Shell Beach Island Restoration Environmental Assessment

United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Land Management

Date: 04/22/2015

Environmental Assessment DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA (Previously DOI-BLM-CA-C05000-2015-13)

Shell Beach Island Restoration, Phase 1 Location: Shell Beach Island, California Coastal National Monument, Sonoma County

U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Land Management Ukiah Field Office 2550 North State Street Ukiah, CA 95482 Phone: (707) 468-4000 FAX: (707) 468-4027 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA

Table of Contents Chapter 1 - Introduction ...... 1 Introduction ...... 1 Need Statement ...... 1 Conformance with BLM Land Use Plans and other Programmatic Environmental Documents ...... 5 Tiering to Other Existing Environmental Documents ...... 5 Relationships to Statutes, Regulations, Policy, and Guidance ...... 5 Chapter 2 - Proposed Action and No-Action Alternatives ...... 7 Alternative A (Preferred) ...... 7 Alternative B – No Action ...... 11 Chapter 3 – Affected Environment ...... 11 1. Air Quality ...... 11 2. Vegetation ...... 12 3. Wildlife ...... 13 4. Cultural Resources ...... 13 5. Recreation ...... 15 6. Soil ...... 16 7. Visual Resource Management ...... 16 Chapter 4 Environmental Impacts ...... 16 1. Air Quality ...... 16 2. Vegetation ...... 17 3. Wildlife ...... 17 4. Cultural Resources: ...... 18 5. Recreation ...... 19 6. Soils ...... 19 7. Visual Resource Management ...... 20 Residual Effects: ...... 20 Cumulative Effects: ...... 21 Chapter 5 Consultation and Coordination ...... 22 Persons, Groups, and Agencies Consulted: ...... 22 Summary of Public Participation: ...... 22 References ...... 22

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Chapter 1 - Introduction

Introduction The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Ukiah Field Office and the California Coastal National Monument (CCNM) are planning to restore the natural conditions of offshore islands that provide habitat for sensitive wildlife species and native vegetation while securing cultural resources in their archaeological context. Research conducted on behalf of the BLM by The Sea Ranch Stewardship Task Force (hereafter the Task Force) has documented increased human use and disturbance of the CCNM’s Shell Beach Island in Sonoma County, California, resulting in impairment to the population of Blasdale’s Bent Grass (Agrostis blasdalei), a BLM Special Status Species, and to cultural resources on the island. The purpose of the proposed restoration is to augment the population of Blasdale’s Bent Grass, restore native vegetation, reduce the effects of past and future human disturbance, and protect cultural resources. Figure 1 shows an aerial photograph of the restoration site and its surroundings.

Figure 1: Aerial Photograph of Shell Beach Island and its Surroundings

TSRA Parking Lot

Shell Beach

Shell Beach Island

TSRA = The Sea Ranch Association

Need Statement Presidential Proclamation 7264 (The White House 2000) established the CCNM and mandates that the BLM manage “irreplaceable scientific values vital to protecting the fragile ecosystems of the California coastline…” One irreplaceable scientific value is the only known offshore population of Blasdale’s Bent Grass on Shell Beach Island, Sonoma County, a grass species endemic to California that is accorded special status and protection by the State of California. The grass is a CNPS Rare Plant Rank 1B.2 species

1 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA and is thus considered “fairly endangered” in California, with 20-80% of its occurrences threatened and a moderate degree and immediacy of threat. The grass is ranked as “imperiled” with a threat designation of “threatened” (S2.2) on the State Special Plants list and “imperiled” on the Global list (G2). Although not formally listed as endangered, threatened or rare by the federal government or the State of California, Blasdale’s Bent Grass meets the criteria for formal listing.

The need for ecological restoration of the grass on Shell Beach Island stems principally from unnatural stressors affecting soil and vegetation. Multiple non-native plant species and human trampling are resulting in loss of plant cover and increased soil erosion. Previous efforts by The Sea Ranch Task Force to dissuade people from climbing onto Shell Beach Island have not been wholly successful. Native vegetation cover is less than expected and in need of recovery.

The proposed restoration meets the three goals of the CCNM as stated in the California Coastal National Monument Resource Management Plan (BLM 2005) (hereafter RMP) as follows:

· Protect the geological formations and the habitat that they provide for biological resources of the CCNM. · Protect the scenic and cultural values associated with the CCNM. · Coordinate planning and management activities with the numerous jurisdictions on and adjacent to the CCNM and use the CCNM to help enhance cooperative and collaborative initiatives and partnerships with a variety of communities, agencies, organizations, academic institutions, the public, and other stakeholders.

The proposed restoration addresses primarily an RMP objective for vegetation:

· OJ-VEG-2 Restore the quality and integrity of native vegetation where it has been determined to be impaired as a result of human activities or non-native invasive species.

Related RMP objectives are also addressed through the proposed restoration:

· OJ-GEO-2 Restore the quality and integrity of [geologic and soil] resources to natural conditions where they have been impaired as a result of human activity. · OJ-WILD-2 Restore habitat that has been adversely affected by human activity or non-native invasive species. · OJ-CUL-1 Protect NRHP-eligible and potentially eligible cultural resources from human-caused disturbance and destruction when appropriate. · OJ-VRM-1 Manage all monument lands as Visual Resources Management (VRM) Class I, except where safety requirements for navigational aid visibility would conflict with this objective.

2 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA The proposed restoration intends to repair past human damage from trampling sensitive native vegetation on Shell Beach Island and to reduce future human damage. Additionally, the restoration will eliminate or greatly reduce the vegetation cover occupied by non-native species.

The BLM and the Task Force have jointly developed a restoration plan, attached to this document as Appendix A.

Management activities established in the RMP to accomplish objectives provide guidance as follows:

· MA-VEG-1 Criteria for Management. Documentation that harm to a listed plant species is occurring will be an overriding criterion for implementing management action. As an initial step in RMP implementation, additional criteria will be developed for identifying the plant species and communities requiring management and protection. Criteria will include, but not be limited to, the unique nature of the resource in question, the sensitivity of the resource to disturbance, and the threat or potential threat to the resource.

The Task Force provided a specimen of Blasdale’s Bent Grass from Shell Beach Island to the BLM California State Office. That specimen is now housed at the University of California at Davis Herbarium (UCD Accession #103560). A record of the site location is also part of the California Natural Diversity Database maintained by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife.

The California Department of Fish and Wildlife has classified Blasdale’s Bent Grass as a State of California Rare Plant Species. The BLM California State Office has designated Blasdale’s Bent Grass as a Special Status Species. Shell Beach Island is the only location offshore where this species is known to occur. All other populations are found on the California coast mainland from approximately Greyhound Rock State Park north of Davenport, Santa Cruz County, to just north of Westport, Mendocino County.

· MA-VEG-2 Site Inventory. An inventory of vegetation and vegetation communities will be maintained. As part of the site inventory, BLM will make elimination of the identified gaps in knowledge about the distribution and status of plant species a primary goal ... On the basis of the above activities and the criteria developed under MA-VEG-1, BLM will work cooperatively with DFG [now Department of Fish and Wildlife], DPR, FWS, and other agencies to identify rocks and islands in need of management attention. This identification process will be a dynamic one. As new information comes to light, site status will be changed appropriately.

The Task Force has inventoried terrestrial plant species on Shell Beach Island. Non- native invasive species co-occur with Blasdale’s Bent Grass on Shell Beach Island. Section 3.2 of this document lists the non-native species found on the island.

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· MA-VEG-3 Adaptive Management. A variety of management activities may be implemented in the specific areas identified for management under MA-VEG-2, including but not limited to:

§ Targeted education to make CCNM users aware of existing or potential conflicts associated with important native plant communities in specific monument locations. § Enforcement actions. § Active management, including restoration or other forms of management intervention. § Use restrictions, as described below under AU-VEG-1.

The BLM has been working with its partners at The Sea Ranch Association (TSRA) and its Task Force, and the Sonoma County Regional Parks to place signs on The Sea Ranch property requesting people to stay off Shell Beach Island so that the island can recuperate from human trampling and soil disturbance. Both security staff with law enforcement authority from TSRA and law enforcement officers from the Sonoma County Regional Parks conduct regular patrols of the area around the island.

No enforcement actions have occurred to date. The BLM has not previously restricted people’s access to the island by means of a temporary, seasonal, or permanent closure.

· MA-VEG-4 Invasive Non-Native Species Control. Develop an invasive non-native plant species management and eradication program, consistent with the long-term protection of native plant communities. This program will be designed to reduce competition from non-native plants and encourage the long-term survival of native plant communities. An Integrated Pest Management approach will be applied to invasive non-native species infestations. Control measures primarily will consist of manual and mechanical removal, and use of fire. Removal of invasive plant species by manual means is the preferred method of eradication and will be used wherever possible. The use of herbicides will be restricted to specific situations when other alternatives are determined to be infeasible or ineffective. Any proposed use of herbicides will be conservative and will target specific weed individuals for a given species. Any herbicide use will be assessed using the NEPA process and will be made available for public comment. Control measures will incorporate best management practices (BMPs) and other strategies to protect air quality, protect water quality, avoid adverse noise effects, and minimize erosion.

Control of six non-native invasive species on Shell Beach Island is part of the proposed restoration plan. Herbicides are not part of the proposed restoration plan.

4 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA Conformance with BLM Land Use Plans and other Programmatic Environmental Documents Restoration of native plant species and control of invasive, non-native species are management actions covered in the California Coastal National Monument RMP/Record of Decision (ROD) (September, 2005). The RMP/ROD for the National Monument is the comprehensive decision documents for general management goals and objectives. This EA provides more detailed, site-specific analysis for implementing conservation-based restoration at Shell Beach Island, Sonoma County.

Tiering to Other Existing Environmental Documents This EA does not tier to any other existing environmental document.

Relationships to Statutes, Regulations, Policy, and Guidance This EA analyzes site-specific conditions on Shell Beach Island in accordance with Federal legislation. Relevant statutes, regulations, policy, and guidance are discussed individually below.

National Environmental Policy Act This Environmental Assessment (EA) is tiered to CCNM RMP/ROD, signed in September, 2005. Therefore, this EA is consistent with NEPA and regulations at 43 CFR Subtitle A, part 46. The RMP describes the management activities authorized for removing non-native plants and restoring the vacated space with plants and seeds of Blasdale’s Bent Grass and other native species. The RMP also provides guidance for managing human disturbance, wildlife resources, visual resources, and cultural resources.

Clean Air Act The BLM has air resource program responsibilities through its permitting programs and Clean Air Act (CAA) requirements. The Shell Beach restoration site lies entirely within the Sonoma County portion of the North Coast Air Basin and within the administrative jurisdiction of the Northern Sonoma Air Pollution Control District. The area of Sonoma County where Shell Beach Island is located is unclassified for compliance with all National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQSs) for criteria pollutants (as of June 2013) under the CAA. The project site is unclassified for State of California Ambient Air Quality Standards (CAAQS) for carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, and visibility- reducing particles and in attainment for all other air pollutant levels for CAAQS pollutants (also as of June 2013): ozone, PM2.5, PM10, nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide, sulfates, and lead.

Endangered Species Act The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) requires federal agencies to complete formal consultation with the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) for any action that “may affect” federally listed species or critical habitat. The ESA also requires federal agencies to use their authorities to carry out programs for the conservation of endangered and threatened species.

5 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA No species listed as federally threatened or endangered occur at the restoration project site or in the area of access to the project area from the mainland on lands managed by TSRA or the Sonoma County Regional Parks.

Marine Mammal Protection Act The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 prohibits, with certain exceptions, the “take” of marine mammals in U.S. marine waters. “Take” includes both personal and commercial consumptive use and human disturbance of animals. Marine mammals are resources of great international significance. This legislation seeks to avoid the danger of extinction or depletion of marine mammal populations from human actions. Populations are not permitted to fall below their optimum sustainable population level. Marine mammals occur in the immediate vicinity of Shell Beach Island.

Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, as amended Provisions of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) prohibit actions to pursue, hunt, take, capture, kill, possess, or sell, any migratory bird any part, nest, or egg of any such bird among others unless permitted by regulations. Felony violations under the MBTA must be “knowingly” committed.

Most recent amendments to the MBTA prohibit placing or directing the placement of bait on or adjacent to an area for the purpose of taking migratory game birds.

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as Amended The National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 provides for the establishment of the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) to include historic properties such as districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects that are significant in American history, architecture, archaeology, and culture. Section 106 of the Act requires federal agencies with jurisdiction over a proposed federal project to take into account the effect of the undertaking on cultural resources listed or eligible for listing on the NRHP, and afford the State Historic Preservation Offices and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation an opportunity to comment regarding the undertaking. The NRHP eligibility criteria have been defined by the Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for Evaluation (36 CFR 60).

Scoping and Public Participation Public participation will be invited when t the BLM Ukiah Field Office posts the EA on its website for a 30-day public comment period.

6 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA Chapter 2 - Proposed Action and No-Action Alternatives

The proposed action is designed to control non-native invasive plants and to restore native plants, particularly Blasdale’s Bent Grass, on Shell Beach Island, Sonoma County, California. In executing the proposed action, the BLM would also restore other biotic and abiotic resources, reduce the effects of past human disturbance, increase wildlife use, and protect important cultural resources.

The island is located in northwest Sonoma County, California, at 38° 43' 30.32" N, 123° 28' 51.78" W. The site location in UTM NAD 83, Zone10, northing and easting readings is: 458176E 4286375N. The present-day Sea Ranch and the CCNM offshore rocks, reefs, and islands were part of the original Rancho Germán Mexican Land Grant. The Ranch and offshore rock islands have never been surveyed and attributed as part of the Township and Range grid. Therefore, township, range, and section location information does not apply to restoration site.

Shell Beach Island is an island totaling 88m2 or 947 square feet immediately offshore of Shell Beach at The Sea Ranch, a residential development. Ocean water surrounds the island at mean high tide. At low tide, a land bridge extends across rocks and sand from Shell Beach to Shell Beach Island.

Alternative A (Preferred) The BLM has prepared a restoration project that includes the following restoration objectives for Shell Beach Island:

· Complete removal of iceplant (Carpobrotus chilensis) from the island · Reduced seed bank and growth of non-native grass species · Reestablishment of native shrubs and forbs to cover the entire island · Increased and sustained natural reproduction of the Blasdale’s Bent Grass · Vegetation restoration that is resilient to environmental stressors and resistant to non-native invasive plant species · Restoration of vegetation to the compacted path on the edge of island · No alteration to any cultural antiquities · Protection of traditional Native American cultural resources

The restoration of Shell Beach Island is conceived as being in phases. This project is Phase 1. Subsequent phases would depend on the outcomes from activities in Phase 1. Phase 1 refers to restoration primarily for the north half of Shell Beach Island which has no detected cultural resources. Actions undertaken on the south half of the Shell Beach Island are limited so that no impacts occur to cultural resources.

BLM staff assisted by Task Force volunteers would undertake the restoration. Tasks to accomplish restoration objectives would follow four tracks.

7 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA Track I: Revegetation of Native Dicotyledonous Plants on Shell Beach Island 1. The BLM and the Task Force would resurvey Shell Beach Island to determine whether previously undetected plant species are present on Shell Beach Island. 2. The Task Force would collect seeds of species of native shrubs and forbs from Shell Beach Island and from mainland sources near the island. 3. The Task Force would stratify seeds appropriately by species to enhance germination, save part of the seed supply for planting in the fall, and conduct growth trails on The Sea Ranch properties to determine which seed provenances, soil types, and topographic positions are most favorable to plant growth. 4. The Task Force would maintain detailed records on the provenances of seeds, collection dates, seed storage methods, and outplanting methods for seed trials. 5. The BLM and the Task Force would remove non-native dicotyledonous plant species on the north side of Shell Beach Island, monthly if possible and in stages to avoid large bare areas, except during sensitive times of the year for wildlife, using low-technology, low-impact hand pulling, with minimal disturbance to the soil surface. 6. The BLM and the Task Force would follow up immediately on the north side with seeding areas of removed non-native vegetation on the north side of the island with seeds of shrubs, succulents, and annuals found on the island or from provenances of the same species found nearby on the mainland. 7. The BLM and the Task Force would plant vigorous native shrubs and succulents in pre-existing gaps or in gaps on the north side of Shell Beach Island created from removals of non-native plants as they become available from the local provenances grown on The Sea Ranch properties. 8. The BLM and the Task Force would remove non-native dicotyledonous plant species on the south side of Shell Beach Island one time only, not at a sensitive time of the year for wildlife, by cutting iceplant stems at the soil surface (no plant pulling to uproot plants or other disturbance to the soil) to keep the soil intact. 9. The BLM and the Task Force would place a jute cover over the approximately 40m2 surface of the south end of Shell Beach Island to prevent water and light from reaching severed ice plant stems at the soil surface and to minimize soil erosion from wind and water. The tarp would be anchored by rope from the tarp to boulders around the island and by perimeter lines of native rock around the top of the tarp. The tarp would remain in place until Phase 2 commences in the second year of the project. 10. The BLM and the Task Force would monitor the north end of Shell Beach Island subsequently twice a year to determine treatment effectiveness for (a) the survival of any native transplants, and (b) germination and survival of new plants (seeded by hand or naturally appearing), outside of sensitive times of the year for wildlife, such as the Black Oystercatcher nesting season and Harbor Seal pupping times, for at least the first two years. 11. The Task Force would monitor weekly the tarp cover on the south end of Shell Beach Island to ensure that it remains securely in place and effective to suppress regrowth of iceplant and would make adjustments and repairs as needed to keep the tarp in place.

8 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA 12. The BLM and the Task Force would assess the need to replant or reseed native species on the north end in advance of the next winter rainy season. 13. The BLM and the Task Force would assess the need to adjust and manage the restoration prescription adaptively for Phase 2 at the end of one year or when an unanticipated or transformative event occurs such as a king-tide storm.

Track 2: Reestablishment of Blasdale’s Bent Grass Agrostis blasdalei on Shell Beach Island 1. The Task Force would collect and sow the Blasdale’s Bent Grass seed from both island and adjacent seed Sea Ranch sources on the north half of Shell Beach Island, according to methods recommended by grass ecologists familiar with Agrostis spp. propagation, once patches of bare soil are available where non- native vegetation was removed. 2. The Task Force would supply volunteer members of local California Native Plant Society chapters with seed stock over several years from several different populations at the TSRA to grow plants in home nursery settings as stock for outplanting on the TSRA commons (mainland private land) and on Shell Beach Island (federal land offshore). Growing robust populations of Blasdale’s Bent Grass at mainland Sea Ranch locations near Shell Beach Island will create populations that can serve as natural “seed rain” suppliers to replenish Blasdale’s Bent Grass seed on Shell Beach Island in the event of a transformative storm or weather event on the island. 3. The Task Force would monitor the success of differing planting techniques, site preparation, and propagation methods for effectiveness in reintroducing Blasdale’s Bent Grass to determine the most efficient methods for reestablishing the species. This information would apply to further seeding and plant on the north side of the island and to initial seeding on the south side of the island.

Track 3: Protection Measures (Abiotic) 1. The BLM would temporarily close Shell Beach Island to the public during the restoration project. 2. The BLM would mark the boundary delineating the north and south work areas for restoration on Shell Beach Island. 3. The BLM, the Task Force, and Sonoma County Regional Parks would map and/or flag routes of access to restoration sites during restoration work. 4. The BLM and the Task Force would install BLM signage on and around Shell Beach Island to identify the restoration and reasons for staying off the island. 5. The BLM would consult with The Sea Ranch Association and Sonoma County Regional Parks to design and produce media for public outreach about the offshore restoration and for signage, as mutually agreed upon, for installation on properties of the three partnering agencies. 6. The BLM would develop, if needed, non-chemical measures to control invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores that are impeding plant growth and revegetation.

9 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA 7. BLM and Task Force partners would use footwear such as snowshoes to distribute body weight and reduce soil compaction (and incidental injury to vegetation) when restoring native vegetation on the island surface. 8. The BLM, the Task Force, and Sonoma County Regional Parks would jointly plan and implement measures to monitor and control human access and traffic on Shell Beach Island, especially at low tide, with increased law enforcement presence and opportunities for public contact to raise awareness of the closure and the restoration efforts underway. 9. The BLM and the Task Force would place barriers (e.g., accordion wire) above the high tide mark around Shell Beach Island) as needed to prevent human entry, disturbance of traditional Native American cultural resources and artifacts, and trampling at restoration sites. 10. The BLM, the Task Force, and Sonoma County Regional Parks would jointly prepare a Health and Safety Plan for all people participating in the restoration project. At a minimum, all people must work in groups, wear life jackets when crossing to and from the island, and wear neon safety vests at all times. The Safety Plan would be appended to the Final EA and kept on file at the BLM Ukiah Field Office, TSRA Main Office, and the Sonoma County Parks and Recreation office at Gualala Point Regional Park.

Track 4: Protection Measures (Biotic) Restoration activities will cease when: 1. Any point on the low-tide path from the TSRA parking lot (staging area) at the corner of Pelican Reach and Pipe’s Reach to Shell Beach Island is less than 300 feet from any Harbor Seal (Phoca vitulina) on Shell Beach. 2. Any point on the low-tide path from the TSRA parking lot at the corner of Pelican Reach and Pipe’s Reach to Shell Beach Island is less than 500 feet from any marine mammal, other than Harbor Seal, on Shell Beach. 3. Sonoma County Regional Parks closes Shell Beach to protect Harbor Seals during the spring pupping season (March through mid-June). 4. Nesting Black Oystercatchers (Haemotopus bachmani) are present on CCNM rocks near Shell Beach Island (May to mid-August).

Track 5: Protection Measures for Cultural Resources Restoration will proceed if the following best management practices are in effect: 1. The BLM would mark an east-west line separating the approximate extent of the known cultural deposit on the south end of the island from the more intensive restoration on the north end. 2. A BLM archaeological monitor is on scene during removal, seeding, and planting activities. 3. The Task Force would select shrub propagules with small rootstocks for planting to minimize depth of soil disturbance of the north end of Shell Beach Island. 4. The BLM and the Task Force will cut iceplant at ground level the south end of the island but not uproot any plants. 5. The Task Force would establish test plots to compare rates of soil erosion and native plant regeneration at sites with and without iceplant.

10 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA 6. No motorized or mechanized equipment and no herbicides are used in Phase 1.

Restoration actions are designed to enhance visual resources of the National Monument. Any barriers and signage on Shell Beach Island used during the restoration project would be removed once the project is completed. Carsonite signage would be placed around the base of Shell Beach Island to announce restoration is in progress and that the island is temporarily closed to foot traffic. No signage would appear on the top surface of the island, thus maintaining a clear horizon.

Track 6: Monitoring Vegetation 1. The BLM and the Task Force would establish ten randomly distributed photo points from which to take repeat images of vegetation at a height of 5 feet above ground level. Five of the photo points would be on the north end of the island and five points on the south end. 2. The Task Force would create a baseline set of photographs at the points before restoration begins, immediately after the initial vegetation removal, and twice annually (fall/spring) from the date of the vegetation removal. 3. The Task Force and the BLM would determine vegetation cover by species using a single set of 30 randomly selected points across each photo image as viewed in Photoshop or another software system for image analysis. The bare ground or plant species under each point would be tallied to provide an estimate of cover by total vegetation and individual plant species.

Alternative B – No Action The No Action alternative would not undertake vegetation restoration on Shell Beach Island, and plant community development would proceed without human efforts to restore pre-disturbance vegetation.

Chapter 3 – Affected Environment This chapter describes the existing conditions of elements of the natural and social environment that the proposed restoration activities may affect. Only information relevant to understanding the potential effects of the range of alternatives is included in the affected environment sections of this EA.

The following resource elements are not addressed in this EA because they are not present within the area that vegetation restoration would affect: areas of critical environmental concern, farmlands, livestock grazing, paleontological resources, riparian and wetland habitats, wilderness, wild and scenic rivers, wild horses and burros, fish habitat, and floodplains.

1. Air Quality Air quality in northwestern Sonoma County is excellent. Refer to the section on the Clean Air Act in Chapter 1 for the regulatory status of attainment for National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Northern Sonoma County Air Pollution Control District is responsible for regulating air quality in northern Sonoma County. Because of high air

11 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA quality and attainment or unclassified status for all regulated air pollutants, the Control District does not have a State of California implementation plan for attaining National or State of California Ambient Air Quality Standards in the vicinity of the project area.

2. Vegetation The as yet undescribed vegetation alliance of Shell Beach Island consists of sub-shrub, herb, grass, and succulent elements (Sawyer et al. 2009). Compared to mainland bluff vegetation just a few tens of meters away, the vegetation diversity is low. The following species are present on the island:

Agrostis blasdalei Blasdale’s Bent Grass Angelica hendersonii Henderson’s Angelica Armeria maritima Thrift Avena fatua* Wild Oat Bromus diandrus* Ripgut Brome Bromus hordeaceus* Soft Chess Carpobrotus chilensis* Iceplant Castilleja wightii Wight’s Indian Paintbrush Claytonia perfoliata Miner’s Lettuce Dudleya farinosa Bluff Lettuce Eriophyllum staechadifolium Seaside Woolly Sunflower Holcus lanatus* Common Velvet Grass Hypochaeris radicata* Rough Cat’s-Ear Phacelia malvifolia Stinging Phacelia Plantago maritima Pacific Seaside Plantain Spergularia macrotheca Sticky Sand-Spurrey

Non-Native, Invasive Plant Species Six non-native, invasive species appear on Shell Beach Island. They are marked with asterisks in the list of species above. Four of the non-native species are invasive grass species.

Special Status Plant Species The BLM considers plants with a rank of 1B or higher from the California Native Plant Society to be special status species. The only special status species found on Shell Beach Island is Blasdale’s Bent Grass. No federally listed plants occur on the island.

Blasdale’s Bent Grass is a small, usually inconspicuous native perennial grass. It frequents eroding soils at edges of coastal bluffs and cliffs. Leaves are often pressed against the ground surface in the shape of a rosette. In early to mid-summer the flower heads generate seed heads that make the plant more conspicuous. This species may have had a wider range originally but now may be relegated to the harshest windblown soils whereas invasive, non-native annual grasses dominate elsewhere in the coastal prairie environment on bluffs.

12 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA The largest known population of Blasdale’s Bent Grass across its entire range is from The Sea Ranch as the result of an intensive survey conducted in 2011 by members of the Task Force. Shell Beach Island is at present the only known location for this species offshore. In 2013, the Task Force found twelve Blasdale’s Bent Grass plants on Shell Beach Island (Barbara Rice, pers. comm.).

3. Wildlife No nesting migratory birds have been recorded nesting on Shell Beach Island itself. Land birds of coastal bluffs, particularly House Finch (Haemorhous mexicanus), White- crowned Sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys), and Song Sparrow (Melanospiza melodia), are rarely observed on the island. Migratory shorebirds such as Black Oystercatcher (Haemotopus bachmani), Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), and Black Turnstone (Arenaria melanocephala) appear at the base of the island to forage for intertidal prey species at low tide. A pair of Black Oystercatcher regularly attempts to nest on an island immediately to the west of Shell Beach Island.

Reptiles, amphibians, and mammals have not been inventoried on Shell Beach Island. However, Harbor Seals (Phoca vitulina) occasionally come ashore on nearby Shell Beach with their pups. However, seals do not occupy the surface of the island because they are not able to scale the steep sides of the island.

4. Cultural Resources Prehistory According to the indigenous Kashia Pomo, the tribe has lived in the Coast Ranges of Northern California since “time immemorial.” Archaeological and linguistic data suggests that initial occupation of North America may have occurred roughly 15,000 to 20,000 years B.P. The oldest identified site in the Coast Ranges is the Paleo-Indian site on Borax Lake, CA-LAK-36. Circa 1938 C. Chester Post identified fluted points on the surface of LAK-36. Subsequent excavation and analysis of the Borax Lake site revealed obsidian hydration rinds of 2 to 15 microns suggesting initial occupation as early as 12,000 years B.P (Elliott 2011).

The Duncan’s Landing Rock Shelter (CA-SON-348/H) is the oldest known site close to the project area with an estimated date of 9,000 B.P.

Just how prehistoric populations entered into the southern North Coast Ranges has been much debated. Pre-Yukian groups may have entered the area in the terminal Pleistocene and migrated south along the coast. This hypothesis would explain the apparent link between the Yuki and Wappo languages (White and Fredrickson 1992; Powers 1877). Elmendorf (1981) suggests a Yukian north to south migration. However, White and Fredrickson (op. cit.) suggest a south to north migration as is evidenced by the early replacement (5000 B.P.) of Mendocino assemblages in the southern North Coast Ranges and the latter replacement (2800 B.P.) of the Borax Lake Pattern in Humboldt County. Basgall (1982) suggests that a western expansion from the Clear Lake Basin of proto- Western Pomo speakers took place around 2500 B.P. which resulted in the fissure between proto-Yuki and proto-Wappo speakers.

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Layton’s (1990) excavations at Albion Head identified obsidian beginning in component 4 with hydration rinds of 2.5 microns roughly 1000 B.P.; later than those from Nightbird’s Retreat. In addition, hydration rinds from other sites located along the Mendocino Coast (CA-MEN-500, CA-MEN-1805, CA-MEN-1929, and CA-MEN-2136) all exhibit measurements of around 2.5 microns. These measurements seem to corroborate a western Pomo migration, especially when compared to the earlier hydration dates from the more easterly Nightbird’s Retreat located immediately west of Calpella.

The Kashaya occupied roughly 30 miles of the northwestern Sonoma County coastline and extended inland up to 13 miles (McLendon and Oswalt 1978). The Kashia primarily occupied open land atop ridge divides, above dark densely forested canyons, and inland from the coastal wind and fog (McLendon and Oswalt, op. cit.).

The sea provided an important part of the Kashia subsistence base. For example, salt, seaweed, mussels, surf fish, sea lion and salmon supplemented a diet which was based primarily on vegetable foods with an emphasis on acorns. California buckeye, pine nuts, berries, wild onions and greens were also important food items, as were deer and other land mammals.

Historic Era The Kashia’s first and most direct contact with outsiders first occurred with the establishment of Fort Ross located 20 miles south of the study area. In 1811 the Russians established a settlement at Fort Ross, but were said to have amicable relationships with local tribes. However, in 1840 John Sutter purchased land from Fort Ross, including about 150 miles of coastal property (Theodoratus 1971).

Later contact with Mexicans and Americans probably had the most adverse effects on their lifeways, including the spread of virulent decreases to which the Kashia had little resistance.

The acculturation process and relative freedom compared to those tribes within the Mexican sphere of influence resulted in the Kashia staying culturally intact and better preserved than any other Pomo group (McLendon and Oswalt 1978: 277).

Shell Beach is within the former footprint of the Mexican land grant Rancho Germán (Hermann) given to Ernest Rufus in 1846 by Governor Pio Pico. The land grant stretched from the Gualala River to modern-day Salt Point State Park (Sonoma County Historical Society 2012). To the north of the Gualala River to Malo Pass Creek was the land grant issued to Rafael García otherwise known as “Rancho del Norte.”

In the early 20th century, Walter Frick bought portions of the Rancho Germán and established Del Mar Ranch primarily for raising sheep. Circa 1941 the property was sold to Margaret Ohlson and family. In 1963 the land was purchased by Castle and Cooke Inc. to establish a community to preserve the area’s natural beauty. Prominent architects

14 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA designed many of the structures including Charles Moore, Joseph Esherick, Donlyn Lyndon, William Turnbull, Richard Whitaker, and Lawrence Halprin (Los Angeles Times 2011).

Cultural Resources Known to Occur on Shell Beach Island The Shell Beach Island site (CA-SON-2614 or UFO-13-31-01) may have been a seafood acquisition and processing site. This hypothesis is based on the site’s location adjacent to tide-pools and the presence of an obsidian scrapper-like tool. The island would have been too small and exposed for a habitation site. The presence of obsidian suggests a possible Pomo site. There is a higher frequency of Clear Lake obsidian on the Sonoma and Mendocino coasts post 2,500 years B.P. This appearance can be attributed to the possible westward expansion of Pomoan groups from an ancestral Clear Lake home (Basgall 1982, Layton 1990). A freshwater drainage immediately east of Shell Beach Island may also have been attractive to people.

Identified archaeological resources that occur outside BLM jurisdiction but within TSRA lands include: 1. Accumulations of culturally modified shell. 2. Obsidian and chert lithic debris as well as isolated projectile points. 3. Anthropogenic soil known as midden. 4. Structures and objects associated with historic homesteading, cattle operations, lumber conveyance, and agricultural ventures. 5. Possible historic-era shipwreck debris.

Additionally, use of coastal resources by Native Americans is well-documented ethnographically and continues along the Sonoma and Mendocino coasts today. The Kashia as well as the Central Pomo (Bokeya) are reliant on coastal bounty for their cultural identity, continuity, and limited subsistence resources.

Personal communications with Otis Parrish, Kashia tribal monitor, indicates that the people of Stewarts Point Rancheria actively procure traditional resources along the coast including: 1. Seaweed, kelp, sea-palm, sea urchin, abalone, rock fish and other food items. 2. Various shell types for making regalia. 3. Various basketry materials including willow from riparian areas.

5. Recreation Primary recreation uses for the area around Shell Beach Island are sightseeing, fishing, abalone diving, whale-, seal-, and bird-watching, tidepool exploration, beach walking, kite flying, and picnicking. TSRA and the Sonoma County Regional Parks permit only non-motorized and non-mechanized recreation on the non-Federal lands in the vicinity of Shell Beach Island. No shooting or fireworks displays are allowed in the vicinity of the project area.

15 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA The BLM has not formally closed, either temporarily, seasonally, or permanently, Shell Beach Island to protect natural resources from damage related to recreational pursuits on or around Shell Beach Island.

During low tides, people frequently climb up onto the island and in so doing trample vegetation and compact the fragile soil.

6. Soil The soil on Shell Beach Island has not been definitively identified. However, the closest terrestrial soil type is Rohnerville loam on 0 to 9 percent slopes (Miller 1972). Shell Beach Island is a variant, likely subjected to more severe erosion and salt spray than on the coastal bluffs. The island terrain slopes to the east side. Unlike typical Rohnerville soils, soil depth on the island is considerably shallower and likely has a modified or abbreviated soil horizon zonation. Organic matter content appears to be high. Soil sampling on the island was not undertaken out of concern for the impacts of disturbance to vegetation on the small surface of the island and for avoiding potential damage to cultural resources. Maintaining plant cover on the island is important to counter impacts of wind and water erosion on the island soil. Soil compaction from human foot traffic is currently a management issue that may prevent natural regeneration of native plants on Shell Beach Island.

7. Visual Resource Management The BLM manages Shell Beach Island as part of the CCNM lands in Visual Resources Management (VRM) Class I. VRM Class I lands maintain and enhance scenic seascapes viewed from the mainland, and preserve the existing natural character of the landscape. This class provides for natural ecological changes and management changes to the landscape at very low levels. These changes must not attract attention or cause notice by visitors beyond the project life. VRM entails removing landscape scars that impart a non- natural or non-historical view to a land- or seascape. Non-native plants are considered to undermine the natural appearance of rock islands in the CCNM.

Chapter 4 Environmental Impacts

This chapter analyzes the environmental consequences, or impacts, that are expected to occur from the alternatives described in Chapter 2. The depth and breadth of the impact analyses presented in this chapter is commensurate with the level of detail provided for the resources discussed in Chapter 3 based on existing information. The baseline used for expected impacts consists of the current resources conditions described in Chapter 3.

1. Air Quality Alternative 1 – The Restoration Alternative The project area is within northwest Sonoma County, an area of excellent air quality. Restoration work does not directly generate fossil fuel emissions as no motorized equipment is used in the restoration process. Dust emissions from the restoration site are likely to be very low because all work will occur during the winter/fall wet season (October to March) and because the scale of the project is small. Some indirect fossil

16 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA fuel emissions will result when people travel to and from their home or workplace to the restoration site. No significant direct or indirect impacts to air quality will result from this restoration. This project will be close to carbon-neutral in terms of carbon emissions from natural and anthropogenic sources.

Alternative 2 – The No-Action Alternative No fossil fuel emissions and dust will result from this alternative. This alternative would be carbon-neutral with respect to background conditions.

2. Vegetation Alternative 1 – The Restoration Alternative This project will remove non-native species of annual grasses, rough cat’s ear, and iceplant from the surface of Shell Beach Island. Continuous subsequent weed control will keep populations of non-native species to low numbers and deplete the seed bank in the soil on Shell Beach Island. Removal of iceplant, in particular, would maintain and enhance the native vegetation community found on the island. Conversion of the vegetation type to a non-native “semi-natural” community would be avoided.

The surface area covered by native plants, and in particular of Blasdale’s Bent Grass, a BLM special status species, would increase as the result of seeding and planting this species on the island and hand weeding to remove iceplant vegetation and roots so that more island surface area is available for natural or assisted colonization by native species.

Alternative 2 – The No-Action Alternative The surface area of non-native grasses and iceplant would remain at its current level or, more likely, increase as growth of non-native plants would remain unchecked. If iceplant vegetation continues to expand, the native vegetation alliance would eventually convert entirely to the Carpobrotus edulis /chilensis Semi-Natural Herbaceous Alliance (iceplant mats), a non-native vegetation alliance that has adapted to spreading like a “mat” across the ground on the coast and islands of northern California (Sawyer et al. 2009). Iceplant forms impenetrable mats that prevent other plant species, including native species, from becoming established or surviving if already established.

The population of Blasdale’s Bent Grass on Shell Beach Island would be at risk of extirpation because of the spread of non-native grasses followed by the rampant spread of iceplant. If this succession of vegetation occurs, the CCNM would lose the globally unique offshore population of Blasdale’s Bent Grass.

3. Wildlife Alternative 1 – The Restoration Alternative “Take” of marine mammals and migratory birds, which includes human disturbances of these species, will not occur as the direct result of the proposed restoration. No restoration work will occur when the Sonoma County Regional Parks closes Shell Beach to protect Harbor Seals during the spring pupping season (March to mid-June). No restoration will occur also during the nesting period (May to August) of Black

17 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA Oystercatchers which nest on a CCNM island immediately adjacent to Shell Beach Island.

Other migratory land birds, seabirds, and shorebirds may be indirectly disturbed from their feeding areas between the TSRA parking lot and the edge of Shell Beach Island when the restoration team walks to and from the island.

Alternative 2 – The No-Action Alternative No additional impacts above background levels of disturbance to wildlife would result from this alternative.

4. Cultural Resources: Alternative 1 – The Restoration Alternative The restoration alternative outlined above, if implemented across the entire island, is problematic if the BLM and its partners use conventional methods for iceplant and non- native grass removal. First, eradication of invasive iceplant would require the removal of subsurface root systems that may have possibly grown into the archaeology deposit of CA-SON-2614. Secondly, the existing iceplant may be holding the deposit together, thus buffering it from both wind and rain erosion. Additionally, the reestablishment of native shrubs and forbs to cover the island will require more subsurface disturbance, again, potentially impacting CA-SON-2614. Therefore, Phase 1 of Shell Beach Island vegetation restoration will take place principally on the north half of the island where traditional Native American cultural resources have not been found.

With this approach, the BLM, Native American peoples, and restoration volunteers will be able to determine whether removal of iceplant stems and roots destabilizes soil and would adversely impact cultural resources known from the southern half of the island. In view of the knowledge gained during the Phase 1 restoration, the BLM would adapt practices for non-native plant removal and restoration of native vegetation so that cultural resources known from the south end would be remain contextually intact.

The BLM Ukiah Field Office has made a “no-adverse effect” determination for the Shell Beach Island Restoration - Phase 1 project based on the following information:

1. The cultural deposit appears to be located on the southern side of the island and unfortunately appears to be heavily eroded. 2. Auger holes were negative; no cultural deposits were identified via augering. 3. A cultural monitor will be present on-site during restoration efforts. 4. Primary work will be on the north-side of the island. 5. Vegetation removal on the south-side will entail clipping rather than uprooting of iceplant.

Alternative 2 – The No-Action Alternative The no-action alternative will result in no removal related impacts. The iceplant would stay and possibly buffer CA-SON-2614 from wind and water erosion. However, the site would continue to erode into the ocean due to tidal forces.

18 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA

5. Recreation Alternative 1 – The Restoration Alternative Signage will be present to inform visitors about the advantages to ecosystem recovery if people refrain from climbing onto Shell Beach Island. This action may reduce visitor numbers to the island and present a tradeoff between environmental conservation and visitor access to improve the condition of natural resources on the CCNM, one of the reasons for declaring the Monument as stated in the Presidential Proclamation for the CCNM.

Alternative 2 – The No-Action Alternative No additional impacts from recreation above the already severe background levels of disturbance would result from this alternative.

6. Soils Alternative 1 – The Restoration Alternative The restoration team will affix or anchor signs to rocks or around the base of Shell Beach Island. The team will ensure that signs are replaced and remain in place. Signage will request that people do not climb onto Shell Beach Island to avoid disturbing in the process the restoration effort underway. During sign installation, no soil either on the top or on side walls of the island will be disturbed or otherwise displaced.

The process of non-native vegetation removal and site restoration will proceed stepwise so that soil exposure to wind and water erosion at any one time will be minimized after iceplant is removed. Native plants or native seed added to the island surface will provide natural vegetation cover in time and provide greater soil anchoring because the broader extent of plants rooting in surface soils. A greater diversity of plants restored to sites of former iceplant mats will assure that plant roots are distributed at multiple levels in the soil profile. A greater diversity of native plants will also create a more resilient, less- disease prone vegetation community.

With success in reducing the number of visitors on Shell Beach Island during the course of this project, the process to restore the natural soil bulk density on the island will begin. Improved lower soil bulk density results from curtailing the adverse impacts of soil compaction resulting from people trampling soil across the island surface. A soil with a lower bulk density is more fertile, holds more water for plants, sequesters more carbon and provides a healthier environment for soil microbes to promote plant growth (Baer et al. 2002).

Alternative 2 – The No-Action Alternative No additional soil disturbance and compaction above current high background levels would occur.

Iceplant and its relatives are widely used for erosion control, particularly along highways where engineering practices and lack of native plant materials make necessary the use of

19 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA this rapidly growing non-native species for slope stabilization. Iceplant forms dense mats that cover soil surfaces and eventually root rhizomatously. Lack of restoration measures under this alternative will ensure that soil exposure to wind and water remains at or lower than background levels. The ongoing high number of uncontrolled visitors on Shell Beach Island would ensure continued soil compaction and surface disturbance and promote inability of the site to recover its natural soil bulk density.

7. Visual Resource Management Alternative 1 – The Restoration Alternative The proposed action is consistent with the designated VRM Class I established under the CCNM RMP. The effects on VRM would be negligible as signage to alert people to restoration during the execution of the project will not be a long-term element of the island’s landscape. The temporary effect of jute secured to cover the south portion of Shell Beach Island would avoid creating a jarring visual impact during Phase 1 restoration. Restoration signage and jute would be removed once Phase 1 restoration measures are concluded.

Over time, the presence of non-native vegetation consisting of invasive non-native plants would diminish or disappear, thus enhancing natural visual quality.

Alternative 2 – The No-Action Alternative The current VRM condition would remain at background levels. Non-native plants would remain a presence visible to the public but not necessarily recognized as an unnatural element of the landscape/seascape vista by visitors or residents not familiar with coastal vegetation and its component species.

Residual Effects: Alternative 1 – The Restoration Alternative Two kinds of residual effects are expected from restoration work on Shell Beach Island. First are residual biological effects. The island would achieve a natural appearance in the long-run because natural processes of native plant growth and regeneration would function once again.

The other residual effects are social. A long-standing outreach and information program undertaken by the BLM and its partners at The Sea Ranch and at Sonoma County Regional Parks would resonate with visitors who come to the area to appreciate the setting. Visitors to Shell Beach would become unaccustomed to climbing on Shell Beach Island. A change in collective human behavior would result in long-term residual effects of less human disturbance to Shell Beach Island so that results from restoration effort will be more likely to endure into the future.

Another residual social effect from environmental outreach and information is the development of an ethos of stewardship among visitors to become more mindful of adverse impacts of heedless actions. Also, the restoration team would become the nucleus of technical capacity for restoration among nearby residents. In this way, the

20 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA community of residents and visitors to Shell Beach Island can work together to protect the nationally significant values of the CCNM found on the island. The local knowledge about ecosystem restoration will grow as the result of this small-scale restoration project so that larger-scale restoration projects will be possible to undertake. In a time of significant environmental changes, community knowledge of ecosystems and restoration practices will enable people to preserve or salvage rare biotic resources vulnerable to changes should they become at risk.

Alternative 2 – The No-Action Alternative Long-term inaction may promote further expansion of non-native vegetation and atypical ecosystem function on Shell Beach Island. In time the island may be unable to produce ecosystem services for natural scenic appearance and conservation of native biological diversity if the BLM and its partners at Shell Beach Island do not undertake restoration and protection measures.

Cumulative Effects: Common to Both Alternatives The Sonoma County Regional Parks and TSRA have committed to step up their patrols of the Shell Beach Island vicinity. The aim of increased patrols is to restrict the number of people from crossing Park and Recreation lands and properties at The Sea Ranch to access Shell Beach Island. Reduced visitor numbers on the island under either alternative would slow or halt soil disturbance and erosion as well as the advance of non-native invasive plants.

One impact often forecast in future scenarios of climate change is the rise of ocean levels as polar ice melts. The elevation of Shell Beach Island is at its highest point 8 m (26 feet) above sea level at its west end sloping to 6 m (20 feet) at the east end. Restoration efforts for terrestrial vegetation may be rendered moot by the end of this century if global sea levels continue to rise. Salvaging rare plant resources and Native American cultural resources on Shell Beach Island may be necessary as mitigation for future losses of resources from sea level rise.

21 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA Chapter 5 Consultation and Coordination

Persons, Groups, and Agencies Consulted: Consultation with the appropriate tribes was completed. Tribal letters and phone calls were completed in May and June 2013.

The BLM Ukiah Field Office Archaeologist / Tribal Liaison, Christopher Lloyd, contacted the Kashia Band of Pomo Indians of the Stewarts Point Rancheria, a federally recognized Native American tribe with ancestral ties to the project area. Christopher Lloyd and Otis Parrish of the Kashia Band met in early August 2014. The conversation focused on archaeological excavation of the deposit on Shell Beach Island, and the Band appears to be amenable to excavation and analysis of cultural deposits.

Summary of Public Participation: During preparation of the EA, the public was notified of the proposed action by posting notice of the proposed action on the Ukiah Field Office Internet NEPA webpage on April 15, 2015. A 30-day public comment period was offered from April 15, 2015 to May 15, 2015. This project and EA was previously identified as DOI-BLM-CA-C05000-2015- 13.

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Bureau of Land Management. 2005 California Coastal National Monument Management Plan. Sacramento, CA Available on line at: http://www.blm.gov/ca/pdfs/pa_pdfs/coastalmonument_pdfs/ccnm_rmp/intro.pdf (accessed 19 November 2014)

Elliott, Evan 2011 Bringing the Hill Patwin into the North Coast Ranges cultural region. Society for California Archaeology Proceedings 25: 10 pp

Elmendorf, William W. 1981 Last speakers and language change: two Californian cases. Anthropological Linguistics 23(1)

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22 Shell Beach Island Restoration DOI-BLM-CA-C050-2017-0001-EA 1990 Western Pomo Prehistory: Excavations at Albion Head, Nightbird’s Retreat, and Three Chop Village, Mendocino County, California. Institute of Archaeology, Monograph 32. University of California, Los Angeles, California.

Los Angeles Times 2011 Al Boeke Dies at 88; “Father” of Northern California’s Sea Ranch. 20 November 2011. Available online at: http://articles.latimes.com/2011/nov/20/local/la-me-al-boeke- 20111120 (accessed 6 June 2013).

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Miller, Vernon C. 1972 Soil survey, Sonoma County California. Washington, DC: USDA Soil Conservation Service. 188 pp

Powers, Stephen 1877 Tribes of California. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. 480 pp

Sawyer, John O, Todd Keeler-Wolf, Julie M. Evens 2009 A Manual of California Vegetation, 2nd edition. California Native Plant Society Press, Sacramento CA

Sonoma County Historical Society 2012 Mexican Land Grants in Sonoma County. Sonoma County Historical Society. Santa Rosa, CA. Available online at: http://www.sonomacountyhistory.org/research/land- grants (accessed 6 June 2013).

Theodoratus, Dorothea J. 1971. Identity crisis: changes in life style of the Manchester Band of Pomo Indians. PhD diss. Syracuse University.

White, Gregory C, and David Allen Fredrickson 1992. Cultural diversity and culture change in prehistoric Clear Lake basin: final report of the Anderson Flat Project. Publication No 13. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, Department of Anthropology, University of California.

The White House 2000 Presidential Proclamation 7264 of January 11, 2000: Establishment of the California Coastal National Monument. Washington, DC. Available online at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2001-title3-vol1/pdf/CFR-2001-title3-vol1- proc7264.pdf (accessed 29 December 2014)