Vol. 25, No.4 nternatlona• October 2001 etln• Mission, the DivinelHuDlan Enterprise

handsomely produced volume recently reached our Not everyone will see God's hand in mission. But in our Adesk. Edited by an admired colleague and boasting a postmodem age, maybe the historian of mission can afford to be roster of expert authors for its several chapters, it offers a fresh at least cautiously open to evidence from beyond the global world history of Christianity. The controlling idea behind its stage. planningand productionwasto providea historyof Christianity that would be truly global in scope, avoiding the tendency of most such histories to invest the largest share of attention on Europe and North America. For that focus it is most welcomed. But one can hardly see, through the prism used by the authors, that the Christian God has had much to do with the On Page history of the globalcommunitythat namesJesus Christ as Lord. It's all just history-documentation of the varied, fascinating, 146 Miracles and Missions Revisited mixed phenomena of human actions, of social movements, of GaryB.McGee upheavals, retreats, advances, and declines on the human stage. Everything seems autonomous and, well, haphazard, explained 150 Adrian Hastings Remembered entirely by the actors on the world stage. Kevin Ward The openingfeature of this issue challenges such a flattened 157 Women Missionaries in India: Opening Up view of mission and the church. Gary McGee, a contributing the Restrictive Policies of Rufus Anderson editor, confronts mission historians with evidence that the Lord Eugene Heideman of the church has been playing a direct role all along. McGee also analyzes why even conservative scholars often have hesitated to 165 Gender, Mission, and Higher Education in give credit to the miraculous and timely interventions of God in Cross-Cultural Context: Isabella Thoburn in the advance of the Gospel. Of course mission is a human enter­ India prise, but certainly it is no less the result of an attentive provi­ Maina Chawla Singh dence. (See Heb. 1:1-2.) The interplay of the divine and the human is obvious also in 169 My Pilgrimage in Mission Eugene Heideman's account of the struggle of women mission­ Maria Rieckelman, M.M. aries in late nineteenth-century India to advance their sense of call in the face of obstacles rooted in the patriarchal assumptions 173 The Legacy of William Milne of mission administrators-all males at the time. P. Richard Bohr Maina Chawla Singh follows with an essay reflecting an unusual line of research. Noting how women missionaries from 177 Noteworthy America often gave home constituencies negative pictures of the 179 Book Reviews peoples and culture of India, she uncovers the surprisingly fond and positive memories that Hindu women had of their mission­ 187 Dissertations ary teachers-memories, she writes, that "did not mesh nicely withthe themes of dominationand oppression, and of resistance 188 Index, 2001 and subversion that my understanding of postcolonial theories of race and power pointed to." 192 Book Notes of issionaryResearch Miracles and Mission Revisited Gary B. McGee

n 1839AlexanderDuff, the renowned Scottishmissionary obvious ideological agendas of the authors who controlled the I to India, wrote about the role of Christian education in evaluation of evidence, have naturally and rightly troubled training indigenous teachers and preachers of the Gospel. With modern historians." Theological and philosophical presupposi­ such an aim, said Duff, "Missionaries of the Church of Scotland tions havebeenof no less importancein the debate. The theologi­ have been sent forth ... in the absence of miracles."! Teaching cal issue has centered in part on whether miracles fulfilled their school in Calcutta, he was apparently unaware of what other purpose in the first century. "No transition in the history of the missionaries working in Burma (now Myanmar) were experi­ Church [was] so sudden, abrupt, and radical as that from the encing during the same period in their work among the Karens. apostolicto the post-apostolicage," wrotethe GermanReformed Venturing into the mountains, Jonathan and Deborah Wade lost historianPhilipSchaff. Andthenin a pronouncementofvirtually their way until they came upon a Karen house. An elderly man excathedra proportions, he declared: "God himself... established sitting on the veranda gazed on them for a few moments in an impassable gulf.... The apostolic age is the age of miracles."! silence and then called out, "The teacher has arrived; the teacher Presbyterian theologian Benjamin B.Warfield concurred. In his has arrived!" Soon a crowd from the neighborhood gathered, for judgment the extraordinary "gifts of power" of the apostles had they had received a prophecy telling them that "the teacher is in served to authenticate them as the "authoritative founders" of the jungle, and will call on you. You must . . . listen to his the church. In turn, they conferred this capability on their own precepts."! As a result, the Gospel received a warm reception, disciples. But as the latter gradually passed off the scene, so did converts were baptized, and a permanent mission station estab­ the demonstrations of miraculous power? Despite Anglican lished. attempts to defend the occurrences of miracles into the patristic Yet, while the educational legacy of Duffhas been endlessly age, Warfield would have none of it. In his estimation, the"great recounted in histories of missions, few people today know about the miraculous eventssurroundingthe introductionof the Chris­ tian faith in Myanmar. Historians of missions and missiologists Historians cannot afford to have generally ignored these kinds of reports, ironically crucial pieces to the puzzle of how Christianity developed in non­ crop miracles out of the Western countries. Consequently, this exclusion has seriously story of missions. limited the insights of historical and missiological analysis. To correct misapprehended interpretations, such stories must be considered. Historians may have reservations about the wide­ harvest of miracles" that came with the evolution of Roman angle lens of providential narratives, but they cannot afford to Catholicism grew from the tares of "heathendom.II8 crop them out of the picture. In recentyearshistorians havechallengedthis thesis, includ­ In light of discussions in the last several years about how the ing Stanley M. Burgess and Kilian McDonnell, O.S.B.,who have history of Christianity in the former mission lands should be reviewed the evidence and located new sources of information. written, as well as interest in the phenomenology of religion Burgess insists that "cessationists" like Warfield failed to look among non-Western peoples, this inquiry briefly explores se­ objectively at the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox tradi­ lected claims of paranormal happenings.' It then analyzes why tions. None of the early church fathers suggested that miracles the anticipation of miracles declined, examines views in the and the charismata had been intended only for the New Testa­ Protestant missionary community on the possibility and impor­ ment church," In his analysis of patristic sources, McDonnell tance of miracles, and recounts what historians have said or finds that the charisms of the Holy Spirit, including the gifts of failed to say about them in textbooks. While historians and tongues and prophecy, were sought for and received during the missiologists have examined aspects of how the Christian mes­ rites of Christian initiation (baptism, confirmation, Eucharist). sage was inserted into various cultures and the level of accep­ Evidenceprovidedbywitnessesfrom aroundthe Mediterranean tance it gained, the specific relationship of miracles to missions seaboard extends from the end of the second to the eighth and how missionaries and mission leaders perceived their im­ centuries." portance have been neglected.' More directly related to missions, records attest to super­ natural demonstrations of power in the advance of Christianity, Pre-Reformation Claims with some analogous to phenomena found in the New Testa­ ment. For instance, Basil of Cappadocia lauded the remarkable Precedent for miracles in missions is found from the time of the numberof conversionsin theministryofGregoryThaumaturgus apostles. However, theircredibilityhas longgenerated disagree­ ("wonder-worker"), a third-century missionary bishop in Asia ment in the West because of historical, theological, and philo­ Minor. "By the superabundance of gifts, wrought in him by the sophical considerations. Questions about sources, as well as the Spirit in all power and in signs and marvels," Basil reported, Gregory "was styled a second Moses by the very enemies of the Gary B. McGee, a contributing editor, is Professor of Church History and Church."!' In Egypt the fourth-century desert father Antony Pentecostal Studiesat Assemblies of God Theological Seminary, Springfield, becamelegendaryfor his prevailinginconflicts withdemons, his Missouri. He wroteThis Gospel Shall Be Preached (1986), a two-volume feats being attributed to fidelity to Nicene Christology." historyofAssemblies ofGod international missions, andcoedited theDiction­ In the same era Nino, a slave girl taken captive to the ary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements (1988). Caucasus region and afterward canonized by the Orthodox

146 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Church of Georgia with the title "Equal to the Apostles," prayed International Bulletin for the healing of Queen Nana. The queen in fact recovered, which contributed to the conversion of King Mirian and the of Missionary Research nation." The connection of a physical healing or some other kind Established 1950 by R. Pierce Beaver as Occasional Bulletin from the of miraculous incident to the conversion of an individual, tribe, Missionary Research Library. Named Occasional Bulletin of Missionary or nation can be found elsewhere, from that of the Ethiopian Research 1977. Renamed OOERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH eunuch in the Book of Acts (8:26-40), to the third-century King 1981. Published quarterly in January, April, July, and October by Tiridates of Armenia, to the fourth-century Emperor Overseas Ministries Study Center Constantine, to the fifth-century Clovis, king of the Franks, all 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, U.S.A. the way to the mid-twentieth-century conversion of Gypsies in Tel: (203) 624-6672 • Fax: (203) 865-2857 France. 14 E-mail: ibmr®OMSC.org. Web: http://www.OMSC.org While much can be said for the basic reliability of these Editor: Contributing Editors: stories,suchaccountsweresometimestransformed intofantastic Jonathan J. Bonk Catalino G. Arevalo, S.J. C. Rene Padilla tales. It happened in the case of Patrick of Ireland. Though he David B.Barrett James M. Phillips himself credited his escape from captivity and his calling to Associate Editor: Stephen B.Bevans,S.V.D. Dana L. Robert evangelizeto the influence of voices and dreams, later accretions Robert T.Coote Samuel Escobar Lamin Sanneh distorted his actual ministry.15 Paul G. Hiebert Wilbert R.Shenk Medieval reports reflect the same problem. In Britain the Assistant Editor: Jan A. B.Jongeneel Brian Stanley Venerable Bede, the eighth-century father of English history, Daniel J. Nicholas Sebastian Karotemprel, S.D.B. Charles R.Taber recorded miracles that purportedly took place during the evan­ David A. Kerr Tite Tienou gelization of England. Stories of healings, exorcisms, calming of Senior Contributing Editor Graham Kings Ruth A. Tucker the sea, raising the dead, signs in the heavens, and other unusual Gerald H. Anderson Anne-Marie Kool Desmond Tutu Gary B.McGee Andrew F. Walls occurrences lie sprinkled throughout his History of the English Mary Motte, F.M.M. AnastasiosYannoulatos Church and People:" Responding to reports about Augustine of Canterbury and his fellow monks who were evangelizing the Books for review and correspondence regarding editorial matters should be country, PopeGregory the Great (590-604) praised their achieve­ addressed to the editors. Manuscripts unaccompanied by a self-addressed, ments and said they stood "resplendentwith such greatmiracles stamped envelope (or international postal coupons) will not be returned. ... thattheyseemto imitatethe powers of the apostles in the signs Subscriptions: $23 for one year, $41 for two years, and $57 for three years, which they display"? To Gregory and others in the ancient and postpaid worldwide. Airmail delivery is $16 per year extra. Foreign sub­ medieval periods,no "impassablegulf" separated themfrom the scribers must pay in U.S. funds only. Use check drawn on a U.S. bank, early church. Visa, MasterCard, or International Money Order in U.S. funds. Individual copies are $7.00; bulk rates upon request. Correspondence regarding sub­ scriptions and address changes should be sent to: INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF Reformation and Later Perspectives MISSIONARY RESEARCH, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, New Jersey 07834, U.S.A. With the coming of the Protestant Reformation, the reformers Advertising: Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Calvin disavowed Ruth E. Taylor the Catholic doctrine of the communion of saints. In so doing, 11 Graffam Road, South Portland, Maine 04106, U.S.A. they brushed aside the value set on the saints, holy relics, Telephone: (207) 799-4387 pilgrimages, shrines, and the miracle stories that developed Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in: around them. Generally speaking, they believed that miracles had vanished with the apostolic church, a view shared by the Bibliografia Missionaria IBR (International Bibliography of Book ReviewIndex Book Reviews) post-Reformation Lutheran and Reformed scholastic theolo­ Christian Periodical Index IBZ (International Bibliography of gians as well." In clearing away what they considered to be the Guide to People in Periodical Literature Periodical Literature) debris of medieval Catholicism, they rejected the miracle claims. Guide to Social Science and Religion in Missionalia One could trust in the veracity of the biblical miracles, but none Periodical Literature Religious andTheological Abstracts afterward. Thus, Calvin contended that both Catholics and Religion Index One: Periodicals Anabaptists sought to certify their false doctrines with spurious Index, abstracts, and full text of this journal are available on databases claims of miracles." Luther faced a challenge from charismatic provided by ATLAS, EBSCO, H. W. Wilson Company, The Gale Group, and prophets whoinsisted thatGod had given them new revelations, University Microfilms. Back issues may be seen on the ATLAS website, which they viewed as superior to Scripture." http://purl.org/CERTR/ATLAS/Phase1.html. Also consultInfoTrac data­ In the great bombardment of reason against Scripture and base at many academic and public libraries. For more information, contact tradition in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the your online service. Enlightenment, or Age of Reason, aimed its fusillades of skepti­ Opinions expressed in the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN are those of the authors cism on anything deemed miraculous, whether found in Scrip­ and not necessarily of the Overseas Ministries Study Center. ture or in popular religion. Humankind had only now come of age thanks to the liberation of rational thinking from supersti­ Copyright© 2001by OverseasMinistries StudyCenter.All rights reserved. tion. Hence, whether from the teachings of the Reformers or the Second-class postage paid at New Haven, Connecticut. disbeliefof the rationalists, confidencein the possibilityof super­ POSTMASTER: Send address changes to INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF natural interventions declined or was eliminated altogether in MISSIONARY RESEARCH, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, New Jersey 07834, U.S.A. the minds of many people." Evangelical Christians also waded into the intellectual cur­ ISSN 0272-6122 rents of the time. Evangelicalfaith andfeatures of Enlightenment thought, coupled with the notion that the spirit of investigation

October 2001 147 should be encouraged and proceed without restrictions, seemed Nevertheless, unplanned events frequently interrupted the to pave the way for the future of Christianity." When launching process. Following on the heels of revivals in America and into missions, pietists and evangelicals remained true to their northern Ireland, "a very remarkable revival of religion" took theological convictions by preaching to secure "heartfelt" con­ placein]amaicain 1860thatimpactedtheentireisland.26 Lengthy versions and exhibited their optimism about human progress by prayer services that set aside fixed liturgical practices, seekers pressing their educational and social agenda. Like Duff, they did being "stricken" or prostrated on the ground presumably by the not anticipate that miracles would accompany the verbal procla­ might of God, and public confessions of sin marked the awaken­ mation of the Gospel as in apostolic times. Therefore, the likeli­ ing. Impressive results ensued. Many "rum-shops" and gam­ hood of divine displays of power rarely appeared in discourses bling houses closed, separated spouses reconciled, wayward on mission practices. children returned to their parents, ministers grew in spiritual At the same time, revivalism in the eighteenth and early zeal, sinners were converted, churchesbecame crowded, and the nineteenth centuries brought heightened interest in the person demand for Bibles exceeded supplies. According to Richard and work of the Holy Spirit, a development that gradually Lovett, historian of the London Missionary Society, "A move­ ment of this kind among a dense population of semi-civilized, excitable negroes was certain to produce extravagances and much that was repugnant to quiet, unemotional people" (an Extraordinary experiences, allusion to unsympathetic missionaries and other Euramerican found in chronicles of residents). But, continues Lovett, "The testimonyof menof sober revival, were missing from judgment is that at least 20,000 souls were savingly awakened at this period. The missionaries on the spotbelievedit to be a special histories of mission. outpouring of the Holy Spirit in response to prayer."27 Such events could prove threatening to established Western doctrines and practices. When news of the samerevivals reached focused on the baptism and charismatic gifts of the Spirit. The South India in 1860, Christians in Tinnevelly (now Tirunelveli) attention given to pneumatology by the nineteenth-century experienced similar phenomena. The revival there prompted Wesleyan and Keswickian wings of the Holiness movement believers to evangelize and fostered local modes of worship. stirred people to seek for the fulfillment of Joel's prophecy (joel Initial approval, however, waned as claims about the restoration 2:28-29) to supply the spiritual energy necessary to bring about ofNew Testamentgifts (Rom. 12:6-8;1Cor. 12and14) andoffices societal reform and evangelize the world. Inadvertently, revival­ (Eph. 4:11-12) exasperated missionaries, whose status and au­ ism also opened the door to controversial forms of behavior and thority now came into question. On one occasion, a missionary phenomenathatfrequently came withexperientialpiety, includ­ complained that believers reported having visions in which ing falling down "under the power" of the Holy Spirit, dancing, appearedthe namesoftwelveIndiansto be appointedas apostles shaking, cries, and groans, as well as visions, dreams, and signs and evangelists, and seven as prophets." To indigenous Chris­ in the heavens. To the faithful, they too were of divine origin and tians, such revelations happily demonstrated God's willingness constituted valid spiritual experiences. Though notably absent to bypass imported ecclesiastical structures in the appointment in the histories of missions, reports of extraordinary experiences of church leaders." found theirwayintochroniclesof revivals,booksthatsometimes The callingofJohnStewart,an Americanof mixed European round out a more accurate picture of events in the mission and African descent, illustrates how supernatural factors could lands." Unfortunately, the sources for these publications have direct a person's life and impact other people. While living in been underutilized for mission studies. Virginia, he heard the voice of a man and then of a woman "from Paranormal occurrences often profoundly affected the re­ the sky" say to him, "Thoushalt go to the Northwest and declare ception of the Christian faith and stimulated spiritual renewal in my counsel plainly." Afterward, a "peculiar halo" became vis­ believers. Records and publications from nineteenth- and twen­ ible and filled the Western horizon." Traveling to the northwest tieth-century Protestant missions contain stories of miracles and region of Ohio,he beganpreachingto the Wyandott Indianswith related experiences. Primary sources such as autobiographies, great success in 1816. As a result, Stewart's example helped periodicals, reports, and agency histories occasionally provide inspire the establishment of the Methodist Missionary Society treasures of information. In some instances missionaries consid­ four years later, an agency whose personnel eventually circled ered the miracles to be pretended and the bodily contortions to the globe. The appearance of a halo--an ancient pagan symbol be caused by "animal excitement."> Their appeal could stem adopted by early Christians and used in the depiction of angels, only from "weaknesses incidental to human nature, especially saints, and the Virgin Mary--eombined with what seemed to be among a people unaccustomed to exercise self-control"- a masculine and feminine voices of God, denotes the blending of perspective revealing that missionaries and indigenous peoples popular and biblical modes of piety that made "respectable" lived worldviews apart." Christians cringe. In most publications the supernatural dynamics that pro­ pelled the early church took a back seat to other priorities. For Textbook Histories most Protestants the postmillennial calendar with its hopeful­ ness of Christianizing society nurtured the belief that after an The period of the Enlightenment, which preceded the "Great extended period of progress, Christ would return. In the mean­ Century" (1800-1914) in Christian missions, left no room in its time mission schools trained students in Western learning so worldview for the traditional New Testament understanding of they would see the light of Christianity and ultimately embrace miracles or for a recognition of the supernatural activities that the faith. Theoretically, civilizing and evangelizing would work characterizedthe expansionofthe ancientandmedievalchurches. hand in hand to lead them out of heathen darkness. The new vision of Christianity resonated with a strong ethical

148 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH orientation, acceptable to the emerging Western mind-set and out; men and women, boys and girls are preaching with a power freed of the superstitions of the "prescientific" era. Moreover, hitherto notknown; hundreds are cryingfor mercy and arebeing this view dictated that historybe writtenwithcomplete objectiv­ saved."?" From this revival also arose the independent spiritual ity, scientific in methodology and interpretation." As Mark Noll gifts movement, the influence of which has continued in the observes, "Christian historians took their place in the modern region to the present day." academy by treating history not so much as a subdivision of From a different vantage point, V. Raymond Edman, a theology but as an empirical science. This choice meant that they missionary to Ecuador with the Christian and Missionary Alli­ have constructed their historical accounts primarily from facts ance andlaterpresidentof WheatonCollege,Illinois,barelyhints ascertained through documentary or material evidence and ex­ of miracles in the progress of the early churchin his volume Light plained in terms of natural human relationships."32 in DarkAges: Eighteen Centuries ofMissions from theGivingof the The end result becomes tangible in standard histories and Great Commission to the Beginning ofModern Missions Under Wil­ surveys of missions, in required texts in Bible institutes, colleges, liam Carey (1949).40 A similar approach appears in The Progress of universities, and seminaries, which rarely mention miracles." World- Wide Missions (1924), a best-selling history and survey of The word "miracle" seldom appears in the indexes. One looks in missions written by Robert Hall Glover, a medical missionary to vain for "healing," "exorcisms," "dreams," and "visions." "Re­ China with the Alliance and laterU.S. home director of the China vival" sporadically surfaces, and the information given may Inland Mission. He describes the New Testament as the "most briefly describe the unusual phenomena sometimes associated practical textbook on missionary principles and practice for all with such movements. A few indexes contain "apostolic meth­ time." The methods of Jesus and the apostles, Glover wrote, ods." I have selected several publications to illustrate the pen­ though necessitating "reasonable adaptation," constitute the chant of Protestant missiologists and historians of missions to best and most effective strategies still used in modern mis­ ignore or underratewhatwere in fact vitalfactors in the develop­ sions." ment of Christianity in the non-Christian world. Whether they For Glover, as for Edman, revival held the key to evangeliza­ personally believed that miracles could happen or happened the tion: the "pentecostal experience of the HolySpirit's infilling has way they were reported remains beside the point; the issue been the forerunner of every fresh missionary inspiration and centers on the data they chose to include and the meaning they advance in the centuries" since the Day of Pentecost. Neverthe­ attached to it. less, while Glover highlights the importance of a postconversion In 1884 the best-known German missiologist and historian baptism in the Holy Spirit for empowerment to witness and of missions, Gustav Warneck, published his Outlineofa History favorably mentions several miraculous events in the missions of ofProtestant Missions from theReformation tothePresent Time. In the the ancient church, he ignores later claims." He does so, despite introduction he refers to the apostolic age as the "heroic age of his association with the Alliance, which took one of the most early Christianity ... the age of classical missionary enterprise, a extreme positions on the value of prayer for the sick in the work model for missions in all ages." Still, he neglects to cite the of missions." miracles associated with the ministries of Jesus and the apostles. More than other historians, Kenneth Scott Latourette ana­ In retrospect, he notes thatthe periodsof apostolic, postapostolic, lyzes the issue of miracles in his History of the Expansion of and medievalmissions hadbeensovereignly opened and closed. Christianity (1937-45). Acknowledgingthescholarlydebateabout Modernmissions was thus shornof anymiraculous dimension." EdwinMunsell Bliss,a former missionary to the Middle East withtheAmericanBoardof Commissionersfor ForeignMissions (ABCFM), also avoids reference to New Testament miracles in Gustav Wameck, noting the The Missionary Enterprise: A Concise HistoryofIts Objects, Methods, period of apostolic mission and Extension (1908). Oddly enough, he mentions Gregory was sovereignly closed, Thaumaturgus because of Gregory's reputation for performing miracles." In contrast, Philip Schaff questions the "stupendous" effectively dismissed the claims about Gregory in his History oftheChristian Church (1858­ possibility of miracles having 92) and makes a point of noting that they were recorded one hundred years after his death. "Deducting all the marvelous a role in modem missions. features, which the magnifying distance of one century after the death of the saint created," he writes, "there remains the com­ manding figure of a great and good man who made a most the authenticity of Jesus' miracles, he suspects that some of the powerfulimpressionuponhis andthesubsequentgenerations."36 physical healings could be explained simply as the cure of For Schaff, a downsized "good man" more appropriately fit the "nervous disorders." Furthermore, the miracles were not de­ modern era. signed "to prove the validity of his message" butsimply demon­ William Owen Carver, a Southern Baptist missions histo­ strated his compassion for the "unfortunate and the suffering.v" rian, begins his Course of Christian Missions: A History and an The truth of the gospel message, Latourette writes, did not Interpretation (1932) with a presentation of the biblical founda­ require the confirmation of divine displays of power. He then tions of mission. Without discussing the miracles of Jesus, he considerspotentialpaganinfluencesbehindlatermiraclestories, briefly refers to the signs and wonders done by the apostles. The noting that in the medieval period they had "an appeal to the focus then predictably shifts to expansion, agencies, and the untutored mind.":" The subject of miracles in missions receives a social, educational, and medical benefits of missions." Paradoxi­ mere fourteen pages in this seven-volume work. cally, in the year after its publication, Southern Baptists in North A noteworthy paradox emerges in two publications by J. America learned about a revival at their North China Mission in Herbert Kane, a missionary to China with the China Inland Shandong Province, where, according to Mary K. Crawford in Mission and later professor of missions at Moody Bible Institute her Shantung Revival (1933), "thesick are beinghealed; devils cast and Trinity Evangelical Divinity School. In his Concise History of

October 2001 149 the Christian World Mission (1978), Kane favorably mentions in Factors Prompting Exclusion reference to Gregory Thaumaturgus that "the transition from paganism to Christianity was facilitated by the widespread use Several factors lie behind the exclusion of supernatural claims, of miracles.T" He also comments on the importance of miracles among them the underlying historiographical presuppositions of healing in the growth of Latin American Pentecostalism." But in the academy that do not allow for speculation about meta­ apart from these fleeting remarks, the Concise History has the physical cause and effect. Mission historians generally adhered same orientation as the other books. Yet in his Twofold Growth to the established rules of their profession. In a reflection of his (1947),published thirty-one years earlier when he still served in centralthesisaboutthe historyof Christianexpansion,Latourette China, he acknowledges from firsthand observation that "hun­ writes: "It is clear that at the very beginning of Christianity there dreds of our finest Christians in the Fowyang field entered the must have occurred a vast release of energy, unequalled in the Christian fold by way of the miracle gate. They were driven to history of the race. Without it the future course of the faith is Christ not by a sense of sin, butby a sense of need." The "needs" inexplicable." ''Why this occurred," he cautions his readers, usually preceded the sense of culpability for sin: 1/A parent with "may lie outside the realms in which historians are supposed to a sick child, a husband with a demon-possessed wife, a woman move."? with an opium-smoking husband, a widow bowed down by Together with other objectives, the textbook histories in­ oppression, a soldier with an infected foot, a merchant whose formed theirreadersaboutthe movementofChristianitythrough­ only sonhadbeenkidnapped, an aged fatherwithan unfilialson, out the world. They were often crafted to portray missions in a a bandit serving a prison term.":" ''Where the need for miracles positive light and to inspire their readers toward deeper Chris­ exists-as it surely does in heathen lands," Kane recalls, God tian devotion, to contribute to missions, or to become missionar­ "always responds with alacrity.T" What was appropriate for ies themselves. Drawing attention to controversial aspects of Twofold Growth, however, did not qualify for the Concise History. religious enthusiasm might deflect from the credibility of the

Masaka diocese in Uganda, whose diocesan, Bishop Joseph Adrian Hastings Kiwanuka, was the first African Catholic bishop ordained in Remembered modern times. After a period in parochialwork at Villa Maria, Hastings became a teacher at Bukalasa minor seminary, many AdrianHastings,EmeritusProfessorof Theology, Uni­ of whose students later made significant contributions to versity of Leeds. Catholic priest, church historian, Ugandan Catholicism and to public life. In 1966 the East missiologist, theologian, campaigner for justice. Born African bishops entrusted him with the task of producing June 23, 1929; died May 30, 2001, aged 71. commentaries on the documents of Vatican II, interpreting them in the context of the life of the church in East Africa. This AdrianHastings,whodiedafter a shortillnesswhilestill at the task of considerable missiological and pastoral significance peak of his intellectual powers, was one of the great ecumeni­ ensured that Hastings was deeply involved in the transforma­ cal thinkers of our age. In particular, his contribution to the tion of Catholicism as it sought to embody African values and study of Christianity in Africa is immense, important both for voice African concerns. He was subsequently able to apply its grasp of detail and complexityand for its abilityto place the thoseinsightsecumenicallyin his studyon Christianmarriage African story decisively within the history of Christianity as a in Africa, commissioned by the Anglican churches of eastern whole. and southern Africa. Born into an EnglishCatholicfamily, Hastingsstudiedfor In the early1970sHastings crossed swordsagainwiththe the priesthoodin Rome in the early1950s.Determined to work Portuguese regime,this time overits record of repression in its as a missionary in Africa, he encountered in Rome a genera­ African colonies. He publicized information about massacres tion ofyoungAfrican ordinands,suchas the theologianVincent at Wiriyamu in Mozambique, in the process developing a Mulago of the Democratic Republic of Congo, who were to formidable indictmentof Portuguesepolicyin Africa, notleast have an impact on the flowering of an African Catholic theol­ the pretensions of its civilizing and Christianizing mission. ogy in the era of African independenceandVaticanII.Already By this time Hastings had become a research fellow at the a radical in social and political matters, Hastings had the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS)in London. He temerity and inner confidence, even as a student, to enter into tookpartin a comprehensivesymposium,heldin Jos, Nigeria, a sharp debate with apologists of the Salazar regime of Portu­ on Christianityin independentAfrica. This gatheringresulted gal. Hastings argued with measured rationality, but also with in the 1978 collection of essays Christianity in Independent passionate commitment, against identifying the Catholic faith Africa,which Hastings helped to compile. His fellowship also with the survival of Portuguese power in Goa. resulted in his book A HistoryofAfricanChristianity,1950-1975 Espousing the aspirations of the African priests he knew (1979),which so well captured the excitementof those years of in Rome, Hastings persuaded the authorities to allow him to upheaval and optimism, and the subsequent anxieties, in a go to Africa as a parish priest under a local bishop rather than period when Christianity took on a new centrality and rel­ as a member of a missionary order. From 1958 he worked in evance for African society. From SOAS Hastings went to Aberdeen, as lecturer in religious studies, where Andrew Kevin Ward is Lecturer in the Department of Theology andReligious WaUs was professor. Studies, University of Leeds. Hastings had become acutely aware of the problems that

150 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH missions movement itself before incredulous Western audi­ missiological importance of miraculous happenings in their ences. The top-down coverage also looked primarily to the historical analyses (e.g., David J. Bosch, Transforming Mission: missionariesandtheirstories,notto the nativebelieverswhohad Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission [1991]). The pattern of entered the faith from non-Christian religions and were more ignoring or minimizing the worth of paranormal phenomena prone to accept the legitimacy of paranormal phenomena. Fi­ turns history into a broadcast where only carefully screened nally, skeptical assumptions about the possibility of miracles "instant replays" can be seen, filtering out other plays equally after the apostolic period-a stance reinforced among Protes­ important to the game. The exclusion of the full range of intercul­ tants by negative attitudes toward Roman Catholic miracle tural dynamics thus produces an incomplete picture of what stories like the reputed healings at the shrine of Lourdes­ actually took place." clouded the authenticity of all such accounts." Consequently, gaps appear in the textbooknarratives due in Five General Views partto the absenceof reports aboutunusualphenomena. Despite making valuable contributions, the legacy of the miraculous has Missionaries and their supporters at the home base have held at beenneglectedin Westerninterpretations of events and spiritual least five views toward miracles (with some overlapping of dynamicsthatshapedChristianityoutsideEuro-America. Modem categories). However, textbooks and other mission studies sel­ writers have perpetuated this sanitized approach by highlight­ dom treat the diversity of opinions held by Protestantmissionar­ ing the development of mission societies, geographic extension, ies and mission leaders, whose judgments ranged from outright andcharitable, educational,andsocialachievements(e.g.,Stephen rejection to hesitation to unbridled enthusiasm. First, those with Neill, A HistoryofChristian Missions [1964]); they generally offer a progressive or liberal theological persuasion blurred the defi­ limited insight into the spirituality of indigenous Christians. nitions of "natural" and "supernatural." Since the exorcism of Theologians of mission have also overlooked the demons, healings, and other such experiences stretched their

an insistence on clerical celibacy created for African Catholi­ Hastings'swritingis characterizedby a remarkablescope cism. In 1979Hastings himself made the decision, difficult for and penetration. He was able to summarize a movement, a a Catholic priest, to marry. His wife, Ann, an Anglican, had person, or an era with great lucidity and perceptiveness. His grown up in Southern Rhodesia and worked for the Anglican writings on Africa have an intense humanity, a strong identi­ mission society United Society for the Propagation of the fication with the hopes and strivings of his subjects, whether Gospel. Between 1982 and 1985 they lived in the newly inde­ Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox (he had a fascination for the pendent state of Zimbabwe, where Hastings had gone to be historical depth of the church in Ethiopia), or members of professor of religious studies at Harare University. There he independent, African instituted, churches. His portraits of wrote his influential account of twentieth-century English individuals and of religious societies are masterful, both in Christianity. illuminating their importance and in placing them within a In 1985 he was appointed professor in Leeds. His ener­ widerhistoricalmovement. His corpus of historicalwritingon getic leadership resulted in a growth in student numbers and Africa was completed before the full extent of the newer in the international reputation of the Department of Theology African Pentecostalism could properly be assessed histori­ and Religious Studies. The study of religion in Africa was cally, but one can be sure that he would have applied an equal initiated, strengthening the university's wide interests in de­ perspicacityandbroadsympathyto thesesignificantdevelop­ velopment studies and in the politics and literature of Africa. ments. During these years he wrote his magnum opus on Africa, The Hastings wrote, as he lectured, with great clarity and Church in Africa, 1450-1950 (1994). As editor of Journal of economy, rationality and commitment. He was impatient of Religion in Africa (in succession to its founder, Andrew Walls), obfuscating theorizing; his writing has directness and read­ he sawthe journalgrowin strengthandprestige. It has become ability, and yet it springs from an intellectual depth and a leadingforumfor innovativeresearchon Christianity,Islam, sophistication, both methodologically and conceptually. and traditional religion in Africa. The present editor, David Hastings was convinced that the history of African Christian­ Maxwell, and Ingrid Lawrie (who gave Hastings invaluable ity is an integral part of the total history ofChristianity. For secretarialsupport),haveproduceda FestschriftentitledChris­ him Africa was important not simply because of its evangelis­ tianity and the African Imagination: Essays in Honour of Adrian tic dynamism but for the intellectual and imaginative contri­ Hastings (2001). The continuing vitality of Hastings's own bution it makes to world Christianity. As he putit in one of the intellectualconcerns are shown in the fact that, after retiring in last things he wrote before his death: "But what matters even 1994,he assumeddirection of two importantprojects: A World more is the emergence into full vitalityof still larger Churches History of Christianity (1999) and the Oxford Companion to in the southern continents of Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Christian Thought (2000). He provided much of the dynamic Upon them may the future third millennium of Christianity and the intellectual rationale for both enterprises. During the depend." Leeds years, Hastings had also been a leading campaigner on -Kevin Ward the Balkans. He became particularly associated with the struggle in Bosnia to preserve traditions of ethnic and reli­ gious diversity within a single state, against all narrow par­ Adrian Hastings's "My Pilgrimage in Mission" was published in the ticularism. INTERNATIONAL BULLETINOF MIssIONARYRESEARCH, April1992, pp.60-64.Ed.

October 2001 151 credulity, they identified divine workings with natural pro­ ish such experiences to the realm of fable. They are too well cesses. "The supernatural may be seen everywhere," penned attested; and they are met with everywhere among animistic Robert A. Hume in Dnyanodaya, the Anglo-Marathi newspaper peoples with considerable regularity.r'" published by the Ahmednagar Mission (ABCFM)in India. "The Fourth, evangelicals of a more radical persuasion allowed signs which reveal a Power supreme in nature and in history for the continuation of miracles and extraordinary spiritual [direct] the universe toward an end. The supernatural is nothing manifestations, but within limits." Theodore Christlieb, a Ger­ else but the spiritual working through the medium of physical mantheologianandpremillennialist,maintainedin Modern Doubt nature."53Another editorialspeculated thatif "competentphysi­ andChristian Belief(1874)that"inthe lastepochoftheconsumma­ cians and specialists in nervous diseases" had examined the tion of the Church ... she willagain require for her final decisive "cases of supposed 'demoniacal possession' which have taken struggle with the powers of darkness, the miraculous interfer­ place in India within the last few years," they would have ence of her risen Lord, and hence the Scriptures lead us to expect recognized them as "forms of disease well-knownand described miracles once more for this period.?" As evidence of this posi­ in medical books.r'" The progress of medical science would tion, he cites storiesincludingonefromthe life of HansEgede,the first evangelical (Lutheran) missionary to Greenland, who ar­ rived there in 1721. Before mastering the languages of the na­ tives, he gave a pictorial presentation of the miracles of Christ. Missionaries who affirmed "His hearers, who, like many in the time of Christ, had a percep­ the integrity of the biblical tion only for bodily relief, [urged] him to prove the power of this Redeemer of the world upon their sick people." Egede took the miracles had little faith in challenge and, withmany "sighsand prayers," laid hands on the their prolongation after the sick, after which several testified to being healed. "The Lord couldnotreveal Himselfplainlyenoughto this mentallyblunted period of the early church. and degraded race by merely spiritual means," Christlieb adds, "and therefore bodily signs were needed.T'" No one publicized the occurrences of miracles in missions inevitably lead to a better understanding of Jesus' ministry of more than Arthur T. Pierson, editor of the influential Missionary healing and signal an advance over the traditional claims about Review oftheWorld, whobetween 1891and 1902wrote a series of New Testament miracles. four books entitled TheMiracles ofMissions: Modern Marvels in the Second, certain missionaries of a conservative theological HistoryofMissionary Enterprise. In volume 1 Pierson pays warm bent, who affirmed the integrityof the biblicalmiracles, had little tribute to Christlieb, whose insights inspired the title of his faith in their prolongation after the period of the early church, books." Still, he and others in this category did not share what even though they believed that God answered prayer and acted seemed to be the reckless expectancy of those who form the fifth sovereignly in human affairs. Falling short of a full-scale categorybelow. Piersonwas contentto discover a broad range of cessationism, they dismissed the relevance of miracles for evan­ divine intervention in human affairs: unusual circumstances gelism and missions. Typical of this perspective, Mrs. H. Grattan leading to conversions; amazing answers to prayer as in the case (Fanny) Guinness, editor of the prominent evangelical missions of financial needs; deliverances from danger; opened doors for magazineThe Regions Beyond (Regions Beyond MissionaryUnion), ministry; the "miracles" of medicalmissions, advancing technol­ asked, ''What use would supernatural powers, such as were ogy, andtransportation;andsometimesevenphysicalhealings.62 committed to the twelve and to the seventy, be to the modem For example, Pierson relates the healing of a Chinese epileptic missionary among the heathen? Miracles cannot enlighten their after prayerby C. T. Studd, StanleySmith, and other members of dark minds, or soften their hard hearts." Speaking for the major­ the famous Cambridge Seven." and he tells of his own healing ity of missionaries, she added, "Our aim is to enlighten, not to from an ear problem." astonish."55 The story of W. J. Davis, the Methodist "missionary Elijah," Third, as a result of witnessing for themselves or learning further illustrates this outlook. In a Bantu-speaking part of South aboutunusual incidents on the mission fields, other evangelicals Africa during the late 1840s, a severe drought caused the soil to compared the first-time proclamation of the Gospel in non­ dry up, and cattlebeganto die. Fears of famine led the tribal chief Christian countries to the experience of the first-century church. to employ the services of professional rainmakers. When they Acknowledging the veracity of such events, Johannes Wameck were unsuccessful, they blamed their failure on the presence of (the son of Gustav Wameck) saw no further need for miracles missionaries. Realizing the danger to his family, Davis knew that afterthe successfulintroductionof Christianityon a foreignfield. he had to act quickly. Riding on his horse into the chief's village A missionary to the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) with the and interrupting ceremonies in progress, he announced that the Rhenish Mission, he recorded that from the 1860s the Christian rainmakers and the sins of the people were the real culprits. community increased after the coming of sensational phenom­ Emulating the prophet Elijah in challenging the prophets of Baal ena, including dreams, visions, signs in the heavens, and several to a test on Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18:17-46), he proposed to his instanceswheremissionaries (e.g., LudwigNommensen) unwit­ startled hearers, "Come to chapel nextSabbath, and we will pray tingly consumed poison in their food givenby their enemies and to God, who made the heavens and the earth, to give us rain, and remainedunharmed (seeMark16:18}.56 But,Wameckcontended, we will see who is the true God, and who are His true servants, such miraculous events "have nothing more than a preparatory and your best friends." After the chief accepted his offer, Davis significance" and "lead no further than to the door of the Gos­ and his fellow believers spent the next day in fasting and prayer. pel." Convinced they had "fulfilled their purpose of pointing the On Sunday, and without a cloud in the sky, the chief and his stupefied heathen to the gift of the Gospel," he saw "the power retinue entered the church. Then as Davis and the congregation of working signs and wonders" as simplytemporary, just as they knelt in prayer, ''big rain drops begin to patter on the zinc roof of had been in early Christianity. Nonetheless, "We must not ban­ the chapel. ... The whole region was so saturated with water that

152 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH the river nearby becameso swollen that the chief and his mother Holy Spirit, perceived by many as the only hope for enabling could not cross it that night, and hence had to remain at the Christians to reach the world with the Gospel, led them to seek mission-station till the next day."65 for the return of key elements of New Testament evangelism for Even though William Taylor, the pioneer Methodist mis­ their overall stratagem: an approach to mission centered largely sionary bishop in Africa, recorded the episode in his Christian on the action of the HolySpiritinvadingSatan's realm with great Adventures in South Africa (1880),he doubted its enduring value. demonstrationsof powerto gatheroutsoulsfor Christduringthe While it "seemed to produce a great impression on the minds of end-times harvest." the chief, his mother, and the heathen party in favor of God and Supporters of God's direct involvement in mission through His missionaries, ... signs, wonders, and even miracles, will not providential and miraculous events included A. B. Simpson, changetheheartsofsinners." Taylor'sopinionstemmedfrom his founder of the Alliance and the Missionary Training Institute in admitted disappointment that the chief's family did not con­ Nyack, New York, and A. J. Gordon, chair of the American vert." Although concedingthat the Africans now considered the Baptist Missionary Union and founder of the Boston Missionary missionary to be a rainmaker, he failed to understand the impli­ Training School." After reflecting on the sad state of Protestant cations of Davis's transformed status as a shaman or how the Christianity, Simpson expressed his discontent with the pedes­ tribe's perspective on Christianity may have changed. trian and seemingly ineffective mission practices of the day. He Interestingly, during the twentieth century a considerable lamented thatmainline Protestantism "haslostherfaith ... in the number of missionaries found within the foregoing categories supernatural signs and workings of the Holy Ghost, she has lost the signs also, and the result is that she is compelled to produce conviction upon the minds of the heathen very largely by purely rational and moral considerations and influences.?" Now at the For native peoples, whose close of history, wrote Simpson, the return of the extraordinary worldviews parallel that of gifts of the Holy Spirit would expedite the evangelization of the apostolic and postapostolic world." Other controversial proponents included Benjamin Hardin eras,paranormalphenomena Irwin, leader of the "fire-baptized" wing of the Holiness move­ have played a vital role in ment; the colorful John Alexander Dowie, the faith healer who established the utopian community of Zion City, Illinois; Frank the reception of the Gospel. W. Sandford, founder of the Holy Ghost and. Us Bible School at Shiloh, Maine; Levi R. Lupton, a Friends evangelist, director of the Missionary Home and Training School and the World Evan­ aligned themselves with autonomous "faith missions," whose gelizationCompanyin Alliance, Ohio; ElizabethV. Baker, leader personnel often lived abroad without advertising their financial of the Elim Faith Home and the Rochester (N.Y.) Bible Training needs. Some went alone as independent missionaries, but all School; andCharlesF.Parham,a Holiness evangelistwhostarted prayed for the Lord's provision to come through the financial Bethel Bible School in Topeka, Kansas. These and others envi­ support of friends and backers at home. Critics decried the faith sioned sending out end-times missionaries filled with the Holy mission as the ''Vagabond Mission/"? This novel and hotly Spirit in whose ministries unusual displays of God's power debated strategy, with its own unique claim on the miraculous would be the norm rather than the exception. benefaction of God, can be traced back at least to Edward Irving (Missionaries AftertheApostolic School [1825])andAnthonyNorris Conclusion Groves (Christian Devotedness [1825]) early in the nineteenth century. Schaff's claim that no transition in the history of Christianitywas Turning the cessationist hourglass upside down, the radical so "sudden, abrupt, and radical as that from the apostolic to the evangelicals, who form the fifth category, anticipated the full post-apostolic age" reflects the dramatic shift away from the restoration of miracles and spiritual gifts. Going one step further miraculous that was encouraged by the Reformers, post-Refor­ than those in the fourth category, these leaders on the fringe of mation scholastic theologians, and philosophers of the Enlight­ the missions movement embraced unusual positions for their enment. Because of the impact on historiography and the ethno­ time. They believed that missionaries should pray for the sick centricity of historians and missiologists, accounts of paranor­ and trust God for their own healing, which would serve as a mal happenings have been largely excluded in the composition witness of his power before the heathen. This notion was pre­ of textbook histories and related mission studies. misedon the beliefthathealingis immediatelyavailable to every Despite the reservations of Western academics, paranormal believerby theexercise offaith in the atoningworkofJesus Christ phenomena have indeed played a vital role in the growth of (Isa. 53:4-5; Matt. 8:17).68 In addition, they believed in interces­ Christianity,althoughwhetherin everylocal contextandto what sory prayer for spiritual victory in the cosmic realm to bind the extent must still be determined. Far from being peripheral, they power of satanic forces that resist the successful evangelization explain much about the acceptance of the faith by native peoples of the nations." Others suggested that God might bestow the whose non-Western patterns of reasoning paralleled that of the "gift of tongues" on missionaries so they could preach immedi­ audiences to whom the apostles and Gregory Thaumaturgus ately upon reaching their destinations, a ma.jor concern to preached. Fortunately, scholars now exhibit more interest in premillennialists whose "zero-hour" eschatology left little time learning about the worldviews of indigenous Christians." This to evangelize." development has important ramifications for the writing of Together they evoked a virtually apocalyptic scenario of Christian history in the twenty-first century, for historians and God's direct intervention in "signs and wonders" (Acts 5:12) to missiologists now have an unparalleled opportunityto showthe ensure that every tribe and nation would hear the Gospel before interchange between often overlooked but visible spiritual dy­ the coming of Christ. The expected "lastdays" outpouring of the namics and religious and cultural changes." Though such phe­

154 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH nomena represent just one factor in the shaping of Christianity, From another perspective, had Alexander Duff been aware their importance should not be underestimated as the of how the Karens accepted the faith afterJonathan and Deborah "decolonization" of history proceeds. Wade entered their village, it might have broadened his under­ American Baptist missionary Francis Mason, who recorded standing of the worldview of his Indian students. He would have the early years of missions in Myanmar for a Western audience, discovered dynamics beyond verbal proclamation and Western perceptively noted that "the introduction of Christianity among learning that could have potentially influenced their reception of the Karens is, perhaps, too full of 'truth stranger than fiction' to the Gospel. Indigenous peoples like the Karens, Indians, Jamai­ be believed by those .who have not been actors in the scenes cans, Bataks, andBantusknewmuchbetterthantheirmissionary themselves/"? Incredible though it all may have seemed to him, mentors the relevance of Paul's description of the founding of the Mason preserved the story to enable his readers to grasp the full church at Thessalonica for their own contexts: "Our message of scope of how the Karens became Christians. For this reason, we the gospel came to you not in word only, but also in power and are in his debt. in the Holy Spirit, and with full conviction" (1 Thess. 1:5).

Notes------­ 1. AlexanderDuff, India, andIndia Missions (Edinburgh:John [ohnstone, 17. Gregory the Great, "The Book of Pastoral Rule and Selected Epistles Hunter Square, 1839), p. xiii. of Gregory the Great, Bishop of Rome," in Nicene and Post-Nicene 2. Francis Mason, TheKaren Apostle; or,Memoir ofKoThah Byu (Bassein, Fathers, 2d ser., ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace (Grand Rapids, Burma: SGAU Karen Press, 1884), p. 160. Mich.: Eerdmans., 1969), 12, 7, 30. . 3. Wilbert R. Shenk, "Toward a Global Church History," International 18. For the views of Luther, Zwingli,and Calvin,seeStanleyM. Burgess, Bulletin of Missionary Research 20, no. 2 (April 1996):50-57. The Holy Spirit: Medieval Roman Catholic and Reformation Traditions 4. For the purposes of this article, the definition of paranormal (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1997), pp. 143-71; also phenomena or "supernatural" demonstrations embraces (1) claims John W. Beardslee III, ed., Reformed Dogmatics: Seventeenth-Century of miracles, that is, events perceived as divine interventions into the Reformed Theology Through the Writings of Wollebius, Voetius, and realm of humanity and nature; (2) unusual incidents viewed by Turretin (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 1965), p. 141. those in attendance as divine that have no biblical precedents but 19. Ruthven, OntheCessation, p.34,n.1.Seealso Mullin,Miracles, pp.12­ have some connection to main events in Scripture; and (3) 16. manifestations of the "charismata" such as the gifts of prophecy, 20. Martin Luther, "Against the Heavenly Prophets in the Matter of tongues, healings, and discerning of spirits (1 Cor. 12:7-11). See Images and Sacraments," in Selected Writings of Martin Luther, ed. Robert Bruce Mullin, Miracles and the Modern Religious Imagination TheodoreG. Tappert (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1967),3:157-301; (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1996),p. 6. for evidence that Luther altered his views on healing and miracles 5. MarkA.Noll, "The Potentialof Missiologyfor the Crisesof History," later in life, see Burgess, Holy Spirit,pp. 151-52. in History and the Christian Historian,' ed. Ronald A. Wells (Grand 21. Ruthven, On the Cessation, pp. 33-40. Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1998), pp. 113-15. 22. D.W.Bebbington, "EvangelicalChristianityandthe Enlightenment," 6. Philip Schaff, A Companion totheGreek New Testament andtheEnglish in The Gospel in the Modern World, ed. Martyn Eden and David F. Version, with facsimile illustrations of mss. and standard editions of the Wells (Leicester, U.K.: Inter-Varsity Press, 1991), pp. 76-77. New Testament (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1883), p. 81. 23. For example, J. Edwin Orr, Evangelical Awakenings in Southern Asia 7. BenjaminB.Warfield, Counterfeit Miracles (London: Banner of Truth (Minneapolis: Bethany Fellowship, 1975). Trust, 1972;originallypublishedin 1918),pp. 23-24; cf.Jon Ruthven, 24. "Revival Movement in North Tinnevelly," Proceedings oftheChurch OntheCessation oftheCharismata: TheProtestant Polemic onPostbiblical Missionary Society for Africaand the East, 1860-1861, pp. 131-32. Miracles (Sheffield, U.K.: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997), p. 193. 25. "Notes and Intelligence," IndianEvangelical Review4 (October 1876): 8. Warfield, Counterfeit Miracles, p. 64. 246. 9. Stanley M. Burgess, The Spirit and the Church: Antiquity (Peabody, 26. Richard Lovett, The History of the London Missionary Society, 1795­ Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1984),p. 14;idem, "Proclaimingthe 1895 (London: Henry Frowde, 1899),2:381. J. Edwin Orr discusses Gospel with Miraculous Gifts in the Postbiblical Early Church," in the phenomena of the Jamaican revival in his Evangelical Awakenings TheKingdom andthePower: AreHealing andtheSpiritual Gifts Used by in LatinAmerica (Minneapolis: BethanyFellowship, 1978),pp. 22-29. Jesus and the Early Church Meant for the Church Today? ed. Gary S. 27. Lovett, History,p. 385. Greig and Kevin N. Springer (Ventura,Calif.:Regal Books, 1993),pp. 28. G. H. Lang, HistoryandDiaries ofanIndianChristian (J. C.Aroolappen) 277-88. (London: Thynne, 1939), p. 199. 10. Kilian McDonnell and George T. Montague, Christian Initiation and 29. Andrew F. Walls, The Missionary Movement in Christian History: Baptism in the Holy Spirit: Evidence from the First Eight Centuries Studies in the Transmission of Faith (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1991), p. 314. 1996), pp. 87-89. 11. Basil, cited in Burgess, "Proclaiming the Gospel," p. 281. 30. N. B. C. Love, John Stewart: Missionary to the Wyandots (New York: 12. Athanasius, The Lifeof St. Antony, trans. R. T. Meyer (New York: Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, n.d.), p. 5. Newman Press, 1978), pp. 78-79. 31. Harry Elmer Barnes, A History of Historical lNriting, 2d ed. (New 13. D. M. Lang, ed., Lives and Legends of the Georgian Saints, 2d ed. York: Dover Publications, 1963),pp. 239-76. (Crestwood, N.Y.: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1976), pp. 13-19. 32. Noll, "Potential of Missiology," pp. lID-II. 14. WalterF.Adeney, TheGreekandEastern Churches (NewYork:Charles 33. It can be no less problematic in other historical accounts, such as Scribner's Sons, 1932),pp. 540-41; Gregory, Bishop of Tours, History agency histories and autobiographies. oftheFranks, trans. Ernest Brehaut (New York: W. W. Norton, 1969), 34. Gustav Warneck, Outline ofa Historyof Protestant Missions from the pp. 38-40; Kenneth Ware, "RevivalAmong the Gypsies," Pentecostal Reformation tothePresent Time,3d Englished. (NewYork:FlemingH. Evangel, October 22, 1961, p. 8. Revell, 1904), p. 5. 15. For Patrick's own account, see Joseph Duffy, Patrick: In His Own 35. Edwin Munsell Bliss, TheMissionary Enterprise: A Concise Historyof Words (Dublin: Veritas Publications, 1972), pp. 12-38. Its Objects, Methods, and Extension (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 16. For examples, see Bede, A History of the English Church and People, 1908), pp. 19-20. trans. Leo Sherley-Price (New York: Penguin Books, 1968),1.18,20; 36. Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 5th ed. (New York: 4.24; 5.2, 3-6. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1889),2:800.

October 2001 155 37. WilliamOwenCarver, TheCourse ofChristian Missions: A Historyand 60. Ibid. anInterpretation (NewYork: FlemingH. Revell, 1932),pp.36,311-12. 61. Arthur T. Pierson, The Miracles of Missions: Modern Marvels in the . 38. Mary K. Crawford, The Shantung Revival (Alexandria, La.: History of the Missionary Enterprise, 1st sere (New York: Funk & Lamplighter Publications, 1933); p. 27. The unusual happenings in Wagnalls, 1891), pp. v-vii. Shandongstill remainoutsidetherangeof acceptedSouthernBaptist 62. For Pierson's views on faith healing, see Dana L. Robert, "Arthur historiography and missiology. Tappan Pierson and Forward Movements of Late-Nineteenth­ 39. Norman H. Cliff, "Building the Protestant Church in Shandong," CenturyEvangelicalism" (Ph.D. diss., Yale Univ., 1984),pp. 345-46. International BulletinofMissionary Research 22, no. 2 (April 1998):67. 63. Arthur T. Pierson, Forward Movements oftheLastHalfCentury (New 40. V. Raymond Edman, The Light in Dark Ages: Eighteen Centuries of York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1905), p. 393. Missions from the Giving of the Great Commission to the Beginning of 64. Robert, "Pierson," pp. 345-46. Modern Missions Under William Carey (Wheaton, Ill.: Van Kampen 65. William Taylor, Christian Adventures in South Africa (New York: Press, 1949). Phillips & Hunt, 1880), pp. 275-76. 41. RobertHallGlover, TheProgress ofWorld- WideMissions, 4th ed. (New 66. Ibid., pp. 276-77. As it happened, neither Davis's name nor this York: Harper & Brothers, 1939), p. 32. astonishing incident appears in Wade Crawford Barclay's detailed 42. Ibid., pp. 34-36, 368-70. multivolume History of Methodist Missions (New York: United 43. A. B. Simpson, The Gospel of Healing, rev. ed. (Harrisburg, Pa.: Methodist Church, 1949-57), published over a century later. Christian Publications, 1915), pp. 54-57. 67. Robert Needham Cust, Noteson Missionary Subjects (London: Elliot 44. Kenneth Scott Latourette, A HistoryoftheExpansion ofChristianity, 7 Stock, 1889), p. 107. vols. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1970), vol. 1, TheFirstFive 68. Simpson, Gospel ofHealing, pp. 57, 77-79, 183. Centuries, pp. 57-58. 69. For example,AlfredE.Street, Intercessory Foreign Missionaries: Practical 45. Latourette, History,vol. 2, TheThousand Years of Uncertainty, p. 8. Suggestions from aMissionary to Earnest Christians (Boston: American 46. J. Herbert Kane, A Concise History of the Christian World Mission Advent Mission Society [ca. 1903-ca. 1923]),pp. 5-11. The tract was (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House, 1978), p. 11. also published by the Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign 47. Ibid., p. 149. Missions and later by Moody Press. A more radical approach came 48. J.HerbertKane, Twofold Growth (Philadelphia: ChinaInlandMission, with FrankW. Sandford; see his Seven Years with God (MontVernon, 1947), p. 106. N.H.: Kingdom Press, 1957), pp. 142-45. 49. Ibid., pp. 105-6. 70. Gary B. McGee, "Shortcut to Language Preparation? Radical 50. Latourette, History,vol. 1, TheFirstFiveCenturies, p. 167-68; for his Evangelicals,Missions,andtheGift ofTongues," International Bulletin thesis, see his History,vol. 7, AdvanceThrough Storm,p. 494. ofMissionary Research 25, no. 3 (july 2001): 118-23. 51. Mullin, Miracles, pp. 114-23. 71. See Dana L. Robert, "'The Crisis of Missions': Premillennial Mission 52. Shenk, "Toward a Global Church History," p. 56. Theory and the Origins of Independent Evangelical Missions," in 53. Robert A. Hume, "The Natural and the Supernatural," Dnyanodaya Earthen Vessels: American Evangelicals and Foreign Missions, 1880­ [ca. 1907]. 1980, ed. Joel A. Carpenter and Wilbert R. Shenk (Grand Rapids, 54. Robert A. Hume, "Is There Demoniacal Possession?" Dnyanodaya, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1990), pp. 29-46; James R. Goff, [r., Fields White December 12, 1907, p. 1. unto Harvest: Charles F. Parham and the Missionary Origins of 55. Mrs. H. Grattan Guinness, "Missionaries According to Matt. X," Pentecostalism (Fayetteville: Univ, of Arkansas Press, 1988), pp. 32­ Regions Beyond, April 1889, pp. 109-10. 86. 56. Johannes Wameck, The Living Christand Dying Heathenism, 3d ed. 72. Note Warfield's fierce polemic against Gordon's views on faith (NewYork: FlemingH. Revell, n.d.), pp. 175-82; MartinE.Lehmann, healing in Counterfeit Miracles, pp. 160-64. A Biographical StudyofIngwerLudwigNommensen (1834-1918),Pioneer 73. A. B. Simpson, "The New Testament Standpoint of Missions," Missionary to the Bataks of Sumatra (Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Christian Alliance andMissionary Weekly, December 16, 1892, p. 389. Press, 1996), pp. 105-40. 74. A. B. Simpson, "Connection Between Supernatural Gifts and the 57. Warneck, LivingChrist,pp. 181-82. World's Evangelization," Christian Alliance and Missionary Weekly, 58. "Radical evangelicals" refers to believers in the Wesleyan and October 7 and 14, 1892, p. 226. Reformed "higher life" wings of the nineteenth-century Holiness 75. For example, Julie C. Ma, WhentheSpiritMeetstheSpirits: Pentecostal movement; see Grant Wacker, Heaven Below: Early Pentecostals and Ministry Among the Kankana-ey Tribe in the Philippines (Frankfurt: American Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 2001), Peter Lang, 2000). pp.1-5. 76. Noll, "Potential of Missiology," p. 112. 59. Theodore Christlieb, Modern Doubtand Christian Belief(New York: 77. Mason, Karen Apostle,p. 155. Scribner, Armstrong, 1874), p. 332.

156 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Women Missionaries in India: Opening Up the Restrictive Policies of Rufus Anderson Eugene Heideman

n 1870 two single young American women, Martha The interaction between these two contentions can be ob­ I Mandeville and Josephine Chapin, arrived in Vellore, served as they were implemented, first, in the ABCFM [affna South India, to serve as "assistant missionaries" in the Arcot Mission in Ceylonin the years leading up to 1855and, second, in Mission of the Reformed Church in America (RCA). Although the Reformed Church of America Arcot Mission from 1853until the mission would have preferred receiving ordained men, the the end of the century. male missionaries welcomed them in the anticipation that the young women would be valuable as visitors among Indian Anderson and Women's Role in Mission women and as assistants in the female seminarywhere Christian young women were being educated to become wives of Indian Dana L. Robert in American Women in Mission contends that in catechists and teachers. But for some reason, Mandeville and setting evangelizing against civilizing, and subordinating edu­ Chapinwere permitted to go beyond this expectation. They were cation to direct evangelism, Anderson also kept women in a allowed to open two schools in Vellore for Hindu girls. subordinate role in the task of mission.' This is not to say that he The schools-whichwerean immediatesuccess---eonflicted failed to recognizethe importanceof womenon the missionfield. with the policyof the Arcot Missionfrom the time of its founding He was a firm supporter of the role of the missionary wife, in 1853.According to that policy, the mission was resolved not to preferring not to send out men unless they were married. He become involved in "civilizing" Hindus in educational institu­ tions. Evangelism and church planting were to be the only priorities for the work of the missionaries. Rufus Anderson .viewed This policy reflected the views of the most influential mis­ sion administrator of the era, Rufus Anderson. Anderson served the role .of women in as senior secretary of the American Board of Commissioners for mission as limited to Foreign Missions (ABCFM). For much of the mid-nineteenth century RCA missionaries were sent out under the auspices of modeling the Christian the ABCFM,andthusthey came underthe influenceofAnderson's family. mission principles. It would be another thirty years before free­ dom in ministryby missionary women, such as was exercised by Mandeville and Chapin, received full endorsement. wrote, "The heathen should have an opportunity of seeing Anderson directed the ABCFM from 1832 to 1866. Mission Christian families. The domestic constitution among [the hea­ historian R. Pierce Beaver has written, "There has never been then] is' dreadfully disordered, and yet it is as true there as another person in the American world mission who has rivaled everywhere else, that the character of society is formed in the Andersonin creativity, in shapingpolicy,and in unitingthe roles family. To rectify it requires example as well as precept."! of administrator and theoretician."! Anderson, in what is com­ Anderson found an ally in Mary Lyon, who in 1837 had monly known as the three-self theory, stated that the aim of opened Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in South Hadley, missions is to plant and foster churches that will be self-govern­ Massachusetts. Together they agreed that it was important for ing, self-supporting, and self-propagating. His view remains potential female missionaries to have a more advanced level of influential to this day. He included four factors in this aim of training in academic disciplines in addition to their personal missions: "(1) the conversion of lost men, (2) organizing them faith and their experience in Christian service and benevolence. into churches, (3) giving these churches a competent ministry, At Mount Holyoke, self-sacrifice and careful management of and (4) conducting them to the stage of independence and (in time and money were the twin pillars of female mission theory. most cases) of self-propagation. Anything additional is second­ Students had to do their own housework in order that they ary, or even superfluous."> would understand that self-discipline and sacrifice would train A corollary contention of Anderson was that missionaries themfor life in the world," WhileAndersonand Lyonagreed that are sent to evangelize, not to civilize. They are sent to be evange­ Mount Holyoke graduates should gain dignity and self-confi­ lists, not pastors or rulers. Their business is not with believers, dence along with a good education, the subordinate role of but with unbelievers. Civilizing, or social transformation, is not women in society was not directly challenged. Lyon warned her a legitimate aim; it will follow as a natural consequence of the pupils that "ladies never can be independent; and those best impactofthe Gospel." Preachingthe Wordandplantingchurches educated must feel their dependence."? is the very heart of the missionary task. A second corollary Robert shows thatAnderson believed it was crucial to estab­ contention was that women have a subordinate role as mission­ lish "female seminaries" in mission areas in order that native aries because they are not directly engaged in evangelism and pastors, catechists, and teachers would have Christian wives to planting churches but instead are engaged in the supporting work alongside them. The female seminary "is not only the most activities, such as education, that are more properly understood directway,butis the onlywaywecoulddevise,to providewives, as civilizing roles. with the blessing of God, for the native evangelists and teachers, and other helpers in the revival of pure religion.?" Missionary Eugene Heideman, Secretary for Program, Reformed Church in America wives who had been educated according to the Mount Holyoke (retired), wasa Reformed Church missionary in SouthIndia. Female Seminary model were expected to playa crucial role as

October 2001 157 teachers and models for future wives of Indian pastors and destination. They were the first missionary couple to be sup­ catechists. ported by the Reformed Church in America (RCA),11 which at thattime did not haveits ownmissionaryboard. Scudderwas an Role of ABCFM Women in India and Ceylon experienced physician but was not yet an ordained minister. Scudder was ordained in September 1821 in a Wesleyan chapel By1850Andersonincreasinglywas evaluatingall missionwork, in CeylonwithMethodist,Congregational, andBaptistministers including the contribution of women, in terms of effectiveness in performingthe ordination."The Scudders served in the ABCFM establishing churches. Thereby he minimized social develop­ [affnaMissionin Ceylon until1836,whentheymoved to Indiato ment as a legitimate focus for mission. He was disappointed that serve in the Madras Mission. the network of mission schools in Ceylon and India was produc­ Scudder was in full agreement with Anderson that the ingonly a smallnumber of converts. In 1854-55 he andAugustus Western missionary must be an evangelizer rather than a civi­ Thompson went to India and Ceylon with the intention of lizer. Although he was the first American to be sent overseas as streamlining the educational system and making it directly a medical missionary, he was convinced that medicine was buta subservient to evangelism. The number of schools was to be means to anend; thebodywas to be healed so thatthe soul might reduced, and their sole purpose would be to train indigenous be saved." He was also in agreement with Anderson's under­ preachers and teachers. All instruction was to be in the vernacu­ standing of the role of female missionaries as being crucial but lar language and not in English. (At that time, English language subservient to the role of men. Harriet Scudder proved an ideal self-sacrificing missionary wife in creating a Christian home as a model for new believers. Afterherinfantdaughter died onthe wayto Ceylonand the next In spite of the school's two babies born to her in Ceylon also died, she went on without excellent record the women complaining. In subsequent years their ten additional children in charge of the school were grewupunderhercare. All of themexceptSamuel,whodrowned while in theological seminary, would give missionary service in not allowed to speak or vote. India. Typical of her service is the report that her husband wrote in December, 1821, when she was in the seventh month of her fourth pregnancy. Harriet was helping educate the children in instruction was desirable as preparation for gaining employ­ the mission school and "taking care of almost the whole of [our] ment in colonial business and governmental bodies.) domestic concerns, which are neither few nor small. She has ten Anderson and Thompson met with the mission administra­ females underhercare. Thesesheteaches to sewin theafternoon. tors in Ceylon to discuss the future of the very successful In the morning she begins to hear the boys recite in English, OodoovilleFemaleBoardingSchool, whichwas the onlymission which is no small labor.... She sometimes visits the people.v" institutionsupervisedbyfemale missionaries. By1849theschool had overcome the reluctance of the local people to send their Women's Role in the American Arcot Mission daughters to school. The missionaries had seen its graduates becomemodelsfor TamilChristianfamilies. Fully120Oodooville John Scudder and his three oldest sons became the founders of girls had been married to Christian husbands. Many of its theRCA AmericanArcotMissionin Indiain 1853.Since no other graduates hadbecometeachers. The missionaries told Anderson missionin its beginningdecadeswasso determined to be faithful and Thompson, "There is no part of our missionary work which to the principles of Anderson, it is instructive to follow develop­ we have regarded with more pleasure and hope thanthis school, ments in that mission between 1853 and 1900. Although a board and there are no results of our labor here which seem to us to be of foreign missions hadbeenestablished in 1832bythe RCA, the telling, with more power, at the present moment, upon the church continued to operate overseas through the ABCFM. By evangelization of the land, than those connected with this de­ 1850 many within the denomination believed that there would partment of our mission," be much stronger financial support for foreign missions if the In spite of the school's excellent record, the womenin charge RCA were responsible for its own mission in India. Three sons of of the school were not allowed to speak or vote. The ABCFM John and Harriet Scudder by that time had completed their deputationinsisted thatthepurposeof theschoolbe narrowedto theological education in America and as ordained ministers the sole goal of educatingwives for native pastors and catechists, were prepared with their wives to serve as missionaries in without regard to the need of other Christian men for wives. No India." non-Christians would be allowed to attend. The number of girls With the permission of Anderson the three Scudder broth­ enrolled was to be reduced from seventy-three to thirty-five, ers, Henry Martyn, William Waterbury, and Joseph, became the which was the anticipated number of wives needed for pastors first members of the new American Arcot Mission (AAM) di­ and catechists. The policy set by Anderson and Thompson for rectly responsible to the Reformed Church in America rather Oodooville also was implemented in India. Robert concludes, than to the ABCFM. (Within a few years they would be joined by "The end result of making education subservient to evangelism their otherbrothers, Ezekiel Carman, John, [r., Jared Waterbury, wasto frustrate themajorwaythatfemale missionaries wereable and Silas.) Their wives were enrolled as "assistant members." to minister in the Indian context.?" The new mission was to be located in the North and South Arcot One of the ABCFM missionaries in Ceylon who was in full Districts centered about 90 miles west of Madras, comprising an agreement with Rufus Anderson's three-self theory and the two area roughly the size of the state of New Jersey. Its founding corollaries noted above was Dr. John Scudder. On June 8, 1819, principles stated that the threefold work of the mission was Scudder, newly appointed missionary under the ABCFM, with restricted to (1) the preaching of the Gospel without being his wife, HarrietWaterbury(designatedas an "assistantmission­ encumbered with institutions that would hinder that work, (2) ary"), boarded the brig Indus, with Ceylon as their ultimate the preparation and extensive diffusion of vernacular tracts and

158 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH 0p(Jfi-l liOIl World ------

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Chur chless Christianity is the tribal people of the jungles of theologians and educators from a variety based on resea rch from the early 1980s amo ng Yunnan, ar e presented using brilliantly of cultural, denominational and ethnic non-b aptised believers in Christ in Tamilnadu, colored photographs, anthropological backgrounds contributed. BONUS:We'll India. Thi s revise d edition includes all the and geographical data, maps, statistics include extra indexes developed to help original text plus five additional chapters and and a prayer calendar. Indexed with an readers and instructors use the book. a new fore word. extensive bibliography of publications. BBH-0743 Baker Books, WCL444-4 William Carey Libra ry, paperb ack WCL351-0 William Carey Library, hardcover, 1068 pp. *NOTE: Buy three or more copies of the paperback, 740 pp. Retail $3&:-95 Retail $6&.00 Discount $33.00 Discount $28.76 *Wholesale $21.57 same title to get the wholesale price. *Wholesale $29.75 MasterCard, Visa, American Express and W i{fiam Care Libra Discover are accepted. All checks must be Pu6{isfiers and Distributors in U.S. funds and drawn from a U.S. bank. 1-800-MISSION Prices subject to change without notice. Outside the US: 706-554-1594 Fax: 706-554-7444 See our complete list at [email protected] WCLBOOKS.COM WWW .WCLBOOKS.COM Please mention "IBMR" when placing your order. booksspeciallyadaptedto theHindumindandcharacter,and(3) He began to raise a number of questions about the radical the education of those who became Christians. There were to be distinction between evangelizing and civilizing. He questioned no schools for Hindu children. Village schools were to be offered the fundamental mission policy that new converts had to break for children of Christians, in buildings erected to serve a school caste by eating and drinking together at Holy Communion and and church "where parents and children attend on the Sabbath by eating a common meal together whenthey were baptized. He and learn the way of the Gospel."16 also objected to the requirement that Hindu converts immedi­ The first reportof themission, issuedin 1854,gives evidence ately cut off thekudumi topknot of hair and sacred cord as marks of how sincere the first missionaries were in giving priority to of caste. Since higher caste Hindus did notwish to be cutoff from evangelism, preaching, and Scripture distribution over estab­ their families, one of the consequences of this requirement was lishing educational and medical institutions. The report indi­ that only very-low-caste persons were entering the church. He catesthatHenryMartynScudderhadopeneda smalldispensary whenhe moved to thetownof Wallajanagar earlyin 1853.By the end of 1853 it was closed because Henry Martyn had become ill, A more subtle attack on and "God in His Providence has taken away ourDispensary and thrown us more entirely upon the preaching of His Word­ Anderson's polices arose as divested even of this auxiliary-so that the fundamental prin­ two young women arrived ciple of our mission may shine out in its simple oneness." The monies remaining in the medical account were transferred to the on the scene. tract and book fund." While the male members of the mission were devoting themselves to evangelistic touring, preaching the Gospel, dis­ pointed out that Americans did not impose this kind of require­ tributing tracts and Scriptures, and planting churches, their ment for Christian maturity on those who were not ready to wives were busy in their supporting role as exemplary mothers accept "blacks" in their congregations." in Christian families. They also undertookto make it possible for Mayou touched another nerve when he called into question young men being trained as pastors, catechists, and teachers to the fundamental policy of the mission to open only vernacular haveliterateChristianwives. Alreadyin 1855Sarah(Mrs. Ezekiel) schools that were for the children of Christians alone. In his first Scudder had taken three orphan girls as boarders in her home years at Arnihe hadbrokentherulebyopeninga smallschoolfor and instructed them daily, along with three other girls. Her Hindu childrenat his mission stationand also desired to provide efforts led in 1860 to the establishment of the Female Seminary, someinstructionin English. Hebelieved thatif the churchwas to with a clear purpose for its existence: "The object of this school is become truly self-governing and self-supporting, it had to be to train up a class of girls who will be fitted to become the wives more open and attractive to the higher castes and provide a of our native helpers. While we strive to give them a good plain course of education more likely to raise the economic level in the education, we do not neglect those things which the wife of a church. native should know. They learn to cook, to sew, and to do all Although Mayou in theory accepted the American Arcot kinds of housework. We do not wish to raise them above, but to Mission's clear distinction between evangelizing and civilizing, fit them for the position they will be called to fill."18 his missionary colleagues recognized that he was beginning to The FemaleSeminary fulfilled its purpose well. The mission blur the line between the two. Personal relationships with the reported annually onthe numberof girls who hadbecome wives other missionaries became acrimonious, and charges of heresy of "native helpers": one in 1861, one in 1862, three in 1863. By were made against MaY9u, who was suspected of being too 1889,JaredW. Scudderwasable to report: "LastFridayI married favorably disposed toward the Christian-nurture emphasis in ten couples in the Vellore church. The bridegrooms [included] six the theology of Horace Bushnell. By the middle of 1869 Mayou's from the Arcot Seminary and the brides [were] from the Female position as a missionary in India became untenable, and the Seminary. A gallant sight it was to see the twenty-alldressed in familyreturned to America." At the end of 1869, the missionstill their graceful and brilliant Oriental costume standing in a circle refusedto openschoolsto Hindustudentsandto includeEnglish around the pulpit with a packed audience in the background!":" as a subject or medium of instruction. In the year after the Mayous left India, a more subtle attack Testing the Evangelizing/Civilizing Distinction on policies inherited from Anderson arose as the two young unmarried women, Martha Mandeville and Josephine Chapin, The first Arcot missionary to raise questions about the strict appeared on the scene. Anderson had discouraged appointing interpretation of the mission's founding principles was Joseph unmarried women to serve overseas." The men of the American Mayou, who with his wife, Margaret, had arrived in India in Arcot Mission agreed that emphasis should be placed on the 1858.AftercompletingtheirTamillanguagestudies, theMayous appointment of married couples, rather than unmarried men or were assigned to serve in the mission station in Arni. They women. Nounmarriedmanwasappointeduntil1881.In thecase proved to be effective and zealous evangelistic missionaries. of an unmarried woman, they followed the policy advocated by Soon there were group movements in a number of the surround­ Anderson that anyunmarried womanshouldbe required to live ing rural villages. Joseph Mayou followed the mission's policy in a home with one of the missionary married couples. Prior to thatwhenevertherewerethreeChristianfamilies in a village, the the arrival of Mandeville and Chapin, there had been only two mission would assign a catechist/teacher to the village for the unmarried womenin the mission, bothof whomwere daughters education of the Christian children and pastoral care of the new of John and HarrietScudder. TheirdaughterHarrietserved from Christians. Hesoonfelt overwhelmed withthe heavyburdens of 1854 to 1856, and the second, Louise, from 1855 to 1861. Both their care and quickly foresaw that it would be difficult for the lived with a brother's family during their time of service. RCA to provide adequate financial assistance to provide church It is not clear that the male missionaries were altogether buildings and employed leaders for all the villages. happy with the presence of Mandeville and Chapin. The official

160 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH mission minutes for 1870 state that the women were welcomed, reduce its budget by 14 percent after there had already been but in 1928 Ethel Scudder (wife of John Scudder's grandson budget reductions in the three previous years. The men reluc­ Lewis R.) remembered that they were "received rather coldly at tantly made across-the-board reductions for a number of areas, first.?" In any case, the two young women were soon breaking including education. But then they made a drastic decision that newgroundfor the ArcotMission. Contraryto the originalpolicy betrayed their continuing hesitation about women's education of the mission that educational efforts would be confined to in general and the Hindu girls' school in particular. They in­ vernacular schools for children of Christians and others being formed the women supervisors that all the Hindu girls' schools instructed in the faith, the two women were given permission to must be closed for financial reasons. open a Hindu Caste Girls' School in Vellore for girls of families The women were furious. Four missionary wives wrote who were not Christian. Their efforts met with such immediate letters to be published in the Woman's Board of Foreign Mis­ and unusual success that two additional schools were opened." sions' monthly magazine, TheGleaner, appealing for support for On the basis of the Vellore experience, within the next thirteen the schools. The Woman's Board secretary protested that the years five additional Hindu girls' schools were opened in the Board of Foreign Missions and the Arcot Mission were short­ Arcot area. sighted and also had no right to use contributions designated for The men of the Arcot Mission, faced with the success of the support of the Hindu girls' schools for other purposes, not even first school, did not stop the two unmarried assistant missionar­ for evangelism.28 ies from continuing their efforts, although only cursory mention The men backed down. They found other ways to make is made of the Hindu girls' schools in the annual mission reports. budget cuts. The Hindu girls' schools remained open. The con- In 1874 Josephine Chapin was forced to return to America for health reasons. The relatively low priority the men gave to the schoolisshownby the factthatin the sameyearMarthaMandeville was transferred to Chittoor to teach in the Female Academy. The women were furious. With Mandeville transferred out of the area, one of the mission­ They wrote letters appealing ary wives, SarahScudder, in Vellore was given responsibility for the Hindu girls' schools, eventhoughit was anticipated that "her for support of the schools. already numerous duties will render it impossible for her to give The men backed down. them the care and attention they need."25 Nevertheless, assignment of the wife of a missionary to be in charge of the schools apparently worked to encourage her hus­ cern of the RCA women for the educational and social uplift of band and then others to take more interest in and give more women in India had been confirmed as a legitimate goal of supportto the Hindugirls' schools. By1878educationof women mission. had become important alongside preaching as a means to the The denomination's Woman's Board for Foreign Missions evangelization of India. The purpose of Hindu girls' schools was was established in 1875 with a stated purpose that included clearly stated by Josephine Chapin: "The aim of these schools is civilizing as well as evangelizing." Article 2 of its constitution to carry the word of God to the daughters and families of the read, "Its object shall be to aid the Board of Foreign Missions of better classes of Hindus, whose caste, a social and religious the Reformed Church in America, by promoting its work among distinction, makes them almost inaccessible to missionary effort. the women and children of heathen lands/"" The Woman's While we instructtheminsecularstudies and in needlework, the Board recognized its subordinate relationship to the exclusively one object for which the schools were founded, is made para­ male Board of ForeignMissions, even to the extent that in its first mountto everyother. All the childrenwhoare old enoughto read years a man always presided at its meetings. All of the prayers are studying the Bible daily and learning the way of salvation andreportswerepresentedbymen,evenwhena reporthadbeen through Christ."> written by a woman." The Woman's Board was particularly concerned to support Civilizing as Legitimate Aspect of Mission missionary women and Indian Bible women who visited Indian wives in the zenanas. The men accepted such visitation as legiti­ The door opened by the Hindu girls' schools led to the further matebecauseit wasnotpossiblefor malepreachersto gainaccess blurring of the boundary between evangelizing and civilizing to those women. Mary Anna (Mrs. Silas) Scudder and Margaret whenJ000H. Wyckoff, a respectedmissionary,acceptedrespon­ Mayou and other wives of missionaries had already engaged in sibility for an Anglo-vernacular boys' school in Tindivanam in such workin the 1860s.Zenanaworkamong Hindu women had 1878. He recognized the need for a change in policy when he gained further acceptance after the establishment of the Hindu commented: "Boys of all classes, Christians, Brahmins, Sudras, girls' schools. Many of the girls in thoseschools were removedby Pariahs and Mohammedans, read together withno distinction of their parents from the schools soon after puberty for the purpose caste, and the effect this has wrought in removing caste differ­ of marriage. But confined to the zenana following marriage, ences is very marked. Much interest has been taken in the those girls longed to continue their study of arithmetic, reading, Scripture lesson.... I am firmly convinced of the usefulness of sewing, hygiene, and domesticeconomy, as wellas to learnmore such a school at a Missionary station. Nothing serves so well as about the Bible and the Christian faith. By 1888 eighteen Bible a stepping-stone to work among the higher classes as a school women were employed by the mission to visit in homes and which admits all castes.":" other places. Miss M. K. Scudder in 1884 had been appointed as Althoughthe male members of the missionhad accepted the an unmarried assistant missionary to work with the wives of legitimacy of civilizing work in the schools, the lower priority missionaries in supervising the Bible women and zenana pro­ that they gave to those schools, especially the girls' schools, gram for the uplift of Indian women." The clear distinction became clear in 1896,when the RCA mission board experienced between evangelizing and civilizing activity could not be main­ a severe financial deficit and required the Arcot Mission to tained in the zenanas.

October 2001 161 With the success of the zenana program, the way was open she discovered the need for a center to treat persons suffering to the appointment during the 1890sof more unmarried women from tuberculosis. She gained the support of male missionaries for evangelizing and civilizing activity for the uplift of women. such as J. H. Wyckoff, who assisted her in gaining the coopera­ One of them, Miss Annie Hancock, who was appointed in 1899, tion of other missions and in opening the Union Mission Tuber­ gained an intimate knowledge of Indian women through her culosis Sanatoriumin 1910,whichbecame the leading center for workin schools, visits with them in the zenanas, and through the treatment of tuberculosis in India. Bible women under her supervision, who were visiting over 400 Dr. Hart's vision for a woman's hospital in Vellore was homes in Vellore. On the basis of her experience she opened a fulfilled when a donor in the United States in 1902 provided the social service center in 1920 for Hindu and Christian women funds in memory of Mary Tabor Schell. When Dr. Ida Scudder where they could escape the isolation of their homes. At the joined her in Vellore, Hart felt free to open medical work for centerthey could sew, play, learn, and attend cultural programs, women in other towns at some distance from Vellore. Ida including special programs for Christmas and Easter." Scudder's energies soon went into pioneering training of female Just as the boundaries were becoming blurred between nurses and doctors in India. Ultimately, under the enthusiastic evangelizing and civilizing work in education and mission leadership of Dr. Scudder and the support of women around the through the activities of female missionaries, so it was also true world, the Mary Tabor Schell Hospital developed into the lead­ in the field of medical mission. By 1890 the Woman's Board for ing medical institution in India, the Christian Medical College Foreign Missions was concerned that Indian women have better and Hospital in Vellore. access to modern medical care, but between 1853 and 1890 The strength of Ida Scudder as she became a world-famous medical care had a lower priority than evangelism in the activi­ missionary was that she combined her concern for evangelism ties of the mission. The mission had never asked the Board of with her compassion and friendship for all who came to the Foreign Missions to send a physician except in the case of Silas hospital. The story has oftenbeen told of how she was motivated Scudder. to become a missionary doctor for women in India at the age of Although a number of the first male missionaries were eighteen when on one night three Hindu men came to her surgeons and physicians, all members of the Arcot Mission parents' home in Tindivanam, India, seeking medical help for their wives about to give birth. All three women died that night because a female doctor was not available." The compassion The full role of women was aroused in her that night became fully integrated with her understanding of the purpose of the woman's hospital, when in finally acknowledged. 1906 she stated, "The great purpose for which the hospital was They were no longer founded is the pointing of sin-sick souls to a loving Saviour who can save them from their sins, and for this end and purpose we JJ assistant missionaries." work. Every patient is told of Christ's love for them/?" In the early decades of the twentieth century, Arcot mission­ aries and Indian leaders affirmed that educational, medical, and agreed that their medical practice was subordinate to their socioeconomic institutional service could be justified as mission evangelistic duty to preach the Gospel. Dr. Silas Scudder, the service in its own right rather than only as a support for evange­ only brother who was not an ordained minister, was constantly lizing. It was maintained that medical mission should not be disappointed that his colleagues refused to appropriate money justified on the basis of its evangelistic intent but directly on its for medical work. In 1863 Silas worked with a sense of having relation to the love of Jesus Christ for suffering humanity. The beenabandonedby his fellow missionaries. "I haveno money,no basic function was to show forth the love of God as revealed in place in which to receive patients, no apothecary, and no medi­ Jesus Christ through the practice of medicine." Defenders of the cines.'?' As late as 1899 Rev. Dr. Lewis R. Scudder in Ranipet other institutions were making similar statements about how agreed that his evangelistic touring was more important than his their activities in education, economic development, and social work as superintendent of the hospital. His missionary col­ servicewereimportantmanifestationsof theloveofJesus Christ. leagues also wanted the hospital to be entirely self-supporting and to divert the $2,000 appropriated by the Board of Foreign From Mission to Church Missions for medical work to evangelism and village work." Once again it was the initiative of the Woman's Board of At the beginning of the twentieth century, the work of the ForeignMissions thatopenedthe doorto wideracceptance of the American Arcot Mission went through a process of devolution civilizing activity of medical uplift for women. In 1895 it ap­ by which the self-governing, self-propagating, and to some pointed Dr. Louisa M. Hart to be a medical missionary in India extent self-supporting South India United Church became re­ and followed that action by appointing Dr. Ida B. Scudder in sponsible for much of what the mission had previously done. 1899. These two women of outstanding dedication and ability Anderson's separation of evangelizing from civilizing activity madean immediateimpactin providingmedicalcare for women assumed that the missionand themissionarywereseparatefrom in India, who were usually reluctant to be seen by male doctors. the church. He had assumed that when such devolution had Louisa Hart gained immense respect through her risky and takenplace, the missionaries wouldleaveandbeginnewworkin dedicated service during the bubonic plague of 1899, when she "regionsbeyond." In the Arcot area, neither the missionaries nor wentthroughthe streetsandhomesofVelloreexaminingwomen the Indian church leaders felt that the missionaries should leave. in their houses and inoculatingall whowould acceptthe vaccine. Instead, the churchitself became responsible for carryingoutthe In one week she inoculated 1,000 people. Shortly thereafter she twin activities of evangelizing and nurturing the life of the began to advocate the opening of a woman's hospital to be people in the church and nation. Faithfulness in these dual located in Vellore, at a cost of $8,000 with an annual budget of responsibilities has been the challenge facing the church and the $1,500.36 When she was transferred to the Telugu-speaking area, missionaries working within the church to the present day."

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CURRICULUM 135 N . Oakland Ave. Pasadena, CA 91182 strong core of theology of mission with 15 concentrations T H EO LO G ICAL FULLERSEMINARY COMMITMENT strongly evangelical, comm itted to biblical SCHOOL OF WORLD MISSION autho rity PROGRAMS . M.A., Th.M. , D.Min., D.Miss., Ph .D., continuing education, combining resident and extension studies In the first decade of the twentieth century, the full role of priorityof workamongwomenandfor representationof women womenin missionwasacknowledged. Theywerenow "mission­ in the councils of the church." aries," no longer "assistant missionaries." They had full and Nevertheless, in practice women, even at the beginning of equal rights of vote and participation in discussion in the pro­ the twenty-first century, often continue to discover that their ceedings of the mission. As the workof the missiondevolvedinto gifts for ministry and service are not always fully accepted. The the life and responsibility of the church, the South India United churches in America and India are still working to complete the Churchin 1908,and then especially the Church of SouthIndia in process that began when two young women were sent to the 1947,made special provisions for the full recognition of the high American Arcot Mission in 1870.

Notes 1. R. Pierce Beaver, "Rufus Anderson, 1796-1880: To Evangelize, Not Anselmicdoctrineof the atonement,whiletheyunderstoodBushnell Civilize," in Mission Legacies: Biographical Studies of Leaders of the to lean in the direction of an Abelardian moral-influence doctrine. Modern Missionary Movement, ed. Gerald H. Anderson et al. They feared that Bushnell's emphasis on nurture rather than the (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1994), p. 549. requirementfor conversionas taughtbyAmericanevangelistswould 2. Ibid. lead in India to a decrease in emphasis on evangelism. The full 3. Ibid., p. 550. transcript of the heresy trial conducted by the Classis of Arcot in 4. Dana L. Robert, American Women in Mission: A Social HistoryofTheir India does notnecessarilyleaveonewiththe impression thatMayou Thought andPractice (Macon, Ga.: Mercer Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 89, was heretical, in spite of the decision of the classis. The transcript is 115. available in the RCA archives in New Brunswick. 5. Rufus Anderson, "Introductory Essay on the Marriage of 22. Robert, American Women in Mission, p. 108. Missionaries," p. xi, quoted in Robert, American Women inMission, p. 23. Ethel Scudder, "Work for Women," in TheArcotAssemblyandArcot 67. Mission of the Reformed Church in America Jubilee Commemoration, 6. Robert, American Women in Mission,pp. 89-104. 1853-1928 (Madras, India: Methodist Publishing House, 1931), p. 7. Ibid., p. 104. 193. 8. Rufus Anderson, Report to the Prudential Committee of a Visit to the 24. Two out of the three, however, went out of existence within a short Missions in the Levant, p. 21, quoted in Robert, American Women in time. Mission, p. 89. 25. AAM Report, 1874, p. 6. 9. Robert, American Women in Mission,p. 120. 26. JosephineChapin, "TheCasteGirls' Schoolsat Vellore," inA Manual 10. Ibid., pp. 116-22. oftheMissions of theReformed (Dutch)Church in America (New York: 11. The official name of the Reformed Church in America prior to 1867 Woman's Board of Foreign Missions, 1876), pp. 106-7. was the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church. 27. Board of Foreign Missions Reportto the General Synod of the Reformed 12. J. B. Waterbury, Memoir of the Rev. John Scudder, M.D. (New York: Church in America, 1878, p. 20. Harper & Brothers, 1870), p. 62. 28. Clara Burrell to J. H. Wyckoff, March 10, 1896, RCA Archives. 13. Dorothy Jealous Scudder, A Thousand Years in Thy Sight: TheStoryof 29. RussellGasero, ''TheRise of the Woman'sBoardofForeignMissions," theScudder Missionaries in India (New York: Vantage Press, 1984), p. in Patterns andPortraits: Women in theHistoryof theReformed Church 7. in America, ed. Renee S. House and John W. Coakley (Grand Rapids, 14. Waterbury, Memoir, p. 79. Mich.: Eerdmans, n.d.), pp. 95-102. 15. For a more detailed review of the work of John and Harriet Scudder 30. Woman's Board ofForeign Missions Report, 1875,p.17.In1861Anderson and the establishment of the American Arcot Mission, see Eugene had opposed the organization of an interdenominational woman's Heideman, From Missionto Church: TheReformed Church in America board. Mission to India (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2001), pp. 9-53. 31. MaryChamberlain,FiftyYears in Foreign Fields (NewYork: Woman's 16. Report of the American Arcot Mission, 1854, pp. 6-7, on file at RCA Board of Foreign Missions, 1925), pp. 5-7, 15-16. Archives, New Brunswick, N.J. (hereafter AAM Report). 32. Ibid., pp. 89-91. 17. Ibid. pp. 8-9. 33. CharlotteC.Wyckoff,A HundredYears withChristinArcot(published 18. Ibid., pp. 160, 11. Ezekiel Scudder was the fourth brother to join the in India by the American Arcot Mission, 1953), p. 53. AAM. 34. AAM Report, 1863, p. 33. 19. J. W. Scudder to Henry Cobb, March 19, 1889, RCA Archives. 35. J. H. Wyckoff to Henry Cobb, March 15, 1899, accompanied by 20. Mayou's letters to the RCA corresponding secretary in New York, remarks of others, RCA Archives. April 13, 1869, and to the secretary of the mission, May 13, 1869, 36. Chamberlain, Fifty Years, p. 93. present a clear statement of Mayou's understanding of the nature of 37. For a full biography of Ida Scudder, see Dorothy Clarke Wilson, Dr. his differences with the other missionaries that had developed over Ida: Passing on the Torch of Life(New York: Friendship Press, 1976). the past decade. With regard to caste issues, Mayou was advocating 38. AAM Report, 1906, p. 29. what Donald A. McGavran would urge in 1961 with regard to new 39. AAM Report, 1937, p. 43. converts, that a distinction be made between the work of discipling 40. For a full discussion of developments in the twentieth century, see and that of perfecting. (SeeMcGavran's Bridges ofGod: A Study in the Heideman, From Missionto Church, chaps. 6-12. StrategyofMissions [London: World Dominion Press, 1961], pp. 94­ 41. Carol W. Hageman, "The Decline, Fall, and Rise of Women in the 102). Reformed Church in America, 1947-1997," in House, Patterns and 21. All of the other RCA missionaries were strong defenders of the Portraits, pp. 149--60.

164 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Gender, Mission, and Higher Education in Cross-Cultural Context: Isabella Thoburn in India Maina Chawla Singh

he city of Lucknow, North India, bears the distinction of vice. Their children recalled an incident from childhood, when Tbeing home to one of the first women's colleges in Asia, their mother, who had been given a gold coin by her father to get IsabellaThoburnCollege (ITC).Namedafterits founder, Isabella a new winter cloak, offered it for the missionary collections, Thoburn (1840-1901), an American missionary, ITC began as a preferring instead to "tum her old cloak." Such parental convic­ girls' school with six pupils in 1870. From these modest begin­ tions obviously left a lasting impression on the Thoburn off­ nings it grew to become a collegiateinstitutionin 1886 and by the spring, and all the children were members of the church.' beginning of the twentieth century, a prestigious women's col­ After her early education in a nearby district schoolhouse, lege in North India. It exists to this day, like many other mission­ Isabella Thoburn entered the Wheeling (Virginia) Female Semi­ ary schools and colleges in South Asia that have outlived their nary at the age of fifteen. (Due to a change in state boundaries, founders and the British Raj. Wheeling, Virginia, later became Wheeling, West Virginia.) Fol­ Thoburn, the first womanmissionaryto be sponsoredby the lowing this, she studied for a year at the Cincinnati Academy of Woman'sForeignMissionarySociety of theMethodistEpiscopal Design. By about eighteen, Isabella Thoburn had begun as a Church,1 expressed her vision for India's women in an article humble country schoolteacher, entering the profession that was written in 1886: "The need of India today is leadership from to become her lifework. After teaching for a year at Young among her own people, leadership not of impulsive enthusiasm Ladies' Seminaryin NewCastle,Pennsylvania,andsubsequently or prejudice but of matured judgement and conscientious con­ at West Farmington, Thoburn spent a year in St. Clairsville viction. Part of our work as missionaries is to educate and train ministering to an invalid and widowed sister-in-law and her the character that can lead and it is to accomplish this that we three children. According to her brother and biographer, "The formed our first woman's college in the East world.'? year spent here made a deep and lasting impression on her The early history of ITC maps Thoburn's lifework and character, and helped to prepare her for her hallowed service in missionary career. Her initiatives provide a window into the later years among the stricken and suffering in [a] far-off land."? historical and sociological paradigm of nineteenth-century colo­ nial India, within which Western missionary women initiated Appointed to Missionary Service "woman's work for woman" in non-Christian cultures. In 2001, a hundred years since the death of Isabella Thoburn, it is appro­ Unlike many missionary women, who claimed to have experi­ priateto commemoratethe importantbeginningsmadeby West­ enced an inner call to do "Christ's work," Thoburn chose mis­ ern missionary women through cross-cultural initiatives for sionary service in response to a concrete suggestion from her women's higher education and professionalization. A short life­ brother. In 1866 James Thoburn, among the earliest Methodist sketch of Isabella Thoburn, the founder-principal of lTC, who missionaries in India, wrote to Isabella describing the "difficult remained its matriarch and manager till herdeath in 1901, is thus situation" in which girls were placed in India," He suggested the an appropriate entry point into understanding how issues of possibility of her joining him in North India to establish a girls' gender, culture, religion, and higher education intermingled in boardingschoolso that"lightmightgraduallybe diffused among the cross-cultural work of women missionaries.' all the homes of the future Christian community."? Although Isabella's response was prompt and enthusiastic, Early Life in Ohio there were gender issues to negotiate. "The church at home was not prepared to send out the intrepid volunteer, and the brethren Born on March 29, 1840, near St. Clairsville, Ohio, to a Scotch­ of the mission were by no means sure that they wanted a Irish immigrant couple, Isabella was the ninth of ten children, contingent of young women to be added to the work force in the and the fourth of five daughters. The Thoburns had settled in field." Apart from church patriarchies at home, missionaries on Ohio in 1825. In the homestead adjoining theirs there lived a the field also held"an unfavorable opinion on the subject." In the family of Friends. The mothers in the two families shared a warm circumstances, the recently founded Woman's Union Mission­ friendship, and Mrs. Thobum named her fourth daughter after ary Society of New York was a possible sponsoring agency, but her "esteemed and much loved Quaker neighbor, Isabella Isabella preferred to remain connected with her own church," Sidwell." Isabella'sfather was a Methodistclass leader,whodied Thoburn's search for sponsorship coincided with the fur­ when she was only ten. The Thoburns were "earnest believers" lough of Dr. and Mrs. Edwin W. Parker," founders of the Meth­ in the missionary enterprise and committed to community ser- odist Episcopal missions in India. The Parkers' accounts of missionary experiences in India, stressing the need for women missionaries, inspired Methodist churchwomen in Boston to MainaChawla SinghisAssociate Professor attheCollege ofVocational Studies, convene a meeting on March 23, 1869. This group of six (some UniversityofDelhi, India. Shehaspublished articles andgivenseminars widely sources claim nine) women attendees decided to organize the in theUnitedStates and theUnitedKingdom on gender, mission, and philan­ thropy in British Colonial India. Her recent book Gender, Religion, and Women'sForeignMissionarySociety of the MethodistEpiscopal "Heathen Lands": American Missionary Women in South Asia, 1860s­ Church. Thoburn's offer, presented at the first meeting of the 1940s(NewYork: Garland, 2000),isacross-cultural study withaspecial focus society, was enthusiastically endorsed. Soon after, Clara Swain, on single women missionaries.A review of her bookwill befound on page M.D., a recentmedicalgraduate, was also appointed for mission­ 179. ary work in India. This prompt recruitment of two candidates,

October 2001 165 perceived as "capable, vigorous, practical and spiritual young ity will not only depend upon the efforts of missionaries, but women," indicated that the direction of the new venture was in upon the converts, their work, their personal character and the the hands of "wise and capable managers."!" The sponsorship of trainingtheyreceive." Similarly,addressing theracialissues that Isabella Thoburn illustrates how the collaborative efforts of created divisive sentiments among European Christians and enthusiastic churchwomen, along with zealous single women their indigenous, newly converted brethren, she felt that Euro­ volunteers offering their services, led to the founding of early pean settlers in India needed to "know and own the Christians women's foreign missionary societies in North America." who have come out of heathenism as brothers and sisters in Although Thoburn seemed convinced of her vocation, her Christ."IS anxieties are reflected in a letter to Mrs. Parker. "Long as I have In particular, Thoburn underlined the importance of reach­ anticipated this appointment, it seems all new and strange to me ing out to Christian women, especially those in rural areas. She now that it has taken place, and I can see how such an ignorant believed that those who were "shut away from outside influ­ child could have dared to expect such a trust. I know nothing at ences dueto restrictedsocial mobility" shouldbe accessedthrough all, except to believe that if God has indeed chosen me to serve missionary effort, and if such access was not widely possible, him in this way, he will not leave me unprepared for the ser­ "we may bring them to us in the persons of their daughters."16 vice."12 Like other missionaries who championed female education in "heathen lands," Thoburn's initial concern was to educate the In India, Setting the Ground Rules daughters of Indian pastors, Christian workers, and church leaders, so that in time the Christian community might have Markingthebeginningof a newphasein thehistoryof Methodist wives and mothers who couldbuild homes and raise families on missions overseas, Isabella Thoburn and Clara Swain sailed Christianvalues. Thoburn's objective was dual-toeducate girls aboard the steamer Romefrom Boston on November 3, 1869, and to be teachers of literacy or of a primary school curriculum, and arrived in Bombay on January 7, 1870. Thoburn was assigned to to train women who would ''build up the Christian family lives Lucknow," where her brother was stationed, while Swain was of their homes ... to aid in developing the spiritual life and work assigned to work in Bareilly. of the village Churches."17 The choice of these two issues­ Initially, Thoburn was under the guardianship of her older female education and nurturing the Christian community­ brother, functioning as a sort of understudy. An amusing inci­ shaped Thoburn's missionary career. dent from herbiography narrates howJames Thoburnasked her to copy letters when he felt pressed for time. Although Isabella Founding of the School did them cheerfully, when her brother requested her assistance The goal of providing "a first class educationfor the daughters of native Christians" led to thelaunching, in 1870, of an experimen­ tal school, with six female pupils." Notwithstanding the ad hoc Thoburn challenged her beginning,the schoolgrewfrom a roomin thebazaar, to a vacant brotherto recognizethework missionary bungalow, and then, in 1872, to a new boarding hall. of women missionaries as By 1875 forty girls were boarding and fifty-seven were day students. As one class was added to another, Thoburn was soon of equal value. running a regular girls' high school. Though much of the teach­ ing was in English, there was also vernacular teaching in Urdu and Hindi. In 1876-77 Thoburn helped to found another girls' a second time, she gently reminded himthat"a copyistwould be school in Kanpur, about forty miles from Lucknow." a great assistance" to her as well. Isabella's challenge to her These early years in the life of the institution were profes­ brother'sgendered,stereotypicalassumptions aboutthevalueof sionally challenging for Thobum. Apart from administrative her time and work had a lasting impact. Writing about the concerns and the paucity of funds and academic materials, there incidentseveralyearslater,JamesThoburnrecalledhowthrough were issues unique to overseas missionary work. Missionary Isabella's response he came to recognizethathe hadbeenputting women working in non-Christian societies needed to be cultur­ a high priority on all the work of the male missionaries but a ally sensitive. In South Asia in the late nineteenth century few "comparatively low estimate on all the work which the mission­ parents were comfortable about sending their daughters away aries were not doing"; he saw that "woman's work" was typi­ from protective, secluded homes to a school to acquire educa­ cally viewed"at a discount." Hecameto realizethatthemission's tion. The ones whodid believein female educationand agreed to female personnelwere also missionaries and thattheir workwas send their daughters to school vested a special trust in the "quite as important" as his own." teachers who were to impart the education and manage the Isabella's stance had unmistakable feminist implications. institutions. Thoburn realized that "a successful superintendent Hernegotiation with herbrother's assumptions reveals her own must know her pupils, and know them thoroughly. She must be assertive personality, as much as it typifies the ways in which able to win and keep their confidence, and must know what is single women missionaries had to make spaces for themselves going on amongst them."?" within the strongholds guarded by their missionary brethren. In addition to local resistance, there were internal mission­ From early on, Thoburn felt drawn to the community of aryissues to resolve. WhenIsabellaThoburnbeganto makea bid Christian converts in India. She felt that Indian Christians, being for women's education, many missionaries "seriously doubted" "numerically so insignificant," were neglected by missionaries, whether investing in female education was in "the best interests who tended to concentrate on Hindus and Muslims. Thoburn of the infant Christian community.'?' Thoburn was thus obliged clearly had a long-term vision of the evangelical project. Indian to defend her cause to more patriarchies than one. Her work Christians, she argued, ought be an important focus of mission needed financial assistance from mission enthusiasts as well as enterprise because "the ratio of increase of converts to Christian­ trust and support from Indian constituencies that would send

166 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH their wives and daughters to fill the classrooms of missionary tury United States. Overseas missionary work provided a space schools. for professional fulfillment and eamed Thoburn immense pres­ After occupying makeshift quarters in the initial years, tige withhome churches. She addressed her Americanaudiences Thobum's school was housed at Lal Bagh, a rather special piece with an ease and confidence that could not be matched by many of real estate, purchased from a local wealthy landowner. Over of her sisters at home. the years support from home congregations in American and WhenThoburn retumed to India in 1890she was appointed wealthy Indian families sustained the school. principal of the college, a post she retained until her death. One Thobum took her first furlough after eight years, arriving in of her most significant contributions to the program of higher New York in April 1880.She returned to Lucknowearlyin 1882. education at the college was the teacher's training program. This From her post in India, she had contributed articles quite regu­ projectfirst providedthe opportunityto the womengraduatesto larly to the Heathen Woman's Friend, and she continued to write acquire a professional qualification. More important, it created a for the magazine while on furlough. She often appealed to her community of trained teachers who could branch out into other American sisters, evoking the "limited privileges and dark pros­ cities and create a multiplier effect through other institutions for pects" of women in India. Although Thoburn was clearly sensi­ female education. tive to issues of race withinthe Christiancommunityin India, the By the mid-1890s enrollments for college-level courses rose, language of her appeals to home churches had all the trappings and a major upgrading seemed imperative. A new college build­ of stereotypical missionary rhetoric, which stressed the "dark­ ing wasneeded,whichhadmajor financial implications.Thobum ness" and "ignorance" of "heathen" societies. was asked to visit her homeland to "represent the claims of the Bythe mid-1880s the school had received recognition by the institution."25 As the founder, chief organizer, and an effective colonial department of education, and its students had passed the matriculation examination. Almost naturally, there arose a demand for a collegiate program for the high school graduates. Campaigning for the new On July 12, 1886, Lucknow Women's College came into exist­ ence. It offered collegiate teaching in a few select subjects to college, Thobum asked, prepare its students for the centralized university examination." "Should we let others put Campaign for a Women's College on the headstone where we have laid the foundation?" A few months earlier, in March 1886,Thobum again left India on a furlough, this time for medicalreasons. She sailedfrom Calcutta with her brother and his wife, taking a holiday in London, and lobbyist for the institution, Thoburn set off on yet another fund­ arrived in the United States in May 1886. During this furlough, raisingmissionto raise $20,000for expansionand constructionof which lasted almost four years, Thobum became active in dea­ new buildings. In the company of Lilavati Singh, her distin­ coness work in Chicago and later in Ohio. She was convinced of guished Indian pupil and protegee," Thoburn sailed for New the value of training women and aspired to introduce the dea­ York in March 1899. They left the United States in May 1900 to coness movement to India. She took a course in nurse-deaconess return to Lucknow. This was to be her last visit to the United training. On finishing the training, Thobum helped to found the States. Elizabeth Ianible Deaconess Home and Training School in Cin­ On her return to Lucknow, Thoburn found Bishop Parker cinnati, Ohio. seriously ill. The Parkers had long been mentor figures for She also launched her campaign for funding the new colle­ Thoburn, and she had nursed the bishop through a long illness. giate wing of the Lucknow school, making numerous public Fearing that his end was near, Thobum chose a burial spot for presentations and appeals to congregations in America. She him at the local cemetery. Bishop Parker, however, did not die in wrote articles in missionary journals invoking Christian duty Lucknow but in Naini Tal in June 1901. Thobum's association toward those she described as bound in the shackles of lesser with the Parkers had been a very special one, and at the bishop's faiths. ''We need thoroughly educated teachers," she wrote, "and death, for the first time, she assumed leadership in the presence we need strong-minded women at the top, in order to lift up the of ministers. "Let us pray, she said. "Thereis no death. It is all life, great mass of ignorance below, and there is not a Christian only life."27 Women'sCollege in all the Empire. Shall we not have the first one Two months later, on August 31, Lilavati Singh was wak­ at Lucknow?" Echoing mainstream missionary discourses, ened by the news that Thobum was ill. Lilavati found her in the Thobum threw down a challenge for mission enthusiasts: After grip of cholera. Around 8:00 P.M. the next evening, Isabella the progress made by missionary high schools, could they "let Thoburn breathed her last, surrounded by her family on cam­ others take the work out of our hands and put on the headstone pus-teachers, students, staff, and members of the Methodist where we have laid the foundation?"23 community. She was buried in Lucknow at the very spot she had Thoburn's campaign meshed perfectly with the stereotypi­ chosen for Bishop Parker. The following year (1902),the college cal missionary discourses of the day, positing binaries of the was christened the Isabella Thobum College (ITC). Christianas emancipatingversus the non-Christian as steeped in the "thralldom of ignorance and superstition."24 As the first Conclusion appointee of the Woman's Foreign Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, she was in a privileged position Thoburn's commitment to women's education in the late nine­ from the outset. With over a decade in India and a growing teenth century reflected a conviction she shared with many institution to her credit, she was perceived as having gained North American women like herself, who were among the early significant influence in the field and commanded a prestige beneficiaries of higher education for womenin the United States. hardly common for a woman schoolteacher in nineteenth-cen­ In her overseas missionary work, this commitment to female

October 2001 167 education was coupled witha concern to strengthenthe commu­ societies after the 1860sprovidedmanysingle, educated women nity of newly converted Christians, who lived on the margins of in United States, Britain, and Europe the opportunity to explore mainstream society in South Asia. avenues for personal and professional growth overseas, even as For thirty-one years Lal Bagh, where the schoolwas housed, they did "God's work." Working in cross-cultural contexts, was Thoburn's home in India. She lived on-campus and was missionary women-especially educated women profession­ deeplyinvolvedin everydetailofits organization,planning, and als-found new opportunities in which their gender privileged administration. As the founder-principal, she was also the chief them, giving them access to local female constituencies that their voice of the institution for many years, an effective lobbyist and male colleagues were denied. Not surprisingly, within the male­ fund-raiser. Havingcarved a domainfor herselfas a professional dominated missionary structures, women like Thoburn came to and an administrator, Isabella Thoburn was able to function command prestige as professionals and administrators as only reasonably autonomous of the internal mission hierarchies that their brethren had done before. For many missionary women often subordinated the evangelical work done by women." educators and physicians, the overseas arena provided more Thoburn's work in India illustrates how in societies where avenues for professional fulfillment than the parent culture, gender segregationwas common, missions in the late nineteenth where they struggled with patriarchies and male gatekeepers to century were compelled to recognize the importance of women enter both religious and professional institutions. missionaries. The formation of women's foreign missionary

Notes ------­ 1. For brief accounts of the lifework of Isabella Thobum, see W. F. Cowen,was the correspondingsecretaryof the Cincinnati Branchof McDowell, Effective Workers in Needy Fields (New York: Student the same society in 1902. Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions, 1902); Helen Barrett 5. See Thobum, Life, p. 46. Montgomery, Western Women in Eastern Lands: An Outline Study of 6. James Thobumwas appointed missionary to Indiaby the Methodist FiftyYears ofWoman's Work inForeign Missions (NewYork:Macmillan, Episcopal Church in 1859. Beginning work in Calcutta, he spent 1910), pp. 166-76; Frances J. Baker, The Storyof the Woman's Foreign many years in North India, mostly in the region today known as Missionary Society oftheMethodist Episcopal Church, 1869-1895 (New Uttar Pradesh. When he wrote the letter to Isabella, James Thoburn York: Eaton & Mains, 1898), pp. 179-94; Fredrick B. Price, India was touring the Rohilkhand area, also in Uttar Pradesh. See William Mission Jubilee of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Southern Asia Henry Crawford, Thoburn and India (New York: Eaton & Mains, (Calcutta: MethodistPublishingHouse,1907);EarlK,Brown, "Isabella 1909); J. M. Thoburn, My Missionary Apprenticeship (New York: Thoburn,"Methodist History 22(1984): 207-20.Two usefulbiographies Phillips & Hunt, 1884, 1886). are J.M. Thoburn, LifeofIsabella Thoburn (Cincinnati: Jennings & Pye, 7. Thobum, Life,p. 34. 1903),and WilliamF. Oldham, Isabella Thoburn (Chicago: Jennings & 8. Ibid., pp. 35, 29. Pye, 1902). My analysis of Thoburn's life and missionary work 9. Mrs. Parker's full name appears differently in the available sources. draws from my larger study of the work of American missionary She is referred to as Lois Lee Parker (Dimmit,Isabella Thoburn College, womenin Gender, Religion, and"Heathen Lands": American Missionary p. 31) and as Lois S. Parker (Fredrick Price, IndiaMissionJubilee ofthe Women in South Asia, 1860s-1940s (New York: Garland, 2000). Methodist Episcopal Church in Southern Asia [Calcutta: Methodist 2. Quoted in MarjorieA. Dimmit,Isabella Thoburn College: A Record from Publishing House, 1907], p. 118). Its Beginnings toIts Diamond Jubilee, 1961 (New York: World Outlook 10. Thobum, Life, p. 53. Press, The Methodist Church, 1962), p. 19. 11. For a detailed discussion, see Maina Chawla Singh, Gender, Religion, 3. This article is part of a larger cross-cultural study of American and "Heathen Lands," pp. 108-13. missionary women in South Asia. It began as a personal search for 12. IsabellaThobumto Mrs. Parker(1869),quotedin Thobum, Life, p.50. me as a non-Christian Indian scholar of women's history to 13. Set on the banks of the Gomati River, Lucknow, with a populationof understand the role of missionarywomenand theirencounterswith more than200,000,was amongthe largestinland cities in Indiaat the SouthAsian women who were their patientsand pupils. As I turned time. Thoughithadsuffered a setbackduringthe 1857Indianwarof to late-nineteenth-centurymissionarytexts and biographies,I found independence, it retained much of its early Oriental splendor with them to be replete with images of "heathen" women "suffering" in numerous palaces, domes, and minarets. For a study of colonial the zenanas (secluded women's quarters), ostensibly awaiting Lucknow, see Veena Talwar Oldenburg, The Making of Colonial redemption through the agency of the white, Christian missionary. Lucknow, 1856-1877 (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1984). Alongside this Orientalizing "gaze" of missionary texts with their 14. Isabella's brother was forced "to reconsider the situation, and once "othering" of diverse religious and cultural subjectivities, there and for all accept the fact that a Christian woman sent out into the were the narratives and reminiscences of South Asian women field was a Christian missionary and that her time was as precious, alumnae of missionary colleges who remembered their missionary her work as important, and her rights as sacred as those of the more teachers and mentors with a great deal of fondness and respect. conventionalmissionaries of the othersex." Thobum,My Missionary These narratives did not mesh nicely with the themes of domination Apprenticeship, pp. 249-50; Oldham, Isabella Thoburn, pp. 20-21. and oppression, and of resistance and subversion that my 15. Thobum, Life, p. 286, 289. understandingof postcolonialtheoriesof race andpowerpointed to. 16. Ibid., p. 290. Missionary boarding schools catering to this section of It seemed important to interrogate women's missionary work in the Christian community had a somewhat different curriculum. "other" cultures and to uncover the many contexts-historical, They were geared to training the girls in planting and reaping, racial, social, and religious-in which this subject was wrapped. As visiting neighborhoods, and doing community service. They also the project grew I became convinced that scholarly assessment of included a strong dose of religious teaching. The Methodists ran cross-cultural missionary interventions must move beyond such schools in various parts of Uttar Pradesh. stereotypical Western and imperial categorizations of missionaries 17. Thobum, Life, p. 291. as "saviors" and of postcolonial indictments of missionaries as 18. Ibid., p. 93. "busybodies" in order to uncover the complex dynamics that 19. The school at Kanpur catered to a recently created community of characterized "Christ's work" in "heathen lands." Indian Christians and Eurasians who wished for a school "less 4. Two of Isabella's sisters were associated with mission work. One, Oriental in style" than Thobum's school at Lucknow. During 1877, Mrs. J.R.Mills, wasthe conferencesecretaryof the Woman'sForeign as joint principal of both the schools, Thobum spent much time MissionarySociety of the East OhioConference;theother,Mrs. Ellen commuting between the two cities, often taking the night train and

168 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH traveling by economy third-class carriages. Later she assisted in the collegiate classes in July 1886, Thoburn's project to start collegiate opening of a similar school on the hill station of Nainital, which was classes obviouslybegan earlier, and her campaign for resources had a summer retreat for missionaries and colonials. See Thoburn, Life, to be sustained insubsequent years in order to institutionalize these p.127. ad hoc beginnings. 20. Ibid., p. 275. 23. Quotedin Thobum,Life, p. 188.Heathen Woman's Friend was published 21. Ibid., p. 89. by the Women's Foreign Missionary Society of the Methodist 22. In late nineteenth-centurycolonialIndia, the earlywomen's colleges Episcopal Church, North. It was renamed in 1896 as Woman's began as primary or secondary schools. When the girls passed their Missionary Friend (1896-1940); in 1940 it merged into Methodist high-school examination and at least a few chose to pursue further Woman. education, the school sought affiliation and permission from the 24. Also see my discussion of missionary discourses in Gender, Religion, nearest regional university to begin a collegiate department. The and "Heathen Lands," pp. 105-31. undergraduatecurriculumwastaughtin-houseto the youngwomen 25. Thoburn, Life, p. 313. aspirants who, given social mores, would not have joined the 26. Lilavati Singh was an Indian Christian alumna of the Lucknow existingmen's colleges. Sometimes there wereas few as three or four school and college who later served onits faculty. In.the last years of women students. The college emerged as an institution as the Thoburn's life Lilavati was clearlyher protegee, and she is referred studentsincreasedandpassedthe centralizeduniversityexamination to in most sources on Thobum. See Thobum, Life,pp. 320-21; Singh, each year. Early women's colleges like the Isabella Thoburn College Gender, Religion, and "Heathen Lands,"p. 260. (Lucknow), Kinnaird College (Lahore), and Bethune College 27. Isabella Thoburn, quoted in Dimmit, Isabella Thoburn College, p. 28. (Calcutta), all grew out of primary schools. They were not founded 28. I discuss this issue with reference to the work of missionary wives, as colleges in the commonly understood sense of the word. Thus in which remained largely unacknowledged in mission reports and the case of lTC, although the first few students registered for records. See Gender, Religion and "Heathen Lands," pp. 77-97.

My Pilgrimage in Mission Maria Rieckelman, M.M.

incinnati, Ohio, in 1927, was a great place and time for department stores began swallowing up the small trader). I C me to be born the "fifth kid" in a loving, middle-class, remember him returning from month-long trips doing business Catholic family. My two older sisters, two older brothers, and I with woolen salesmen in the West and Southwest. I was in­ were born within six years of each other, so we all grew up trigued with accounts of his meetings with Native Americans, together. A brushwithdeathas an infantdue to a seriousmastoid Mormons, and many kinds of interesting folks. I longed to travel infection brought me particularly close to my family. I felt the with him and meet people who were different from me. love and care of the family right from my birth. As the youngest Mom was always at home. I loved to come home to the smell child, I had the great advantage of older siblings showing me the of something wonderful filling the kitchen, knowing I would way to win Mom and Dad's approval. I learned quickly to find her there ready to listen to all my wild, troubling, and happy become a good strategist! Strategic planning was one of God's stories, and ever so wisely answer my really big questions. Our gifts I would use one day to serve individuals and communities. kitchen conversations are still among my best childhood memo­ Being bornin 1927helped to shapemy attitudes toward life. ries. Europe and the United States were still recovering from the School days were happy and successful for me. I became horrendous loss of life in World War I, and the world was quite gregarious, exploring friendships beyond my neighbor­ hovering on the brink of the Great Depression. The depression hood and family. Harry L. Cohen, a Jewish man who owned the came and only ended with World War II. We five kids grew up five-and-ten-cent store in Hyde Park Square, became a great in this world climate and had everything we needed from Mom friend. Even now I remember how proud I felt when he accepted and Dad, especially their love, protection, and safety. We also my invitation to be present at my First Communion. Harry was learned to live simply with few luxuries; hand-me-down clothes well known in the parish, and the First Communion of his little were special. friend in St. Mary's was a very special occasion! His friendship My father and mother were born of second-generation Aus­ and several Protestant playmates gave me an early experience trian/English and Irish immigrants respectively. They lived all and comfort with religious diversity long before I knew what their lives in Cincinnati, an Ohio River town, a burgeoning ecumenism meant. They were my friends, and their love was Midwest city of artisans, tradespeople, and industrial toolmak­ fashioning me! ers. Dad was a college graduate. After military service in World War I, he worked in the booming family retail woolen business Stirrings of a Missionary Vocation until 1950 and retired after thirty successful years (and before The Sisters of Charity of Cincinnati taught me in grade school Maria Rieckelman, M.M., M.D., hasbeen aMaryknoll Sistersince1945. Her and high school. This community had many Sisters who had missionary career in thehealing ministry wasspentfirstasa medical doctor in been missionaries in South China. These women would visit us Korea andHongKongandlaterasacross-cultural psychiatrist inHawaii. Since in school and tell us of the missions. During those grade school 1978 her ministry has expanded into holistic health, community and peace­ years we were all encouraged to save our pennies during Lent to building processes, leadership consultation, and retreats focused on spiritual ransom Chinese baby girls rescued and cared for by these mis­ renewal formissioners throughout Asia,Africa,LatinAmerica, andtheUnited sionaries. I was alreadybeginningto think of missionary service. States.

October 2001 169 My discovery during grade school of poor black people in through the two-year initial training period! They were almost rundown sections of the city upset me. Later my mother re­ right, but I persisted for the mysterious reasons that constitute a minded me that I used to say that when I grew up, I would come vocation rather than a logical career choice. to these slums and help to clean the streets and make life better In those years the only real path available to a young Catho­ for the poor people. lic woman who wished to be a missioner was to join a religious In the seventh grade we were always rewarded for complet­ missionarycommunity.Maryknollwasthe first distinctlyAmeri­ ing our work well. Each Friday we would hear Sister Ursula can response to the call to mission within the Catholic tradition. Marie read us parts of a wonderful biography, When theSorghum I learned happily that our foundress, Molly Rogers, was first Was High. The story was about the life of Father Gerry Donovan, inspired to serve the missions by young Protestant missioners a Maryknoll missioner killed by bandits in China. It impressed she met at Smith College, where Molly was a graduate and later me deeply. I wanted to spend my life in China or somewhere in an instructor. That appealed to my ecumenical leanings even Asia, even thoughI hadno idea howthatwould happen. Ibegan then. The Maryknoll Sisters epitomized the deep yearning I felt to read with fascination everything I could find about China, to follow the healing mission of Jesus especially to the poor and missionary work, and Maryknoll. oppressed. WorldWarIIquicklybecamethe chief focus of all of ourlives My early formation years in Maryknoll were difficult. Mis­ during my high school years. Soon after Pearl Harbor was sion in the Orient among the poor was the horizon that kept me attacked, all the older boys in our neighborhood began to be focused and able to endure some of the customs and regulations called into service, including my two brothers. That was the first of religious life I found incomprehensible at that time. I was also major disruption in our home life, and a great worry to us all. quickly challenged and encouraged by new responsibilities of DuringthesewaryearsIbecameinvolvedin the leadershipof the leadership and teamwork. Prayer and friendship more than Catholic Students Mission Crusade. I learned more about areas anything else supported me as I learned to live withand through trying and testing times. Molly Rogers (Mother Mary Joseph) was alive and present to me in those years. She was a gift to me Being thrust into a world I for the first ten years of my life in Maryknoll. Her wisdom, humor, common sense, and practical approach to mission con­ had hardly known began a vinced me that I was in the right place. I continued my journey love affair with peoples of into mission. As I lookback on those formation days, I can see the staying other cultures. power of a vocational call that defies all logic. I now understand the creative potential of the discontinuities and losses thatbegan to become part of my life pattern. Endings were becoming of the world needing liberation from all kinds of oppression, beginnings. I had passed up the opportunity to go to college in including those places devastated by the war. We young people order to join Maryknoll in 1945. Two years later I was sent to were suddenlythrustinto a world wehad hardlyknown. For me college by Maryknoll to focus on premed studies and eventually this attraction to the unknown was the beginning of a love affair to become a medical doctor. Medicine was a perfect fit for me, with peoples of other cultures. In the ensuing years, my experi­ and it carried me forward in my missionary dream to work with ences in Korea and Hong Kong changed my life. the poor in the healing ministry of Jesus. In my high school years racial tensions were high in Cincin­ The rhythmofbeginningsandendingscontinued. In the first nati. I became more aware of the ongoing sociopolitical and yearof medicalschoolIwasin a seriousautomobileaccident. The economicoppressionofblacks. I rememberaskingmyself, "How nerves and bones of my right arm were seriously damaged. It come our black brothers can serve in the U.S. military yet cannot becameclear by thefollowing yearthatIwouldneverbe a skillful eat in any restaurant, sit in any spot on public transport, live surgeon because of permanent damage to the radial nerve. This where they choose, worship in any church, vote like us, or enjoy accident turned out to be a blessing. It led me to Asia as a general entertainment anywhere in the city?" The war itself brought practitioner in postwar Korea for several years and then on to these terrible inequities into light for those who had eyes to see. Hong Kong to plan and build a general hospital for the refugees Cincinnati was changing, and so was I. pouring in then from China. Eventually physical limitations from this same accident made it especially practical to pursue Toward Maryknoll and Mission valuable studies in adult and child psychiatry. I believe none of this would have happened if I had followed the path of surgery. During my senior year in high school, I heard of a young woman Manyof theso-called mishaps of myadultlife createdsignificant in our parish who intended to join Maryknoll. She changed her avenues of blessing in my missionary career. mind and became a cloistered Dominican instead. I remember thinking then that maybe I would go to Maryknoll in her place. Discoveries in Korea This was a quantum, irrational vocational leap in my missionary search. Shortlyafterward I was notified thatI wouldbe receiving My first mission assignment was to Korea, just after the Korean a full scholarship to college to become a nurse like my big sister, War. The people had suffered terribly and were desperately something for which I had hoped. Now however, I knew my poor, yet courageous. I often wondered how they could sustain future was Maryknoll. My parents did not think this was a very their hope and resourcefulness in the face of such great losses. I wise choice, since I was so young. They missed my brothers who discovered that faith was their strength, but not the Christian were serving in Europe. Also they felt I would make a much faith I had known. The many devout Buddhists who visited our bettermissionerifIstayed withthemfor a whileandreceivedmy clinic taught me much about the goodness of other faith tradi­ college education first. They reluctantly respected my choice of tions, making me aware of God's presence in unexpected ways. Maryknoll, thinking (as I later learned) that I would never last One of my first emergency patients was a young Buddhist

170 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH ASBURY

THEOLOGICAL

SEMINARY

E. StanLey Jones SchooL of WorLd Mission & Evangelism

Prepare for a Lifetime of Effective Ministry, ANYWHERE!

hri stianity's World Mission would be less intimidating and more manageable if everyone Cspoke the same language, followed the same customs and viewed life the same way. That idyllic world, however, is not the world Christ calls us to engage. The real world features at least a dozen majo r cultural families and more than 2,000 religions, 6,000 languages and 30,000 distinct societies and cultures. There are also an Lmkn ~'f'n(and shifting) number of sub-cultures, counter-cultures and peoples with their own " distinct,name;7history-and,identity. Furthermore/Secularization has transformed Western n~ti ~n ~ i ~t i:i lnis ~i oQ ]eLd~; Qnce again. \-r '··-.::;;.;-r t-- / y ,<" ~ -'7-:;',' / ,' .r: .' Several fields of{knowledge prepare-the effective missionary to "exegete" the biblical ,,:7xt a ~dipeOPle' ~ i cuitu~~ k~'n ~~xt. Th~se li'te ~~turesar~as :~,;cessa Q', and ~~ sophisticated, I'I as the literatures that prepare 'physicians tomake.sense of an,epidemic, or astronomers of a ,"". ~", . ¢' "': ' " '; "/':':.' , h , , "" <, l (;-:-. ' ~" , ~,''''''~' Y ~w<, '" J galaxY:iAsbury's ESJ SchooL)'JiLL)repare you to understand the historical, cultural and reli­ ~h -:-~, < . ~ ...-~-, c .~, .,· ~ .N_~'>\ • ; .; ' ,/ '. ,# ( ' " " : ,N, ' ....c· ·__· ...... = __ - ) gi9us contexts ofthe field-ofimissio fi 'to 'which Christ has-called-you, and to serve.vcommuni­ '. "$ / :"', ')!/,:<, j; ,::;: -;;-.;? . -'.. ~' .~ - " - ", /- r '-_ \ i. c a ; e\~.~d\ h e l p g r~w~h~~i pd i ~ e no~ s: Chu rc h in that place. , ~' ~ c"'\ ""-':So if,yoi( are.interesteo{iii mqkingsel}se of a piece ofthE!worldjand'inhelping its peo­ .ple ma ke ' ~;nsr of~{~ 1 bh~ti~~ ':g~spel,calL the admissions offi~etoday , ati ~800c ,2 2ASBURY 6r e:; mail'us,atiadtnissidns':::offl [email protected]. ./ ' ~ \ ~ t"'::! "'.: .J'\ / I ~\_ J r:::'D'-=E--:G""3RE''''''-=E'---''''P':''','='R'-=O-'''G='',.'='R''''A''''M''''''''''S''''· :7=:::c-=, ~=·"-"i·I· r r .,._. )~--~'-~ M. A~ and-Th.M. in World Missiori:imd'Evangelism; Docto~ ~f M i ~SiOlogy, and Docto} of Philosophyin.InterculturalStudie;. . .' ­( ' , ",~ -~'~#' ; / ;- -"" f -s.~ ,.,. ,,,- --., , :.J ,,/--:-_, --~ .''1 ···· · · i;· ;T '· · : ~ '7 ;;; ::-.~ :-r:-···__-.··:·=..::·,,·,·,,·;·c..-._,-~=~~ ~~: ~. _--_._------.--..---.--..-.-- - - ..-- ~ _ . _ ) i: ""r'"Z,(<'; t " I l \

Howard Snyder History of Mission, Theology of Mission

KENTUC KY CAMPUS: 204 N, Lexin gton Avenue, Wilmore, KY 40390· 1199 .~"I!~" AS B URY FLORIDA CAMPUS: 8401 Valencia College Lane, Orlando, FL32825 A THEOLOGICAL VIRTUAL CAMPUS: www.asburyseminary.edu/ex t/ exl.htmt . • • SEMINARY man suffering in the last stages of liver cancer. He was terribly ill eventin mylife so far, and was probably the mosttransformative and weak, lying there on a stretcher; still his eyes shone with as well. It freed me to live and speak the truth as I see it, claiming peace. From the few words of his that I could understand and his my own authority even when the consequences might lead to calm facial expression, it was clear to me that he was ready for apparent failure. Happily within a short time following this death, and already anticipating the embrace of his loving, com­ disruption and departure, my partin it was vindicated. Thatwas passionate God. With a smile, he told me he was at peace and healing, a real blessing, but I never returned to Hong Kong for totally unafraid. We spoke of God and of death, and he only long-term ministry. Ironically, the assignment away from Hong asked that his family and I be his gentle companions as he Kong led me to new leadership challenges at our center in New finished his journey. This young man, as well as other Buddhists York, and well beyond! I was to meet over the coming years, broke wide open for me the experience of God's presence in these people, and-as I was New Horizons as a Missionary beginning to know-in all people. The Korean Association of Voluntary Agencies, with which My unexpected return to the United States and my own culture my congregation was associated, brought together many Chris­ brought me right into the tumultuous cultural and societal tiandenominationsworkingtogetherin Korea to heal the wounds changes of the 1960s. My Catholic tradition was also experienc­ of war. We became brothers and sisters in the healing ministry, ing the radical shifts flowing from the Second Vatican Council. and gradually we discovered the Christ in each other. This was Fresh challenges moved me into a new form of healing ministry, ten to fifteen years before my experience of any official ecumeni­ andtheyhavecontinuedto energize mylife in missionthese past cal openness on the part of my Catholic tradition. My time in thirty years. Korea wasshortbutlongenoughto experiencethe deepfaith and Whilein Korea andHongKong, manymissionaries,hospital courage of a people that had been invaded, oppressed, and staff, patients, and friends made me aware of a high incidence of dislocated by the devastation of war; yet they were not over­ organic and stress-related mental and emotional illnesses. Dur­ come. They were cheerful, proud, strong survivors who taught ing those years there were no psychiatrists available in either me powerful lessons about God, faith, and a spirituality of hope. place. I helped as I could and often had my diagnostic and I grew quickly to love Korea and its people; to do medical work counselinggifts affirmed. A seedfor the future hadbeenplanted. in that setting matched my missionary dream of following in the After a time in leadership at the MaryknollCenter, I wentbackto footsteps of the Galilean, thehealingJesus. Ihadalreadytraveled school! a long way from the very conservative, political, and religious After completing a five-year residency in adult and child environmentin Cincinnati, and indeed of my churchupbringing psychiatry in a cross-cultural program for future ministry in in the United States. Asia, I used this training in ways I had never anticipated. Com­ munities and leadership groups of women and men of all faiths, Frustration in Hong Kong especially Catholic women, began to ask for various kinds of workshops, seminars, and retreats. Dedicated people were try­ The honeymoon I spent with the Korean people ended abruptly ing to make sense of all the changes, to grow beyond life forms with serious illness. Subsequently I was assigned to Hong Kong. that had become obsolete, and to deal withoutbreaks of violence My strategy skills were employed to help plan, build, and in many parts of the mission world as well as the United States. administer a hospital for the destitute refugees pouring into the I traveled all over the States and some forty countries around the safe haven of HongKong in the late 1950sandearly1960s.At the world accompanying these women and men as they faced issues time I was the only Maryknoll Sister with both the British and of interpersonal growth, leadership, trauma, and stress. More American medical credentials needed to fulfill such an assign­ recently I have worked with others in the area of the human call ment. The pain of leaving Korea, where I had already begun to to interconnectedness, highlighted by the women's movement feel at home, was balanced by the new challenges before me. and ecological awareness. Despite some similarities to Korea, Hong Kong was different in many unexpected ways. But my biggest challenge was joining a Treasures Found on the Way new group of Maryknoll Sisters. We were part of an urban swell of refugees in a colonial Asian city. Before the coming of the While the external paths of mission sent me in many directions, medical personnel, the Hong Kong Sisters were primarily teach­ the inner journey of transformative learning, joy, and meaning ers, used to the structured ways and procedures of an established brought me deeper into the mystery of "God with us." I have school system. None of these Sisters had any medical experience discovered many spiritualtreasures on my mission journey, and or background. The introduction of new, medical personnel into mostofthesehavebeenspecialpeoplein mylife andmission. For this very structured, formal educational setting was a shock to more than seventy years these friends have accompanied me on our host community and extremely difficult for us medical folks this journey. All have been my companions, treasures found "on trying to set up and run a new hospital. There were painful the way." My parents were a special blessing; they raised me in clashes immediately! I mention this situation because tension a loving home. My mother was the ground of safety, trust, and and conflict within the "home" community is so often the most love all the years of her life. Mom taught me to keep my perspec­ unexpected, painful, and disillusioning dimension of the tive clear and to know that God's love never fails. I was missionary's life. It surely was for me. fortunate to have joined Maryknoll when our foundress, Molly Eventually these difficulties led to serious conflict between Rogers, was still alive. Herwisdom, joy, compassion, and utterly the various groupings and the leadership. As the actualleader of common-sense approach to life and mission continue to inspire the medical group doing a new form of mission, I was often in me in this present time of postmodern chaos and hope. Sister conflict with the older leadership of the community. There were Mercy was a dear friend and medical doctor, a real mentor factions, misunderstanding, and fear. The outcome of it all was throughout the years. She lived her name "Mercy" with gener­ that I was asked to leave Hong Kong. This was the most painful ous simplicity, truthfulness, and acceptance toward all, and

172 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH toward me. Many other people beyond my family and the not part of any planned choices but have been gifts along my Maryknollcommunity, too numerous to mentionhere, have also journeyin faith, mission, ministry, and Maryknoll. This has been shared with me abundantly their wisdom, courage, clarity, and a journeyfull of surprise meetings with our God hidden in every joy as we have journeyed together. Friendship has to be the most disconnection, loss, and trauma, as well as in joy, communion, important sustaining feature of life. It is the basis of our mutual and fulfillment. growth in faith. Would I change anything of what has been? A part of me Collegiality, collaboration, and partnership have replen­ would like to erase the pain,the traumas, and the losses. But with ished my energy for the journey. Over thirty years of friendship eachof these I have realized something of the wondrous mystery and collaboration with Fr. Jack Sullivan, a Maryknoll missioner of God's loving Spirit. I would not want to exchange any of this! in Hong Kong, has created a ministerial partnership, through I hope to spend the rest of my life cherishing and deepening my which we have served people in more than forty countries. awareness of loving relationships with friends everywhere. I Mutuality,equality,sharedcommitmentto missionin Maryknoll, hope to continue journeying with friends and colleagues as we and a redeeming humor born of faith have made our mutual act together to seek and to struggle to make present the reign of ministry credible and helpful to other missionaries and friends. God among us all. I am not sure where the journeyis leading me I am gratefulfor the richness, companionship, and meaning but remain open to the discovery of God's ongoing creation and these living treasures have given me along the way. They were love of our glorious universe.

The Legacy of William Milne P. Richard Bohr

illiam Milne was born in 1785 at Kennethmont, Morrison's task was to translate and publish the Bible, prepare W Aberdeenshire,Scotland. After his father's earlydeath, Chinese-language materials for future LMS recruits, and estab­ Milne supported the family as a farmhand and carpenter while lish a mission beachhead on China's doorstep. receiving an education from his mother and a Sabbathschool. At sixteen, Milne sensed God's "free grace" remitting the "eternal Developing a Mission Strategy wrath" thathe feared his previousindifferenceto religionandhis "profane swearing" had surely incurred.' Three years later, he On July 4, 1813, Milne and his wife, Rachel Cowie (1783-1819),6 left the Church of Scotland for the Congregational "Missionary arrived in Macao. After studying Chinese with Morrison in Kirk" at neighboring Huntley, which endorsed the conviction of Canton for several months, Milne distributed his mentor's 1813 the Evangelical Awakening that Christians must extend the New Testament translation and preached among several over­ spiritual revival and social reform taking place at home to their seas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, where he also non-Christianbrothers and sistersabroad andtherebyhastenthe scoutedthe terrainfor a newLMSmissionstation. UnderMilne's in-gathering of the imminent worldwide kingdom of God. management (while Morrison continued to alternate between Gratitude for his own redemption, admiration for mission Canton and Macao) and free of Chinese government interfer­ heroes like David Brainerd (1718-47), avid reading of the Mis­ ence, he recommended Malacca as best suited to become a center sionary Magazine, and dedication to "the coming of Christ's of evangelism, education, and publication. kingdom among the nations," inspired Milne to become a for­ A traditional entrepot between South and East Asia on the eign missionary,2 butnotbeforeearning enoughmoneyto secure western Malay coast, Malacca (Melaka) was now a European his mother's retirement. The London Missionary Society (LMS) port (alternating between Dutch and English administrations) accepted Milne in 1809, sent him to its seminary at Gosport, friendly to Protestant missions. With 17,000 Muslim Malays, England, ordained him in 1812 as "missionary in the East," and 4,000 Chinese, 2,000 Indians, and 2,000 Europeans and Eur­ assigned him to work with Robert Morrison (1782-1834), the asians, it was easily accessible to other Chinese settlements in Englishlast andboot-treemakerwhomtheLMShadsentin 1807 Bangkok, Penang, Singapore, and Batavia (Jakarta). From Mal­ as Protestantism's first missionary to the Chinese.' acca, Milne claimed, the Word would spread among Southeast Eight decades before Morrison arrived in China, however, Asians and, through the overseas Chinese, into China itself. the imperial throne had banned Christianity as "the ruin of In the spring of 1815 theMilnesarrived at Malacca withtheir morals andof the humanheart,"4 becauseit "neitherholdsspirits young daughter and newborn twins. The British colonial gov­ in veneration nor ancestors in reverence."! Since Morrison also ernment donated land for Milne's mission near Malacca's west­ served as Chinese translator to the British East India Company ern gate. Milne threw himself into Chinese and Malay language (EIC),he could reside butnotopenlyproselytizeinCanton's tiny study and began preaching in the Dutch church on Sundays. On foreign trade enclave. Nor.werethe Catholicauthoritiesin neigh­ street comers and in Chinese homes, shops, boats, and temples, boring Macao sympathetic to Morrison's desire to evangelize in Milne distributed the NewTestament and explained evangelical thatPortuguesecolony. To preparefor China'sopeningto Christ, faith in the following indigenous terms. God, "formless and invisible" and "Maker of the heavens and the earth, is the only P. Richard Bohr is Professor of History and Director of Asian Studiesat the true and living God, and there is none else." God knows that College ofSaintBenedict andSaintJohn's University, St.Joseph andCollegeville, peoplehavesinned anddeservepunishment. But becauseGodis Minnesota. "merciful and gracious," he sent Jesus, his only son, to "practice

October 2001 173 virtue, and redeem ... [people] from theiriniquities,in order that lessons on Confucian ethics and ritual, enticing students to all who repent of their sins, and trust in Jesus, should obtain worship services by first inviting their teachers, and composing eternal life in heaven." However, those "who do not receive his a Christian catechism and prayers in indigenous terms. doctrines, but work iniquity, must go down to hell, (that is, In 1818 Morrison appointed Milne principal of the Anglo­ earth's prison) and suffer undefined punishment."? Chinese College. This institution was to integrate Eastern and Inquirers were told that in addition to grace, individual Western civilizations by teaching Chinese and Southeast Asian salvation required moral action, Milne therefore exhorted the languages as well as the Confucian classics to Asia-based Euro­ Chinese to "seek-God'sgracious favor; dealjustlywithall; let not pean boys, some of whom might become missionaries. And the rich greedily oppress the poor, nor the poor discontentedly throughcoursesin English,Scripture, philosophy, history, geog­ complainof theirlot, for bothrich and poormustshortlydie." He raphy,mathematics,science,and (eventually)medicine,Morrison further admonished: "Parents, teach your children to read the and Milne hoped thatAsianstudents would not only come to see sacred book-to write-to trust in Jesus Christ-to venerate the Christianity as the core of Western culture but also convert and aged-to discharge filial piety to you-tolove their brothers and become Protestant clergy, teachers, and social reformers. When sisters-to pity the poor, and to do good to all men-then all will the building (which Morrison funded from his own EIC salary) be well." Finally, people should not set their hearts on "things was completed in August 1820, the college included seven stu­ under the sun [because they] are vanity.?" dents (some were on scholarship), a dormitory, classrooms, a Milne believed that there was much that was good in China. Yet several factors soon convinced him that to "impart the knowledge of the trueGod-theTriuneJehovah-tothis people, will be no easy task." Milne observed that while the skeptical Milne hoped the Christian philosophy of the school of Confucius stressed such biblical literature produced at virtues as filial piety, it also ignored monotheism, the sinfulness Malacca would penetrate of disobeying God's commandments, and the ability of common people (not merelyChina's ancientsages) to participatein divine China via merchant vessels. providence. Worse, Milne lamented, the Chinese saw Christ as a bodhisattva whose atoning power was based not in miraculous deeds but on fantasy, whose resurrection was simply an act of museum showcasing Chinese and Western antiquities, and a reincarnation, and whose sacrificial death was ignominious. chapel, the daily services at which students were invited (but not Moreover, such Buddhist notions as transmigration of souls compelled) to attend. Milne himself taught geography and Chi­ "confound the Christian doctrine of future retributions...."9 nese, utilizing Morrison's Chinese-language materials. Among The missionary's challenge, Milne concluded, was to win his studentswereLMSrecruitswho,once theybecamelanguage­ converts by finding points of contact between Confucianism proficient, worked in the Chinese or Malay sides of the Malacca and Christianity and by building a communal, educational, mission or founded other LMS stations in the region.'? and publishing infrastructure in which to embody the Chris­ Milne admired Morrison's view that religious tracts were tian message. "the means of exciting serious and godly thoughts, which bring the proud sinners heart to mercy's throne."!' Milne hoped that, Defining Mission Fundamentals once educated, the overseas Chinese would be moved by those tracts and that the Christian literature produced at Malacca In January 1817 Milne completed the first phase of mission would circulate through the archipelago and penetrate China construction in Malacca. The compound included a chapel, itself via merchant vessels. By late 1816 Milne had secured where Milne held daily and Sabbath worship (consisting of English-, Malay-, andChinese-languagepresses. In 1817the LMS prayers and homilies on Bible readings) in both Chinese and sent Walter Henry Medhurst (1796-1857), a printer and gifted Malay. The mission also included a library of works in Chinese linguist, to superintend the Chinese press." The chief Chinese and English, a printing shop, and living quarters for missionar­ printer was Liang Fa (1789-1855), a poorly educated peasant­ ies, language assistants, translators, and printers. turned-woodblock carver who had clandestinely printed In China, the Jesuits had proselytized the scholar-official Morrison's New Testament in Canton before coming to Malacca elite before the emperors began proscribing Christianity. But with the Milnes. Malacca's Chinese elite were marginally educated merchants Publishing began with the second edition of Morrison's who resembled the targets of evangelical preaching, education, New Testament and two widely circulated journals: the Chinese and good works back home. Realizing that the Malacca Chinese Monthly Magazine (in Chinese), devoted to Christianity and must become more literate in their own language to understand Western learning, and the Indo-Chinese Gleaner, an English-lan­ the written Word, Milne made education a top priority. In mid­ guage quarterly highlighting missions in Asia as well as trends August 1816, with contributions from British Army friends in in world religion, philosophy, literature, and history. In addition Bengal, he converted a stable on the mission grounds into Asia's to writing for and editing these periodicals, Milne translated first Christian "charity school" for poor Chinese boys. By mid­ thirteen Old Testament books for the Morrison-Milne Bible, 1818 Milne oversaw six such boys' schools around Malacca­ completed in November 1819. Before the Malacca press pub­ four for Chinese, one for Malay, and one for Indians-where lished it in 1823, both missionaries were honored with honorary local teachers taught the respective languages and literature as doctorates from the University of Glasgow. well as Western mathematics. Milne introduced a mentoring While Morrison focused primarily on translating scriptural systemin whicholderstudents tutored the youngerones accord­ and doctrinal works, Milne became the first missionary to por­ ing to fixed lesson plans and textbooks. Moreover, Milne accom­ tray, in nineteen Chinese-language pamphlets, evangelical the­ modated local custom by opening new schools on "auspicious" ology in the Chinese cultural idiom. Writing in the vernacular days in the lunar calendar, introducing Christian themes in style of contemporary Confucian "morality books" and reflect­

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Programs • BA or Minor in Intercultural Studies • MA in App lied Linguistics • Minor or Certificate in TESOL • MA in Intercultural Studies • SILlWycliffe Linguistics program • DMiss Doctorate of Missiology • MA in TESOL • PhD in Intercultural Education ing evangelical concern for culture's impact on the individual's giveness."l7 Afterweekly Bible reading and prayersessions with soul, Milne condemned what he perceived to be Malacca's habits Milne, Liang became a Christian through a conversion scenario of lyingand commercialmalfeasance as well as gambling's harm strikingly similar to the one played out in TheTwo Friends. to family and community."In an 1819pamphletMilne character­ On November 3, 1816-as Liang acknowledged his sinful izedthatyear's choleraepidemicas God's punishmentfor immo­ nature and vowed to repudiate idol worship, believe in Jesus' rality and a call for people to embrace each other as brothers and atonement, follow God's commandments, and act justly-Milne sisters under the same creatorGod. In the Folly ofIdolatry, Milne baptized him. (Milne accommodated Liang's request to perform lambasted China's deities for feigning God's powers and de­ the rite precisely at noon to avoid the sun's casting shadows on nounced the practitioners of astrology, divination, geomancy, such a sacred ritual.) Liangsubsequently thanked the HolySpirit necromancy, spells, and charms. for casting out his "evil self." In 1819 Milne published his masterpiece: The Two Friends. After studying Christianity part-time at the Anglo-Chinese Described by Daniel H. Bays as the "most famous of all nine­ College, Liang emulatedMilne's missionaryexample. In 1819he teenth-century Christian tracts,"!' the pamphlet gives Chinese visited his village near Canton, where he married and baptized voice to evangelical faith. After realizing he is a sinner and his wife (the first known Chinese woman to be baptized a fearing eternal damnation, Zhang, the story's hero, tells his Protestant), preached, and published a tract denouncing his friend Yuanthathe has beenredeemedthroughrepentanceof his lineage's idolworship. Soon, however, local officials confiscated sinfulpastandbeliefin Jesus' "merit." Zhangclaims thatbecause the booklets, imprisoned Liang for defying the anti-Christian Jesus is both God and man and sacrificed his life to redeem the prohibition, and beat him on the soles of his feet with bamboo. world, he is superior to China's sages. And Zhang is grateful to The following year, Liangreturnedto Malaccato publishthe the Holy Spirit for improving his behavior and saving his soul. Morrison-Milne Bible. Sadly, his joyful anticipation of further Like other Chinese, Zhang asserts, he values human rela­ study with Milne was thwarted. In March 1819Milne's beloved tionships but worships the one true God instead of false gods. Rachel had succumbed to dysentery, becoming the first Protes­ Although ridiculed for being unfilial, Zhang is serene, knowing tant missionary wife to perish in Asia. Refusing to slow his work that Jesus' second coming will see the dead bodily resurrected, routine despite a worsening tuberculosis, Milne himself died on June 2,1822.Fromits OrphanFund,Malacca'sDutchcommunity supported Milne's daughter and three sons, including William Charles (1815-63) who later joined the LMS and collaborated Milne formed a bond with withJohnRobertMorrison (1814-43) in carryingon theirfathers' Liang Fa, whose efforts to Christianize China. background and spiritual crisis mirrored his own. Milne as Mission Pioneer William Milne exemplifies the first generation of British evan­ gelical missionaries,who,as Max Warrenhas noted,werebuoyed judged by Jesus, and sent to hell or heaven as God's kingdom by the democratic, moralistic values and social activism of their draws near. Meanwhile, the conversion process is ongoing, emerging "skilled mechanic" class in the early nineteenth cen­ Zhang insists. So the believer, cognizant of the reality of sin and tury." Artisans such as William Carey, Morrison, and Milne the last judgment, constantly repents, confesses, forgives, rejects were "inner-directed" improviserswho,withwhateverNoncon­ materialism, does not confuse transmigration of souls with res­ formist education they could acquire, mastered difficult lan­ urrection,reformsbehaviorby followingGod'scommandments, guagesto plantChristianity-despitedangerouscircumstances­ and reads the Bible and prays daily. God rewards prayer not into time-honored civilizations they came to admire. materially but with forgiveness, cleansing of heart, and eternal As Carey did in his educational, translation, and publishing salvation. Because Christian faith is nourished within commu­ enterprise at Serampore, Morrison and Milne developed a mis­ nity, Zhang believes, Chinese Christians are eager to share their sion strategy and infrastructure on China's gateway designed to faith with family and friends. extend evangelical missions into the rest of Asia. The preaching, BobWhytehas insightfullyobserved: "Too few missionaries education, tractwriting, and publicationto whichthey dedicated were concerned to establish lasting friendships with Chinese."ls themselves remain mainstays of Protestant missions today. Dur­ Milne was among that minority; he formed an enduring bond ing their remarkable nine-year partnership, Morrison and Milne with Liang Fa, the mission printer and contributor to the Indo­ approached mission through the prism of cultural interchange. Chinese Gleaner, whose personal background and spiritual crisis Mingling freely with the overseas Chinese, Milne studied their mirrored Milne's own." In fact, Liang had initially resisted religious life and their Confucianism; in their social ethics he Milne's invitations to mission worship, fearing that the Buddha found points of contactwith evangelicalmorality. Working hard would "soon bring punishment and death on such an opponent to find commonalities to win Chinese converts first to superior of the gods." But carving the woodblocks for Milne's LifeofJesus Western learning and then to Christianity, Milne's in 1814 and exposure to the missionary's pious demeanor coin­ accommodationist approach anticipates one of the most endur­ cided with Liang's growing guilt over his earlier "drunkenness ing aspects of Christian missions. and other kindred vices," including gambling, lust, cheating, Milne pioneered Protestant elementary education in Asia, and lying. Liang was not consoled by quiet sitting at home, which became coeducational soon after his death. By 1836, for sutra-reading at Malacca's Goddess of Mercy temple, or the example, 220boys and 120 girls were enrolled in Malacca's LMS resident monk's assurances of Western paradise because, Liang Chinese schools, with120boys and 60 girls in theMalayschools. concluded, Buddhist ritual and self-cultivation lacked In 1838 the LMS opened a school for adult Chinese women and Christianity's connection with God's moral commandments, in 1839 set up a boarding school for Chinese girls. Some gradu­ from which emerged the "virtuous act" needed to "obtain for- ates of Milne's schools would, he hoped, seek higher education,

176 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH convert, and become Christian pastors and teachers. Among the Kong, Legge hoped it would train Chinese Christianleaders able 70 Anglo-Chinese College students in 1836, 19 chose baptism. to plant Christianity throughout the treaty ports. But after real­ The alumni of the school included Chinese government inter­ izing that the college was falling shortin this effort, Legge closed preters, clerks, merchants, shopkeepers, shipcaptains, a medical it in 1856. Nevertheless, as Lindsay Ride, vice chancellor at the assistant, and a doctor of traditional medicine. By 1837 three University ofHong Kong, observed a century later, the college students at the college were preparing for the Protestant minis­ remains the "forerunner of all the British colleges and universi­ try.19 In Malacca alone, there were250 ChineseChristians inneed ties that exist in the Far East to-day.?" of such indigenous clergy." Legge had also brought four Chinese Christians with him By the time he died in 1822, Milne had trained ten LMS from Malacca, including Liang Fa and HoTsun-sheen (1817-71). missionaries in Chinese language and culture. In Malacca and While Legge and Ho wrote Bible commentaries and itinerated elsewhere in Southeast Asia, these colleagues continued Milne's around Canton, evangelical ideas had already begun to pen­ emphasis on preaching, teaching, and publishing. By the time of etrate China's heartland, thanks to Liang Fa. In 1823 Morrison Milne's death, they had produced no less than 49 pamphlets on fulfilled Milne's wish by ordaining Liang as the first Chinese ever-modern printing presses. By 1867, seven years after all of evangelist. Among the villages around Canton, Liang distrib­ China was opened to evangelism, Protestant missionaries had uted and preached on the Scriptures and Milne's Two Friends, published 787 religious and secular tracts." baptized dozens of Chinese, and even briefly established a The LMS giant James Legge (1815-97) carried Milne's inno­ Christian rural "charity school." As mission evangelism, educa­ vations into a second generation of evangelical missions. Raised tion, publication, and medicine continued to expand in Canton, in Milne's parish at Huntley, Legge had been led to missions Liang became a well-known pastor of several small congrega­ through evangelical revivals, studied Chinese in London with tions, two missionhospitals, and a chapel at his home in that city. LMS MalaccaveteranSamuelKidd (1799-1843), and was himself Liang is best remembered for authoring twenty-one Chi­ assigned to Malacca in 1840. Three years later Legge moved the nese-language tracts, the most celebrated of which is Good Words mission to Hong Kong, one of six coastal enclaves that the First to Admonish theAge(1832). In it, Liang sought to explain Milne's Opium War (1839-42) opened to global trade and Christianity. evangelicalfaith inChinese terms and advocated China's imme­ Convinced, like Milne, that "Confucianism is not antagonistic to diateconversionto missionaryChristianity,because,he thought, Christianity,"22Leggeestablishedcoeducationalboardingschools the kingdom of God was more imminent than even Milne had there to teach poor students the Confucian classics, knowledge, supposed. mathematics, and science. Having also moved the Anglo-Chi­ In 1837HongXiuquan (181~)read Good Words, identified nese College (of which he became principal in 1841) to Hong God as China's authentic ruler described in the pre-Confucian Noteworthy Personalia Calcutta. Anauthorityon Hindu-Christiandialogue,Samartha Tile Tienou, Chair of the Department of Mission and Evange­ wrote Between TwoCultures: Ecumenical Ministry in a Pluralist lism andProfessorofTheologyofMission, TrinityEvangelical World (1996). Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois, has been appointed dean of the seminary. A contributing editor of the INTERNATIONAL Announcing BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Tienou joined the Overseas In July 2001Trinity Theological College, Singapore, launched Ministries Study Center Board of Trustees last year. the Centrefor theStudyof Christianityin Asia to facilitate in­ Ron Flaming, Executive Secretary of the Commission on depth research on the identity and role of the church in the Overseas Mission, General Conference Mennonite Church, Asian context. The center focuses on clarifying the church's has been appointed Director of InternationalPrograms for the identity, mission priorities, methods, and strategies, and on Mennonite Central Committee, as of February 2002. leadership development. Hwa Yung, former principal of Darrell L. Whiteman, who joined the faculty of Asbury Seminari Theoloji, Malaysia, is the director. E-mail the center TheologicalSeminary, Wilmore, Kentucky, in 1984,was named at [email protected]. Dean of the E. Stanley Jones School of World Mission and A documentation and archives conference, sponsored by Evangelism, effective July 1,2001. He succeeded the retiring the International Association of Catholic Missiologists and dean George G. Hunter, III. Whiteman, who has been editor the International Association for Mission Studies, will be of Missiology: An International Review since 1989,will be suc­ heldat the Pontifical UrbanUniversity,Rome,September29to ceeded in that position by Terry Muck, in June 2002. Muck, October 6,2002.With "Rescuing the Memory of Our Peoples" former executive editor of Christianity Today, is Professor of as their theme, archivists and documentalists from around the Mission and World Religions at Asbury Seminary. world will share experiences, review the impact of changing Died. Stanley J. Samartha, 81, Indian theologian in the technology, and explore the effect of globalization on the Church of South India and first director of the World Council documentation of the story of the church. Particular attention of Churches' sub-unit on Dialogue with People of Living will be given to minority situationswhere the oral andwritten Faiths and Ideologies, in Bangalore, India, July 22, 2001. He history of the memory of the poor is at risk. Contact John was professor of history of religions and philosophy, United Roxborogh, Knox College, Dunedin, New Zealand, at Theological College, Bangalore, and principal of Karnataka [email protected],orvisitwww.missionstudies.org/ Theological College, Mangalore, and Serampore College, rescue.

October 2001 177 texts, and concluded that he himself was Jesus Christ's younger Chinese Christians alike condemned his "Sinified" faith. Al­ brother. Hong'smonotheismwasso literalthathe deniedChrist's though no trace of Taiping religion survived, Christian ideas (and his own) divinity, denigrated the Trinity, and misunder­ were linked with Chinese sectarianism well into the twentieth stood the soul and other evangelical concepts. But by embracing century.25 moral transformation and iconoclastic reform activism as the AftertheTaipings' defeat, evangelicalmissions continuedin antidote to the abuses of the imperial Confucian old order, Hong China for another eighty-five years. But missionaries split over unleashedthe TaipingRebellion (1851-64),the world'sbloodiest Milne's accommodationism. On one side was the "liberal evan­ civil war, in which 20 to 40 million Chinese perished. gelical tradition" carried on by Legge, who-having discovered In the mid-1850s Hong claimed that, under his authority as monotheism in pre-Confucian China-accommodated Chris­ God's vice-regent, his theocratic "New Jerusalem" at Nanjing tian belief to Chinese culture. On the other side were the was the center of a universal, millennial Taiping Tianguo (Heav­ nonaccommodationistswhosoughtmerelyto "transplantChris­ enly Kingdom of Great Peace). Hong engendered revolutionary tian civilization within China.":" Between these extremes, a discipline by superimposing the Ten Commandments and man­ Chinese Protestantism, independent of the missionaries, also dating gender equality, universal coeducation, social welfare, developed." Containing many core evangelical beliefs, indig­ and communal land holding." Despite Hong's embrace ofWest­ enous Chinese Christianity survives today, gathering more con­ ern Christians as his ''brothers and sisters," missionaries and verts than at any lime during the pre-1949 missionary period.

Notes------­ 1. Quoted in [EdwinStevens], "A Brief Sketchof the Life and Labors of Pa.: Morehouse Publishing, 1988), p. 97. the Late Rev. William Milne, D.D.," Chinese Repository 1 (December 16. For Liang Fa's spiritual transformation, see P. Richard Bohr, "Liang 1832):317-18. Fa's Quest for Moral Power," in Barnett and Fairbank, Christianity in 2. Quoted in Robert Philip, The Lifeand Opinions of the Rev. William China, pp. 35-46. Milne, D.O. (London: John Snow, 1840), p. 37. 17. Quoted in George Hunter McNeur, China's FirstPreacher: LiangA-fa, 3. For an overview of Morrison, see J. Barton Starr, "The Legacy of 1789-1855 (Shanghai: Kwang Hsueh Publishing House [1934?]),p. Robert Morrison," International BulletinofMissionary Research 22, no. 24. 2 (April 1998):73-76. For the first Protestant missionary generation 18. Max Warren, Social History and Christian Mission (London: SCM represented by Morrison and Milne, see Murray A. Rubenstein, The Press, 1967). Originsof the Anglo-American Missionary Enterprise in China, 1807­ 19. Harrison, Waitingfor China, chaps. 15-16. 1840 (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1996). 20. W. H. Medhurst, China. Its Stateand Prospects (London: John Snow, 4. Quoted in A. J. Broomhall, HudsonTaylor andChina's OpenCentury, 1838), pp. 320-21. book 1, Barbarians at the Gate (Sevenoaks: Hodder & Stoughton, 21. John K. Fairbank, "Introduction: The Place of Protestant Writings in 1989), p. 228. China's Cultural History," in Barnett and Fairbank, Christianity in 5. Quoted in Lindsay Ride, Robert Morrison: The Scholar and the Man China, p. 1. (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Univ. Press, 1957), p. 12. 22. Quoted in Harrison, WaitingforChina, p. 114. For a study of Legge, 6. For a biographical sketch of Rachel Milne, see Biographical Dictionary see Lauren F. Pfister, "The Legacy of James Legge," International ofChristian Missions, ed. Gerald H. Anderson (New York: Macmillan Bulletinof Missionary Research 22, no. 2 (April 1998): 77-82. For an Reference, 1998), p. 461. overview of the growth of the Hong Kong church, see Carl T. Smith, 7. The excerpts are taken from Milne's 1814 "Farewell Letter to the Chinese Christians: Elites, Middlemen, and the Church in Hong Kong Chinese of Java," quoted in Philip, Life, pp. 141-43,226. (Hong Kong: Oxford Univ. Press), 1985. 8. Ibid. 23. Ride, Robert Morrison, p. 22. 9. Ibid., pp. 225-26,229, 193. 24. P. Richard Bohr, "The Theologian as Revolutionary: Hung Hsiu­ 10. For a study of Milne's educational endeavors, see Brian Harrison, ch'iian's Religious Vision of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom," in Waitingfor China: The Anglo-Chinese College at Malacca, 1818-1843, Tradition and Metamorphosis in Modern Chinese History: Essays in and Early Nineteenth-Century Missions (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Honor of Professor Kwang-Ching Liu's Seventy-fifth Birthday, ed. Yen­ Univ. Press, 1979). p'ing Hao and Hsiu-mei Wei (Taipei: Institute of Modern History, 11. Philip, Life, p. 16. Academia Sinica, 1998), 2:907-53, and idem, "Christianity and 12. For a biographical sketch of Medhurst, see Biographical Dictionary, Rebellion in China: The Evangelical Roots of the Taiping Heavenly pp.451-52. Kingdom," in The Chinese Face of Jesus Christ, ed. Roman Malek, 13. In his English-language writings, Milne denounced the growth of S.V.D., 2 vols. (Sankt Augustin: Monumenta Serica Monograph Chinese opium addiction, which he attributed to the East India Series, 2001). Company'sincreasinginvolvementin opiumsmuggling. See Philip, 25. Daniel H. Bays, "Christianity and Chinese Sects: Religious Tracts in Life, pp. 428-35. the Late Nineteenth Century," in Barnett and Fairbank, Christianity 14. Daniel H. Bays, "ChristianTracts: TheTwoFriends," in Christianity in in China, pp. 121-34. China: Early Protestant Missionary Writings, ed. Suzanne Wilson 26. Pfister, "Legacy of James Legge," p. 81. Barnett and John King Fairbank (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. 27. Daniel H. Bays, ''The Growth of Independent Christianity in China, Press, 1985), p. 22. 1900-1937," in Barnett and Fairbank, Christianity in China, pp. 307­ 15. BobWhyte, Unfinished Encounter: China andChristianity (Harrisburg, 16. Selected Bibliography The London Missionary Society materials are located at the Library of Works About William Milne the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London. Chu Yiu Kwong. "Between Unity and Diversity: The Role of William Milne in the Development of the Ultra-Ganges Missions." M.Phi!. Works by William Milne thesis, Hong Kong Baptist Univ., 1999. 1820 A Retrospect oftheFirstTen Years oftheProtestant Missionto China. Philip, Robert. The Life and Opinions of the Rev. William Milne, D.O. The Anglo-Chinese Press. London; John Snow, 1840. 1824 TheMemoirs oftheRev. William Milne.Edited by Robert Morrison. [Stevens, Edwin]. "A Brief Sketch of the Life and Labors of the Late Rev. Dublin, n.p. WilliamMilne, D.D." Chinese Repository 1 (December 1832):316-25.

178 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Book Reviews

In The Shadow of the Mahatma: Bishop V. S. Azariah and the Travails of Christianity in British India.

By Susan Billington Harper. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans;and Richmond, Surrey, U.K: Curzon Press, 2000. Pp.xxii, 462. $45.

As a Rhodes scholar at Oxford in the early determining its own governance. He Dominion magazine written by the young 1980s, Susan Billington Harper was founded the National Missionary Society missionaryDonaldMcGavran. McGavran challenged by the mission historianBishop in 1905 and became the first Indian was not in the conversation but likely Stephen Neill"to fulfill his own dream of Anglican bishop in 1912.He was a major heard of the discussion from Waskom producing a critical scholarly biography leader and advocate of the process that Pickett, a participant. Gandhi was ofBishop Azariah" (p. xv), Neill would be culminated in the creation of the Church incensed, Azariah embarrassed. deeply satisfied with this exceptional of South India in 1947.As evangelist and McGavran apologized. These tensions of biography. Thoroughly researched, bishop, he participated in the "mass the 1930s, "the travail of the church," written with verve, sympathetically movements" that increased membership continue in our time. presented, and richly contextual, In the in the Diocese of Domakal alone from One of the special virtues of this Shadow of the Mahatma is a significant 56,681in 1912 to 225,000in 1941.Harper biography is Harper's highlighting the contribution to both the history of the says Azariah "was the most successful consistent piety and faithfulness of church and the history of modern India. leader of grassroots movements of Azariah amid enormous pressures. The During his years as bishop of conversion to Christianity in South Asia lettersofthe peripateticbishopto his wife, Dornakal in Andra Pradesh, V.S.Azariah in the early twentieth century." Anbu, provide fascinating evidence of his (1874-1945) was the leading Indian These movements aroused the character. Harper also recognizes that churchmananda major figure in the rising concern of many Indian nationalists who there is more to this man than could be ecumenical movement. His contribution assumed that an independent India covered in one volume. More could have and reputation were almost lost amid the required religious cohesion. The climax of been said abouthis preachingandwritings dynamiceventsofthe newlyindependent this biography is the conflict with the as well as the roles he played as chair of state and the changing preoccupations of "Mahatma," Gandhi, over the question of the National Christian Council of India, the church in India and beyond. Harper conversion, particularly evangelizing the within the house of bishops, and in helps us recall this remarkable man, "a depressed classes. Gandhi publicly ecumenical meetings. powerful and unforgettable example of opposed aggressive evangelism. Azariah In The Shadow of the Mahatma is Christianservanthood in troubled times." as evangelist and most prominent Indian essential reading for understanding the Recapturing the storyofAzariahwas Christian was deeply convinced of the church in India. In the words of a hymn a formidable task. An energetic church Christian obligation to "carry the Gospel written and sung by the parishioners of leader for almost fifty years, Azariah's to unevangelised regions." In 1937 some Domakal, Azariah was eulogized "our knowingly incomplete bibliography of well-meaning English and Indian most respected Bishop." published works covers twelve pages in Christian leaders thought some -John A. Lapp this book. Harper tracked his papers, compromise possible if Azariah and letters, and reports in multiple libraries in Gandhicouldonly meet. The meetingwas John A. Lapp, Executive Secretay, Emeritus, ofthe India, the UnitedKingdomandthe United supposed to be off the record. No Mennonite Central Committee, istheauthor ofThe States. Many family letters, scrapbooks, agreements were possible. Word did get Mennonite Church in India, 1898-1962(Herald and memorabilia remain with family out through several articles in World Press, 1972). members. Although most focused as "bishop of the villages," Azariah traveled widely first as a YMCAsecretary, then as Anglican bishop, finally as ecumenical spokesman. He participated in the major missionary and ecumenical conferences Gender, Religion, and "Heathen from Calcutta (1896), Shanghai (1907), and Lands." American Missionary Edinburgh (1910) to Tambaram (1938). Women in South Asia, 1860s-1940s. His correspondents included YMCA colleague Sherwood Eddy, his mentor ByMaina Chawla Singh. New York: Garland Bishop Henry Whitehead of Madras, and Publishing,2000.Pp.xiv,393.Nopricegiven. an array of friends such as John R.Mott, J. Waskom Pickett, and Roland Allen. This volume is a welcome addition to the as on archival and secondary sources, Harperintervieweddozensofindividuals literature on women and mission. Its Singh provides a nuanced study that in reconstructing "the public life" and uniqueness lies in the perspective of the transcendsthe typical orientalistparadigm times of Azariah. author, who is an Indian scholar fully for missionhistory. From the recollections Much of the drama of Azariah's life conversantwithrecenttheorieson gender of non-Christian women educated in revolves around the momentous times in andcolonialism. Byrelyingon interviews premier missionary institutions, she which he lived. The church in India was with students from missionary-run, discovers that their educations prepared growing rapidly and increasingly tertiary educational institutions, as well them for high degrees of individual

October 2001 179 autonomy and productivity in modem wives in India, the discourse about the Singh's portrayal of the struggles of Indian society. In short, the meaning of "other" as applied to "heathen" Indian missionarywivesis particularlyinsightful missionary education from an Indian women, and the roles of unmarried as to the difficulties ofcross-culturalliving. perspective was neither the conversion of missionary educators and doctors. In The historical development of women's the pupils nor the imposition of "cultural particular, she examines the careers of missionary roles is very well done. The imperialism." Rather, mentoring by Isabella Thobum, founder of the first only weakness in the book is Singh's lack missionary women created an elite class Christian college for women in India, and of knowledge of the wider missionary of Indian women whose leadership roles Ida Scudder,headof the ChristianMedical movement. In addition to making a few were consistent both with the values College of Vellore. By putting the factual errors, she attributes the twentieth­ encouraged by their parents and with missionary contribution into the context century paradigm of indigenization to the Christian humanitarianism. of Indian reform movements regarding failure of conversionin India, a stance that After a methodological introduction, the roles of women, she provides a does not reflect a broad knowledge of the Singh reviews the history of missionary balancedpictureofthe missionaries' work. history ofcontextualization.Nevertheless, this book is a well-written, thoughtful, and rigorous portrayal of the meaning of missionary education for Indian women. -Dana L. Robert

Dana L. Robert, a contributing editor, is Truman Collins Professor of World Mission, Boston Doane Missionary Scholarships University Schoolof Theology. 2002-2003 The Overseas Ministries Study Center announces the Doane Missionary Scholarships for 2002-2003. Two $3,000 scholarships will be awarded on a Protestant Origins in India: Tamil competitive basis to missionaries who apply for residence for eight months Evangelical Christians, 1706-1835. to a year with the intention ofearning the OMSC Certificate in Mission Studies. The Certificate requires participation in fourteen or more ofthe weekly mission By D. Dennis Hudson. Grand Rapids,Mich.: seminars at OMSC and the writing ofa final paper reflecting on the awardee's Eerdmans; and Richmond, Surrey, U.K.: missionary experience in light ofthe studies undertaken at OMSC. Curzon Press, 2000. Pp. xi, 220. $45. Applicants must meet the following requirements: Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg and Heinrich • Completion ofat least one term in cross-cultural ministry Pluetschau, pietist missionaries repre­ • Endorsement by mission agency or church senting the Danish Lutheran Church, arrived in Tranquebar in July 1706 and • Commitment to return to their place of ministry baptized their first converts, five slaves, in • Residence at OMSC for eight months to a year May of the following year . A scant five • Enrollment in OMSC Certificate in Mission Studies program years later, according to Dennis Hudson in Protestant Originsin India, their mission The OMSC Certificate program allows time for family responsibilities and had 202 members. By 1732 the number some deputation. Families with children are welcome . OMSC's Doane Hall had grown to 1,478. While numbers are and Great Commission Hall (below) offer fully furnished apartments ranging not everything, in this case they are up to three bedrooms . Applications should be submitted as far in advance compelling. A far more familiar story in as possible. As an alternative to application for the 2002-2003 academic the early history of evangelical missions, after all, is the one in which for years the year, applicants may apply for the 2003 calendar year, so long as the Certifi­ number of converts roughly tracks the cate program requirement for participation in at least fourteen seminars is number of missionaries who die in their met. Scholarship award will be distributed on a monthly basis after recipient assignments. is in residence. Application deadline: January I, 2002. For further informa­ Hudson looks primarily through the tion contact Jonathan 1. Bonk, Director, at: lens of the Indian Christians in telling this story of growth and indigenization of Christianity, and that is where his very significant contribution lies. The pietists Overseas Ministries were willing to train and rely upon native catechists and pastors to carry the Gospel Study Center beyond the local mission church and 490 Prospect St. outsidethe Danishcolony. Perhapsofeven New Haven, CT 06511 USA greater consequence, they allowed traditional caste separations to be built into the division of labor in the emerging Tel: (203) 624-6672 church, and they provided room for Fax: (203) 865-2857 traditional language, music, and styles of [email protected] publicexpression.The pietist message and www.OMSC.org strategy, in other words, were closely adapted to the social,cultural,andmaterial circumstances of Indians of diverse backgrounds.

180 INTERNATIONAL B ULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH In the next century, however, that perceptions,while remaining complacent ways Muslims and Christians view Jesus very willingness to tolerate indigenous about their own." The views of more and Muhammad, understandings of the social distinctions and practices within sensitiveandirenicwriters-Muslims like Bible and the Qur'an, revelation and the Christian community brought the Muhammad Talbi, Mahmoud Ayoub, prophecy,inspiration,sin and redemption, pietists into sharp conflict with the "new" Riffat Hassan, Fathi Osman, and Ali religion and state. The book thus serves as missionaries (of the Church Missionary Merad, and Christians such as Kenneth an excellent introduction to the study of Society), who insisted that Indian Cragg, W. Montgomery Watt, Roger Christian-Muslim intellectual relations in Christians must stand outside traditional Arnaldez, David Kerr, and Yves the twentieth century. Its extensive Indian culture, in particular outside the Moubarac-form a balance to the harsher citations and bibliography make the work caste system. judgments of many of their coreligionists. a useful tool for professors and students Hudson makes effective use of rare The basic issues treated are those in alike . If one were to make a criticism, it and elusive primary materials and of the which Christians and Muslims have been would be that Zebiri appears to be more work 'of other scholars. The result is an most critical of the stance of the other: the familiarwithsourcesin Englishand French economical and coherent narrative that I found both engaging and provocative. -Jon Miller THE FIRST COMPREHENSIVE ACCOUNT JonMillerisProfessorof Sociologyat theUniversity OF CHRISTIANITY AS A WORLD RELIGION of SouthernCalifornia in Los Angeles. His current research explores the ways nineteenth-century evangelical missionsdealtwith social, political,and History of the World economic controversies. Christian Movement Volume I: Earliest Christianity to 1453 DALE T. IRVIN and SCOTT W. SUNQUIST Muslims and Christians Face to Face. • A landmark in its unique approach to the history of Christianity ByKateZebiri,Oxford:One World, 1997. Pp. 258. £14.99/$22.95. • An international publishing event, more than 5 years in the making Down through the centuries, Christians • Reviewed and shaped by a team and Muslims have related to one another of 43 consulting scholars in ways that range from long periods of correct coexistence and friendly cooperation to periods of suspicion, "Christian history is one of the great gaps in the education of most rivalry, enmity, and warfare. When one Christians and others in our culture, but it needs to be well analyzes the elements that have led-and on occasion still lead the communities researched, well presented and sensitively interpreted. The History today-torecrimination and violence, one of the World Christian Movement manages to achieve all this, and finds that it is usually political, economic, deserves to be taken up by academic and church courses as well as social, and ethnic factors, as well as the by the inte rested general public.t'-c-Dwro FORD, Cambridge University universal human tendencies to greed, power, revenge, and pride, that are the primary motivations rather than the content or teachings of either religion. Nevertheless, the theological images by which Muslimshave perceivedChristians and Christian faith, and those by which Christians have perceived Muslims and Islam, cannot be dismissed as factors that have engendered animosity. Zebiri's work is not intended as a "The best recent extended up-dating of the history of the history of Christian-Muslim polemics but first fourteen-and-a-half centuries of global Christianity." limits itself to the study of twentieth­ -SAMU EL HUGH MOFFETI, Princeton Theological Seminary centuryMuslim treatmentsofChristianity and contemporary Christian treatments "This book tracks Christianity's worldwide course of Islam. Itbrings together perceptions of modern Muslims andChristianswho have with dogged resolve and ecumenical sympathy." writtenabouteach other'sreligion,in some -LAMI N SAN NEH , Yale University cases in a genuine effort to understand the Illustrations and maps. Notes Bibliography, Subject and Names Indices. other religion on its own terms, though 512pp, maps, illustrations. 1-57075-396-2 paperback $30.00 perhaps more often as distorted versions of their own religious paths. The purpose of this study, as Zebiri statesit,is to "make itas difficultas possible for either Muslims or Christians to recoil at the other's distorted or inaccurate

October 2001 181 than in the extensive writings that have Religion and Dalit Liberation: An appeared in European languages such as Examination of Perspectives. German,Italian andDutch,or withMuslim writings in languages other than Arabic By John C. B. Webster, New Delhi:Manohar such as those in Turkish, Urdu,Persian, or Publishers, 1999, Pp.124. Paperback Rs 150. Indonesian. -Thomas Michel, S.J. John Webster is widely recognized as one religiocultural movements within the of the leading exponents of Dalit history Indian subcontinent. ThomasMichel, S.J., is SecretaryforInterreligious and theology. (Dalits are the so-called While his firstbooktraced the history Dialogue of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) . He has Untouchables within the Indian caste of Dalit Christians, Webster explores the taught Islamic studies and Christian-Muslim system .)He has taught history in India for Dalit religion as such in this brief but relationsfor many years in IndonesiaandChristian severalyearsandhas firsthand knowledge dense book. He begins with "a fairly theology in Turkish theological faculties. of both the sociopolitical and the detailedcase study ofDalit religionaround the turn of the last century and a brief comparison with what contemporary observers noted about Dalit religion elsewhere in India at about that time" (p.l S), This case study is followed by an insightful analysis of the view of religion of Dr. Ambedkar, a leading figure in the Dalit liberation movement. Webster explains with great care the social test to which Ambedkar put all religions of his day. The next chapter examines the way Dalit theologians have employed the thought of Ambedkar in the construction oftheirowntheologies. The authorclarifies how the thought of Ambedkar continues to serve as a source for Dalit theology without undermining the centrality of the Christ-event. In the following chapter the author offers us a survey of "the diverse ways in which religion has affected Dalit lives and the differences it has made." (p. 99). The concluding chapter outlines four key concepts that have emerged in the study of Dalit religion: religion, conversion, identity, and liberation. Though brief, Webster's treatment of these four themes is very helpful to all those who wish to understand Dalit religionin India.Oneofthemajor strengths of the book is its consistent resistance to "any quick and easy reductionism in assessing either the Dalits themselves or the rolets) which religion can play in their liberation" (p. 99). -M. Thomas Thangaraj

M. ThomasThangaraj istheD. W.andRuth Brooks Associate Professor of WorldChristianity, Candler School of Theology, Emory University, Atlanta.

The Saffron Mission

By C. V. Mathew. Delhi: ISPCK, 1999. Pp. xvi, 317. Paperback $12.

TheSaffron Mission examines the cherished notion that Hinduism is not a missionary religion. The nineteenth-century Indologist Max Muller divided all world religions into two groups: missionary and nonmissionary. In the former category he placedIslam, Christianity, and Buddhism;

182 INTERNATIONAL B ULLETIN OF M ISSIONARY R ESEARCH in the latter, Hinduism and Judaism. This Christianity in China to 1800 (broadly analytic summaries of the main primary­ paradigm has largely gone unchallenged. conceived to include the missionary role sourcema terials available for Christianity Mathew, who served as the dean of the in scientific and cultural exchange), in China for that periodandof the pertinent Union Biblical Seminary in Pune, contributes new insights in the process, secondaryscholarship.In the actors section challenges this view by tracing the history and places at the researcher's fingertips are general sketches of the missionary of Hinduism in India from the nineteenth the essential reference tools to build on bodies, the Chinese Christian century to the present and demonstrates, that foundation. communities, and the opponents of quite convincingly,thatthere ismuchmore Each period of the three into which Christianity, plus biographies of key to be said about a Hindu, or "saffron," the work is divided (Tang, Yuan, and individuals.The scene sectionsummarizes mission. Ming-Qing, the last comprising almost the social, political, and ecclesiastical After providing a general historical nine-tenthsofthework) is discussed under context of Christianity in each period. background, Mathew advances his thesis four headings: sources, actors, scene, and Under themes fall encyclopedic articles with an examination of the nineteenth themes. The sources section provides on a wide variety of topics, ranging from century Hindu reform movement Arya Samaj, which had as its goal to "propagate the Vedic faith" (p, 65), as well as the Ramakrishna movement, which has been called the "world mission of Hinduism ." Mathew examines the literature and history of these movements, highlighting their missionary nature. He demonstrates, for example, how the Ramakrishna mission is a global mission because it claims that all religions are contained within Hinduism. In the final section ofthe bookMathew broadens his thesis to include a wide range of modern nationalistic groups like the RSSand the VHP, which he characterizes as missionary. In orderto sustainhis thesis, Mathew is forced to equate nationalistic movements, which use Hinduism as a basis for promoting a particular ideology, with genuine missionary outreach. Competing religions are to be rooted out with missionary zeal because, in the end, they "sabotage the unity and integrity" of India (p, 205). Overall, TheSaffron Mission is a valuablestudyin the missionaryefforts of modern Hinduism and the missionary implications of modern nationalistic movements. - Timothy C. Tennent

TimothyC.TennentisAssociateProfessorof World If Christianity-induding Christian faith and theology-is to avoid MissionsatGordon-ConwellTheological Seminary. becoming totally out of tou ch with the wo rld- a museum piece at best, HehastaughtinIndia foroveradecade andcontinues a force of baleful reaction at worst-it must consta ntly update itself by toserveasavisiting professorattheLutherW.New, Jr., Theological College in Dehra Dun. constant interaction, dialogue, dialectic with all the important intellectual currents, movements, disciplines of today. In the process, it must not lose its so ul, or else it becomes useless. But, as Friedrich Schleierrnacher said, it must open its windows to the world, lest it become irrelevant or eve n harmful. Handbook of Christianity in Historians and theologians have traced the development of Christian China, vol. 1: 635-1800. doctrine, and even offered theories to explain it. On the othe r hand, variou s observers of the church in the world-perhap s most notoriou sly Edited by Nicolas Standaert. Leiden: Brill, Max Weber-have interpreted how Christianity and the world have, for 2001. (Handbook of Oriental Studies/ Handbuch derOrientalisiik,part4 China, 15/ better or for worse, reacted upon one anothe r. But go ing beyond such 1.) Pp. xxuii, 964. $165. works, The Dialectical Development of Doctrine combines the two the mes by proposing a necessary two-way dialectic be twe en theology This first volume of the Handbook of and the world, a dialectic absolutely essential to the he althy growth Christianity in China is sure to be an indispensable reference work for decades and development of both our faith and our understanding of the wo rld, to come .The modest title does not convey as well as of the culture which we continue to create and will bequeath the scope and importance of this to our children. monumental work, which lucidly synthesizes the current scholarship on

October 2001 183 missionary theology to the transmission occasionaltypographicalandgrammatical into China of European learning and the errors,buttheseare few andunimportant. transmission of ideas about China to The cost of the volume is justified by its Europe. Each essay in each section is lengthand significance, and by the overall concise, accessible to specialist and high production quality that Brill has nonspecialist, and copiously referenced. brought to it. This book is unprecedented The Handbook is the workof some two in scope and usefulness, an essential dozen contributors, mostly European, purchase for serious collections on under the editorship of Nicolas Standaert missions and the history of Christianity, of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. on China, or on the history of science . Editorial care and a standard format have -Ryan Dunch compensated for style differences among the contributors, resulting in a bookthatis Ryan Dun cn is Assistant Professor in the Student consistentlyreadableand packed withapt DepartmentofHistoryandClassicsattheUniversity insights and fascinating details, even in of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada, and the authorof Seminars on the potentially dry sections. As one would FuzhouProtestantsand the Makingof a Modern World Mission expect in a work so immense, there are China, 1857-1927 (Yale Univ. Press, 2001). World) Word, and Kingdom: Love Never Ends: Papers by K. H. Jesus'Message in the 21st Century Ting.

January 2002 By K. H. Ting, edited by Janice Wickeri. Overseas Ministries Study Center Nanjing, China: Yilin Press, 2000. Pp. 539. Jonathan J. Bonk, Executive Director RMB 50 ($30surface, $35 air). 490 ProspectSt., New Haven, CT 06511 (203) 624-6672 [email protected] This isby far the mostimportantcollection This collection of about eightypieces, in English of articles and addresses of over seventy of them dating from 1980 or Register online: www.OMSC.org Bishop K. H . Ting (Ding Guangxun, after, was originally published in Chinese 1915-) . Bishop Ting is one of the most in 1998 and was intended for a Chinese important of China's Protestant leaders in non-Christian audience. Janice Wickeri, the last half of the twentieth century. Of the translator, is very able. Although the Anglicanbackground,he studied theology book has no index, its contents are very Check out in Shanghai during the Japanese rich. The great majority of the pieces do occupation, spent five years overseas not appear elsewhere, so this volume is ~ (Canada, New York, Geneva), returned to indispensable. Copies can be obtained, at on the World Wide Web! China in 1951,and becameprincipal of the the U.S. dollar prices noted above, from Nanjing Theological Seminary in 1952. In the China Christian Council, 17 Da [ian 1956 he was consecrated Anglican bishop Yin Xiang, Nanjing 210029, China. http://www.OMSC.org of Zhejiang. He has been a leading figure -Daniel H. Bays in the Protestant Three-Self Patriotic V Register for weekly Movement and the Chinese Christian DanielH. Bays is ProfessorofHistory, Emeritus.at mission seminars Council, and an articulate spokesman for the University of Kansas, and ProfessorofHistory theseorganizationsin internationalcircles, at Calvin College. He is editor of Christianity in v Preview the next issue of both in the late 1950s and since the China: From the Eighteenth Century to the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN reopening of churches and the relaxation Present (Stanford Univ. Press, 1996). of national religious policies after 1979.At V Browse through Special the same time he has been an active Book Features apologist for Christianity to Chinese intellectual circles, justifying the v Learn about scholarships legitimacy of religious faith in the Chinese socialist system. Meet Senior Mission v Bishop Ting has been both admired The Missionary Outreach of the Scholars and reviled in various Chinese and West Indian Church: Jamaican international Christian circles, and there Baptist Missions to West Africa in Overseas Ministries has been much discussion of his role in the the Nineteenth Century. Study Center Chinese Protestant scene. Thus this collection is especially welcome, because ByHorace O. Russell.New York: PeterLang, 490 Prospect Street it permits both scholars and foreign 2000. (Research in ReligionandFamily:Black New Haven, CT 06511 Christian groups to judge for themselves Perspectives Vol. 3.) Pp. xx, 323. $38.95. Tel (203) 624-6672 Bishop Ting's positions and his Fax (203) 865-2857 argumentation. I think that many in Horace Ru ssell of Eastern Baptist E-mail [email protected] international circles will be surprised at Seminary, Philadelphia, isa Jamaican the vigor with which he has debated and Baptist with an unrivaled knowledge of defended religious faith in Marxist Jamaican Baptist history. This book is a intellectual circles in China. revision of his Oxford University D.Phil.

184 INTERN ATIONAL B ULLETINOF M ISSION ARY R ESEARCH thesis presented in the mid-1970s. It is a missionariesin China, and its specific goal (e.g., CICM) used throughout the text. welcome addition to an expanding is to study the contributions of the This work is not for the general reader literature on the Baptist churches of the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of who wants to learn about the Catholic Caribbean, and the first published work Mary (CICM) Scheut missionaries. Church's role in QingChina.Bythe editor's devoted to telling the story of how, in the The quality of the chapters varies own admission, the "volume does not aftermath of emancipation, the Jamaican significantly, and this factor is not helped offer an orderlystory,nor an internallogic" Baptist community initiated the West by the book's confusing structure. While (p.7). African mission of the Baptist Missionary five chapters are written in English, one Despite these structural limitations, Society. chapter is written entirely in French, there are threads woven throughout the Russell's account contains two themes footnotes are done in English, Flemish, or text that help us understand the of wide significance. One, which he French, depending upon their sources, experiences of Catholic missionaries in mentions only in pass ing, is the character and it is assumed that readers will know China. First, Catholic missionaries (and ofthe spiritualityof the Jamaicanchurches. the meaning of the various abbreviations other missionaries as well) misjudged or The synthesis between an evangelicalism mediated from the southern states of America and West African religious traditions produced-a century before Azusa Street-a "Pentecostal" variety of The Sixth Bound Volume of Christianity, marked by glossolalia, the seeingof visions, and experiences of being possessed by the Spirit. The second and more central theme is the significance of MISSIONARY GOLD the Jamaican Baptist case as an example of INTERNATIONAL BUUEllN OFMISSIONARY REsEARCH, 1997-2000 the priority of those of African descent in 299 Contributors • 325 Book Reviews • 119 Doctoral Dissertations initiating the evangelizationofWest Africa in the nineteenth century. Russell 's message is, however, more ambiguous on ere is more gold for every rheolo gical library and exploring scholar this point than current historiographical H of mission srudies-with all 16 issues of 1997-2000-bound in red buck­ fashions might wish. Enthusiasm in the ram, wirh vellum finish and embossed in gold letter ing. It matches the ear­ Jamaican churches for the mission begun lier bound volumes of th e International Bulletin in 1841 was short lived, and British ofMissionary Research (all of which are sold out). missionariessuchas William Knibb appear _1""'"' At your fingertips, in one to have been more convinced than volum e: Th e Annual Sta­ Jamaicans themselves that the Africa tist ical Table of Global mission was to be interpreted Mi ssion, the Ed ito rs' eschatologically as a return from exile or annual selection of Fifteen an exodus into the Promised Land. Outstanding Book s, and Though stimulating in its subject the four-year cumulative in­ matter, the book disappoints in its failure dex. Here is an essential vol­ to take much accountof the work on slave ume for your personal or in­ religion published since the 1970s and in stitutional library. the poor standard of its copyediting. The bibliography is full of mistakes, and there Special price: $63.95 until December 3 1, 2001 ($68.95 are many errors of substance in the text. after 12/31/01). Limited edition of 350 volum es. Each volum e IS num­ -Brian Stanley bered and signed personally by the editors. Brian Stanley is Directorof theCurrents in World Christianity Project, DirectoroftheHenryMartyn Centre, and a Fellow of St. Edmund's College, University of Cambridge. Send me _ _ bound volume(s) of the International Bulletin ofMissionary Research, 1997-2000, at $63 .95 . Orders outside the U.S.A. add $7.00 per volume for postage and handling. Payment must accompany all orders. Pay in U.S. dollars only, by check drawn on a U.S. bank, International Money Order, or VISNMasterCard. Allow 5 weeks for delivery within U.S. o Enclosed is my check in the amount of $__made out to "IBMR." o Charge $_ _ to my VISAor MasterCard: Footsteps in Deserted Valleys: Card # Expires _ Missionary Cases, Strategies, and Practice in Qing China. Signature _ NAME _

Edited by Koen De Ridder. Louvain: Leuven AD DRESS _ Univ. Press, 2000. Pp. 186. Paperback BF 685. Mail to: Overseas Ministries Study Center Publications Offiee This volume is eighth in the Louvain 490 Prospect Sr., New Haven, CT 06511 Chinese Studies series from the Leuven Visit usat www.OMSC.org Institute for Sino-Mongol Studies. The institute's general goal is to study the contribution of Low Country Catholic

October 2001 185 misunderstood the impact that might, missionaries could not divorce Belgium's King Leopold II to gain wealth Christianity would have on existing themselves from their Western, imperialist from exploitingChinese naturalresources, Chinese cultural beliefs and social roots. When missionaries sought redress since only missionaries could own land in practices. By actively seeking women for damages, they had to use Western, China. Given Leopold's record in the converts and members of China's lower governmental intermediaries. Is it any Congo "Free State," one can only imagine socioeconomic: strata; . Christianity wonder that the Chinese held a deep­ what could have happened in China ifthe challenged Confucian orthodoxy on the seated distrust of Christian missionaries? Qing Dynasty had been any weaker. "correct" ordering,o{.jQs:iety.;' Is it any This last point takes an interesting turn in -Judith Liu wonder that anti-Christian acts occurred Koen De Ridder's chapter "Congo in more frequently when imperial exams Gansu," where Scheut missionaries Judith Liu is Professor of Sociology, Universityof were being conducted?Second, try as they became "straw men" in the attempt of San Diego, San Diego, California.

Introduction to the Sociology of Christianity. The essays place the teaching Missions. ofnonviolenceinto the overallworldview of each tradition and then describe By Robert L. Montgomery. Westport, Conn.; contemporary implications and and London: Praeger, 1999. Pp. xxi, 183. expressions of the teaching. The epilogue $57.95. by Donald Swearer reflects on worldview and practice, symbols and stories, inner This book is a worthy pioneering effort to as limited but wholly benign; he does not peace and world peace, and the paradox make sociology as familiar and acknowledge possible philosophical or of weakness and strength. instrumentally useful to missiologists as theological problems. Second, I lack his The essays on Buddhism, Hinduism, anthropology. Having experience of both confidence that other missiologists will indigenous traditions, Judaism, and missionary work (in Taiwan) and the respect the limitations of sociology as Christianity describe the tension between academy, Montgomery masterfully scrupulouslyas he does whenthey attempt the ideal and the actual. They acknowledge surveys the discipline of sociology and to apply sociology in an "engineering" that nonviolence is often a marginalized argues thatitcan profitablysupplement­ (his word, p. 3) manner in missions. motif, set aside by the demands of and sometimescorrect-thecontributions -Charles R. Taber maintainingorderby forcewithinasociety of anthropology. and by the need to defend society against He does so, after an opening chapter Charles R. Taber, acontributing editor, isProfessor external threats. The essay on Islam points proposing the field of sociology of ofWorld Mission,Emeritus, atEmmanuel School of out that the nonviolent tradition in Islam missions, by dealing with major areas of Religion, Johnson City, Tennessee. He was a is most clearly expressed among the Sufis, concern in sociology:social change theory, missionary (1952-60) in what became the Central who form an "alternate community" diffusion theory, missionaries and AfricanRepublic, and a translations consultant of within Islam. missions (aneglected field, he points out), theUnitedBible Society (1969-73) in WestAfrica. Several essays describe practical religious movements,intergrouprelations implications of nonviolence for the and social identity, sociology of religion, contemporary world. Jeremy Milgrom and several others. In each case he points suggests that within Judaism there is a out how awareness of that area would way in which Palestinians could be benefit missiology and what missiology recompensed for homes from which they could contribute in its tum. Subverting Hatred: The Challenge were evicted. Christopher Chapple notes He argues that in its use of sociology, of Non-violence in Religious that [ainism invites people to "live missiology must go beyond mere Traditions. sparingly and compassionately." description to theorizing. Bythis he means Christopher Queen describes how constructing not grand paradigms but Edited by Daniel L. Smith-Christopher. Buddhist nonviolent activism is rooted in "middle-range" theories, not far removed Maryknoll, N.Y.:Orbis Books, 1998. Pp.177. a "practical curriculum of skillful actions from the empirical data and heuristic $15. appropriate for taming and transforming hypotheses, but designed to explain the mind, serving others in society, and phenomenain accordancewiththe canons The editor of this volume, Daniel Smith­ effecting compassionate social change." of sociology, using the concepts of Christopher, is professor of theological -James N. Pankratz dependent and independent variables to studies and director of the Peace Studies sort out the social factors that contribute programat LoyolaMarymountUniversity James N. Pankratz is Academic Dean of the causally to specific phenomena in in Los Angeles. This timely set of essays Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary, Fresno, missions. Why, for instance, do some responds to two questions: What are the California. A Canadian, he conducted doctoral peoples respond positively and others teachings aboutnonviolence in the world's research on Hinduism in Calcutta (1971-72) and negatively to the Gospel? A concluding major religious traditions? and How have served with Mennonite Central Committee in appendix develops briefly ways in which these teachings been exemplified? The Bangladesh andIndia (1982-85), sociology helps him do theology. He is book demonstratesthatwhile the religions insistent that theology, being inclusive, have madesignificantcontributionsto the must incorporate empirical social reality, ideals ofpeace andnonviolence,they have helpfully mediated by sociology, but that not consistently embodied those ideals. sociology, being limited, must not lapse Eight chapters focus on [ainism, into theology. Buddhism, Confucianism and Daoism, I have only two criticisms: first, Hinduism,indigenoustraditions ofNorth Montgomery takes sociology for granted America, Islam, modern Judaism, and

186 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Dissertation Notices Study in residence with Senior • Jan S. Aritonang. Sebastian Chang-Hwan Kim. "The Encounter of the Batak People "A Study of Debates on Religious Mission with Rheinische Mi ssions-Gesellschaft Conversion in India, 1947-1999, from in the Field of Education (1861-1940)." the Perspective of Christian Mission." Ph.D. Utrecht, Netherlands: Universiteit Ph.D. Cambridge, U.K.: Univ. of Scholars Utrecht, 2001. Cambridge, 2000. Spring

Jonathan Edwin Culver. PaulV. Kollman. 2002 "The Ishmael Promises in the Light of "Making Catholics: Slave God's Mission: Christian and Muslim Evangelization and the Origins of the Reflections." Catholic Church in 19th Century East Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Africa." Seminary, 2001. Ph.D. Chicago, Ill.:Univ. of Chicago, 2001.

Judith Lynn Bartel Graner. David Koudougueret. "The Shape of Synergy: A History of "Literary Aesthetics and Bible the Assemblies of God of Colombia." Translation with Special Reference to Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological the Translation of the Book of Genesis Seminary, 2000. into the Sango Language." Ph.D. Oxford, U.K.: OxfordCentre for Dr. Edward Schroeder Mission Siudiesll.eiden Uniu., 2000. Benjamin L. Hegeman. Professor of theology since 1957, "Between Glory and Shame: A Historical and Systematic Study of William Larousse. at Valparaiso University, Indiana, "The Church Living in Dialogue: Education and Leadership Training and Concordia Seminary, St. Muslim-Christian Relations in Models Among the Baatonu in North Louis. For ten years he directed Mindanao-Sulu (Philippines): 1965­ Benin." 1997." an interdenominational, interna­ Ph.D. Utrecht, Netherlands: Universiteit tional organization offering a pro­ Utrecht, 2001. Ph.D. Rome, Italy: Faculty of Missiology of the Pontifical Gregorian Univ., 2000. gram for laity in mission to secu­ Marja Hinfelaa r. lar culture. Mark McClellan. "Respectable and Responsible Women: "Pneumatology and Liberation in Latin Methodist and Roman Catholic America: An Analysis of the Nature Prof. Roswith Gerloff Women's Organizations in Harare, and Work of the Holy Spirit in the Zimbabwe (1919-1985)." Founder and first director of the Theologies of Orlando E. Costas and Ph.D. Utrecht, Netherlands: Universiteit Centre for Black and White Chris­ Jose Comblin," Utrecht, 2001 . tian Partnership, in England. An Ph.D. Fort Worth , Tex.: Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2000. expert on the African Christian Arun Wayne Jones. Diaspora in Europe, she retired "Christian Missions in the American Bernhard Ott. from the Department of Theology Empire: Episcopalians in Northern "A Critical Analysis of Mission and Religious Studies, University Luzon." Training in Evangelical Bible Colleges Ph.D. Princeton, N.J.: PrincetonTheological and Seminaries in Germany and of Leeds, England . Seminary, 2001. German-Speaking Switzerland from 1960-1995." Ancil Karikulam. Ph.D. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford Centre for "The Prophetic Witness of Religious in M ission Studies/Open Univ., 2000. For more information, contact: the Mission of the Church in India Today." George Abraham Thalothil. Overseas Ministries Ph.D. Vatica n City, Italy: Pontificia "The Missionary Thrust of the Syro Universitii Urbaniana, 2000. Malankara Church: A Historical­ Study Center Theological Study from 1930-2000." 490 Prospect St. Sangkeun Kim. Ph.D. Vatican City, Italy: Pontificia "Strange Names of God: The Universitii Llrbaniana,2001 . New Haven, CT 06511 USA Missionary Translation of the Divine (203) 624-6672 Name and the Chinese Responses to David John Carl Zub. study@ OMSC.org Matteo Ricci's Shangti in Late Ming "Rediscovering a Critical Theology of www.OMSC.org China, 1583-1644." Religion: Religious Pluralism and Ph.D. Princeton, N.J.:Princeton Theological Theology of the Cross." Seminary, 2001 . Th.D. Toronto, Canada: Emmanuel College, Univ. of Toronto, 2001.

October 2001 187 INTERNATONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH INDEX-VOLUME 25

January through October 2001

(pages 1-48 are in theJanuary issue; pp.49-96 in April;pp.97-144 in July; and pp.145-92 in October)

ARTICLES

Adrian Hastings Remembered, by Kevin Ward, 150-51. My Pilgrimage in Mission, by Joan Delaney, M.M., 25:26-28. AnnualStatisticalTable onGlobalMission: 2001,byDavidB.Barrett My Pilgrimage in Mission, by Maria Rieckelman, M.M., 25:169-73. and Todd M. Johnson, 25:24-25. My Pilgrimage in Mission, by Harry W. Williams, 25:8D-85. Bakht Singh Chabra [Obituary], 25:13. My Pilgrimage in Mission, by Diana Witts, 25:124-26. Cultural Encounter: Korean Protestantism and Other Religious Tra­ Nine Breakthroughs in Catholic Missiology, 1965-2000, by William ditions, by James Huntley Grayson, 25:66-72. B. Frazier, 25:9-14. The CurrentState of Religious Freedom, by Paul Marshall, 25:64-66. Noteworthy, 25:12, 82, lIS, 145. Danker, William [Obituary], 25:115. Pike, Kenneth L. [Obituary], 25:82. Deyneka, Peter, J. [Obituary], 25:82. Recasting Theology of Mission: Impulses from the Non-Western Evangelism and Proselytism in Russia: Synonyms or Antonyms? by World, by Wilbert R. Shenk, 25:98-107. Mark Elliott, 25:72-75. Response to Marcello Zago, O.M.I., by Gerald H. Anderson, 25:6-8. Evangelization, Proselytism, and Common Witness: Roman Catho­ A ResurgentChurchin a Troubled Continent: ReviewEssayof Bengt lic-Pentecostal Dialogue on Mission, 1990-1997, by Veli­ Sundkler'sHistoryof theChurchin Africa,byLaminSanneh, Matti Karkkainen, 25:16-22. 25:113-18. Gender, Mission, and Higher Education in Cross-Cultural Context: Samartha, Stanley J. [Obituary], 25:177. Isabella Thobum in India, by Maina Chawla Singh, 25:165­ Seumois, Andre [Obituary], 25:12. 69. Sharpe, Eric J. [Obituary], 25:12-13. Global Integration of Catholic Missions in the United States Today, Shortcut to Language Preparation? Radical Evangelicals, Missions, by Marcello Zago, 25:2-6. and the Gift of Tongues, by Gary B. McGee, 25:118-23. Hallencrutz, Carl F. [Obituary], 25:115. Taylor, John V. [Obituary], 25:82. . Hastings, Adrian [Obituary], 25:115. Thomas, Kurien [Obituary], 25:82. Kataliko, Emmanuel [Obituary], 25:12. Types and Butterflies: African Initiated Churches and European The Legacy of Orlando Costas, by Samuel Escobar, 25:50-56. Typologies, by Allan H. Anderson, 25:107-13. The Legacy of the Gulicks, 1827-1964, by Clifford Putney, 25:28-35. UnitedSocietyfor thePropagationof theGospel, 1701-2000: Chroni­ The Legacy of William Milne, by P. Richard Bohr, 25:173-77. clingThreeCenturiesof Mission,byDaniel0'Connor,25:75­ The Legacy of Edwin W. Smith, by W. John Young, 25:126-30. 79. The Legacy of Bengt Sundkler, by Eric J. Sharpe, 25:58-63. Verkuyl, Johannes [Obituary], 25:82-83. Miracles and Missions Revisited, by Gary B. McGee, 25:146-56. WomenMissionaries in India: OpeningUp theRestrictivePoliciesof Muller, Karl [Obituary], 25:82. Rufus Anderson, by Eugene Heideman, 25:157-64. Murray, Jocelyn M. [Obituary], 25:115. Zago, Marcello [Obituary], 25:82.

CONTRIBUTORS OF ARTICLES

Anderson, Allan H.-Types and Butterflies: African Initiated Restrictive Policies of Rufus Anderson, 25:157-64. Churches and European Typologies, 25:107-13. Johnson, Tod M., and David B.Barrett-AnnualStatistical Table on Anderson, Gerald H.-Response to Marcello Zago, O.M.I., 25:6-8. Global Mission: 2001, 25:24-25. Barrett,DavidB.,andTodd M. Johnson-AnnualStatisticalTableon Karkkainen, Veli-Matti-Evangelization, Proselytism, and Com­ Global Mission: 2001, 25:24-25. monWitness: RomanCatholic-PentecostalDialogueonMis­ Bohr, P. Richard-The Legacy of William Milne, 25:173-77. sion, 1990-1997,25:16-22. Delaney, Joan, M.M.-My Pilgrimage in Mission, 25:26-28. Marshall, Paul-The Current State of Religious Freedom, 25:64-66. Elliott, Mark-Evangelism and Proselytism in Russia: Synonyms or McGee, Gary B.-Miracles and Missions Revisited, 25:146-56. Antonyms? 25:72-75. -- Shortcut to Language Preperation? Radical Evangelicals, Escobar, Samuel-The Legacy of Orlando Costas, 25:50-56. Missions, and the Gift of Tongues, 25:118-23. Frazier, William B.-Nine Breakthroughs in Catholic Missiology, O'Connor, Daniel-United Society for the Propagation of the Gos­ 1965-2000,25:9-14. pel, 1701-2000: Chronicling Three Centuries of Mission, Grayson, James Huntley--Cultural Encounter: Korean Protestant­ 25:75-79. ism and Other Religious Traditions, 25:66-72. Putney, Clifford-The Legacy of the Gulicks, 1827-1964,25:28-35. Heideman,Eugene-WomenMissionariesin India: OpeningUpthe Rieckelman, Maria, M.M.-My Pilgrimage in Mission, 25:169-73.

188 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Sanneh, Lamin-A Resurgent Church in a Troubled Continent: Cross-Cultural Context: Isabella Thoburn in India, 25:165-69. Review Essay of Bengt Sundkler's History of the Church in Ward, Kevin-Adrian Hastings Remembered, 25:150-51. Africa, 25:113-18. Williams, Harry W.-My Pilgrimage in Mission, 25:80-85. Sharpe, Eric J.-The Legacy of Bengt Sundkler, 25:58-63. Witts, Diana-My Pilgrimage in Mission, 25:124-26. Shenk, Wilbert R.-Recasting Theology of Mission: Impulses from Young, W. John-The Legacy of Edwin W. Smith, 25:126-30. the Non-Western World, 25:98-107. Zago, Marcello-Global Integration of Catholic Missions in the Singh, Maina Chawla-Gender, Mission, and Higher Education in United States Today, 25:2-6.

BOOKS REVIEWED

Aerts, Theo-Christianity in Melanesia, 25:137. Hiebert, Paul G., R. Daniel Shaw, and Tite Tienou-s-Understanding Alt, Josef,S.V.D.-ArnoldJanssen: Lebensweg undLebenswerkdes Folk Religion: A Christian Response to Popular Beliefs and Steyler Ordensgriinders, 25:139. Practices, 25:45. Anderson, Allan-Zion and Pentecost: The Spirituality and Experi­ Huber, Mary Taylor, and Nancy Lutkehaus-Gendered Missions: ence of PentecostalandZionist/ ApostolicChurchesin South Women and Men in Missionary Discourse and Practice, Africa, 25:131. 25:134. Anderson, William, Roland Werner, and Andrew Wheeler-Day of Hudson, D. Dennis-Protestant Origins in India: Tamil Evangelical Devastation, Day of Contentment: The History of the Christians, 1706-1835, 25:180-81. Sudanese Church Across 2000 Years, 25:131. Irvin, Dale T.-Christian Histories, Christian Traditioning: Render­ An-Na'im, AbdullahiAhmed-ProselytizationandCommunalSelf­ ing Accounts, 25:136-37. Determination in Africa, 25:132-33. Jeyakumar, Arthur-Christianity and the National Movement: The Ariarajah, S. Wesley-Not Without My Neighbour: Issues on Inter­ Memoranda of 1919 and the National Movement, with Spe­ faith Relations, 25:45-46. cial Reference to Protestant Christians in Tamil Nadu: 1919­ Athyal, jesudas M., ed.-Relevant Patterns of Christian Witness in 1939,25:87-88. India: People as Agents of Mission, 25:88. Johnston, Charles M., and James G. Greenlee-Good Citizens: Brit­ Baldridge,Gary-KeithParks: BreakingBarriersandOpeningFron­ ish Missionaries and Imperial States, 1870 to 1918, 25:86. tiers, 25:40-41. Kelley, Patricia-Fifty Monsoons: Ministry of Change Through Berthrong,John H.-TheDivineDeli: Religious Identityin the North Women of India, 25:46. American Cultural Mosaic, 25:139. Kirk, J. Andrew-Whatis Mission? Theological Explorations, 25:91. Bevans, Stephen B.,and James A. Scherer-New Directions in Mis­ Loewen, Jacob A.-The Bible in Cross-Cultural Perspective, 25:141. sion and Evangelization. Vol. 3, Faith and Culture, 25:42-43. Lutkehaus, Nancy, and Mary Taylor Huber-Gendered Missions: Bourdeaux, Michael, and John Witte, Jr.-Proselytism and Ortho­ Women and Men in Missionary Discourse and Practice, doxy in Russia: The New War for Souls, 25:44. 25:134. Brinkman, Martien E., and Hugo Vlug, eds.-Faith in the City: Fifty Malek, Roman, collab. and Irene Eber, Knut WaIf, Sze-kar Wan, Years of WCC in Secularized Western Context: Amsterdam, eds.-Bible in Modern China: The Literary and Intellectual 1948-1998,25:92-93. Impact, 25:140. Brown, Michael L.-AnsweringJewish Objections to Jesus: General Marshall, Paul-Religious Freedom in the World: A Global Report and Historical Objections, 25:93-94. on Freedom and Persecution, 25:36-37. Bunkowske, Eugene W., series ed. and Alan D. Scott, asist. ed.-The Mathew, C. V.-The Saffron Mission, 25:182-83. Lutherans in Mission: Essays in Honor of Won Yong[i, 25:89. Mathews, James K.-A Global Odyssey: The Autobiography of Copeland, E. Luther-A New Meeting of the Religions: Interreli­ James K. Matthews, 25:141-42. gious Relationships and Theological Questioning, 25:90-91. McDermott, Gerald R.-Can Evangelicals Learn from World Reli­ Cornelius,Janet Duitsman-SlaveMissions and the BlackChurchin gions?Jesus, Revelationand Religious Traditions,25:135-36. the Antebellum South, 25:139-40. . Montgomery, Robert L.-Introduction to the Sociology of Missions, Daneel, M. L.-African Earthkeepers Vol. 1: Interfaith Mission in 25:186. Earth-care, 25:37-38. Moreau, A. Scott-Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions, 25:36. --- African Earthkeepers Vol. 2: Environmental Mission and Mullins, Mark R.-Christianity Made in Japan: A Study of Indig­ Liberation in Christian Perspective, 25:37-38. enous Movements, 25:42. De Ridder, Koen-Footsteps in Deserted Valleys: Missionary Cases, Nickel, Gordon D.-Peaceable Witness Among Muslims, 25:142. Strategies and Practice in Qing China, 25:185-86. O'Connor, Daniel, and others-Three Centuries of Mission: The Eber,Irene,Sze-karWan,KnutWalf,eds.andRomanMalek,collab.­ United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 1701-2000, Biblein ModernChina: The Literary andIntellectualImpact, 25:86-87. 25:140. Piper, John F.-Robert E. Speer: Prophet of the American Church, Friesen, J. Stanley-Missionary Responses to Tribal Religions at 25:138-39. Edinburgh 1910,25:38-40. Presler, Titus L.-Transfigured Night: Mission and Culture in Golvers, Noel-e-Louvain Chinese Studies VII: Francois De Zimbabwe's Vigil Movement, 25:91-92. Rougemont, S.J.,Missionary in Ch'ang-Shu (Chiang-nan). A Ramachandra, Vinoth-Faiths In Conflict? Christian Integrity in a Study of the Account Book (1674-1676) and the Elogium, Multicultural World, 25:90-91. 25:141. Rightmire, R.David-SalvationistSamurai: Gunpei Yamamuro and Greenlee, James G., and Charles M. Johnston-Good Citizens: Brit­ the Rise of the Salvation Army in Japan, 25:43. ish Missionaries and Imperial States, 1870 to 1918,25:86. Russell, Horace O.-The Missionary Outreach of the West Indian Harper, Susan B.-In the Shadow of the Mahatma: Bishop V. S. Church: Jamaican Baptist Missions to West Africa in the Azariah and the Travails of Christianity in British India, Ninteenth Century, 25:185-86. 25:179. Scherer, James A., and Stephen B. Bevans-New Directions in Mis­ Harris, Paul William-Nothing but Christ: Rufus Anderson and the sion and Evangelization. Vol. 3, Faith and Culture, 25:42-43. Ideology of Protestant Foreign Missions, 25:133-34. Schirrmacher, Thomas-Kein anderer Name: Die Einzigartigkeit Henry, Helga Bender-Cameroon on a Clear Day, 25:93. [esu Christi und das Cesprach mit den nichtchristlichen

October 2001 189 Religionen. Festschrift zum 70. Geburtstag von Peter Viswanathan, Gauri-Cutside the Fold: Conversion, Modernity, Beyerhaus,25:135. and Belief, 25:89-90. Scott,Alan D.,asist. ed., andEugeneW. Bunkowske,series ed.-The Vlug, Hugo, and Martien E. Brinkman, eds.-Faith in the City: Fifty Lutheransin Mission: Essays in HonorofWon YongJi,25:89. Years of WCC in Secularized Western Context: Amsterdam, Scudder, Lewis R., III-The Arabian Mission's Story, 25:137-38. 1948-1998,25:92-93. Shaw, R. Daniel, Paul G. Hiebert, and Tite Tienou-e-Understanding WaIf, Knut, Irene Eber, Sze-kar Wan, eds., and Roman Malek, Folk Religion: A Christian Response to Popular Beliefs and collab.-Bible in Modem China: The Literary and Intellec­ Practices, 25:~5. .', . ." tual Impact, 25:140. , Shorter, Aylward-African Culture, an Overview: Sociocultural Wan, Sze-kar, Irene Eber, Knut WaIf, eds., and Roman Malek, Anthropology, 25:43-44. collab.-Bible in Modem China: The Literary and Intellec­ Singh, Maina Chawla-Gender, Religion, and "Heathen Lands": tual Impact, 25:140. American Missionary Women in South Asia (1860s-1940s), Ward, Kevin, and Brian Stanley-The Church Mission Society and 25:179-80. World Christianity, 1799-1999,25:131-32. Smith-Christopher,Daniel L.-SubvertingHatred: The Challengeof Webster, John C.B.-Religion and Dalit Liberation: An Examination Nonviolence in Religious Traditions, 25:186. of Perspectives, 25:182. Standaert,Nicolas-Handbookof Christianityin China, Vol.1:635­ Werner, Roland, William Anderson, and Andrew Wheeler-Day of 1800,25:183-84. Devastation, Day of Contentment: The History of the Stanley, Brian, and Kevin Ward-The Church Mission Society and Sudanese Church Across 2000 Years, 25:131. World Christianity, 1799-1999,25:131-32. Wheeler, Andrew, Roland Werner, and William Anderson-Day of Thangaraj, M. Thomas-The Common Task: A Theology of Chris­ Devastation, Day of Contentment: The History of the tian Mission, 25:45-46. Sudanese Church Across 2000 Years, 25:131. Thorne, Susan-Congregational Missions and the Making of an Witte, John, [r., and Michael Bourdeaux-Proselytism and Ortho­ Imperial Culture in Nineteenth-Century England, 25:86. doxy in Russia: The New War for Souls, 25:44. Tienou, Tite, Paul G. Hiebert, and R. Daniel Shaw-Understanding Woodberry,J.Dudley-Reachingthe Resistant: Barriers andBridges Folk Religion: A Christian Response to Popular Beliefs and for Mission, 25:44. Practices, 25:45. Yamamoto, Sumiko-History of Protestantism in China: The Ting, K. H.-Love Never Ends, Papers by K.H. Ting, ed. Janice Indigenization of Christianity, 25:184-85. Wickeri,25:184. Zebiri, Kate-Muslims and Christians Face to Face, 25:181-82.

REVIEWERS

Akinade, Akintunde E., 25:142. Pickard, William M., Jr., 25:139. Tienou, Tite, 25:132-33. Anderson, Gerald H., 25:141-42. Pobee, John S., 25:43-44. Tiessen, Terrance, 25:90-91. Anderson, Justice C., 25:40-41. Rader, Jr., Lyell M., 25:43. Van Engen, Charles, 25:91,92-93. Bays, Daniel H., 25:140, 184. Ramachandra, Vinoth, 25:45-46. Van Wyk, J. J., 25:37-38. Brickner, David, 25:93-94. Reynolds, Mary Bernadette, R.N.D.M., Vogelaar, Harold, 25:137-38. Camps, Amulf, 25:139. 25:46. Walls, Andrew, 25:86-87. Donders, Joseph G., 25;131. Robert, Dana, 25:179-80. Wan, Enoch, 25:45. Dunch, Ryan, 25:183-84~ Russell, Horace, 25:139-40. Webster, John C. B.,25:89-90. Entenmann, Robert, 25:141~ Sawatsky, Walter, 25:44. Whiteman, Darrell L., 25:137. Frykenberg, Robert Ej.,'25:1'3~j7. Schneider, Robert, 25:133-34. Wingate, Andrew, 25:87-88. Gilliland, Dean, 25:93. Schreiter, Robert J., 25:36. Witts, Diana, 25:131. Gittins, Anthony J., 25:141. Seiple, Robert, 25:36-37. Yesurathnam, R., 25:88. Grant, Kevin, 25:86. Shenk, Calvin E., 25:135-36. Iwasaki, Ken, 25:42. Shenk, Wilbert R., 25:38-40, 131-32, 138­ DOCTORAL Lapp, John A., 25:179. 39. DISSERTATIONS Larson, Warren F., 25:44. Stanley, Brian, 25:185-86. Liu, Judith, 25:185-86. Stuehrenberg, Paul F., 25:89. Dissertation Notices, 25:142, 187. Michel, Tom, 25:181-82. Taber, Charles, 25:186. Miller, Jon, 25:180-81. Tennent, Timothy C., 25:182-83. BOOK NOTES Nehring, Andreas, 25:135. Thangaraj, M. Thomas, 25:182. Nemer, Lawrence, 25:42-43. Thomas, Nancy, 25:134. On back page of each issue-48, 96, 144, Pankratz, James N., 25:186. Thomas, Norman, 25:91-92. 192.

190 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Sharpen April 1-5 Your Christianity and Islam: Missionary Religions in Tension. Dr. David A. Kerr, Edinburgh University, guides Christians toward a sensitive and informed presence among Muslims. Cosponsored Mission Vision by F.M.M. Mission Resource Center, Reformed Church in America Mission Services, and United Church/Disciples of Christ Com­ at mon Global Ministries Board. Eight sessions. $95 April 8- 11 Culture, Interpersonal Conflict, and Christian Mission. Dr. Duane Elmer, Professor oflnternational Studies, Trinity Evangelical Divin­ ity School, helps Christian workers strengthen interpersonal skills and resolve conflicts among colleagues and fellow believers. Co­ sponsored by Christian Reformed World Missions. Seven sessions, concluding Thursday. $85 April 11-13 Korean Missions in the 21st Century. Dr. Jung Woon Suh, former president, Presbyterian College and Theological Seminary, Seoul , Korea, leads a four-session seminar, Thursday evening through Sat­ urday noon, conducted in the Korean language. Four sessions,. $50 .

~p l'i l 15-19 Spring OMSC Study Program Schedule bi a World of Faiths, Why Jesus? Dr. Edward H. Schroeder, OMSC Senior Mission Scholar, former director ofa program for laity in mis­ J a n. 21- 25, 2002 sign to secular culture, explores what is "good" and what is "new" Culture, Values, and Worldview: Anthropology. for,: out the Good News ofJesus Christ. Eight sessions. $95 sion Practice. Dr. Darrell L. Whiteman, Asbury Semi ' ' ~ r il 22-26 shows how our worldview and theology of culture'afti neys of Faith. Canon Diana Witts, former missionary in East cross-cultural mission. Cosponsored by American Baptist and general secretary, Church Mission Society, explores links ternational Ministries. Eight sessions. $95 etween selected biblical figures, present day nomadic peoples, and J a n. 28- Feb. 1 our own pilgrimages in mission. Cosponsored by St. John's Episco­ Ethnicity as Gift and Barrier: Human Identity and Chrls-« pal Church (New Haven ). Eight sessions. $95 tian Mission. Dr. Tite Tienou, Trinity Evangelical Divinity April 29-May 3 School, works from firsthand experience in Africa to identify the Leadership, Fund-raising, and Donor Development for cross-cultural challenges faced by the global church in mission. Mission. Mr. Rob Martin, First Fruit, Inc., Newport Beach, Calif. , Cosponsored by Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod North Ameri­ uttines;rteps for building the support base, including foundation can Missions, Mennonite Central Committee, SIM U.S.A., and funding, for mission. Eight sessions. $95 United Methodist Board of Global Ministries. Eight sessions. $95 -May 27 ..;c~1 GoodNews in Urban Contexts. Dr. Robert Lupton, President, Feb. 25-Mar. I FCS Urban Ministries, Atlanta, leads a seminar on holistic urban Servant Leadership for Mission: Biblical Models and Guide­ ministries. Cosponsored by Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod, lines. Dr. Donald R. Jacobs, Mennonite Leadership Foundation, held atithe Center f or Missions, Concordia University, and Dr. Douglas McConnell, Pioneers, apply foundational prin­ u. s. Irvin!!>, Calif. Eight sessions. $95 ciples in light of the internationalization of the Christian mis­ sion. Cosponsored by Eastern Mennonite Missions. Eight ses­ r- ~------, sions . $95 Pleqs.:e : .~elUl more information about these seminars: I March 4-8 I Spiritual Renewal in the Missionary Community. Dr. Maria I Rieckelman, M.M., and Rev. Stanley W. Green , Mennonite Board of Missions, guide a time of personal renewal through biblical I and community reflection. Cosponsored by General Conference I Mennonite Church. Eight sessions. $95 NAME _ I Ma r. 11-1 5 ADDRESS _ I Christian Mission: What We Can Learn from Wisdom Tra­ I ditions. Prof. Marlene DeNardo, Naropa University, Oakland, Calif., explores some wisdom traditions for insights and connec­ I tions with the Christian message. Cosponsored by Maryknoll (203) 624-6672 Fax (203) 865-2857 I Mission Institute, and held at Maryknoll, New York. Eight ses­ I Register online at www.OMSC.org I L ~ sions. $120 Mar. 18- 22 Reaching Unreached Peoples: Updating Progress and Strat­ egies. Dr. Michael Pocock, Dallas Seminary, offers evaluation Overseas Ministries Study Center and guidelines for making progress in fulfilling Jesus' Great Com­ 490 Pro spect St. , New Haven, CT 06511 mission. Cosponsored by Africa Inland Mission International. Eight sessions. $95 Publishers ofI NTERNATIONAL B ULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Book Notes In Corning Bediako, Kwame. Jesus in Africa: The Christian Gospel in African History and Experience. Issues Akropong-Akuapem, Ghana: RegnumAfrica, 2000. Pp.xiii, 124. Paperback $12. Braybrooke, Marcus. Christian Mission and Islamic Christian-Jewish Dialogue: The Next Steps. Studies: Beyond Antithesis London: SCM Press, 2000. Pp. xiv, 146. Paperback $12.95. David A. Kerr Cruchley-Jones, Peter. Kenneth Cragg in Perspective: A Singing the Lord's Song in a Strange Land? A Missiological Interpretation of Comparison with Temple Gairdner the Ely Pastorate Churches. and Wilfred Cantwell Smith Studies in theIntercultural Historyof Christianity, Vol. 123. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, James A. Tebbe 2001. Pp. 249. Paperback $42.95. The Contribution of the "Jesus" Douglas, Ian T., andKwok Pui-Lan, eds. Film to World Evangelization Beyond Colonial Anglicanism: The Anglican Communion in the Twenty-First PaulA. Eshleman Century. Brazil: "Evangelized" Giant New York: Church Publishing, 2001. Pp.viii, 376. Paperback $23.95. Committed to Liberating Kroeger, James H., general ed. Evangelism Telling God's Story. National Mission Congress 2000 Resources and Sherron K. George Documents. The Lesslie NewbiginlKonrad Episcopal Commission onMission. Catholic Bishops' Conference of thePhilippines. Raiser Dialogue on Mission Quezon City, Philippines: Claretian Publications, 2001. Pp.viii, 139, Paperback $12. Michael Goheen Larousse, William. From Jerusalem to Oxford: Mission A Local Church Living for Dialogue: Muslim-Christian Relations in as Foundation of Ecumenical.Social Mindanao-Sulu (Philippines), 1965-2000. Vol. 4 of Interreligious and Thought Intercultural Investigations. John Flett Rome: Editrice Pontificia Unioersita Gregoriana, 2001. Pp.xviii, 645. Paperback $41/ L 75,000. In our Series on the Legacy of Outstanding Missionary Figures of Lee, Philip, ed. the Nineteenth and Twentieth Communication and Reconciliation: Challenges Facing the Twenty-First Century. Centuries, articles about Geneva: WCCPublications; London: World Association forChristian Communication, Norman Anderson 2001. Pp. xii, 97. Paperback SFr15/$9.95/£6.50. Thomas Barclay Lloyd-Sidle, Patricia, and Bonnie Sue Lewis, eds. Rowland V. Bingham Teaching Mission in a GlcbalContext, Helene de Chappotin Louisville, Ky.: Geneva Press, 2001. Pp.vv, 151. Paperback. $16.95. ShokiCoe Ludwig, Frieder. Francois E. Daubanton Zwischen Kolonialismuskritik und Kirchenkampf: Interaktionen James Gilmour afrikanischer, indischer und europaischer Christen wihrend der Robert Reid Kalley Weltmissionskonferenz Tambaram 1938. Hannah Kilham Studies in theHistoryofChristianity in theNon-Western World, Vol. 5. Goitingen: George Leslie Mackay Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2000. Pp.352. Paperback. DM 104. Lesslie Newbigin M.D.Opara Presler, Titus. Constance E. Padwick Horizons of Mission. Julius Richter The New Church's Teaching Series, Vol. 11. Cambridge and Boston: Cowley Elizabeth Russell Publications. Pp. xiii, 223. Paperback. $11.95. Johannes Schutte, S.V.D. Sachsenmaier, Dominic. William Shellabear Die Aufnahme europaischer Inhalte in die chinesische Kultur durch Zhu BakhtSingh Zongyuan (ca. 1616-1660). James Stephen Monumenta Serica Monograph Series 47. SanktAugustin, Ger.: Institut Monumenta John V. Taylor Serica, 2001. Pp.472. DM 80. M.M. Thomas William Cameron Townsend Synan,Vinson. Isabelle Lilias Trotter The Century of the Holy Spirit: 100 Years of Pentecostal and Charismatic Johannes Verkuyl Renewal, 1901-2001. William Vories Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2001. Pp. xii, 492. $29.99. Wessels, Anton. Understanding the Qur'an. London: SCM-Canterbury Press, 2000. Pp.vi, 170. Paperback $14.95.