paper in the Pending Scores queue, and select the Take Action button to view the review form. The Score Sheet tab is at the top right of the review form. Also note the tabs for journal- specified instructions and the Details tab that will allow you to view some additional details about the submission.

Reviewing Manuscripts As a reviewer, you have several options and tools for reviewing the manuscript.

Tabs • Instructions – This tab provides journal-specific instructions for performing your review. • Details – This tab displays manuscript details and any version history. • Scoresheet – This tab contains the journal-customized scoresheet for your use.

Summary Header This summary header appears at the top of all tabs:

Author information displays according to the journal’s blinding rules.

Viewing Proofs View proofs by selecting the HTML or PDF icons in the summary header. In most cases the journal allows you to view both, along with the abstract. Other files are available based on journal preferences.

Performing External Searches Selecting allows you to search external databases such as PubMed, HighWire, Google, Web of Science, etc for the author, title, keywords and more.

Page 4 REVIEWER GUIDE

SCORING & SUBMITTING YOUR REVIEW

Select the Scoresheet tab to review and score the manuscript. The format varies by journal and may include journal-specific questions, a recommendation field, comments to the author, comments to the editor, and possibly the ability to attach files.

Any fields marked with a red req“ ” symbol require an answer before you can submit the scoresheet.

IMPORTANT NOTES: • Save your work often! ScholarOne Manuscripts times out after remaining inactive for 75 minutes. Periods of typing free text are considered periods of inactivity. Be sure to select frequently when you are entering your review to avoid timing out. • We recommend that, if you cut and paste your comments, use a plain text editor such as WordPad or Notepad.

There are three buttons at the bottom of the page:

• Select to save your work on the scoresheet without yet sending it to the editor. • Select to save the scoresheet and send it to the editor. • Select to open a popup window with a printable version of the scoresheet.

Page 5 REVIEWER GUIDE

THE VIEW MANUSCRIPTS PAGE

After submitting your review, the View Manuscripts page displays. You can access this page at any time by following the “breadcrumb” trail for Reviewer View Manuscripts.

Scores Submitted Section This section lists those manuscripts for which you have submitted reviews. You can view the following information. • Manuscript ID – the journal’s system-generated identification number. • Title – includes a link to view a PDF version of the manuscript. • Date Completed – date review was sent back to the journal. • Status – This column displays current status in the peer review process and, if allowed by the journal, hyperlinked names for email correspondence. –– Based on the journal’s configuration, links to view the Decision Letter and the Author’s Response to Decision Letter may also display. • View Details – select to view author-supplied metadata and a summary of your scoresheet.

Review and Score Section This section lists the manuscripts for your review. • Manuscript ID – journal’s system-generated identification number. • Title – includes a link to view the manuscript. • Due Date – date review is due to the journal. • View Details – select to begin reviewing manuscripts (see graphic).

Page 6 REVIEWER GUIDE

SCHOLARONE® ScholarOne, a Thomson Reuters Business provides comprehensive workflow management systems for scholarly journals, books, and conferences. Its Web-based applications enable publishers to manage the submission, peer review, production, and publication processes more efficiently, increasing their profile among authors, decreasing time-to-market for critical scientific data, and lowering infrastructure costs. ScholarOne offers workflow solutions for the submission and review of manuscripts, abstracts, proceedings, books, grants & awards and production. Supporting over 365 societies and publishers, over 3,400 books and journals, and 13 million users, ScholarOne is the industry leader.

FIND OUT MORE SCHOLARONE MANUSCRIPTS To learn more, visit www.scholarone.com or contact the office nearest you.

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For a complete office list visit: science.thomsonreuters.com/contact

SSR 1010 ???

Copyright ©2010 Thomson Reuters All rights reserved . SCHOLARONE MANUSCRIPTS EDITOR GUIDE

CONTENTS

Logging Into Your Editor or EIC Center ...... 2 Forgot Your Password?...... 3 Help Documentation...... 3 The Welcome Page...... 3 Assigning Editors...... 4 How to Assign a Different Associate Editor...... 6 Selecting and Inviting Reviewers...... 8 About the Progress Indicator...... 11 Editing Reviewer Reminders...... 12 Bypassing the Peer Review Process...... 12 About Viewing Version History ...... 13 Viewing Completed Reviews...... 14 Making Manuscript Decisions...... 18 1 ..Action: Make Decision...... 18 2 ..Action: Make Preliminary Decision...... 20 3 ..Action: Approve Preliminary Decision ...... 22 4 ..Action: Make Recommendation...... 24 Making an Immediate Decision (EIC)...... 27 REVIEWER GUIDE

LOGGING INTO YOUR EDITOR OR EIC CENTER

Each journal’s ScholarOne Manuscripts site has a unique Web address (URL) ..Typically, you are given that address in an email sent by the journal ..If the address is hyperlinked, simply select the link within the email, or you can enter the web address in the address field of your browser and press the Enter key on your keyboard ..The journal’s Log In page is displayed .

Access to the journal site may be provided in one of two ways: 1 ...The journal may create your account and email to you instructions on how to log in and set your User ID and password . 2 ...Some journals allow their users to create their own accounts ..If yours does, there will be a Create Account link in the top right corner of the page ..Follow the step-by-step instructions for creating your account . To keep your account information current, use the Edit Account link in the upper right corner ...Create Account changes to Edit Account after your account is created ..You can also change your User ID and password using Edit Account . NOTES: Please retain your new password information ..ScholarOne Manuscripts will not send your password via email .. You can log out of ScholarOne Manuscripts at any time by selecting Log Out at the top right corner of the page ..You will be returned to the Log In page .

Page 1 REVIEWER GUIDE

FORGOT YOUR PASSWORD?

For security reasons, ScholarOne Manuscripts will not email your current password ..Instead, by entering your email address in the Password Help field and selecting , the system will send you an email containing instructions for resetting your password .

NOTE: Please retain your new password information ..ScholarOne Manuscripts will not send your password via email .

Help Documentation A variety of online training documentation is available through the Get Help Now link at the top right of the page and through the Resources section on the Log In and Welcome pages ..

The Welcome Page When you log in, you are taken to the Welcome page ..Here you see links to all of the role centers you have permissions for in this journal ..Default permissions include Author or Author and Reviewer Centers ..Contact the journal administrator if you do not already have an editor center link .

To access your dashboard page, select the appropriate link .

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ASSIGNING EDITORS

In some workflows, an editor assignment task is included .

HOW TO ACCESS THE ACTION TAB FOR ASSIGNING AN EDITOR ACTIONS NOTES 1 . Log in to ScholarOne Manuscripts by entering your Your password is case-sensitive . User ID and Password . 2 . At the Welcome page, select the link to access your Your editor center Dashboard page opens . editor center .

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HOW TO ASSIGN AN EDITOR ACTIONS NOTES 1 . If a dropdown list is displayed: The number of current assignments is displayed next to the editor’s name ..To view assignment details, Select the editor name and select .. select View Details . The number in parentheses after an editor’s name indicates current assignments . Results include a link to view current assignment details . If you search for an editor: The manuscript moves to the assigned editor’s Select the Select an Editor link ..An advanced dashboard lists for action . search page opens ..Add the name of the editor from the search results and select .

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HOW TO ASSIGN A DIFFERENT ASSOCIATE EDITOR

To unassign the current Associate Editor and assign a different one to a manuscript, navigate to the Manuscript Information tab ...From the Scroll To dropdown menu, select Associate Editor List .

Under the name of the editor you wish to replace, select the assign a different person link .

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Select the new Associate Editor from the drop down menu and select .

An email to the new Associate Editor will pop up ...Edit it as desired, then select ..Immediately, an email to the unassigned AE will pop up ...Again, edit as desired, then select .

Page 6 REVIEWER GUIDE SELECTING AND INVITING REVIEWERS

In many workflows, editors select reviewers and then invite them ..After a reviewer accepts an invitation, the manuscript is placed in their Reviewer Center .

HOW TO ACCESS THE ACTION TAB FOR SELECTING AND INVITING A REVIEWER ACTIONS NOTES 1 . Log in to ScholarOne Manuscripts by entering Your password is case-sensitive . your User ID and Password . 2 . At the Welcome page, select the link to access Your editor center Dashboard page opens . your editor center . 3 . The Lists section contains the tasks you need to perform ..Access the Reviewer Selection task in one of two ways: Selecting the number next to the task name brings you directly to the Action tab for the first manuscript needing action . Selecting the task name itself allows you to view all manuscripts in that queue ..Selecting in the Take Action column for a manuscript You are at the Action tab for the manuscript . takes you to its Action tab .

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HOW TO SELECT AND INVITE A REVIEWER ACTIONS NOTES 1 . The first action tab is for selecting the -Use an author’s preferred reviewers reviewer . -Quick search by first or last name Search for reviewers using one of the several -Related papers search methods on the page (types of methods are configured by the journal) . -Reviewer auto-suggest (based on keywords/attributes) Or, you may add a new reviewer through the -Advanced search Create New Reviewer Account section on the page . In the search results, select to view the details of a reviewer’s history analysis .. 2 . Once you have selected the reviewer, the action tab changes to the invitation task .. An editable invitation email opens . Select . The email invitation is sent to the reviewer . Make any changes or attach files to the email, then select .

3 . If your workflow is configured so that you create the list and another person sends the invitation: Select to forward the completed list to the next person in the workflow .

4 .. Reviewer responses: Once a reviewer accepts the invitation, another email is sent containing the information the reviewer needs in -If automated links are contained in the email order to review the manuscript . invitation, reviewers can respond by selecting the appropriate link ..This automates the process of sending the secondary email . -If a reviewer responds to you by email, select An editable email displays for sending . from the Response dropdown list .

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About the Progress Indicator Throughout the process of assigning reviewers, the progress indicator shows you exactly what is required for task completion and which steps have been completed ..Typically, the number of reviews required to make a decision is an editable field .

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If your journal has chosen to make this an editable field, you can change the number of default reviews required by typing a different number in the field and selecting . It is possible for a single manuscript to show up in multiple lists/queues on your dashboard ..This occurs most commonly when a manuscript is in both Assign Reviewer and Awaiting Reviewer Scores queues ..The reason the manuscripts do this is because there are still open invitations waiting for a response to be logged .

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EDITING REVIEWER REMINDERS

Depending on the journal, you may have one, two, or no reviewer reminders set to go out automatically ..You can edit the reviewer reminders from the Reviewer List after the reviewer has been invited .

Selecting the edit reminders link brings you to a Reminders popup window .

Here you can do the following: Deselect the checkbox for sending a reminder Edit the date of a reminder Bypassing the Peer Review Process To bypass the review process entirely, change the default setting to 0 ..The manuscript moves to the next action task in the workflow - – typically a Make Decision, Make Preliminary Decision, or Make Recommendation task .

About Viewing Version History Version history information is available while assigning reviewers to revised manuscripts ..This section is located under the Progress indicator .

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VIEWING COMPLETED REVIEWS

When the required number of reviews has been returned, they display in the editor’s Make Decision, Make Preliminary Decision, or Make Recommendation action tab . These Action tabs display only after the required number of reviews are returned ..Returned reviews can be viewed at any time by accessing the manuscript .

HOW TO ACCESS THE ACTION TAB FOR VIEWING COMPLETED REVIEWS ACTIONS NOTES 1 . Log in to ScholarOne Manuscripts by entering your User ID and Password . Your password is case-sensitive . 2 . At the Welcome page, select the link to access Your editor center Dashboard page opens . your editor center . 3 . The Lists section contains the tasks you need to perform ..Access the Make Decision, Make Preliminary Decision, or Make Recommendation task in one of two ways: Selecting the number next to the task name brings you directly to the Action tab for the first manuscript needing action . Selecting the task name itself allows you to view all manuscripts in that queue ..Selecting in the Take Action column for a manuscript takes you to You are at the Action tab for the manuscript . its Action tab .

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HOW TO VIEW COMPLETED REVIEWS ACTIONS NOTES 1 . From the Reviews section, you can do the following: See the reviewer’s name, which is a link for sending correspondence . Note any author entries for preferred or non- preferred reviewers . See the reviewer’s recommendation . See a link to view the review .

2 . Select the view review link . The Completed Review popup displays . Based on the journal’s configuration, the following information is displayed: Author-supplied metadata associated with the reviewed manuscript . The reviewer’s recommendation . The decision of the Reviewer to review any manuscript revisions .

3 . Comments: View the following: Reviewer’s comments to the author are included in the Confidential Comments to the Editor Decision Letter email . Comments to the Author

4 . File Attachments: Here you can manage files . If the reviewer has attached files, you can: View or remove the files ..You can also upload new or revised files . If the reviewer marked the file for Author and Editor, you can choose Editor only .

5 . See #6, or select one of the buttons: Save, Print, or Close Window .

6 . Reviewer Rating: If your journal has this feature During the reviewer selection process, ratings appear activated, you can rate a reviewer’s score for in the “Avg ..R-Score” column next to each reviewer’s timeliness and quality . name .. Avg ..R-Score is the average all editors have rated this reviewer .

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MAKING MANUSCRIPT DECISIONS

We recommend that if you cut and paste text into fields, you use a plain text editor such as WordPad or Notepad .. 1 ..Action: Make Decision Make your final decision based on the reviews you have received from reviewers .

HOW TO ACCESS THE ACTION TAB TO MAKE A DECISION ACTIONS NOTES 1 . Log in to ScholarOne Manuscripts by entering Your password is case-sensitive . your User ID and Password .

2 . At the Welcome page, select the link to access Your editor center Dashboard page opens . your editor center .

3 . The Lists section contains the tasks you need to perform ..Access the decision task in one of two ways: Selecting the number next to the task name brings you directly to the Action tab for the first manuscript needing action . Selecting the task name itself allows you to view all manuscripts in that queue ..Selecting in the Take Action column for a manuscript You are at the Action tab for the manuscript . takes you to its Action tab .

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HOW TO MAKE A DECISION ACTIONS NOTES 1 . Use the Reviews section to view a summary Refer to “Viewing Completed Reviews” topic for and access the details of all submitted information . reviews . 2 . Select the radio button for your decision . Enter text in the Comments field as desired . Comments remain internal to the journal .

3 . Select to open the editable decision letter to the author .. The decision does not commit until you select Make changes as needed and select in the email . .

4 . Select to save and commit your decision .

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2. ACTION: MAKE PRELIMINARY DECISION

In this workflow, you make a preliminary decision and another person (e .g ., the EIC) approves it ..This cycle can repeat until a decision is reached .

HOW TO ACCESS THE ACTION TAB TO MAKE A PRELIMINARY DECISION ACTIONS NOTES 1 . Log in to ScholarOne Manuscripts by entering your User ID and Password . Your password is case-sensitive . 2 . At the Welcome page, select the link to access your editor center . Your editor center Dashboard page opens . 3 . The Lists section contains the tasks you need to perform ..Access the preliminary decision task in one of two ways: Selecting the number next to the task name brings you directly to the Action tab for the first manuscript needing action . Selecting the task name itself allows you You are at the Action tab for the manuscript . to view all manuscripts in that queue .. Selecting in the Take Action column for a manuscript takes you to its Action tab .

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HOW TO MAKE A PRELIMINARY DECISION ACTIONS NOTES 1 . Use the Reviews section to view a summary Refer to “Viewing Completed Reviews” topic for and access the details of all submitted information . reviews . 2 . Select the radio button for your decision . Enter text in the Preliminary Decision Comments field (for approving editor) as desired .

3 . Select to open the The decision letter is not sent to the author until editable decision letter to the author .. final approval . 4 . Make changes as needed and select The manuscript displays in the dashboard lists of . the decision maker for approval .

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3. ACTION: APPROVE PRELIMINARY DECISION

In this workflow, an editor makes a preliminary decision and you (e .g ,. the EIC) approve it ..This cycle can repeat until decision is reached .

HOW TO ACCESS THE ACTION TAB TO APPROVE A DECISION ACTIONS NOTES 1 . Log in to ScholarOne Manuscripts by entering your User ID and Password . Your password is case-sensitive .

2 . At the Welcome page, select the link to access your editor center . Your editor center Dashboard page opens .

3 . The Lists section contains the tasks you need to perform ..Access the decision approval task in one of two ways: Selecting the number next to the task name brings you directly to the Action tab for the first manuscript needing action . Selecting the task name itself allows you to You are at the Action tab for the manuscript . view all manuscripts in that queue ..Selecting in the Take Action column for a manuscript takes you to its Action tab .

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HOW TO APPROVE A PRELIMINARY DECISION ACTIONS NOTES 1 . Use the Reviews section to view a summary Refer to “Viewing Completed Reviews” topic for and access the details of all submitted information . reviews .

2 . Review any preliminary decision comments and the decision letter .

3 . If you disagree with the decision and want See screenshot, below . the editor to reconsider, enter comments in the Suggest a New Decision field and select .

4 . As needed, you can edit the decision letter by selecting .

5 . When you are satisfied with the decision, The decision letter is sent to the author . select .

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4. ACTION: MAKE RECOMMENDATION

In this workflow, you make a recommendation to either the Editor in Chief or to a Board of Editors ..They make the final decision .

HOW TO ACCESS THE ACTION TAB TO MAKE RECOMMENDATION ACTIONS NOTES 1 . Log in to ScholarOne Manuscripts by entering Your password is case-sensitive . your User ID and Password . 2 . At the Welcome page, select the link to access Your editor center Dashboard page opens . your Editor Center . 3 . The Lists section contains the tasks you need to perform ..Access the recommendation task in one of two ways: Selecting the number next to the task name brings you directly to the Action tab for the first manuscript needing action . Selecting the task name itself allows you to You are at the Action tab for the manuscript . view all manuscripts in that queue ..Selecting in the Take Action column for a manuscript takes you to its Action tab .

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HOW TO MAKE A RECOMMENDATION ACTIONS NOTES 1 . Use the Reviews section to view a summary Refer to “Viewing Completed Reviews” topic for and access the details of all submitted information . reviews .

2 . Select the radio button for your decision . 3 . Optionally, enter confidential comments to EIC and/or comments to the author . 4 . Attach any files as needed . 5 . To submit the recommendation, select .

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MAKING AN IMMEDIATE DECISION (EIC)

If configured for your journal, the final decision-maker can bypass the usual peer review process ..Because this action takes place outside the usual workflow, this task displays in the manuscript’s Manuscript Information tab .

HOW TO ACCESS THE TAB TO MAKE AN IMMEDIATE DECISION ACTIONS NOTES 1 . Log in to ScholarOne Manuscripts by entering Your password is case-sensitive . your User ID and Password . 2 . At the Welcome page, select the link to access Your editor center Dashboard page opens . your editor center .

3 . The Lists section contains the tasks you need to perform ..Access any of the task queues in order to make an immediate decision in one of two ways: Selecting the number next to the task name brings you directly to the Action tab for the first manuscript needing action . Selecting the task name itself allows you to You are at the Action tab for the manuscript . view all manuscripts in that queue ..Selecting in the Take Action column for a manuscript takes you to its Action tab .

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HOW TO MAKE AN IMMEDIATE DECISION ACTIONS NOTES 1 . Your Site may be set up with an immediate decision and if it is there are two options that you may see ..1 ..A tab for the immediate decision will be seen or 2 ..The immediate decision could be located on the information tab ..To bypass the action and make an immediate decision, select the Manuscript Information tab to the left of . the page . Scroll to the Immediate Decision section of . the page . 2 . Select the radio button for your decision . Refer to “Viewing Completed Reviews” topic for information . Enter text in the Decision Comments (internal) field as desired .

3 . Select to open The decision does not commit until you select the editable decision letter to the author .. in the email . Make changes as needed and select .

4 . Select to save and commit your decision .

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SCHOLARONE® ScholarOne, a Thomson Reuters Business provides comprehensive workflow management systems for scholarly journals, books, and conferences ..Its Web-based applications enable publishers to manage the submission, peer review, production, and publication processes more efficiently, increasing their profile among authors, decreasing time-to-market for critical scientific data, and lowering infrastructure costs ...ScholarOne offers workflow solutions for the submission and review of manuscripts, abstracts, proceedings, books, grants & awards and production ..Supporting over 365 societies and publishers, over 3,400 books and journals, and 13 million users, ScholarOne is the industry leader ..

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