/ CROSS—CHANNEL RELATIONS IN THE BRITISH LATER IRON AGE: with particular reference to the British archaeological evidence 3 Volumes Volume 1 ANDREW PETER FITZPATRICK The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Durham Department of Archaeology 1989 ,41 ,1- 6 JUN 1990 CROSS — CHANNEL RELATIONS IN THE BRITISH LATER IRON AGE: WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE BRITISH ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Summary This thesis considers cross-Channel contact in the British later Iron Age with particular reference to the archaeology of Britain. The relevant literary and epigraphic evidence are also considered but are discussed pricipally in translation and detailed textual analyses are not presented. The thesis has five parts. The first part considers previous related research and the relationship of the present work to it. Particular emphasis is placed on the restrictions imposed by the sample bias created by the uneven geographical distribution of previous research. The second and longest part comprises a resume of the relevant archaeological (and numismatic) evidence with the supporting data being presented as appendices. The third part discusses the relevant literary and epigraphic evidence with a detailed excursus on 'the Belgae' presented as an appendix. Part four considers the vessels crossing the Channel and the routes which may have been used. Finally, the fifth part considers the nature of the cross- Channel contact in this period and the significance of it to the parties involved. It is argued that previous research has overemphasised the importance of both Atlantic and Rhineland routes and that bulk of contact was via northern France. The suggestion that trade with the Roman world caused major changes in later Iron Age society is examined critically and it is argued that its importance has been overemphasised. Instead the importance of endogenous development and cross-Channel links between Celtic groups is stressed, and the argument that cross- Channel exchange was central to social change - or stasis - is qualified. CONTENTS Summary List of Chapters and Appendices i List of Tables xix List of Figures xxi v Acknowledgements XXX Declaration Abbreviations Classical Authors References 931 Introduction 1 PART I: PREVIOUS RESEARCH AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE EVIDENCE 7 CHAPTER 1 8 1.1 Previous Reseach into Cross-Channel Contact 8 1.2 Dressel 1 Amphorae and Problems of Sample Bias 11 1.3 The Lower Rhineland and Problems of Sample Bias 16 PART II: THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR CROSS-CHANNEL CONTACT IN THE BRITISH LATER IRON AGE 23 Introduction 24 CHAPTER 2 AMPHORAE AND BARRELS 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Wine Amphorae 28 2.2.1 Graeco-Italic 28 2.2.2 Dressel 1 32 2.2.3 Dressel 2-4 43 2.2.4 Pascual 1 54 2.2.5 Rhodian 60 2.2.6 Gauloise 9 65 2.2.7 Dressel 28 67 2.3 Olive Oil Amphorae 70 2.4 Amphorae for Fish-Based Products 74 2.5 Amphorae Whose Contents are not Known Certainly 81 2.5.1 Haltern 70 81 2.5.2 Dressel 6 87 2.5.3 Richborough 527 95 2.6 Barrels 97 2.7 Commentary 100 CHAPTER 3 CERAMIC FLAGONS AND JARS 102 3.1 The Central Gaulish Besancon Tradition 102 3.2 Central Gaulish Flagons 107 3.3 Camulodunum 166 114 3.4 Gallo-Belgic Flagons 116 3.5 Italian Jugs (Camulodunum 139) 122 3.6 lioniedpfe 125 CHAPTER 4 GAULISH LATER IRON AGE POTTERY 127 4.1 Armorican Pottery 127 4.2 The Kent-Boulonnais Tradition 146 4.3 Possible Imports into Wessex 170 CHAPTER 5 CERAMIC TABLE WARES AND FOOD PREPARATION VESSELS 173 5.1 Mortaria 173 5.2 Pompeian Red Ware 178 CHAPTER 6 CERAMIC TABLE WARES 184 6.1 Campanian Ware 184 6.2 Thin-Walled Fine Wares 188 6.3.1 Terra Sigillata 191 6.3.2 'Arretine' Wares 193 6.3.3 South and Central Gaulish Samian 211 - 6.4 Gaulish Fine Wares 217 6.4.1 Gallo-Belgic Wares 217 6.4.2 Central Gaulish and Aquitanian Wares 223 6.4.3 Commentary 226 CHAPTER 7 OBJECTS OF GLASS AND INTAGLIOS 242 7.1 Unworked Glass 242 7.2 Objects of Celtic Manufacture 244 7.2.1 Beads 245 7.2.2 Gaming Set 252 7.2.3 Bracelets 253 7.3 Roman Glass 263 7.3.1 The Development of the Roman Glass Industry 263 7.3.2 Roman Glass in Iron Age Britain 266 7.4 Intaglios 270 7.4.1 Intaglios as Prototypes for British Coins 270 7.4.2 Imported Intaglios? 271 CHAPTER 8 ROMAN SILVER PLATE 273 8.1 Introduction 273 8.2 Later Republican Silver Plate 274 8.2.1 Cups 276 8.2.2 Zugmantel Strainers 278 8.3 Early Imperial Silver Plate 281 CHAPTER 9 'ITALIAN' BRONZE VESSELS 286 9.1 Introduction 286 9.2.1 Later Republican Vessels 286 9.2.2 Kelheim Jugs 293 9.2.3 Gallarate Jugs 300 9.2.4 Aylesford Pans 302 9.2.5 Idris Beakers 305 9.2.6 Ladles 306 9.2.7 Later Republican 'Wine Services' 309 9.2.8 Goeblingen Variant Bowls 312 9,2.9 Soivide and Poggendorf Bowls 314 9.2.10 Eggers Type 18 Buckets 316 9.2.11 Eggers Type 94 Bowls 318 9.2.12 Vessels Suggested to be Roman Vessels 319 9.2.13 Uncertain Finds 320 9.3 Early Imperial Vessels 321 9.3.1 Introduction 321 9.3.2 Hagenow Services 323 9.3.3 Pans and Paterae 328 9.3.4 Ehestorf Buckets 329 9.3.5 Eggers 75-76 Basins 331 CHAPTER 10 ROMAN PERSONAL AND DOMESTIC ITEMS (PRINCIPALLY OF METAL) 333 10.1 Armour and Horse Trappings 333 10.1.1 Armour 333 10.1.2 Horse Harness/Trappings? 337 10.1.3 The Lexden Medallion 338 10.2 Domestic Furnishings 339 10.2.1 Furniture 339 10.2.2 Caskets? 341 10.2.3 Lamps 342 10.2.4 Figurines and Statuettes 343 10.2.5 Statuary 345 10.3 Cutlery 346 10.4 Toilet and Medical Articles 346 10.4.1 Spatulae 346 10.4.2 ?Toilet Instrument 348 10.4.3 Roman Mirrors 348 10.4.4 Roman Mirrors and Roman Influence on British Art 349 CHAPTER 11 CELTIC METALWORK 354 11.1 Torques 354 11.2 Buckets 356 11.3 Tankards 359 11.4 Belthooks 360 11.4.1 Winged Belt Hooks 361 11.4.2 Plain Belt Hooks 362 11.5 Bracelets 362 11.6 Swords and Scabbards 363 CHAPTER 12 OBJECTS OF BONE 365 CHAPTER 13 BROOCHES 369 13.1 BROOCHES OF IRON AGE TYPE 369 13.1.1 Nauheim Brooches 369 13.1.2 Cenisola Brooches 370 13.1.3 'Almgren 65' species Brooches 372 13.1.4 Silver Brooches of Late La Têne Type 378 13.1.5 Brooches with Collars on the Bow 379 - vi - 13.1.6 'CRICVRV' Brooches 382 13.2 BROOCHES OF ROMAN TYPE 385 13.2.1 Introduction 385 13.2.2 Rosette Brooches 388 13.2.3 Langton Down Brooches 391 13.2.4 Aucissa and Hod Hill Brooches 393 13.2.5 Decorated Plate Brooches 395 13.2.6 Plate Brooches 395 13.2.7 Colchester Type Brooches 397 CHAPTER 14 MISCELLANEOUS IMPORTS 399 14.1 Raw Materials 399 14.1.1 Iron Ingots 399 14.1.2 Bronze 402 14.1.3 Amber 402 14.1.4 Coral 404 14.2 Clothing/Textiles 405 14.2.1 Textiles 406 14.2.2 Bear Skins 407 14.3 Querns 408 14.4 Papyri and Metrology 411 14.4.1 Papyrus 411 14.4.2 Metrology 412 14.5 Plants 413 CHAPTER 15 COINAGE 414 15 Introduction 414 15.2 The Chronolgy of Celtic Coinage 415 15.3 Gallo-Belgic Coinage 421 15.4 Armorican Coinage 437 15.5 Celtic Coins other than Gallo-Belgic and Armorican 445 15.6 'Exotic' Coins 447 15.7 Roman Coinage 450 CHAPTER 16 BRITISH 'EXPORTS' 453 16.1 Horse and Vehicule Fittings 453 16.1.1 Harness Fittings 453 16.1.2 Terrets 456 16.1.3 Uncertain Vehicle Fittings 457 16.2 Metal Vessels 457 16.3 Mirrors 458 16.4 Herbal Medicines 458 16.5 Shale 465 16.6 British Celtic Coins 466 PART III LITERARY AND EPIGRAPHIC REFERENCES TO IRON AGE BRITAIN 469 CHAPTER 17 THE SOURCES 470 17.1 Introduction 470 17.2.1 Pre-Caesarian References 472 17.2.2 Julius Caesar's Invasion of Britain 474 17.2.3 References Between Caesar and Claudius 481 CHAPTER 18 BRITISH TIN 491 CHAPTER 19 CROSS-CHANNEL EXCHANGE IN STRABO 501 CHAPTER 20 GRAFFITI AND CONDITIONAL LITERACY 505 CHAPTER 21 BRITISH NUMISMATIC EVIDENCE FOR CLIENT KINGS 510 PART IV CROSS-CHANNEL NAVIGATION AND SHIPPING 516 CHAPTER 22 CROSS-CHANNEL ROUTES AND TRANSPORT COSTS 517 22.1 Cross-Channel Routes 517 22.2 Transport Costs 521 CHAPTER 23 SHIPPING 524 23.1 Celtic Shipping 524 23.2 Roman Shipping 528 23.3 Archaeological Evidence for Landing Places and Harbours 532 PART V COMMENTARY 534 Introduction 535 CHAPTER 24 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CROSS-CHANNEL CONTACT 536 24.1 The Earlier and Middle Iron Age 536 24.2 The Adoption of the Issue of Coinage in Britain 541 CHAPTER 25 EXTERNAL RELATIONS BETWEEN CELTS, AND ROMANS 548 25.1 Celtic Society 549 25.2 Rome Overseas 555 25.3 The Possible Nature of Foreign Contact between the Celtic and Roman Worlds 560 25.4 The Agents of Foreign Exchange 572 CHAPTER 26 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CROSS-CHANNEL CONTACT IN THE BRITISH LATER IRON AGE 583 26.1 The Earlier Part of the Later Iron Age 583 26.2 The Caesarian Campaigns 595 26.3 The Caesarian Aftermath 596 26.4 The Impact of Augustus 609 26.5 From Augustus to Claudius 619 26.6 Prospect and Retrospect 635 APPENDICES 669 1 The 'Problem of the Belgae.' 672 2 Dressel 1 Amphorae Found in Later Iron Age Britain 691 2.1 Certain or Probable Finds of Dr 1 Amphorae 691 2.2 Italian Amphorae from Iron Age Contexts which may be either Dr 1 or Dr 2-4 700 2.3 Finds for Which There is Inadequate Information 703 2.4 Corrigenda 705 2.5 Falsa 705 3 Dressel 2-4 Amphorae Found in Later Iron Age Britain 707 3.1 Certain of Probable Finds of Dr 2-4 Amphorae 707 3.2 Italian Amphorae from Iron Age Contexts which may be either Dr 2-4 or Dr 1 709 3.3 Finds Possibly of Iron Age Date 709 4 Pascual 1 Amphore Found in Later Iron Age Britain 711 4./ Certain or Probable Finds of Pascual 1 Amphorae 711 4.2 Catalonian Amphorae from Iron Age Contexts which could be Pascual 1 or Dr 2-4 712 4.3 Finds for Which There is Inadequate Information 713 5 Rhodian