December 2007
National Nuclear Security Administration’s Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Also in this issue: • Unlocking the Secrets at Earth’s Core • Improved Security for Wireless Communication • Teller’s Legacy in Nuclear Power Research About the Cover December 2007
The International Material Protection and National Nuclear Security Administration’s Lawrence Livermore Cooperation Program, operated by the Department of National Laboratory Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration, is working with the Russian Federation to keep nuclear material out of the hands of terrorists. As described in the article beginning on p. 4, researchers at Livermore and other national laboratories have trained Russian personnel to perform vulnerability analyses and install protection devices such as barriers, monitoring systems, alarms, access controls, and vehicle inspection facilities. As a result of the program, security has been enhanced at Russia’s weapon design institutes, naval bases, uranium and plutonium storage sites, fuel processing centers, and nuclear power reactors. The cover shows ships moored Also in this issue: • Unlocking the Secrets at Earth’s Core at a Russian port. • Improved Security for Wireless Communication • Teller’s Legacy in Nuclear Power Research Cover design: Alexandria Ballard. Photographer: Pavel Parmenov. Cover design:
About the Review
At Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, we focus science and technology on ensuring our nation’s security. We also apply that expertise to solve other important national problems in energy, bioscience, and the environment. Science & Technology Review is published 10 times a year to communicate, to a broad audience, the Laboratory’s scientific and technological accomplishments in fulfilling its primary missions. The publication’s goal is to help readers understand these accomplishments and appreciate their value to the individual citizen, the nation, and the world. The Laboratory is operated by Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC (LLNS), for the Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration. LLNS is a partnership involving Bechtel National, Inc.; University of California; BWX Technologies, Inc.; Washington Group International, Inc.; and Battelle in affiliation with Texas A&M University. More information about LLNS is available online at www.llnsllc.com. Please address any correspondence (including name and address changes) to S&TR, Mail Stop L-664, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, P.O. Box 808, Livermore, California 94551, or telephone (925) 423-3432. Our e-mail address is [email protected]. S&TR is available on the Web at www.llnl.gov/str.
© 2007. Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC. All rights reserved. This work was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under contract DE-AC52-07NA27344. To request permission to use any material contained in this document, please submit your request in writing to Library Report Orders, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Mail Stop L-610, P.O. Box 808, Livermore, California 94551, or to our e-mail address [email protected].
This document was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC, nor any of their employees makes any warranty, expressed or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the Prepared by LLNL under contract United States Government or Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC, and shall not be used for advertising or product DE-AC52-07NA27344 endorsement purposes. December 2007
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Contents S&TR Staff Features
Scientific Editor Homeland Security Begins Abroad Diane J. Chinn 3 Commentary by John C. Doesburg Managing Editor Ray Marazzi 4 Out of Harm’s Way New physical protection and accountability systems, Publication Editor Carolin Middleton together with a focus on security, safeguard nuclear materials in the Russian Federation. Writers Rose Hansen, Kristen Light, Ann Parker, Karen Rath, Maurina S. Sherman, and Research Highlights Katie Walter
Art Director and Designer 11 A Calculated Journey to the Center of the Earth Alexandria Ballard Determining the permeability of partially melted metals in a mineral matrix unlocks secrets about the formation of Earth’s core. Proofreader Kristen Light 14 Wireless That Works Communication technologies using ultrawideband radar are Print Coordinator improving national security. Charlie M. Arteago, Jr.
S&TR, a Director’s Office publication, is Teller Centennial Highlight produced by the Technical Information Department under the direction of the Power to the People Office of Planning and Special Studies. 16 Edward Teller envisioned safe and plentiful nuclear power S&TR is available on the Web for peaceful applications. at www.llnl.gov/str. Printed in the United States of America Departments Available from National Technical Information Service U.S. Department of Commerce 2 The Laboratory in the News 5285 Port Royal Road Springfield, Virginia 22161 18 Patents and Awards The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency approved pp. 14–15 for 19 2007 Index public release, distribution unlimited. 21 Abstracts UCRL-TR-52000-07-12 Distribution Category UC-99 December 2007 The Laboratory in the News S&TR December 2007
NanoSIMS digs deep to study microorganisms in soil NIF, laser beams must pass through a large volume of plasma to Scientists may soon be able to examine microhabitats within reach the target center and ignite a sustained fusion reaction. soils using Livermore’s nanometer-scale secondary-ion mass The computer simulation tracked 3.5 nanoseconds of laser beam spectrometer (NanoSIMS). This precise tool can determine pulse, more than 1,000 times longer than the pulse usually modeled the elemental and isotopic content of soil with a resolution of by a laser–plasma code. The results showed how the target and 50 nanometers. Results from a collaborative study, published in the beam geometry changed over time, revealing details down to the August 2007 issue of Soil Biology & Biochemistry, showed that wavelength scale—a few hundred nanometers, or billionths of a NanoSIMS can qualitatively determine how nitrogen and carbon meter. Livermore researchers are using simulations such as these to isotopes assimilate into soil microorganisms. Researchers at the design upcoming NIF experiments. University of Western Australia also found that the high-resolution Contact: Siegfried Glenzer (925) 422-7409 ([email protected]). tool can detect isotopically enriched bacterial cells in soil. Soils are highly complex porous mixtures that are structurally heterogeneous. Microorganisms act as go-betweens for a range Global warming increases atmospheric moisture of reactions occurring between the physical, chemical, and other A collaboration involving researchers from Lawrence biotic components of the soil environment. Because soils and the Livermore and eight other institutions has confirmed that human- microorganisms in them are so small, a precise instrument such as induced global warming is affecting the total moisture content of NanoSIMS is required to evaluate these interactions. the atmosphere. The study, which appeared in the September 25, “NanoSIMS shows promise for studying the heterogeneity 2007, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, combined and microbial activity in soil’s microhabitats,” says Jennifer observational data from the satellite-based Special Sensor Pett-Ridge, a postdoctoral researcher on the Livermore team. Microwave Imager with results from 22 climate models. “However, this application is still at a very early stage.” The During the past 20 years, the total atmospheric moisture content Livermore research also indicates that NanoSIMS could trace the over oceans has increased each decade by 0.41 kilogram per square uptake of fertilizer and other organics, track the stabilization of meter, an amount that cannot be explained by natural variation organic matter in soil, determine the spatial distribution of active alone. The research team, led by Livermore scientist Benjamin microorganisms, distinguish the microorganisms associated with Santer, found that this increase in water vapor is not caused by specific minerals, and establish the role of fungi in soil. solar forcing or the gradual recovery from particulates ejected by Contact: Jennifer Pett-Ridge (925) 424-2882 ([email protected]). the 1991 Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption. Instead, the research results showed that the primary driver for this atmospheric moistening is the increased levels of carbon dioxide caused by Simulations indicate laser is on track burning fossil fuels. Computer simulations based on data from the National Ignition “When you heat the planet, you increase the ability of the Facility (NIF) 2003–2004 Early Light Campaign produced results atmosphere to hold moisture,” says Santer, who works in that mirror experimental measurements to an unprecedented the Laboratory’s Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and degree. The simulations, which are discussed in the October Intercomparison. Water vapor is itself a greenhouse gas, so 2007 edition of Nature Physics, indicate that NIF’s laser beams increasing amounts of water vapor will amplify the warming effect will propagate effectively in plasma-filled targets designed to from carbon dioxide buildup. The team’s results indicate that the produce the world’s first laboratory demonstration of inertial increase in water vapor is about 6 to 7.5 percent per °C of warming confinement fusion. “Getting agreement on that scale is something in the lower atmosphere. new,” says Livermore scientist Siegfried Glenzer, who led the When combined with similar studies of continental-scale river simulation team. runoff, zonal mean rainfall, and surface-specific humidity, these The Nature Physics paper examined two experimental findings point toward a human-caused signal in the cycling of situations. In one simulation, an unsmoothed laser beam entering moisture between the atmosphere, land, and ocean. “This work the target stalled in the hot plasma. As a result, about 30 percent shows that the climate system is telling us a consistent story,” of the laser’s light backscattered and failed to reach the target’s says Santer. “The observed changes in temperature, moisture, and center. The second simulation tracked a smoothed laser beam atmospheric circulation fit together in an internally and physically as the beam moved through a 7-millimeter-long tube of carbon consistent way.” dioxide. In the inertial confinement fusion experiments planned for Contact: Benjamin Santer (925) 422-2486 ([email protected]).
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Commentary by John C. Doesburg
Homeland Security Begins Abroad
ONG before the terrorist group Al Qaeda burst onto the world Livermore personnel have helped to improve Russian border L stage, Lawrence Livermore and other national laboratories were security and the interdiction of smuggled nuclear materials and quietly working far from home to secure a first line of defense to recover at-risk and orphan radioactive sources. They have against nuclear terrorism. held numerous training workshops aimed at implementing more Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the rigorous procedures to prevent the export of Russian dual-use security apparatus for protecting the vast stocks of Soviet nuclear technologies. They have also worked with many hundreds of materials was in jeopardy as guards, scientists, and other nuclear former Soviet weapons scientists to help develop nonmilitary workers went unpaid for months. Former Laboratory director John applications of their technologies and establish self-sustaining Nuckolls was one of the first to call attention to the possibility that civilian enterprises that will employ former weapons workers. poorly secured weapons or materials could fall into the hands of The attacks on September 11, 2001, turned the country’s focus proliferators or terrorists or that economic necessity might tempt to the threat of terrorism and the possibility that terrorists might weapons scientists to accept employment with rogue states or acquire and use weapons of mass destruction (WMD). The U.S. terrorist groups. established the Department of Homeland Security and launched the Congress responded with legislation launching a suite of global war on terrorism, appropriating billions of dollars to support nonproliferation programs, including the Department of Defense’s these efforts. The Laboratory has contributed much to improve Cooperative Threat Reduction Program and the Department of security at home and abroad, from developing advanced detectors Energy’s laboratory-to-laboratory program. Over the past 16 years, for biological, explosive, and radiological materials to tracking these efforts have significantly advanced global security. They terrorist efforts to acquire WMD capabilities. have led to the deactivation and destruction of thousands of And all the while, as described in the article beginning on nuclear warheads, hundreds of intercontinental ballistic missiles, p. 4, Laboratory personnel have continued to work quietly but nuclear surface-to-air missiles, and submarine-launched missiles steadily to address the most important step in nuclear terrorism as well as nuclear submarines, nuclear bombers, submarine and prevention—securing nuclear materials at the source. These mobile missile launchers, missile silos, and nuclear test tunnels. In unsung heroes will never capture the spotlight with a spectacular addition, hundreds of tons of weapons-usable nuclear material at smuggling bust or the invention of an amazing new detector, but facilities across the former Soviet Union have been secured. surely and steadily, they are helping to improve the protection and During this period, Laboratory personnel have made countless control systems for securing materials that could fuel the flames of trips to Russia and other former Soviet states to work with their WMD proliferation and terrorism. counterparts at sites from Moscow to Murmansk to Kamchatka. In addition to the work to secure at‑risk nuclear material under the International Material Protection and Cooperation Program, n John C. Doesburg is principal associate director for Global Security.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory S&TR December 2007
InternationalInternational collaborationcollaboration helpshelps keepkeep nuclearnuclear materialsmaterials outout ofof thethe handshands ofof terrorists.terrorists.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory S&TR December 2007 Safeguarding Nuclear Materials
HE September 11, 2001, attacks on Sixteen years later, the Russians have Tthe U.S. and subsequent bombings markedly improved their security, thanks in Madrid, Bali, London, and Moscow in part to several programs implemented vividly demonstrate the determination by the Department of Energy (DOE) in of terrorist groups to strike fear and the early 1990s. One such program is inflict mass destruction. Keeping nuclear called International Material Protection materials and weapons safe and secure and Cooperation (IMPC). Now managed is imperative. by DOE’s National Nuclear Security Nowhere has the challenge of protecting Administration (NNSA), the IMPC these materials been greater than in Program focuses on upgrading protection, the former Soviet Union. The security control, and accountability systems to system for protecting vast stockpiles of safeguard nuclear materials. nuclear warheads and materials fell into Through IMPC, Russian facilities disarray when the Soviet Union split are now equipped with alarmed fences, into individual states in 1991. With the electronic access control and delay Russian government in transition, financial systems, vehicle inspection facilities, support for nuclear sites was chaotic at and alarm control and display consoles. best. A social and economic malaise set in. Accounting and control systems also Scientists and other nuclear workers were measure, track, and monitor nuclear not paid for months, and the infrastructure material inventories, and new regulations at nuclear facilities began to crumble. and procedures help protect Russia’s This situation was ripe for clandestine civilian and military nuclear sites. operations by rogue nations or terrorists Perhaps most importantly, scientists and who wanted to acquire these extremely nuclear workers in Russia recognize that dangerous materials. Reports of stolen protecting these materials is fundamental nuclear material began to surface. to global security. To further promote a Poverty-stricken nuclear scientists with culture of nuclear safety and security, their weapons know-how became targets NNSA sponsored a graduate program on for bribery. the protection, control, and accounting
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Safeguarding Nuclear Materials S&TR December 2007
of nuclear materials at the Moscow State military. At a 2005 summit in Bratislava, Livermore’s IMPC Program. Even more Engineering Physics Institute. Program Slovakia, U.S. President George W. Bush important, however, are the less noticeable graduates are ardent proponents of the and Russian President Vladimir Putin regulations and procedures, such as multilayered approach to security that is agreed to enhance and accelerate their material accounting and monitoring common at U.S. facilities. countries’ cooperation in defending against procedures, vulnerability analyses, nuclear terrorism. protection plans, training programs, and an Cooperation Is Key The 9/11 attacks gave the program a ever-present awareness by employees of NNSA’s IMPC Program, formerly sobering boost. “We had been humming safety and security. For example, a basic called the Material Protection, Control, and along, improving protections at an array rule throughout DOE’s NNSA complex Accountability Program, is a cooperative of sites, when 9/11 happened,” says Mike is that two people must be present when effort with the Russian Federation. The O’Brien, the deputy program leader working with nuclear materials. This two- program focuses on protecting facilities for Livermore’s IMPC effort. “Almost person rule not only improves safety but that process or store weapons-usable overnight, we had a much larger project. also helps prevent insider threats, where nuclear materials. Security has been We had to evaluate more sites and develop site personnel attempt to steal materials. enhanced at various locations, including more improvements—all within a much According to Bissani, the first step in weapon design institutes, naval bases, shorter turnaround time.” protecting materials against both external uranium and plutonium storage sites, fuel The initial work focused on securing and insider threats is to characterize a processing centers, and nuclear power points of origin, such as storage sites and site’s inventory. Laboratory staff work reactors. Livermore has been a leader in nuclear research facilities, and on creating with Russian personnel to evaluate how the program from the beginning. (See a first line of defense around them. IMPC much nuclear material a facility has, how S&TR, September 1997, pp. 14–23; is also addressing the second line of “attractive” the material is for terrorist September 2000, pp. 4–12.) Since the early defense, developing methods to better activities, where the material is stored, 1990s, dozens of security projects have monitor Russia’s border crossings and and what those storage conditions are. been implemented across Russia. shipping ports. The collaborative teams then examine The NNSA program receives high- improvement options, often using level governmental support in both Protecting the Goods computer models to compare choices, and countries. Russian Prime Minister Viktor Personnel at a U.S. nuclear weapons validate the results before implementing Chernomyrdin worked with U.S. Vice laboratory such as Livermore deal with protective upgrades. President Al Gore to place presidential this issue daily and understand the multiple The Livermore IMPC team also emphasis on the initial program. Later, layers of security. “Guns, guards, and gates helps train Russian technical personnel DOE Secretary Bill Richardson signed are obvious tools for protecting nuclear to perform vulnerability analyses using some of the first protocols with the Russian materials,” says Mo Bissani, who leads the Analytic System and Software for Evaluating Safeguards and Security (ASSESS) methodology, which was (a) (b) developed at the Laboratory. IMPC team member Bill Abramson has been teaching the vulnerability analysis concept since 1996. Since then, hundreds of technical staff members at Russian facilities have been trained. The first site to implement ASSESS was the Kurchatov Institute, Russia’s premier nuclear physics research laboratory. A DOE team worked with the Moscow institute to install an array of physical protection and monitoring systems. Today, Livermore personnel provide support to (a) Before the Department of Energy initiated the International Material Protection and Cooperation maintain these upgrades. Program, the Russian Federation stored highly enriched uranium in canisters with tamper-indicating ASSESS is also being deployed at devices but no alarms. (b) Today, canisters are behind alarmed doors that must be opened remotely. Chelyabinsk-70—a site of special interest
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory S&TR December 2007 Safeguarding Nuclear Materials
for the Laboratory. Chelyabinsk-70 is the the importance and use of more secure the IMPC Program. The administration second nuclear weapons design facility tamper‑indicating technologies. assigned a team of researchers from established in the Soviet Union and home The Laboratory’s IMPC team has Lawrence Livermore, Los Alamos, Oak of the All-Russian Scientific Research been involved in vulnerability analyses Ridge, and Sandia national laboratories to Institute of Technical Physics. Now called and protective upgrades at nuclear bases work solely with the Russian Navy. At the Snezhinsk, the town is the sister city for operated by the Russian Navy. The time, these four institutions were the only Livermore, California. Navy’s northern fleet is headquartered U.S. laboratories authorized to work with Seals and tamper-indicating devices near Murmansk and has bases along the the Russian Ministry of Defense. are essential parts of material protection northern coastline of the Barents Sea Abramson continues to travel to four and control. At U.S. nuclear sites, these above the Arctic Circle. The Pacific fleet, naval bases on the far eastern coast of are electronic devices that trigger alarms headquartered in Vladivostok, has bases Russia where he leads a project to improve and other alerts when material security along the Pacific coastline and around the nuclear security. He worked with the has been compromised. Before IMPC, Kamchatka Peninsula. IMPC teams have Russian teams to conduct vulnerability such devices at Russian facilities often worked with the 12th Main Directorate and analyses at each site. Since then, the bases consisted of string and sealing wax. the Strategic Rocket Forces of the Russian have installed barriers, closed-circuit A broken seal indicated that someone Ministry of Defense to address security television monitoring systems, alarms, had tampered with the goods. But these concerns at these remote bases. access controls, and portal monitors. inexpensive seals cannot identify who O’Brien, who has worked with IMPC “In an area that averages 10 meters of accessed material or when, and they do since the program began, recalls that snow annually, an important upgrade was not prevent theft. Resealing a container is success with the icebreaker fleet at better facilities for guards,” says Abramson. also relatively easy. To improve security Murmansk was key to winning over Not only are the facilities improved from a at the Russian facilities, personnel officials of the Ministry of Defense and security standpoint, but they now also have from Livermore and other national the Russian Navy. The Murmansk effort more protected muster areas, break rooms, laboratories led workshops demonstrating demonstrated NNSA’s dedication to and places for workers to escape the cold
Security has been upgraded at civilian and military nuclear sites throughout the Russian Federation.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Safeguarding Nuclear Materials S&TR December 2007
while on duty. Vehicle inspection portals Maintaining Control jointly developed software specifications, can now be enclosed in winter so inspectors In the past, the Soviets accounted for levels of reporting, types of reports, and are protected from the cold and flying special nuclear materials in financial documentation for the Russian system. “FIS snow. Because the weather is harsh and terms rather than by quantity and did standardizes the codes that the civil sector the bases are remote, upgrades included not maintain a national-level automated uses in Russia,” says Rusty Babcock, who emergency generators to ensure that accounting system. In 1996, Livermore’s joined the FIS project in 1997 and has led it lighting, alarms, and computer-controlled IMPC team began leading a project to since 2000. “FIS also standardizes the rules systems operate continuously. help Russia implement a more effective and frequency of reporting for a national Another way to keep weapons-grade approach. The Federal Information System material control and accounting program.” nuclear materials out of harm’s way is to (FIS) is designed to track and monitor Russia began deploying this mix them with other substances, a process nuclear materials in Russia’s civil sector. comprehensive system at its civilian called down-blending. The result is a The system is based on the Nuclear nuclear sites in 2001. The 60-plus sites material that is less attractive to terrorists Materials Management and Safeguards under the authority of the Federal Agency because it is more difficult to use in an System used by DOE, NNSA, and the for Atomic Energy reported data to improvised nuclear explosive device. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the system for the first time in January Down-blended materials are analytically meets the reporting requirements of the 2002. Each facility has several areas verified and stored in a secure location. International Atomic Energy Agency and where nuclear materials are located. Material that cannot be down-blended is other international standards and treaties. Data are summarized at the site level consolidated, when possible, for storage. In 1998, following a series of training and eventually reported to the central The Laboratory’s IMPC team helped workshops, Russian scientists produced Russian government. standardize packaging containers and a report that summarized how the DOE/ Currently, FIS reports are compiled develop machine-readable identification NNSA system could be applied in Russia. annually, but more frequent and detailed codes for container labels. Livermore and Russian scientists then reporting cycles are planned. The U.S.
Weapons-grade nuclear material is “down- blended” by mixing it with other substances before it is placed in permanent storage. This At one Russian site, a new facility was built so that guards are stationed closer to the materials they down-blended material is less attractive for protect, which shortens response time in an emergency. terrorist activities.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory S&TR December 2007 Safeguarding Nuclear Materials
has supported the hardware and software for the military services and anticipates procedures for material protection, control, developments needed to improve Russia’s completing the work in 2012. and accounting. electronic infrastructure so that remote Training for the Russian military is an Abramson is helping the Russian Navy sites can submit reports to FIS. important element of IMPC’s sustainability establish a similar facility for its Pacific phase. A recent achievement is the Kola fleet. Livermore’s Melinda Lane will adapt Keeping It Running Technical and Training Center established the Kola training program for use at the Livermore’s IMPC team also helps for the Navy’s northern fleet. Oak Ridge Pacific facility. Russia ensure that upgraded sites are worked with the Livermore team to kept in top condition. “After 15 years, design the center at Severomorsk, about The Bigger Picture we are wrapping up the security upgrade 640 kilometers northeast of Moscow. In 2006, NNSA began a collaboration phase of the project,” says Bissani. “We In July 2005, the center was officially with Ukraine and Kazakhstan to strengthen are working with our counterparts to dedicated by Russian leaders and NNSA the nuclear security regulatory systems develop systems for maintaining the administrator Linton Brooks. and standards in those countries. At a protective infrastructure.” Comprehensive More than 600 naval personnel, joint workshop in June 2006, researchers regulations, continued training, systematic including security managers and system from Lawrence Livermore and Pacific inspections, and routine maintenance operators, receive training each year at Northwest national laboratories met are considered key to sustaining the the Kola center. Laboratory scientist with their counterparts in Ukraine and effectiveness of protections in place. Mary Huddleston led the team assigned Kazakhstan to review assessments and O’Brien leads an effort with the to develop the center’s training courses. prioritize the proposed schedule for Kurchatov Institute to develop regulations Approximately 40 courses address such modifying regulatory documents and related to nuclear security for the Russian issues as console operation; badging developing new ones. Federation’s Ministry of Defense. The procedures; access control; security system The IMPC Program is also exploring team has identified the regulatory needs design and maintenance; and management areas of cooperation with China. A joint
Russia’s nuclear material accounting system is called the Federal Information System (FIS). The National Nuclear Security Administration initiated an annual magazine, News FIS, to keep nuclear staff informed about training, procedures, forms, and other system updates. The magazine’s Web site (www .fisnews.ru) also helps employees stay up to date.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 10 Safeguarding Nuclear Materials S&TR December 2007
program between IMPC and NNSA’s Office of Nonproliferation and International Security enlisted personnel from Lawrence Livermore, Sandia, Los Alamos, and Oak Ridge to collaborate with their technical counterparts in China. In 2005, as part of a coordinated material protection, control, and accounting demonstration, Livermore and Sandia worked together to upgrade systems at the Fast Neutron Critical Facility and a materials storage facility for the China Institute of Atomic Energy. A safeguards laboratory at the institute hosted technical exhibits in conjunction with the demonstration. At the exhibit, Continued training is an important component O’Brien presented DOE/NNSA-approved of sustaining the security upgrades and new procedures for vulnerability assessments, mind-set about security. The Kola Technical and Livermore scientist Mike O’Brien presented a physical protection, regulations, and Training Center, which opened in 2005, serves technical briefing on nuclear security to staff at inspections to Chinese safeguards personnel of the Russian navy’s northern fleet. the China Institute of Atomic Energy. engineers and analysts and civilian nuclear industry officials. Livermore’s Wayne Ruhter discussed nondestructive cooperation with the International Atomic keys to nuclear material protection. And analysis techniques, and Babcock Energy Agency and other global partners. safeguarding those materials is central to explained national-level nuclear material In response to evolving threats, global security. accounting procedures. In the current Livermore and other national laboratories —Katie Walter phase of the program, O’Brien is training have helped lay the groundwork for safer, Chinese nuclear personnel to analyze better protected nuclear sites in Russia and insider threats. other countries. Laboratory scientists have Key Words: China; Federal Information Largely because of 9/11 and its gotten to know their Russian counterparts System (FIS); International Material Protection aftermath, NNSA is overseeing a second very well, a concept unimaginable not and Cooperation (IMPC) Program; Material Protection, Control, and Accountability program, called the Global Threat so many years ago. Together, they are Program; nonproliferation; nuclear materials; Reduction Initiative, to reduce and secure imbuing a culture of safety and a sense Russian Federation. radiological materials at research reactors of collective responsibility within the and other locations throughout the world. Russian nuclear community because, in the For further information contact Mo Bissani This initiative is being carried out in end, personnel reliability and trust are the (925) 423-4299 ([email protected]).
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory S&TR Research December Highlights 2007 11
Crust
A Calculated Journey Mantle
Liquid to the Center of outer core Solid inner the Earth core
LANET Earth still holds many scientific mysteries. One that Pparticularly intrigues scientists is how and when the planet’s core formed. In Jules Verne’s 1864 novel Journey to the Center of the Earth, an inquisitive scientist hikes down the inside of an Icelandic volcano to examine the inner Earth. Uncovering the truth of what lies beneath Earth’s crust is even more difficult in life than it was in Verne’s fiction. Scientists have yet to travel through the planet. Instead, they use indirect methods such as examining meteorites and conducting seismic studies to deduce how and when Earth’s core formed. A cutaway view of Earth shows the planet’s solid inner core composed However, a technique developed by a team of Livermore mostly of iron, surrounded by a molten outer core, followed by a mantle scientists has, for the first time, allowed researchers to measure the and a thin crust of rocky, silicate material. permeability of molten iron compounds in olivine, a mineral in the upper mantle, under conditions that mimic those at the center of planetesimals—the precursor bodies to new planets. Because this metals and minerals commingle. In this model, gravity draws the physical parameter is experimentally constrained, geophysicists molten metal through the lighter liquids in a lava-lamp-like process have a key measurement to help them evaluate models of core until the metals and silicates separate into layers. The percolation formation and examine other geologic processes, such as heat model, on the other hand, proposes a slower mechanism in which flow, tectonics, volcanism, and magnetism. Understanding these the denser molten metal trickles down between solid silicate mechanisms will help unlock the secrets of Earth and other mineral grains, akin to water percolating through sand. terrestrial-like planets, meteorites, and planetesimals. Squeeze, Heat, and Image The Core Issue To evaluate the percolation model, researchers must determine Using meteorites and seismic records as clues, scientists have the percolation threshold—the point at which the molten metal determined that all terrestrial planets have cores. Earth has a solid begins to migrate through, or permeate, the matrix of minerals inner core composed mostly of iron, surrounded by a molten outer rather than form isolated pockets. The percolation threshold core, followed by a mantle and a thin (5- to 50-kilometer-deep) varies a few percent based on the wetting or nonwetting behavior crust of rocky, silicate material. Most scientists agree that density of the materials involved. For example, the estimated threshold is the driving force behind this layered formation, resulting in for nonwetting metal mixtures ranges from 3 to 7 percent by chemical fractionation—a process in which substances in a mixture volume. Estimates for permeability, a parameter that measures a separate or segregate depending on their physical and chemical material’s ability to transmit fluid, vary even more, by many orders properties. In this critical process, denser materials such as iron of magnitude. migrate toward the center, while lighter materials such as silicates Directly measuring the percolation threshold under temperatures are forced toward the surface. However, scientists have yet to and pressures relevant to core formation has been impossible up determine how this segregation occurs. to now. Roberts and his team, which included geochemists Rick “Several models have been proposed,” says experimental Ryerson and Julien Siebert and physicist John Kinney, changed geophysicist Jeff Roberts, who leads the Livermore research. For all this. With funding from Livermore’s Laboratory Directed example, the “magma ocean” model starts with a planet that has Research and Development Program, they combined experiments a large molten region—the magma ocean layer in which molten and simulations to determine the percolation threshold and
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 12 Planetary Core Formation S&TR December 2007
permeability of molten iron sulfide migrating through a crystalline To examine the structure of this metal, Roberts imaged the olivine matrix at temperatures and pressures representative of samples at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory’s Advanced Earth’s interior. Light Source using an x-ray tomography beamline and software To create realistic samples of what would have existed early Kinney developed while researching bone structure. (See S&TR, in Earth’s geologic history when the core was forming, the team September 2006, pp. 20–22.) Their efforts yielded striking three- examined the composition of meteorites. Ryerson and Siebert dimensional images showing the structure of the metal–olivine prepared the samples by mixing finely ground olivine crystals, samples with a spatial resolution of 1.6 micrometers. one of the most common minerals in Earth, with iron sulfide or “The metal is more opaque to x rays than the olivine matrix, an iron–nickel sulfide powder. The proportion of molten metal making it easy to distinguish the structure of the melts,” says to crystal olivine in the mix varied from 2 to 13 percent. “This Kinney. In the images, percolating and nonpercolating melt proportion spans the estimates established for the percolation fractions clearly differed. The distribution of the metal melts, their threshold—the amount of molten metal needed to form a degree of interconnectivity throughout the matrix, and the pockets continuously connected melt,” says Siebert. The concentration of of melted metal were also apparent. nickel varied from 0 to 10 percent, a range that researchers believe matches the proportion of nickel in Earth’s core. Going with the Flow Samples, each about the size of a pencil eraser, were created Next, the team used the x-ray computed tomography data with a piston cylinder press, using techniques originally developed in computer simulations to determine a sample structure’s by Livermore’s William Minarik to study Earth’s formation. (See permeability. For these calculations, each image was divided into S&TR, December 1996, pp. 21–23.) For 24 hours, the samples discrete computational (mathematical) spaces, called lattices. The were subjected to temperatures of 1,350°C and pressures of team then used a lattice Boltzmann solver, an algorithm that speeds 1 gigapascal, conditions believed to be characteristic of Earth’s the calculation, to solve the Stokes flow equation for the defined interior early in the planet’s formation. The samples were then lattices. In this type of flow, the inertial forces are smaller than the quenched, freezing the molten metal within the olivine matrix. viscous forces, and flow is laminar.
X-ray computed (a) (b) tomography images distinguish the structure of molten metal within an olivine matrix. (a) In a sample with a 4-percent melt of iron sulfide, the molten metal exists primarily in pockets. (b) With a 6-percent melt of iron–nickel sulfide, these pockets are connected by tiny channels of metal.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory S&TR December 2007 Planetary Core Formation 13
A Closer Look at Other Processes Research using the team’s techniques is examining core formation and other processes. Livermore researchers are collaborating with colleagues at the University of Minnesota and the University of California at Davis to explore deformation in more detail. For example, in some samples, the molten metal formed stand-alone “melt pockets.” The research team wants to determine whether deforming and twisting the sample—a shearing- type action that often occurs during earthquakes and other geologic events—might cause the pockets to connect and allow the metal to flow. In a project funded by the Department of Energy’s Office of Basic Energy Sciences, the researchers are attempting to estimate permeability using the measured electrical conductivity for a sample of interconnected melt. “An interconnected melt is a continuous web of essentially very tiny wire,” says Roberts. “In theory, we could run a current through it to learn more about the melt’s structure.” Researchers are adapting the team’s measurement technique Computer calculations indicate that permeability depends on small tubules to examine other geologic materials. For instance, a collaboration of molten metal connecting melt pockets. involving the U.S. Geological Survey and the University of Oregon is using the Livermore approach to study the explosive nature of volcanic materials. “Basically, they are imaging different volcanic With the resulting images and calculations, the scientists glasses such as tuff and pumice and calculating the permeability calculated permeabilities for different melt fractions and put of gases in the materials,” says Roberts. “With those results, they limits on previous estimates. They also established the percolation can determine which conditions will allow gas to flow through threshold for various percentages of melt to olivine and determined and escape and which will trap it in pockets and possibly cause that percolation may have contributed to planetary core formation. an explosion.” For example, the team calculated that a 100‑kilometer-diameter The Livermore technique, which measures a previously meteorite with a melt fraction of 10 percent has a permeability of unobtainable physical parameter, also has applications beyond the approximately 2 × 10–15 square meters. This measurement indicates team’s initial focus. “Now that this method exists,” says Roberts, that the molten metal would migrate about 1.5 centimeters per year. “we’ll be interested to see where the research goes from here.” “Iron-rich cores apparently formed in these types of objects —Ann Parker within about 3 million years,” says Roberts, “which corresponds to a melt velocity of about 3.3 centimeters per year. Thus, the calculated migration rates are consistent with percolation being Key Words: Advanced Light Source, core formation, iron sulfide, magma the formation mechanism.” He added that the team’s calculated ocean, mantle, olivine, partial melt, percolation, permeability, volcanic permeabilities probably form a lower boundary. “We used an glass, x-ray computed tomography. average grain size of 45 micrometers for the olivine,” he says. “The larger grain sizes observed in meteorites would support an For further information contact Jeff Roberts (925) 422-7108 even higher permeability.” ([email protected]).
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (a)
14 Research Highlights S&TR December 2007
Wireless That Works (b)
VEN though cell phones and other wireless communication E technologies are in widespread use, reception is notoriously poor in certain places such as underground or in tunnels and dense urban landscapes. Livermore engineer Faranak Nekoogar calls these hard-to-reach areas “harsh propagation environments.” Nekoogar, who works in the Laboratory’s Engineering Directorate, leads an effort to develop wireless communication technologies that will work where conventional devices are limited or fail altogether. “Radio-frequency communications use narrowband signals, which are inherently limited,” says Nekoogar. “In harsh propagation (a) Utags are small, lightweight radio-frequency identification devices that environments, the signals attenuate as they are reflected by metal, use ultrawideband signals to monitor cargo containers. (b) In tests, Utags concrete, and other objects.” When radio signals bounce from were attached to documents and placed inside metal cabinets. Results structure to structure, the repeated reflections, called multipath showed the metal did not interfere with the transmitted signals. phenomena, can cause signals to fade or be canceled. To overcome these limitations and improve transmissions, the Livermore team is using ultrawideband (UWB) electromagnetic pulses, which can Private industry has focused its research on developing penetrate concrete buildings and metallic obstructions. short-range, high-data-rate communication systems, but UWB technologies offer more than improved communications. The low Low-Power, Long-Range Transmissions power levels and wideband features make the signals ideal for Traditional narrowband wireless technologies transmit secure, covert transmissions in combat settings or for surveillance strong, continuous-wave signals, which are easily detected, systems. Livermore engineer Peter Haugen is leading several intercepted, and jammed. Narrowband electronics also require research efforts that focus on optimizing UWB communication extensive circuitry to filter and extract information from the technology for long-range applications. Laboratory engineers are signal. In addition, licensing the required bandwidth can be also designing UWB technologies to address national security expensive. Livermore’s UWB technology sends extremely short needs. For example, they have developed intrusion sensors, electromagnetic pulses across a wide band of frequencies. High- rapidly deployable perimeter networks, and noncontact triage and speed digital receivers record the pulses reflected by nearby sensing devices. objects. (See S&TR, September 2004, pp. 12–19.) UWB pulses last only a few trillionths of a second, so interfering Improving Port Security with a transmission is difficult. The pulse power is spread over a Each year, more than 18 million cargo containers enter broad frequency range, resulting in extremely low power levels U.S. ports from overseas. Security officials are concerned at any given frequency. Best of all, devices can be designed so that one of them will contain a threat material or have had its that UWB signals will not affect other wireless technologies such contents tampered with. To address those concerns, Nekoogar’s as flight radios, ground-based beacons, the Global Positioning team developed a small, lightweight UWB radio-frequency System, and cell phones. Also, the technology uses the entire radio identification tag, called Utag. spectrum, so there is no cost for licensing a particular frequency. Utags work without batteries and can be placed inside metal The range of a UWB transmitter and receiver pair is affected by containers to identify the container, keep a record of its contents, the transmitted power and the frequency bandwidth used. Because and detect intrusions. Security personnel can use the tags to the Federal Communications Commission mandates a frequency monitor a container’s contents from up to 20 meters away, a between 3.1 and 10.6 gigahertz for commercial UWB systems, distance 20 times greater than the passive narrowband tags they are typically used for short-range applications, within about currently available. According to engineers Greg Dallum and Dave 10 meters. However, the bandwidth at that range is so high that Benzel, the team plans to extend the receiving range to 100 meters UWB systems can process gigabytes of data per second, allowing in the near future. Utags can also be connected to radiation them to simultaneously transmit high-resolution voice, video, and monitoring hardware, which will transmit results to a computer data recordings in real time. aboard ship or to a handheld reader.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory S&TR December 2007 Ultrawideband Communication Technologies 15
(a) (b) (c)
(a, b) Large-scale simulations modeled ultrawideband radar propagating through a building. (c) The resulting data were used to determine the building’s internal structure.
Because Utags have geolocation capability, they can be used Secure Communication at Sea to track objects or individuals. Once a Utag is attached to a target, Livermore’s engineers envision many ways to apply UWB receivers can remotely query the tag and process the returned communication technology to problems of national importance signal into images. By viewing the images in sequence, researchers and are continuing to examine potential innovations. Most can estimate where the target is moving. The inexpensive, tamper- recently, a team led by project manager Kique Romero conducted resistant Utags could help combat units track soldiers, supplies, large-scale field exercises to demonstrate a UWB wireless and munitions. The devices could also be adapted to monitor communication system that works aboard ships. The small, hazardous or dangerous materials, search for lost children or pets, highly metallic corridors on ships create virtually unlimited paths and secure assets such as jewelry. for signal reflections. In the demonstration tests, the Livermore prototype transmitted voice and video data from a ship’s top deck VisiBuilding Sees through Walls down to the engine room, even as normal activity continued with Another application for the Livermore technology supports the hatches opening and closing. VisiBuilding Program directed by Ed Baranoski in the Department The Laboratory has licensed many UWB applications, and of Defense’s Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. several inventions have received R&D 100 awards, including the VisiBuilding combines radar, signal processing, statistical analysis, noninvasive pneumothorax detector. (See S&TR, October 2007, and deconvolution algorithms to map a building’s floor plans and pp. 4–5.) Livermore innovations include locating buried plastic track insurgents—all from outside the structure. and metallic land mines, inspecting bridges, imaging roadbeds, For this project, Livermore engineers in collaboration with and detecting motion inside protected areas. (See S&TR, January/ SRI International and Signetron, Inc., developed a model-based February 1996, pp. 16–29.) methodology that uses noncontact UWB imaging to reconstruct “As we investigate the broader realm of wideband and UWB building interiors and determine what lies behind the walls. systems, we are just beginning to dream of possibilities,” says Led by Laboratory engineer Farid Dowla, the team’s first goal Romero. “Thanks to recent advances both in industry and at was to ensure that the concept would work as expected. Using Livermore, we are generating innovative solutions that were not Livermore’s massively parallel supercomputers, the team even possible a few years ago.” simulated UWB wave propagation inside various structures. The —Karen Rath simulations took into account how the signals would be received and determined the optimal locations for receivers. With these results, the team developed algorithms to translate Key Words: radio-frequency identification tag, ultrawideband (UWB) the simulated signals into physical models that predict a building’s radar, Utag, VisiBuilding project, wireless communication technology. contents. The full system—including modeling algorithms, system planning knowledge, and hardware—will be developed in the For further information contact Faranak Nekoogar (925) 423-3148 project’s next phase. (See S&TR, November 2007, pp. 4–10.) ([email protected]).
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 16 Highlight Descriptor Teller Centennial Highlight S&TRS&TR SeptemberDecember 2007
Power to the People Teller’s Contributions to Nuclear Power Research
January 15, 2008, marks the 100th anniversary of Edward Teller’s Teller also challenged researchers to design a foolproof reactor birth. This highlight is the ninth in a series of 10 honoring his life small enough for use in university research and in diagnostic and and contributions to science. treatment procedures at hospitals. Teller’s mandate was to “design a reactor so safe . . . that if it was started from its shut-down condition HEN nuclear fission was discovered in 1939, Edward Teller and all its control rods instantaneously removed, it would settle Wsaw its enormous potential for both military and civilian uses. down to a steady level of operation without melting any of its fuel.” In particular, he and others recognized that nuclear power offered That is, the reactor’s safety features must be inherent—guaranteed a potentially clean and inexpensive alternative to other sources of by nature. Such a design would prevent a catastrophic accident energy. Likewise, his lifelong interest in fusion led the Laboratory even if the engineered safety features were bypassed. to establish a fusion energy program, which continues today. In 1956, a team of distinguished physicists at General Atomics, Teller realized that the 21st century would present serious including Frederic de Hoffmann, Freeman Dyson, and Ted energy-related issues. The developing world would significantly Taylor, achieved this goal, designing a light-water reactor known increase its energy consumption as its standard of living rose. as TRIGA® (Training, Research, Isotopes, General Atomics). Burning fossil fuels to meet that demand would likely exhaust The fuel rods in TRIGA reactors act as power regulators. In an the world’s petroleum supplies and could cause dangerous emergency, they will shut down a reactor within a few thousandths levels of pollution. Later in Teller’s life, scientists began to of a second—faster than an engineered safety feature can acknowledge that large-scale fossil-fuel consumption increased the respond. General Atomics installed the first TRIGA reactors in atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, leading to dramatic 1958. Today, more than 65 TRIGA facilities have been built in climate changes. In Memoirs, Teller noted that, “Alternative 24 countries. (For further information on TRIGA reactors, see energy sources, such as wind power and solar energy, are not triga.ga.com.) In the biographical memoir Dyson wrote on Teller quantitatively significant.” He thus saw nuclear power as a key for the National Academy of Sciences, he says, “I had one of my option for the long term. happiest experiences, working with Teller on the design of a safe While working at Los nuclear reactor.” Alamos National Laboratory, In 1957, Teller addressed the Joint AEC Weapons Laboratory Teller contributed to some of Symposium on Nonmilitary Uses of Nuclear and Thermonuclear the early reactor projects, and Explosions, appealing to the attendees to reach for new ideas in in 1947, he became the first civilian nuclear applications. He thus planted the seeds that led chairman of the Atomic to Project Plowshare—a national research program established Energy Commission’s to explore peaceful application of nuclear explosions, such as (AEC’s) Committee on excavating mines and harbors or enhancing productivity of oil Reactor Safeguards. Far and gas wells. ahead of his time in Public concern about the environmental consequences of nuclear stressing reactor explosions brought an end to Project Plowshare. Nonetheless, safety, he guided the program’s legacy is visible in many of the Laboratory’s the committee accomplishments, from an underground coal and oil gasification to develop process to computer codes that model nuclear waste containment at an approach the proposed Yucca Mountain repository. for including Teller’s enthusiasm for peaceful applications of nuclear power accident was predicated on the belief that sound solutions could be found probabilities to address four key issues: containing nuclear material in the event when designing of an accident, simplifying a reactor’s operation so that it is close a reactor’s to automatic, preventing the diversion of fuel for military use, safety features. and disposing of spent fuel safely and reliably. In 1972, he was
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory S&TR DecemberSeptember 2007 2007 Teller Centennial Highlight 17
Power to the People Teller’s Contributions to Nuclear Power Research
In 1956, Teller challenged scientists at General Atomics to design an inherently safe nuclear reactor. That effort led to the TRIGA® reactor. This photograph looks down into the pool of a TRIGA Mark I reactor. (Reprinted courtesy of General Atomics, San Diego, California.)
In 1962, Edward Teller received the Enrico Fermi Award from President John F. Kennedy (far right) in a White House ceremony attended by Glenn T. more than 30 years. The Tennessee Valley Authority followed in Seaborg (far left), chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, and Teller’s October with an application to build a new plant at its Bellefonte site wife, Mici (second from right). in Alabama. Teller continued to think about nuclear power until the end of his life. In 2003, he wrote a paper with Livermore physicist Ralph further intrigued when French physicists discovered evidence of Moir, putting forward new ideas on building thorium-burning a naturally occurring nuclear reactor in Oklo, Gabon. The reactor reactors underground. This paper, Teller’s last, appeared in Nuclear had burned itself out about 1.7 billion years ago after operating for Technology in 2005. 1 million years. Teller was certain this model from nature would Today, Lawrence Livermore is part of a Department of lend answers to today’s nuclear waste management questions. Energy collaboration developing a small, sealed, transportable, In particular, Teller saw parallels between Oklo and the next autonomous reactor (SSTAR) housed in a tamper-resistant generation of underground reactors being designed by Livermore container. SSTAR addresses the concerns of nuclear proliferation scientists. The new fission reactors had no moving parts and and the growing need for clean, reliable, and cost-effective energy. could operate without human intervention for 30 years. Residual (See S&TR, July/August 2004, pp. 20–22.) radioactivity would be sealed within the reactor’s core and allowed Teller maintained his optimism that, despite the obstacles, to decay in place. An underground location would also limit the nuclear power could be used to further the good of humanity. He amount of radioactivity that could reach the surface in the event of was confident that an improved reactor design could safely provide an accident or earthquake. energy to developing nations and thus reduce the chasm that exists Teller envisioned reactors sited 200 meters underground between poverty and wealth. delivering 1,000 megawatts of power. Generally speaking, —Maurina S. Sherman fission reactors, if widely adopted, could offset perhaps one- third of the projected increase in carbon emissions during the next century. Key Words: fission; fusion; nuclear power; nuclear reactor; Project The 1979 reactor accident at Three Mile Island curtailed the Plowshare; small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor (SSTAR); nation’s efforts to establish a thriving nuclear power program. TRIGA® reactor. However, in September, New Jersey–based NRG Energy filed an application with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to build For further information contact Stephen B. Libby (925) 422-9785 two advanced reactors in South Texas—the first such request in ([email protected]).
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Each month in this space, we report on the patents issued to 18 Patents and Awards and/or the awards received by Laboratory employees. Our S&TR December 2007 goal is to showcase the distinguished scientific and technical achievements of our employees as well as to indicate the scale and scope of the work done at the Laboratory.
Patents
Graphitized-Carbon Fiber/Carbon Char Fuel varying concentrations are placed on sample plates with the reagents. After John F. Cooper the sample plates are incubated, they are examined to determine which U.S. Patent 7,261,804 B2 concentrations are too low or too high. The concentrations that are optimal August 28, 2007 for protein crystallization are selected and used. This method recovers intact graphitic fibers from fiber–polymer composites. The graphite fiber–polymer composite mixture is pyrolyzed, and the System for the Co-Production of Electricity and Hydrogen graphite fibers are separated by molten salt electrochemical oxidation. Ai Quoc Pham, Brian Lee Anderson U.S. Patent 7,276,306 B2 Serpentine and Corduroy Circuits to Enhance the Stretchability of a October 2, 2007 Stretchable Electronic Device This system for generating hydrogen gas and electricity can adjust the Mariam N. Maghribi, Peter A. Krulevitch, Thomas S. Wilson, proportion of hydrogen to electricity from 0 to 100 percent. The system Julie K. Hamilton, Christina Park integrates fuel-cell technology for power generation with fuel-assisted U.S. Patent 7,265,298 B2 steam electrolysis. A hydrocarbon fuel or a reformed or partially reformed September 4, 2007 hydrocarbon fuel can be fed into the system. This electronic apparatus can be stretched in a longitudinal direction generally aligned with its central axis. The apparatus has at least one Silicon Fiber Optic Sensors circuit line connected to a stretchable polymer body. The circuit lines Michael D. Pocha, Steve P. Swierkowski, Billy E. Wood and their longitudinal components extend in the longitudinal direction, U.S. Patent 7,277,605 B2 and an offset component is at an angle to the longitudinal direction. The October 2, 2007 longitudinal and offset components allow the apparatus to stretch in the A Fabry–Perot cavity is formed by a reflective surface on the free end of longitudinal direction while maintaining the integrity of the circuit lines. an integrated elongate channel or an integrated bounding wall of a chip. Either configuration includes a partially reflective surface on the end of an Solar Thermal Aircraft optical fiber. Such a device can detect one or more physical parameters, Charles L. Bennett such as strain, through the optical fiber. An optical detection system U.S. Patent 7,270,295 B2 provides measuring accuracies of less than about 0.1 percent. September 18, 2007 This aircraft is powered by heat energy from the Sun. The aircraft body Fade-Resistant Forward Error Correction Method for Free-Space carries a heat engine, such as a Stirling engine, that produces power Optical Communications Systems for a propulsion mechanism, such as a propeller. A thermal battery Gary W. Johnson, Farid U. Dowla, Anthony J. Ruggiero supplies heat to the engine. A solar concentrator, such as a reflective U.S. Patent 7,277,644 B2 parabolic trough, concentrates solar energy from within the aircraft October 2, 2007 and is connected to an optically transparent section of the aircraft Free-space optical laser communication systems offer exceptionally body. A conduit collects the concentrated energy and transports heat wide bandwidth and secure connections between platforms that cannot to the thermal battery. A solar tracker uses a heliostat to determine the be physically connected by an optical fiber or cable. However, these optimal alignment with the Sun. A drive motor then actuates the solar links are subject to strong channel fading from atmospheric turbulence concentrator based on the heliostat readings. and beam-pointing errors, limiting performance and reliability. A fade-tolerant architecture based on forward error-correcting codes is Protein Crystallography Prescreen Kit combined with delayed, redundant subchannels to solve this problem. The Brent W. Segelke, Heike I. Krupka, Bernhard Rupp redundancy is feasible through dense wavelength division multiplexing U.S. Patent 7,276,216 B2 or high-order modulation. Experiments and simulations show that October 2, 2007 error-free communication is feasible even with fades that last for tens of This kit for prescreening protein concentration for crystallization includes milliseconds. The system is designed to operate at 2.5 gigabits per second. several vials, reagents, and sample plates. Protein samples in solutions of
Awards
David Keyes, a scientist in Livermore’s Institute for Scientific Fusion Power Associates honored former Laboratory associate Computing Research and the Fu Foundation professor at Columbia director David Baldwin with its 2007 Distinguished Career University, received the 2007 Sidney Fernbach Memorial Award Award. Established in 1987, the award is given to individuals from the Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers who have made important contributions to fusion development. (IEEE) Computer Society. Keyes was recognized for his Baldwin was recognized for his scientific contributions to fusion contributions in developing scalable numerical algorithms to solve research, his leadership roles in the fusion programs at Livermore nonlinear partial differential equations and for his leadership in and General Atomics, and the policy roles he played in guiding high-performance computation. IEEE established the award in national and international fusion efforts. 1992 in memory of Livermore computer scientist Sidney Fernbach.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 2007 Index 19
Science & Technology Review 2007 Index
January/February 2007 2 The Laboratory in the News 3 Commentary: Another Step for High-Energy-Density Science and Teller’s Legacy Features 4 Titan Leads the Way in Laser–Matter Science 12 Identifying the Source of Stolen Nuclear Materials Research Highlights 19 Tiny Tubes Make the Flow Go 21 Acidic Microbe Community Fosters the Unique 24 Patents and Awards
March 2007 2 The Laboratory in the News 3 Commentary: Partnering to Enhance Americans’ Health Features 4 Advancing the Frontiers in Cancer Research 12 On the Leading Edge of Atmospheric Predictions Research Highlights 20 Climate and Agriculture: Change Begets Change 23 New Routes to High Temperatures and Pressures 26 Teller Centennial: From Sound Waves to Stars 28 Patents and Awards
April 2007 April 2007
National Nuclear 2 The Laboratory in the News Security Administration’s Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 3 Commentary: Shaking the Foundations of Solar-System Science Features 4 Stardust Results Challenge Astronomical Convention 12 Fire in the Hole Research Highlights Stardust 19 Big Physics in Small Spaces
Returns Also in this issue: 22 A New Block on the Periodic Table • Reviving Underground Coal Gasification • Modeling Biological Fluid Flow • Creation of Element 118 25 Teller Centennial: A Search for Patterns and Connections • Teller’s Legacy in Computational Physics 27 Patents and Awards
May 2007 2 The Laboratory in the News 3 Commentary: Laboratory Science Entwined with Rise in Computing Features 4 A Quantum Contribution to Technology 12 U.S. Weapons Plutonium Aging Gracefully Research Highlights 21 Imaging Complex Biomolecules in a Flash 24 Lipid Rafts Observed in Cell Membranes 26 Teller Centennial: Exchanging Insights on Quantum Behavior 28 Patents and Awards
June 2007 2 The Laboratory in the News 3 Commentary: Ultrafast Diagnostics Satisfy the Need for Speed Features 4 Doing a Stretch of Time 11 Setting a World Driving Record with Hydrogen Research Highlights 17 Virtual Dams Subjected to Strong Earthquakes 20 A Second Chance at Sight 22 Teller Centennial: A Gifted Teacher of Applied and Fundamental Physics 24 Patents and Awards
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 20 2007 Index S&TR December 2007
July/August 2007 2 The Laboratory in the News 3 Commentary: Dawn of a New Era Features 4 Preparing for the X Games of Science 12 Meeting the Target Challenge Research Highlights 20 A Laboratory to Probe a Planet’s Deep Interior 22 A Closer Look at Nucleosynthesis 24 Teller Centennial: Taking on the Stars 27 Patents and Awards
September 2007 September 2007
National Nuclear Security Administration’s 2 The Laboratory in the News Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 3 Commentary: Ramrods Key to Extraordinary Record Features 4 Ramrods Shepherd Hydrodynamic Tests 12 Three Dimensional on the Nanoscale Research Highlights 18 Assessing the Threat of Biological Terrorism Also in this issue: • Three-Dimensional Lithography Goes Nano • Assessing the Threat of Biological Attack 21 Shedding Light on Dark Matter • Space Hunt for Antiparticles • Teller’s Legacy in Applied Physics and Defense 24 Teller Centennial: From Fission to Fusion and Beyond 28 Patents and Awards
October 2007 2 Commentary: A New Partnership for a Strong Future 2007 R&D 100 Award Features 4 Fast Detection of a Punctured Lung 6 Retinal Camera Captures Early Stages of Eye Disease 8 Mobile Mapping for Radioactive Materials 10 Linear Solutions at Hypre Speed 12 Bringing Fusion Research into Focus 14 Teller Centennial: Back to Basics 16 The Laboratory in the News 18 Patents and Awards
November 2007 2 The Laboratory in the News 3 Commentary: Simulating the Electromagnetic World Features 4 A Code to Model Electromagnetic Phenomena 11 Characterizing Virulent Pathogens Research Highlights 18 Imaging at the Atomic Level 22 Scientists without Borders 26 Teller Centennial: Probing Deep into the Nucleus 28 Patents and Awards
December 2007 December 2007
National Nuclear Security Administration’s 2 The Laboratory in the News Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 3 Commentary: Homeland Security Begins Abroad Features 4 Out of Harm’s Way Research Highlights 11 A Calculated Journey to the Center of the Earth 14 Wireless That Works
Also in this issue: • Unlocking the Secrets at Earth’s Core 16 Teller Centennial: Power to the People • Improved Security for Wireless Communication • Teller’s Legacy in Nuclear Power Research 18 Patents and Awards
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Abstracts Edward Teller’s Centennial Out of Harm’s Way The system for securing Russia’s stockpiles of nuclear warheads and materials was in jeopardy of failing when the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991. The Department of Energy (DOE) stepped in with a program to protect Russian nuclear material and keep it out of the hands of terrorists. Originally called the Material Protection, Control, and Accountability Program, it is now the International Material Protection and Cooperation (IMPC) Program and is operated by the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA). In support of this program, Livermore and other national laboratories have trained Russian technical personnel to perform vulnerability analyses of nuclear sites based on a system developed at the Laboratory. This analysis is followed by the installation of such physical protection devices as new fences and other barriers, closed-circuit television monitoring systems, tamper-indicating devices, alarms, access controls, vehicle inspection facilities, and portal monitors. Livermore leads a project to help implement a rigorous approach to accounting for nuclear materials in Russia’s civilian sector. The Federal Information System is based on a system used by DOE, NNSA, and the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission to track and monitor nuclear materials. Livermore January 2008 marks the 100th is also helping the Russians sustain the protection improvements anniversary of the birth of by developing comprehensive regulations, building new training facilities, conducting training programs, and establishing Edward Teller—cofounder of systematic inspections. The IMPC Program is also exploring areas Lawrence Livermore, adviser to of cooperation with China, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. U.S. presidents, and physicist Contact: Mo Bissani (925) 423-4299 ([email protected]). extraordinaire.
Also in January/February • Thanks to the power of BlueGene/L, Livermore has become a center for theoretical advances in particle physics.
• Researchers are investigating the mechanism by which teeth become more brittle with age. Coming Next Month
U.S. Government Printing Office: 2007/770-075-70002 Science & Technology Review PRSRTPRSRT STD STD Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory U.S.U.S. POSTAGE POSTAGE P.O. Box 808, L-664 PAIDPAID Livermore, California 94551 LIVERMORE,LIVERMORE, CA CA PERMITPERMIT NO. NO. 154 154
Printed on recycled paper.