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Da Pearl Harbor Alle Twin Towers Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia Facoltà di Scienze della Comunicazione e dell’Economia Corso di Laurea Specialistica in Economia e Gestione delle Reti e dell’Innovazione Storia dell’Innovazione Prof. Leonardo PAGGI Anno Accademico 2004/05 Da Pearl Harbor alle Twin Towers: gli Stati Uniti e la propaganda mediatica in tempo di guerra di: Fabio Ruini (matricola 7496) 2 “Dubitare di tutto e credere a tutto sono due soluzioni, ugualmente comode, che ci dispensano, l’una come l’altra, dal riflettere” (Jules Henri Poincaré) 3 4 Indice Conflitti militari e controllo dell’informazione ________________________________________ 6 Introduzione: la propaganda in tempo di guerra e la nascita del “fronte interno” _______________ 6 Il crollo dello zarismo russo____________________________________________________________ 7 L’operazione “Giusta Causa” a Panama _________________________________________________ 7 L’operazione “Furia urgente” a Grenada ________________________________________________ 7 Lotta per la leadership all’interno della NATO: la guerra delle Falkland______________________ 8 La crisi di Suez _____________________________________________________________________ 10 Imparare dai propri errori: la “guerra” del Vietnam __________________________________ 14 La “Teoria del domino”______________________________________________________________ 14 La vera data di inizio della guerra _____________________________________________________ 15 Lo scoppio della guerra del Vietnam ___________________________________________________ 16 Una “guerra americana”? ____________________________________________________________ 22 L’escalation del conflitto e la manipolazione propagandistica delle informazioni_______________ 24 L’offensiva del Têt __________________________________________________________________ 25 Dopo Westmoreland: Abrams, Nixon e la “vietnamizzazione” del conflitto ___________________ 28 La riapertura del dialogo con i Paesi dell’Est: “distensione” e stop della guerra del Vietnam ____ 30 Dagli accordi di pace di Parigi alla caduta di Saigon ______________________________________ 34 Muhammad Alì e il suo “no” alla guerra________________________________________________ 37 La protesta contro la guerra del Vietnam: una prospettiva più ampia________________________ 41 Perchè gli USA “persero” la guerra? ___________________________________________________ 45 La guerra più documentata della storia_________________________________________________ 46 La seconda guerra mondiale: vendicare Pearl Harbor _________________________________ 51 Pearl Harbor: l’attacco ______________________________________________________________ 51 Pearl Harbor: perché? _______________________________________________________________ 54 Le conseguenze militari e psicologiche del 7 dicembre_____________________________________ 58 Pearl Harbor: la risposta di Hollywood _________________________________________________ 60 Analisi di “December 7th” ____________________________________________________________ 63 Analisi di “Prelude to War” __________________________________________________________ 70 L’intervista a Frank Capra ___________________________________________________________ 83 Sui campi di internamento americani in California _______________________________________ 84 Propaganda “visiva” interna__________________________________________________________ 88 Considerazioni conclusive _______________________________________________________ 94 Bibliografia ___________________________________________________________________ 95 Filmografia ___________________________________________________________________ 96 5 Conflitti militari e controllo dell’informazione Introduzione: la propaganda in tempo di guerra e la nascita del “fronte interno” Si racconta che Alessandro Magno, nel corso delle sue campagne militari, fosse solito disseminare di armature il terreno nel quale si presupponeva sarebbero passati gli eserciti avversari. Corazze in metallo, ottimamente forgiate, ma con un dettaglio inquietante: la loro dimensione assolutamente spropositata. Il grande conquistatore macedone, infatti, mirava a terrorizzare gli avversari, facendo loro credere che fossero in procinto di scontrarsi con un esercito di giganti1. Ma Alessandro Magno non fu il primo condottiero, e di certo neppure l’ultimo, ad utilizzare stratagemmi di questo tipo. Nel corso dei secoli, gli eserciti di tutto il mondo sono infatti ricorsi a strategie di ogni genere al fine di minare il morale delle truppe nemiche. Basti ricordare i legionari romani dell’età imperiale, che prima di ogni combattimento colpivano in maniera ritmata gli scudi con i propri gladi, in modo tale da generare un rumore percepibile a grandi distanze e che avrebbe senz’altro inquietato il nemico2. Oppure si pensi all’operato del Psychological Warfare Branch (PWB), sezione per l’informazione e la propaganda delle forze alleate, istituita da Eisenhower nel 1942 ed operante prima in Nord Africa quindi in Europa, il cui scopo era esclusivamente quello di produrre materiale propagandistico per abbattere il morale del nemico3. Gli esempi potrebbero essere innumerevoli. In questa sede ci basta evidenziare come, nel corso della storia, i conflitti (e non soltanto quelli bellici) abbiano sempre avuto almeno una caratteristica in comune: l’utilizzo strategico e strumentale dell’informazione. Nella storia, in genere, il target principale delle istituzioni (più o meno formali) preposte alla manipolazione delle informazioni è sempre stato il nemico. Indipendentemente dal fatto che il “nemico” fosse un Paese straniero, in guerra o meno con il proprio, un partito politico (basti pensare, nell’immediato secondo dopoguerra, alle dispute, senza esclusione di colpi, tra il Partito Comunista Italiano e la Democrazia Cristiana) o un’entità di altro genere (un gruppo terroristico, ecc…). Il primo punto di rottura con questa tradizione si ebbe nel corso della prima guerra mondiale. I bombardamenti aerei sulle città4, unitamente ai razionamenti alimentari cui erano costrette le popolazioni civili nel corso della Grande Guerra, fecero in modo che anch’esse si trovassero costrette a sperimentare in prima persona la paura e le sofferenze derivanti da un conflitto militare. Fu inoltre la militarizzazione della manodopera, la quale divenne un fattore fondamentale per il 1 Sheldon Rampton e John Stauber, “Vendere la guerra” (pag. 59). 2 Per un’interessante ricostruzione fotografica di alcune delle strategie belliche utilizzate dai legionari romani, si veda: http://www.imperium-romanum.it/IR/legioni_romane/legrom_tattiche.htm. 3 Un esempio della produzione propagandistica del PWB è riportato in Lamberto Mercuri, “La ‘quarta arma’. 1942- 1950: la propaganda psicologica degli Alleati in Italia”. Il volantino, destinato ai soldati italiani di stanza in Tunisia, recitava: “AI PORTI! MA NON PER VOI. NON C’E’ RITORNO PER VOI ITALIANI VERSO L’ITALIA. Le navi nei porti di Tunisi e di Bizerta sono riservate per i Tedeschi. BENCHE’ HITLER HA SMENTITO che i Tedeschi avranno le navi la realtà è che gli Italiani verranno abbandonati di nuovo, come nell’Egitto e nella Libia. MUSSOLINI HA ANNUNCIATO che la flotta italiana è sotto il comando dell’ammiraglio tedesco Doenitz. I Tedeschi SPERANO che le navi italiane li porteranno sicuramente in Sicilia. SPERARE? MA GLI ITALIANI? ESSI MORIRANNO. IL TEMPO E’ BREVE. AVETE COMBATTUTO CON ONORE E BENE. VOLETE SACRIFICARVI PER I TEDESCHI? IL SOLDATO SAGGIO SA CHE COSA FARE QUANDO VEDE CHE LA BATTAGLIA E’ PERDUTA. VENITE DA NOI [segue una sorta di “coupon” con su scritto “LASCIAPASSARE, Laissez-passer, Safe-conduct”]”. 4 Ancora molto primitivi. Si veda: http://www.sapere.it/tca/minisite/storia/guerre_tecnologie/trasporti_05.d.html. 6 livello quantitativo e qualitativo della produzione bellica5, a contribuire alla nascita di quella componente strategica che da allora venne battezzata “fronte interno”. Senza il supporto di un popolo che condividesse appieno i motivi della guerra che stava conducendo (in prima persona, seppur all’interno dei confini nazionali e lontano dai campi di battaglia) non sarebbe più stato possibile, per un Paese, uscire vincitore da un conflitto militare. Il crollo dello zarismo russo A fare per primo le spese di questo mutamento, fu lo zarismo russo: il malcontento diffuso sia tra i soldati al fronte (male equipaggiati e privi di comandanti competenti), sia all’interno della popolazione civile (già dai primi mesi di guerra, in Russia iniziarono a scarseggiare beni di prima necessità, quali pane e carbone), portò la Duma ad esautorare di fatto Nicola II, cui non rimase altra scelta se non quella di abdicare. E se neppure gli insorti di febbraio riuscirono a comprendere che la popolazione russa non ne voleva più sapere di sostenere un conflitto tremendamente dispendioso in termini di vite umane (in totale furono circa cinque milioni i soldati russi caduti o feriti in battaglia) ed apparentemente insensato quale quello che stavano combattendo ai confini orientali dell’Europa, fu la drammatica Rivoluzione d’Ottobre a mettere definitivamente la parola fine sulla partecipazione della Russia alla prima guerra mondiale6. L’operazione “Giusta Causa” a Panama Da quel lontano giorno del 1917 fino ad oggi il copione non è più cambiato. Basti pensare all’“Operazione Giusta Causa” di Panama, che culminò nell’arresto del capo del governo (ed ex collaboratore della CIA) Manuel Noriega. Gli americani appoggiarono in toto la scelta militare del governo Bush, soltanto dopo aver visto gli uomini di Noriega linciare,
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