The Lehigh Review

The Lehigh Review A Student Journal of the Liberal Arts The Secrets of Lehigh Volume Sixteen Spring 2008 Each year, Lehigh University publishes the Lehigh Review, a student journal of the arts and sciences. Each issues contains some of the best scholarly writing by Lehigh students.

Any scholarly articles, academic essays, or book reviews may be submitted. The Review does not ordinarily accept fiction or poetry.

All submissions should reflect the breadth and depth of the liberal arts. We are especially interested in submissions that draw from the content or methodology of more than one discipline. We expect well-researched and well-written work that does more than rehash existing arguments. Submissions to the Review should demonstrate imagination, original insight, and mastery of the subject.

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The Lehigh Review (ISSN# 1930-7160) is published annually (each Spring) by Lehigh University at 39 University Drive, Bethlehem, PA 18015. The Lehigh Review

A Student Journal of the Liberal Arts Volume Sixteen Spring 2008 Staff Credits Editor-in-Chief Katherine Wilkes

Editors Michael Ballanco Sanjana Bhatia Laura Milton Kaitlyn Noon Joseph Varco Ricky Webster

Assistant Editor Benjamin Rosenau

Art Director Sara Meade

Archivist/Photographer Alexander Morley

Accountant Michael Ballanco

Marketing & Distribution Brian DePalma Sanyog Rai Brett Rieders Michael Ruggeri

Faculty Advisor Wes Atkinson Special Thanks

Kate Arrington Gordon Bearn Ilhan Citak Anthony Corallo Beth Dolan Norman Girardot Janice Mattern Ziad Munson Kathy Olsen Brad Rogers Lloyd Steffen Vera Stegmann Nicola Tannenbaum Robert Thodal Ricardo Viera Elizabeth Vogtsberger

Table of Contents

Art 9 Merritt Parkway by Dlyan Coonrad...... 10-21 Rem Koolhaas: An Architecture of Innovation by Daniel Fox...... 22-31 Art is a Symbol: Conceptualism and the Vietnam War by Michael King...... 32-43

Health 45 Biological versus Environmental Factors: Determining the Cause of Pervasive Developmental Disorders in Children by Jami Zaretsky...... 46-53 The Struggle Against a Killer by Zachary Gray...... 54-61

Politics 63 Nationalism, Identity and Democracy in Japan by Emily Schulman...... 64-73 ‘I Die Content’: Re-Imagining Slavery with Edgeworth and Aikin’s Devoted Slaves by Christine Tucker...... 74-87 The Decline of Democracy in Venezuela: The Deterioration of Venezuelan Exceptionalism and the Rise of Hugo Chavez by Meredith Aach...... 88-101 10 in 8: A Realistic Approach to Oil Reduction in America by Will Brehm...... 102-107

About the Authors...... 108-111 Works Cited...... 112-119

7 Art

9 Merrit Parkway

by Dylan Coonrad

10 he bustle of cars hides it. The distant thunder of machines sometimes eclipses it. But beneath the commotion of everyday life exists a forgotten wonder that once trickled T through the nation’s countryside. In a society mired in notions of the urbanity that surrounded them, speed and riddled with thoughts in hopes to encounter a wilderness Coxe Hall Weathervane of industry, its original intention that once existed in its place, but as is lost but not entirely forgotten. the world changed, its significance Today’s location for the What once was a winding pathway was somewhere lost in translation. Global Union, this building through the mountains and valleys Citizens flocked to the Connecti- was initially a mining labo- of the North American landscape cut countryside on the morning of ratory. Its original weath- has become an example of modern June 29, 1938. The early sun brought ervane, dating back to 1910, decadence. The Merritt Parkway a stifling heat, complimented by contains a pick and shovel. served as the model for recreational rays of light that pierced through driving in America and ushered the surrounding landscape. In the in the age of the automobile. In a distance, a procession could be time of urban development and heard, fit with bells and whistles to expansion, the Parkway wandered the highest degree. The blinding through the wilderness and me- light bouncing off the gleaming- andered among mountainsides. It white surface shrouded the pathway was supposed to be the future of ahead in glowing curiosity. It was a Lehigh’s Origins roadways in America, where a city joyous day, one that congressman dweller could escape into a world Schuyler Merritt had envisioned for After an incredibly success- of reverent, leisurely enjoyment. years. The aging politician patted ful career, ASA Packer felt However, with the evolving ideas of his moist brow with a handkerchief obligated to give back to the transportation and increasing need he drew from his pocket, and in Lehigh Valley. He pledged for commercial growth, American careful thought, recounted the ef- $500,000 to go towards roadways became more industrial forts of many men and the long road education. Rumor has it that in nature, hasty and impatient. The they took to get there. in the spring of 1865 the Parkway exists today as a congested On April 30, 1850, Frederick Law traffic zone more than as a nation- Olmsted, a modest young farmer president of Lafayette Col- ally recognized historical landmark. from rural Connecticut, joined his lege visited Packer and that Its bridges and other elements brother John and friend Charley Packer seriously considered represent the thoughts of a genera- Brace on the Henry Clay, a pas- contributing the money until tion constantly striving to connect senger boat bound for Liverpool, he found out that Lafayette its people and its communities, the England. Three days after arriv- was Presbyterian. urban with the rural. They were ing overseas, Olmsted had his first built not merely to bridge spans of encounter with the English coun- earth, but to increase awareness of tryside. The young farmer was the natural landscape. The design overwhelmed: “The country—and of the Merritt Parkway and of its such a country!—green, dripping, architectural features defines an glistening, gorgeous! We stood era in which men sought relief from dumb-stricken by its loveliness….”

11 The proposed parkway would detour traffic to an alternate route to be constructed 20 miles inland from the Boston Post Road that would solve problems concerning congestion in local communities. Source: Radde, Bruce. The Merritt Parkway, pg. 26. As skyscrapers slowly rose into the urban skyline, citizens yearned for salvation from the development that surrounded them. The technological advances made by the automobile industry brought the suburban countryside within reach. Cars became a necessity of modern life available to all social classes, a mode of transportation that flexed the arm of American Olmsted was most impressed with the romantic garden innovation. European automobile development, on the tradition of the English gentry and the newly developed other hand, was viewed as a luxury of the wealthy, strictly civic spaces of Joseph Paxton. After returning home he limited to high-class patrons for leisurely recreation and wrote a short article on Paxton’s Birkenhead Park for The not a mandatory means of transportation. The scene on Horticulturist, and in 1852 he published his impressions the streets of America was hardly as idyllic. Early auto- of English landscaping in a bulky travel book, Walks and mobiles puttered around street corners and skyscrapers Talks of an American Farmer in England. In 1858, Olm- eclipsed entire city blocks. A survey in 1895 tallied four sted got a chance to deliver a taste of the English coun- cars in the United States; by 1900 there were eight thou- try to America when he was appointed lead architect of sand automobiles on American roads and by 1940 thirty- New York City’s Central Park. For six years he worked to two million. This rapid increase allowed residential transform the swampy, craggy center of New York City into expansion beyond city limits. Road networks stretched a picturesque vista reminiscent of the carefully wrought far distances from urban centers. Driving became not English landscapes he so adored. The park was designed only an expression of recreational enjoyment, but also of to serve as a substitute to a visit to the country—a bit of na- peaceful repose from the city atmosphere. Early circula- ture delivered to your front door and accessible by wind- tion routes were intended to connect commuters with ing carriage pathways. the park-like aesthetics of a lost generation. Streets and The City Beautiful Movement spread across the na- highways adopted characteristics that made them seem tion in a wave of verdant expansion. Using Olmstead’s more like forest oases rather than paved expressways. It Central Park as a model, American park designers at the was the landscape architect, experienced in design and turn of the twentieth century began looking to the country landscape appreciation, who was responsible for laying for inspiration. “Planners envisioned cities dotted with out these “parkways,” leaving the engineer to calculate wholesome, morally uplifting parks connected by paved the optimal efficiency of highways. carriageways winding through narrow, pastoral strips of Parkways were initially adapted from Olmstead’s car- parkland.” They were driven by an egalitarian desire riageway layouts of Central Park. These sinuous park- to deliver the country to the masses confined within city ways drastically differed from the orthogonal roads of boundaries. However, in the growing market for com- the city. Instead of being placed on the land, parkways mercial development, parks no longer belonged between moved through it, responding to the dips and dives civic centers and residential high rises. Recreational areas between mountains and valleys. Carefully chosen trees found themselves pushed to the outskirts of city limits, peppered the landscape. Side rails accentuated and secluded from the mess of steel and iron framework. complimented the surroundings instead of barricading

12 commuter traffic from verdant forests. It was this aesthet- tinguish their towns from nearby New York City pushed ic that appealed to the developers of the Merritt Parkway. for the second option, but not without resentment. The The meeting was years in the making. Highway com- decision immediately polarized the citizens of Fairfield missioner John MacDonald knew it. He stood, looking out County. On one hand, many of the county landowners upon the crowed of disgruntled citizens, feeling the bur- opposed the parkway in fear of property reductions and den of the long road ahead of him. The scene was set for the acquisitions needed to build the road. The looming a radical change. Heavy trucks and loud vans crowded threat of New Yorkers flooding the Connecticut country- the Boston Post Road, leaving intolerant communities in a side in pursuit of their version of the American dream haze of smog and dissent. Countless years of ignorance intimidated the folk of Fairfield County. Others favored brought him to this day, when progress was imminent and the addition of an alternate route to lessen traffic situ- change was undeniable. ations and ensure safer commuter transportation. The In an age marveled by technological innovation and opposition movement gained steam among republican economic maturity, the Boston Post Road began to see its estate owners, who formed the Fairfield County Planning age. As it was called under the Federal Highway Act of Association (FCPA) to voice their concerns in a unified 1921, US Highway 1 served as the sole connecting artery political organization. Stamford congressman Schuyler between metropolitan centers like New York and Boston Merritt championed the efforts of the citizens in favor of The looming threat of New Yorkers flooding the Connecticut countryside in pursuit of their suburban version of the American dream intimidated the simple-minded folk of Fairfield County. and the upper New England regions since colonial times. building the roadway and quelled the fears of the FCPA It was designed to accommodate the pre-industrial by guaranteeing the proposed parkway’s respect for the climate, characterized by limited commercial travel and existing topography of the land and its desire to invite low-speed, traditional horse and buggy carriages. When favorable citizens: applied to the newly developed means of transporta- A beautiful parkway is not wholly or primarily a means tion, the needs of this early lifestyle could not adapt to for quick transit, but it should be constructed so as to the demanding requirements for high-speed, automotive add beauty to the landscape, and therefore, help attract travel. The Boston Post Road was notorious for its conges- desirable residents… and add a desirable element to the tion and poorly maintained condition. Oftentimes, the population. road ran directly through town centers along its route, Its early stages were filled with the excitement of creat- combining local commuter traffic with long-distance ing a roadway that accommodated modern transportation circulation. Following World War I, truck traffic increased needs and showcased the landscape of the Connecticut along the Atlantic coastline, bringing irrevocable damage countryside. Beneath it all was an underlying unity; an to the road and its bordering communities. Citizens cried understanding held by all those involved that transcend- out for relief from the loud, unwelcomed congestion, and ed typical American roadway construction and ventured yearned to restore the sanctity that was once cherished. into grounds never before considered. They would need In 1923, John MacDonald, the Connecticut state high- this unity to guide them through a dark spot in American way commissioner, proposed three solutions: a new truck history, when abandoning the project seemed logical and route parallel to the Post Road that would bypass around completing it seemed implausible. problematic areas; a new parkway twenty miles inland to The Great Depression stormed across America, leav- alleviate congestion; and further expanding and updating ing devastation and despair in its trail. Economic turmoil the existing road. Connecticut politicians, hoping to dis- disrupted the social hierarchy all around the nation.

13 Class boundaries faded, equalizing The Merritt Parkway was in its sense, the Merritt Parkway is a prod- the public on economically meager conceptual phases when the De- uct of the Depression as much as it is grounds. Most Americans found pression hit. Despite the tightened a response to it. What was originally comfort in the growing numbers that financial restrictions imposed by intended to merely reduce traffic made up the middle class, reserving the government and the penny- congestion became a symbol of the lap of luxury for a select few. In pinching highway commissioner American valor. High-level materi- a time when excessive indulgences John MacDonald, Merritt Parkway als, designers, and technicians were were rare and costly, citizens turned developers were intent on complet- unaffordable, leaving the efforts of to their families for guidance and ing the project. It was more evident many to be the burden of few. support. As a way of reestablish- than ever that the success of the In the outskirts of Connecticut, a ing familial bonds, people resorted Parkway would provide the salvation group of men met in a small office. to more efficient and inexpensive the nation needed from economic Cigar smoke made visible the ex- forms of family entertainment, both hardships and industrial mayhem. citement that permeated the stifling to preserve a level of normalcy in It would not only boost morale, but atmosphere. The project laid out an otherwise upturned lifestyle and also provide relief from dangerous in front of them was for a road, a sim- to distract from the harsh reality transportation routes. In 1932, the ple solution to a nagging problem. that existed around them. Gasoline Boston Post Road was plagued with They were commissioned to make it in the early 1930s sold for fewer 96 deaths and 2,533 injuries. The something more, something monu-

“We believe the Parkway will be designed and built not alone, or even primarily to afford rapid transit, but to be in itself an object of beauty and to tend to the rest and peace and satisfaction of those who inhabit the country and those who pass through it.”

--Congressman Schuyler Merritt Groundbreaking Ceremony, May 23, 1934

than twenty cents a gallon, mak- new roadway would accommodate mental in the scope of American ing pleasure driving, especially on modern modes of transportation and design. Despite the harsh political Sundays, a desirable and inexpen- foster a safe driving environment. and economic climate, the men re- sive family activity. For this reason, Funds were needed, but rare. The mained united, determined to raise the Depression actually sparked an National Park Service was enacted the broken spirits of millions. With increased demand for automobile for the specific purpose of creating a collective sigh, the air seemed to production. While the stock market appealing recreational, conserva- clear and the nerves began to settle. and other commercial businesses tion, and tourist areas in rural Amer- Pens scratched, and a few lines and sank into financial bankruptcy, the ica. Strict policies were adopted letters later, the Merritt began to automobile industry rose to high- by the NPS that limited traditional take shape. lighted success. At the onset of cut-and-fill construction and con- After political scandal and public the Depression, 280,307 cars were centrated on the maximum preser- disapproval, Commissioner Mac- traveling Connecticut’s roadways; vation of the land, cultural features, Donald’s authority on the project by 1940, the number multiplied to and scenery. Pleas from citizens was stripped on April 30, 1938. 418,212. Tourists flocked to the and Parkway developers were heard Warren Creamer, A. Earl Wood, John country to relieve everyday hassles in Congress, resulting in a mas- Smith, and Leslie Sumner took over and to enjoy parts of the nation that sive money infusion from the Works managerial command and supervi- seemed untouched by the hand of Progress Administration to support sion. Design control was handed the Depression, unbothered by its Depression Era development and to over to two men: Weld Thayer Chase brutal misfortune. jumpstart employment rates. In this and George Dunkelberger. Dunkel-

14 berger, a draftsman from Hartford, Connecticut, was commissioned to (Top) Signs on the Merritt employed rustic elements in their design all sixty-nine of the Park- wood construction, shingled edges, and atypical typeface. way’s bridges and overpasses, a Source: Larned, Larry. Images of America: Traveling the daunting task for an inexperienced Merritt Parkway, pg. 12, 51 tradesman. However, where Dun- (Middle) The sloping wing kelberger found himself lacking in walls flanking the Wire Mill classical training, Chase excelled. Road underpass mimic the ex- An experienced landscape archi- isting grade variations on the tect, Chase understood the goals of site and merge with intersect- the Parkway’s planners and applied ing road alignment. his background in aesthetics to the Source: Larned, Larry. Im- Connecticut landscape in every foot ages of America: Traveling of the Merritt’s design. The cut- the Merritt Parkway, pg. 44 ting of MacDonald’s tight reins was hardly a tragic loss. Unburdened by the conservative pressures to create a strict, engineered roadway, Chase and Dunkelberger allowed their ar- chitecturally trained minds to flourish. The resulting roadway pulled back the curtain that protected the Connecticut landscape and exposed the countryside in unprecedented wonder. In accordance with the desires of the FCPA and Chase’s own theory of landscape architecture, the Merritt Parkway was designed to seamlessly navigate mountain passes and river valleys. It was a response to the preexisting natural system, carefully adjusting to the rise and fall of the land: where a rock out- cropping extended from a jagged cliff, the path ran under; where a lake danced with the sparkle from the morning sun, the path went around; where the wind silently blew at the grass in an endless field, the path travelled beside. Nature seemed to spontaneously manifest The insect motifs of the Merwins Lane over- a roadway, while leaving its beauty pass express Dunkelberger’s own apprecia- mysteriously untouched. Hill crests tion for the land, while adding a decorative and gentle curves framed sweeping elegance that is experienced by slow-moving picturesque vistas along the road’s traffic. extension, achieving a level of un- Source: Larned, Larry. Images of America: predictable elegance matched only Traveling the Merritt Parkway, pg. 85-86

15 by the possibility of what lies around the bend. mountain laurels, dogwoods, red cedar, and various other The roadway transcended the needs of basic com- oaks and maples bordered the road, but never in rows muter transportation; it became an exhibition of natural or in obviously man-made patterns. Chase’s work was beauty. Instead of merely distancing the surrounding most successful when it was least noticed, when it subtly landscape with a verdant wall of trees, forests and rivers blended with the natural environment. As Supervisor complimented the meandering pavement. An intimate Earl Wood put it, “the main objective of the landscap- relationship was forged between the landscape and the ing program [was] to assist nature in healing the scars of driver that would not have been possible on a strict, construction.” multi-lane highway. The motorist experienced the land Considering both the carved landscape on fluctuat- as he was directed through its winding path instead of ing grade levels and the technological limits of early observing it from the window of a high-speed car. Pas- automobiles, the Merritt Parkway was initially designed sengers became tourists to an attraction that industrialists to accommodate speeds of up to forty-five miles per took for granted. Chase understood the need to connect hour. In addition to creating a safe driving environment, humans with the natural landscape and made several pre- low-speed travel placed an increased focus on the detail- cautions to ensure the parkway preserved the existing to- ing of roadside features. Chase and the other parkway pography. Cut and fills were continually avoided in order designers integrated all parts of the roadway’s elements to maintain to establish a natural grade cohesive de- changes in sign scheme. the road. When neces- Any heavy sary to pre- demolition vent acciden- was done tal mishaps, with crude guardrails blasting bordered techniques the route in that pro- rustic inter- duced pretations of irregular the tradition- and organic ally steel- effects so based norm. as to match Railings were existing ab- low and con- normalities. structed of a Chase also native dark discovered oak, pres- a way to ac- Signs on the Merritt employed rustic elements in their wood construction, shingled sure-treated commodate edges, and atypical typeface. to ensure the strin- Source: Larned, Larry. Images of America: Traveling the Merritt Parkway, pg. 12, 51 long-lasting gent budget durability. restrictions The treat- that limited the amount of purchased trees and shrubs ment of these unnatural additions lowered the visual that would be planted along the Parkway. Greenery impact of their presence and, in fact, accentuated the cleared from the site was conserved and replanted to neighboring environment. The median strip was set at replicate the natural landscape of the region. An expe- a regulated width of twenty-two feet, four inches to keep rienced botanist, Chase mastered the native species of oncoming traffic at a safe distance. In order to preserve flora in the area and relied on the existing foliage—as sight lines of traffic, vegetation had to be controlled. Of- opposed to exotic imports—to accent the land. Pink tentimes, expansive areas of grass were accented with a

16 sprinkling of trees to alleviate the repetition of monochro- the abutments to blend them in with the natural environ- matic green and to recreate the preexisting landscape. ment without masking their delicate intricacies. The goal Road signs also adopted rustic aesthetics, displaying was to create a balanced harmony between the sensi- warnings and alerts in a nontraditional typeface on a tively sculpted landscape and the man-made bridging treated wood surface with distressed, shingled edges. elements of the industrial temperament. Experiential dy- Billboard advertisements were absent along the Merritt, namism and artistic intrigue were of utmost importance thereby creating a distinct separation between it and its when considering bridge designs in order to attract industrial counterparts. Driving at twilight relied entirely drivers’ attention and to develop a carefully orchestrated on the moon’s silver glow for guidance. Instead of un- series of architectural events. A cohesive, yet unique natural electric lighting, an innovative system of reflective design scheme was developed that offered countless panels was installed along the median strip to highlight possibilities to a man with an endless imagination. bends in the road. Commuters took front row seats in a For many, the Merritt Parkway serves as a bridge theater that showcased natural beauty, a proscenium that museum, an eclectic exhibition of different architectural framed sweeping vistas of an organic set. styles, including Art Deco, Neoclassical, Gothic, Rus- A man sat alone in front of a drafting table in a bustling tic, and Art Moderne. No two bridges are alike. Each workspace. In the few years prior, the indulgences of a structure was specifically designed to compliment its life he once knew suddenly became the dreams of a man surroundings, as a continuation of the landscape’s formal lost in his own existential reality. Lamenting his failed elements and natural features. As Dunkelberger intend- business seemed unnecessary when all over the country, ed: people like himself felt the same cruel intentions of the In low, flat country, the design should typify the char- Depression-era economy. He was more fortunate than acter of the landscape, perhaps by horizontal lines; in others, however, in that he was employed by the Connect- rolling country by the addition of a few verticals; and icut Highway Department; but working as a draftsman on rough terrain, a combination of the two with neither did not come with the same allure as did the position of a predominating, I am sure, would result in a pleasing professional architect. Little did he know, he was about to structure. get the call of a lifetime, a commission that would immor- Given the omnipresent budgetary constraints and the talize his life in ways he could not imagine. At the corner desire to connect the bridges under a uniform aesthetic of his desk, the phone rang. principle, finding a material as adaptable as it was eco- One revolutionary design consideration employed in nomical became a top priority. For Parkway developers, laying out the Merritt Parkway was the amount of access concrete was an obvious choice. Reinforced concrete roads intersecting the highway at grade level. Part of was a common medium in Depression-era construction the Boston Post Road’s timely demise resulted from the because it was inexpensive and required low-skill labor. congestion caused by four-way intersections and the But to the public, concrete was an embarrassing alterna- incompatible mixture of local commuter traffic and long- tive to the impressive qualities of stone. Dunkelberger distance travelers. In order to alleviate such problems, a quelled complaints by utilizing the plasticity of concrete series of bridges was designed to carry roads above and in a myriad of designs, ranging from the whimsical to the below the Parkway’s intended route. What seems like dramatic. He carved, sculpted, and tinted the material a common practice today was a major evolution in the in ways that made each bridge subtly unique. The use realm of highway development. Commissioned to design of concrete allowed countless arrangements of visual all of the Parkway’s proposed bridges was George Dun- ornamentation while adding less than one percent to the kelberger, a native of nearby New Jersey. Dunkelberger’s project’s overall cost. Other inexpensive materials were work was dictated by the same principles that Chase used to create visually active facades that enhanced the applied to the landscaping of the roadway. To both natural surrounding. Paint, quartz, and even brown and Chase and Dunkelberger, the natural environment and green beer bottles discarded during construction were the formal implications it posed were inseparable from reused as decorative accents. The juxtaposition of the the conditions under which each of the bridges was to be forms and textures of concrete and the environment in designed. When landscaping the sixty-nine bridges of which it was set achieved a high level of character and the Parkway, Chase planted low, spreading shrubs around dynamism.

17 In addition to these aesthetic These “pinched bridges” were march downward across the span. considerations, Dunkelberger’s criticized for creating uncomfort- The railing and foundation pylons designs were dictated by engineer- able driving distances, but they are fashioned to imply an assembly ing factors and capabilities. Where were necessary to keep construc- composed of intricately detailed Dunkelberger primarily dealt with tion costs reasonable. Sumner also blocks, showcasing the possibility the visual reading of the architec- developed an innovative solution to of concrete as a sculptural material tural tone, Leslie Sumner focused prevent rain from staining concrete rather than as an austere surface. on the structural integrity of the surfaces. Because of the material’s Dunkelberger manipulated the in- Parkway’s bridges. The design vulnerability to accumulate mineral herently massive nature of concrete team’s decision to rely on reinforced deposits, pitched surfaces and drip by implying its construction of a concrete for bridge construction molding were subtly cast into balus- different arrangement, one that al- offered numerous possibilities for trades and railing faces that inhib- ludes to the visually stacked quality Dunkelberger’s artistic concerns, ited deterioration without sacrificing of stone or the artistically organized while satisfying Sumner’s need aesthetic continuity. composition of brick. for an inexpensive material that It is fair to say that Sumner’s work Another instance that redefined provided reliable structural sup- marks no revolutionary develop- the use of concrete is expressed port. Sumner anticipated the future ment in bridge construction. What in the illusion of articulated vous- advances in the automobile industry makes the Merritt Parkway’s struc- soirs on the James Farm Road and designed the bridges to with- tures unique is the way in which overpass. Impressed lines on the stand heavier loads at faster speeds. Dunkelberger decorated them to façade imitate Renaissance imag- Foundation conditions in Fairfield disguise the monotony of their en- ery, complemented by an adapted County were ideal for supporting gineering sameness. Each bridge classical vocabulary evident in the extreme weight. Underlying bed- is an essay reflecting the architect’s gentle fluting on the mediating rock at convenient depths offered interpretation of the particular site Doric column. A concrete-sculpted sturdy groundwork for bridges that and the way it reacts with the natural set of Nike wings is perched atop catered to heavy traffic. At sites fea- environment. A suitable example the capital, adding a sense of quirky turing unusually large spans, Sum- of this can be found at the Wire Mill enjoyment unparalleled by other ner employed the use of concrete- Road overpass in Stanford. To dem- interstate highways of the time. To encased “I” beams and cast-iron onstrate the relationship between commemorate the forty-fifth birth- arches. The bridge at the Lake Av- the bridge and its location, Dunkel- day of the Connecticut Highway De- enue overpass leaves the metal sup- berger flanked the overpass with partment, Dunkelberger decorated port beams exposed, creating a vi- curved wing walls. These sloping the periphery pylons with the CHD sual contrast to the typical concrete extensions seamlessly merge with emblem, both as a tribute to its suc- bridge facades. Lengthy spans were the grade of the site and intimately cess and as an acknowledgement to generally avoided, however, using identify with the setting in which it the financial backer. He often relied a cost-cutting solution that reflected connects. The geometrically carved on historical, local, and sometimes the economic realities of Depres- façade mimics the land’s dramatic whimsical imagery like this to dress sion-era construction. Where the shadow effects in the sculpted de- concrete facades and cast-iron rail- Parkway ran beneath intersecting tails of the balustrade and abutment ings. roads, the median strip was reduced towers. At the site of the More- The Comstock Hill Road overpass from the usual twenty-two feet to a house Highway Bridge, the downhill features a bridge façade decorated mere sixteen inches, thereby mini- gradient is accentuated by a series in remembrance of a local historic mizing the bridge’s span and cost. of step-like levels that appear to event. In an effort to connect the

The bas reliefs of the Comstock Hill Road overpass are made by a process of pouring concrete into plaster of Paris molds. Febo and Edward Ferrari sculpted busts of a Pilgrim and Native American on the abutment towers to allude to New England’s colonial era. Source: Larned, Larry. Images of America: Traveling the Merritt Parkway, pg. 68-69 18 people and the environment with by an unusual source. Dunkelberger sculptor whose studio faced the site, the native New England area, detail- enhanced the bridge’s sculptural the stone façade blends flawlessly ing on the bridge harkens back to quality by relying on insect motifs with the surrounding forest and the region’s colonial past. Sculpted in its detailing, a reflection of his river bed.18 Once again, the stone bust reliefs of a Pilgrim and a Native own admiration for nature and the is superficially applied to give the American are engraved into the two critters with which we share the illusion of masonry construction. abutment towers supporting the land. Shelves on the abutments At the Newton Avenue underpass, single-span structure. For sculptural showcase concrete-sculpted but- the façade was treated in a differ- details like these, Dunkelberger terflies, designed by Dunkelberger ent manner. Instead of cladding the hired Febo and Edward Ferrari, an and sculpted by the Ferraris. Their structure with masonry, Dunkelberg- experienced father-son sculpting talent for creating subtle dramatic er gave the appearance of stone by duo. Despite the tight budgetary effects is demonstrated in the cast- roughening the concrete surface shackles that bound the project, in- iron railing, which depicts small prior to its setting and later apply- novative solutions were developed insects and butterflies trapped in ing chemicals to obtain a rock-like so as to never sacrifice form and dy- stylized metal spider webs. In this finish. The concrete was manipu- namic expression. The Ferraris used case, a fantastical design motif is lated to produce graceful effects in a a system of waste molds sculpted taken to the extreme but is still able highly economical way. of plaster of Paris that satisfied to maintain a level of admirable Beneath the shade of a flourish- government wallets, but required elegance without being excessively ing elm tree, the spade of a shovel intimate attention by the sculptors gaudy. carefully loosened the soil below. themselves. The process involved Despite the multitude of con- Sunlight filtering through the vibrant letting the cement settle in the mold crete’s inventive incarnations, the leaves added warmth to the air for a month-long period, after which public sulked in stubborn disap- of excitement felt by the bustling delicate care was taken in removing proval until their thirst for stone was crowd. They gathered alongside the plaster mold from the dried con- satiated. Because of its expense, a the road, and after six long years of crete while ensuring intricate details stone bridge was out of the ques- anticipation, finally felt a calming were preserved and unharmed. tion. The cost of one masonry- Guardrails on the Merritt adopted The same technique was used on the constructed project would con- rustic aesthetics that did not impose Burr Street underpass, where each sume the budget allotted for three unnatural forms in the existing pylon depicts a scene that com- concrete bridges. Nonetheless, environment. memorates the workers who built Dunkelberger settled the dissent- Source: Larned, Larry. Images of the Parkway in dramatic fashion. ing voices by cladding three of the America: Traveling the Merritt Teams of surveyors, planners, and Parkway’s bridges in stone veneer. Parkway, pg. 17, 82 supervisors are immortalized in the The Guinea Bridge in Greenwich bas reliefs, creating an eternal bond frames a dramatic view of rolling between the Merritt and those who rustic countryside. Large granite built it. voussoirs lining the low, shallow Another site that fuses the deli- arch support an infill of uncut field- cate craft of the Ferraris and the stones that hang on the rigid-frame bountiful imagination of Dunkel- substructure. The varying texture berger is at Merwins Lane. Primar- and size of the rubble masonry ily designed to connect an overpass- develop a vocabulary closely iden- ing bridle path, its intricate details tified with images of rustic foot- are intended to be appreciated by bridges, native to the Connecticut a slowly passing audience. From landscape. below, the bridge seems unimpos- The Rippowam River Bridge ing and bare, but a second glance evokes similar imagery. Originally reveals a whimsical theme inspired clad to appease a disgruntled

19 sense of satisfaction. Laid out ahead of them was a path city dwellers that heard of the fabled existence of a road of undeniable beauty, one that shone through the shadow unlike any the country had ever witnessed. It captured of a tragedy unlike any this country had never seen. The the minds and imaginations of everyone who explored its time capsule being buried in front of them would remind wandering path, creating a world of immeasurable won- the visitors of tomorrow of what this roadway meant to the der where nature sang, bridges spoke, and reality took a people of the day, and about the perseverance of a few much-needed rest. men who inspired a generation… Its demise, however, came just as quickly as its success. On September 2, 1940, six years after Congressman The post World War II climate thrived on speed, efficien- Schuyler Merritt broke first ground, the Merritt Park- cy, and industry. Roadways became straight expressways way opened to unanimous praise. It has since been that catered to the declining patience of the commuting declared Connecticut’s greatest Depression-era public population. Engineers took over the reins of a horse once works project. Two thousand workers and $22.7 million artistically guided by the gentle hands of the architect.

The Lake Avenue underpass left metal support members exposed, a rarity among the typically concrete-faced bridge facades on the Merritt. Source: Larned, Larry. Images of America: Traveling the Merritt Parkway, pg. 31

brought to reality what was supposed to be the future of Fast-track transportation preceded the need to design American highways, where grace and beauty effortlessly aesthetically pleasing parkways. In 1956, the American blended with the products of industrial invention. The Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Merritt quickly became a popular tourist attraction for published the first national standards under which all

20 highways were to be constructed, leaving little room for Merritt Parkway will fall into obscurity, consumed by the artistic expression. In this sense, the Merritt Parkway very world it celebrates, remembered only as a fabled stood as the sole survivor of a lost generation. tale of a lost generation. The years after World War II were characterized by a massive population migration from the cities to the bordering suburbs. The flood of relocated families clogged the Merritt Parkway’s scenic views and disrupted its serenity. Modifications had to be made to accommodate the increased traffic that replaced rustic-inspired features with modern age substitutes: The once sparkling white pavement was covered with a coat of black asphalt, wooden guardrails were replaced by steel imitations, and road signs were updated with unnatural reflective surfaces. Landscape maintenance was entirely ignored, causing bridges to be hidden under layers of overgrown weeds. Failure to prevent damage done by road salt resulted in the serious deterioration of many bridges. Abutments had to be completely redesigned to restore structural integrity, and the use of unintended sealants ate away at Dunkelberger’s carefully carved details and surface textures. The Parkway was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in April of 1991, which prevented any major alterations that would affect its reading as a historically recognized landmark. However, Parkway conservationists are constantly being confronted with the proposal to add lanes, which would necessitate the complete destruction of the bordering landscape. When a nation marred by the face of tragedy cried out for relief, salvation came from the most unlikely source. A road nestled deep within the Connecticut wilderness guided the country through harsh times by touring it through the mountains and valleys it had forgotten. The Merritt Parkway stretched far from the urban jungle of industry and reached beyond the scope of reality to inspire the hearts of many. Where rapids churned in river banks, hope grew stronger. Where meadows swayed with the passing wind, faith was restored. Where falling rocks echoed down a distant hillside, dreams came true. With the changing priorities of modern transportation, roadways cut ties with their natural setting. Commuters retired from the days of recreational driving and only traveled to experience the moment of arrival, disregard- ing the route that brought them there. The land and the bridges that revitalized a nation now suffer from threats that endanger its memory as an unprecedented pathway into the heart of the natural world. Efforts must be taken to preserve the road that changed America, to remind the country of a prize it once cherished. Before long, the

21 Rem Koolhaas: An Architecture of Innovation

by Daniel Fox

22 he three Master Builders (as author Peter Blake refers to them) – Le Corbusier, Mies van der Rohe, and Frank Lloyd Wright – each Drown Hall (1908) had a considerable impact on the architec- In 1918, a severe outbreak ture of the twentieth century. These men of Spanish Influenza caused T Drown Hall to be taken over demonstrated innovation, adherence distinct effect on the human condi- by the army (they had been to principle, and a great respect for tion. It is Koolhaas’ focus on layering using Lehigh’s labs for architecture in their own distinc- programmatic elements that leads research during WWI) and tive ways. Although many other an environment of interaction (with turned into a hospital for Le- architects did indeed make a splash other individuals, the architecture, high students after St. Luke’s during the past one hundred years, and the exterior environment) which became overcrowded. Four the Master Builders not only had a transcends the eclectic creations students died while battling great impact on the architecture of of a man who seems to have been the century but also on the archi- influenced by each of the Master the flu in Drown. tects of the century and beyond Builders in some way. In its history Drown Hall has as well. Their personal styles and Koolhaas’ early career was slow- also housed bowling allies building preferences, therefore, do going; he first studied scriptwriting in its basement. indeed transcend their body of work at the Dutch Film Academy before and can be seen in architectural moving to study architecture at the styles of today. One such architect Architectural Association School is the Dutch-born Rem Koolhaas, of Architecture in London. He also who is world-renowned not just studied at Cornell University in New for his architecture, but also for his York before founding the Office for 1887 Riots complex yet provoking theories on Metropolitan Architecture (OMA) in the urban environment. Koolhaas’ the Netherlands in 1975. Koolhaas process in approaching an archi- and OMA did not have a significant Lehigh’s students were tectural problem can be described impact on the actual built environ- dismayed with the lack of as enigmatic at best; the depth and ment until the 1990s. Much of the support the administration breadth of his work, while it can firm’s early work consists of a series had towards the football pro- be examined and dissected based of competition entries (mostly un- gram. As a way to celebrate on his theories, does not exude a built), unrealized structures (some the team’s first win of the singular architectural style. Is he a actually unrealizable), and the shap- season, the freshmen burnt Modernist? Is he a Postmodernist? ing of architectural theory under the down the rickety stands that Is he Deconstructivist? Since fitting direction of Koolhaas. His first book, they saw a disgrace. The him neatly into any one of these Delirious New York (published 1978), stylistic niches is almost impossible, set the tone for Koolhaas’ future tradition of excess at Lehigh it is imperative to jettison all no- theories and buildings by using the football events has followed tions of style when tracing Koolhaas’ concept of a “retroactive manifesto” since. professional development. It seems to establish his theoretical stand- as if a study of his work is best point on the development of the begun by establishing the fact that urban condition in America. he is deeply concerned with how Delirious uses New York City as a simple “space” can be transformed “study model” of sorts, and traces into an “environment” which has a the architectural history of Manhat-

23 tan through the construction of some of its most well- in effect, he is concluding that the city in itself is a contra- known landmarks (such as Central Park, Coney Island, diction and will forever be a contradiction, in that the “the and the Empire State Building). Before delving into a Program” must be present in some form but at the same historical survey, however, Koolhaas puts forth his theory time have a minimal effect on the built environment. This of Manhattanism, which basically purports that Manhat- allows the chance-like nature of human life to penetrate tan has been formed around a “culture of congestion” the physical fabric of the city, which is a concept that un- with the city block being the only source of organization derlies much of his later built work (which in most cases amidst the chaos of rapid construction and change . Ac- is smaller in scale but nonetheless echoes the sentiment cording to Koolhaas, “Manhattan’s architecture is a para- of the urban theory proposed here). digm for the exploitation of congestion,” with the desire Delirious New York no doubt lays the foundation for of man to live in a world surrounded by artificiality (“to Koolhaas’ future theoretical texts, which are larger in exist in a world totally fabricated by man”) as the prima- physical weight and size but not as deep in content as this ry drive behind such congestion . In fact, throughout the first seminal work. S, M, L, XL (published 1995) is a tome course of the book, Koolhaas establishes that it is precise- which categorizes all of the built and unbuilt architectural ly human desires, fantasies, and obsessions that have not works of Koolhaas and OMA in order of increasing size just shaped congestion itself but also the nature of that and importance (with a radical design by graphic artist congestion. The penchant for ignoring the historic nature Bruce Mau). Interjected within this so-called catalog are of a building’s exterior while planning for the interior theories relating to the various works of Koolhaas and According to Koolhaas, “Manhattan’s architecture is a paradigm for the exploitation of congestion,” with the desire of man to live in a world surrounded by artificiality (“to exist in a world totally fabricated by man”) as the primary drive behind such congestion.

creates a “schism” or “lobotomy” in the architecture of OMA, with probably the most important being Koolhaas’ Manhattan, but it is precisely that schism which allows the theory about “Bigness” in architecture. “Bigness,” as rapid changes of the city to not affect its overall architec- he describes it, is “ultimate architecture,” architecture tural character (defined by the block and the high-rise). that has gone beyond a certain scale to the point which In the end, however, the “human obsession” to reach a “the size of the building alone embodies an ideological finite destination in terms of architectural development program” . Koolhaas wrote that the basic principles of has led to the need for a “rebirth” in Manhattan’s future to architecture (composition, scale, proportion) are “moot” be defined by the concept of mobility and the recogni- when a building “acquires” Bigness, and that the “’art’ of tion that “there is no destination” in the development of architecture is useless in Bigness” . Throughout his ex- a city . His proposal for such future development, which planation of the idea that Bigness does not simply refer to he termed La Villette (and also bears a resemblance to a large or massive building, but rather more to collections Le Corbusier’s Radiant City concept), involves a series of of buildings or structures (the city); in this way, he is once “programmatic bands” being laid end upon end to form again commenting on the human experience created by the structure of the city; the insertion of random elements architecture, much like in Delirious New York. Bigness was into such order would in turn increase the possibility for indeed a part of Delirious New York (although it was not “unplanned encounters” and an increase in “social en- explicitly mentioned), as the idea of looking at the overall ergy” . This futuristic, almost utopian, city-scheme repre- picture of the city rather than focusing too much on the sents the culmination of the gamut of complex and almost minute details of a “Program” was heavily stressed as the incomprehensible ideas presented in Delirious New York; key to success for the theory of Manhattanism.

24 The span of Koolhaas’ work in theory does not end where the ideas for his architectural projects spring forth. there, however; there are a few more ideas of his which The project most exemplary of his theories is prob- are not as terribly pivotal as the ones shown in Delirious ably his urban planning scheme for the city of Euralille, New York and S, M, L, XL but that nonetheless constitute France, which was physically realized in 1994. The city’s important links to understanding the thinking behind his “relevance,” so to speak, had just been transformed architectural work. The Harvard Design School Guide to by the extension of France’s TGV network to include Shopping (published 2002) is a book which espouses the London, England (thanks to a tunnel connecting Britain idea that shopping is the “last remaining form of public to the mainland). The layout and character of the new activity” and that shopping greatly influences the fab- Lille is a direct product of Koolhaas’ Bigness theory; the ric of the urban architectural environment through the architecture itself is not so much important as the myriad development of such entities as “mega-stores” and the functions and activities which the architecture brings to observed movement of shopping malls from the city to a city-turned-transportation hub. The project is centered the suburbs and back to the city again . In effect, Kool- near the heart of the city, and the program (carried out haas and his students at Harvard (who aided in gathering by OMA as well as other firms) focuses on that area so material for and composing Shopping) are proposing that as to not disturb the rest of the existing urban fabric. It capitalism and materialism have ultimate control over appears that the result of Koolhaas implementing his the architecture and structure of a city; since individuals’ Bigness theory in this context is twofold: one, due to the movements and experiences are essentially tied to the scale and sheer modernity of the structures erected, the location and layout of such “necessary” centers to obtain city automatically assumes a new aura of importance, and merchandise, he purports that architecture seems to cater two, the interactions of people within the confines of Lille more to retail and the successful incorporation of such is forever changed due to the juxtaposition of seemingly outlets into every part of the built environment than ever incompatible activities with one another. The Congr- before. Speaking of mega-structures which encourage expo (or Lille Grand Palais, the only building actually the movement of large amounts of goods at wholesale designed by Koolhaas in Lille) is a perfect example of prices, Koolhaas, while he acknowledges the prevalence this second result, as it is a structure which contains three of such shopping centers in today’s society, nonetheless distinct zones with three distinct functions: an exhibition condemns them under the category of promoting what he hall, a congressional conference center, and a concert calls “Junkspace.” To Koolhaas, “Junkspace” is “what re- hall (known as the “Zenith”). These three auditoria are mains after modernism has run its course,” space whose placed back-to-back in plan, and the spaces capital- over-accommodation in the end makes it quite unaccom- ize upon Koolhaas’ penchant for interaction through the modating . Over-sterile, infinitely-expandable, and “con- incorporation of glazed walls on the interior (although tinuous” are all qualities of Junkspace; it is space which the Zenith is completely clad in black concrete) and cor- is difficult to process and whose over-simplicity leads to rugated translucent polyester as the exterior shell, which undisciplined navigation and circulation. It seems as if affords the transitional foyer space a bit of interaction Koolhaas sees Junkspace and the “architecture of shop- with the outside world through incoming daylight. All of ping” in the same light; both are designed to appease this is packaged in a pretty banal, oval can-like shape, the consumer, and yet both lead to a waste of space and a almost reminiscent of a sports stadium; but once again so-called cheap experience for the individual partaking one must remember that Bigness is not about spectacle in the architecture or the environment in question. in the details but rather spectacle in the massiveness. After establishing that Koolhaas’ theories are intently More than just the unexpected interaction of the differ- focused on defining the urban environment as a space ent individuals who utilize these somewhat dissimilar in-and-of itself that inevitably incorporates Bigness and functions (which now find themselves under one roof) should attempt to avoid Junkspace, one can see from and the interaction of the spaces through materials,

Astronomicum Caesareum - title page “The Emperor’s Astronomy” by Peter Apian (1495-1552) was dedicated to The Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V and describes the mechanics of a geocentric (earth-centered) universe. Within three years, The Emperor’s Astronomy was surpassed by Copernicus’ De Revolutionibus, Courtesy of Special Collections, Lehigh University Libraries

25 Hours of the Virgin The presentation in the temple: Mary presents the Christ-child to Simeon (Luke 2:22-39), Book of Hours of Paris use, in Latin, 15th century manuscript, Courtesy of Special Collections, Lehigh An image from Plutar- University Libraries ch’s Parallel Lives, circa 1470-1471. Courtesy of Koolhaas introduced an “unpredict- Special Collections, Lehigh University Libraries. able” element into the program (a la Delirious New York) which allows construction of the Kunsthal in Rot- elements, Koolhaas envisioned for interaction: the walls between terdam. This project required a interactivity as stemming from the different zones are moveable, which program of exhibition spaces, an circulatory system of the building. allow for a myriad of combinations auditorium, and a restaurant to be The backbone of this system is a se- between the three sections and in combined under one roof; addition- ries of ramps which create a prom- turn a variety of functions which can ally, the site in question presented enade architecturale (somewhat like be accommodated. a challenge in that it is bisected by that created at Villa Savoye) which Going back a bit to 1992 takes a highway. Instead of focusing on crisscrosses the interior of the Kun- one to another important step in the interaction of space through sthal and creates a very disciplined Koolhaas’ architectural career, the materials and mobile architectural user experience. Although this may

26 sound formal and “un-Koolhaas,” it and stability systems” . Koolhaas alongside. The user experience is really is not; the path through the also arranged the spaces within the definitely key here and is defined building is by no means predictable Casa da Music according to primary by a circulation system which leads and the dramatic layering of spaces and secondary importance, whereas individuals vertically through the which occurs as a result of the path in the Congrexpo the spaces were platforms; juxtaposed next to these is distinctly a Koolhaas trademark. simply arranged in a linear fashion zones and the circulatory ramps are Even though the materials used (he compensates for the fact that the seating areas with generous views in construction (concrete, traver- functions of the spaces are similar of various parts of Seattle. Koolhaas tine, glass planks, and corrugated in this instance by outfitting them in in this instance (much like the Casa plastic) do not create the same varying materials, such as “homey” da Musica and unlike the Kunsthal interior and exterior translucency wood for the main hall and harsh and Congrexpo) allows primary of the Congrexpo, they, along with geometric tiling for another room). and secondary spaces to inform the irregular lighting scheme, are Also, the circulatory system is not a the seemingly-arbitrary exterior consistent with Koolhaas’ theory strictly-defined promenade archi- structure (a glass shell crisscrossed of architecture experience in that tecturale experience, but nonethe- by steel tubing); for instance, the they eschew continuity and, in turn, less is designed in such a way as to resting areas cause the “pulled” Junkspace. make the user excited and sur- effect witnessed on the shell’s form Junkspace appears plentiful, prised. The user experience (which to create lateral instances on the however, at the Casa da Musica is so important to Koolhaas’ design exterior that maximize sunlight and concert hall in Portugal (designed solutions) is even further enhanced heighten the user’s feeling of spatial by Koolhaas in 2001 and completed by the glazing which separates the tension. Aside from increasing user by 2005), even though in reality it transitional space from the main interactivity with the library through is not. This structure, whose design concert hall, an unusual move. the intersection of the “book and the was originally conceived by Kool- Koolhaas was definitely subscribing byte” and the creation of a visually haas (in a smaller scale), as a design to his love for a “culture of conges- stimulating “path” to follow through- for a home, incorporates an main tion” and Bigness with this commis- out, Koolhaas uses the concept of concert hall, a smaller auditorium, sion, and, without knowing of these Bigness to make the library plain educational spaces, and even a VIP two theories of his, it would seem fun. Oversized graphics (thanks to lounge in a bold and highly sculp- daunting to try and understand the the aid of graphic designer Bruce tural shell. Much like the Kunsthal thinking behind this organized, yet Mau) make the user more comfort- (which was essentially a box), the internally chaotic structure. able with navigating the structure, Casa da Musica’s simple concrete The Seattle Central Library, and the irregularity of its layout exterior is deceiving, as the interior completed in 2003 by Koolhaas and forces exploration and discovery. program is actually quite complex. OMA, uses basically the same prin- With Koolhaas’ design, the library is Koolhaas in this instance worked ciple of layering space as the Casa no longer a place to simply gather from the inside out by deciding on da Musica. His mission here was to and disseminate information, but the shapes and forms of the various unite the realms of printed and digi- rather a place to interrelate and spaces and then fitting them togeth- tal information under one roof, since exchange as well. er (along with transitional spaces) Koolhaas recognized that a truly Thus far, a few of Koolhaas’ most into a compelling and unique shape. modern library would not be com- pivotal built projects have been dis- This juxtaposition and spatial layer- plete without a seamless integration cussed, and it can be seen that they ing is reminiscent of the Congrexpo, of both. Unlike a traditional library, are for the most part very public except in this instance the layering the actual book stacks form only spaces. It is equally important, how- is a bit more dynamic; for instance, one out of several vertically spaced ever, to examine his work in other the main hall is like an autonomous “platforms,” with such elements as a areas of society as well, namely in object hanging within the build- café, a librarian headquarters, and the educational and residential sec- ing’s core, and it even has its own a digital research center known as tors. His well-known Educatorium, “structural envelope” and “gravity the “Mixing Chamber” included designed for the Uithof University

27 campus in Utrectht, the Netherlands (and completed in could almost be termed “three houses in one” . Koolhaas 1997), once again breaks stereotypes. The Educatorium even allowed the man to feel as if he is in the outdoors (which is a name purely fabricated by Koolhaas to sug- without having to actually leave the house by completely gest a “machine of learning”) is a mixed-use facility that encasing the second floor, or the living floor, in glass (the houses both examination rooms and common recreation- other two floors are constructed in concrete). Even in al space for students. In order to appropriately define a large-scale housing project such as the Nexus World these two different functions of the interior space (which, Housing commission in Fukuoka, Japan (completed in in traditional Koolhaas fashion, are presented in layers), 1991), Koolhaas manages to create a successful living Koolhaas takes somewhat of a different approach than in space while preserving his love for spatial layering and his other works. Instead of separating the learning zone dynamics (the rooms within each house arranged verti- from the recreation zone by hovering spatial platforms or cally). For this scheme he designed tightly-clustered thin and translucent interior walls, he continues the thick housing blocks while still maintaining a sense of individ- concrete line of the roof and folds it upon itself to create uality within each unit through various Japanese screens the necessary division. He also transforms what could be incorporated into the units and the undulating roof-forms a banal user experience by such “unexpected” program “floating” above the blocks as a whole . He manages to elements as laminated holographic film to the make the make Bigness work with residential architecture in a way glazed exam rooms more private (while still retaining which is neither terribly imposing nor bland, and his ob- their sense of Bigness) and the melding of circulation session with the organizational properties of “the block” space with rest or “pause” space . Speaking of “unex- (seen in Delirious New York), shows through clearly. pected” program elements, take another Koolhaas stu- As it can be seen in the previous architectural ex- dent center, the McCormick Tribune Campus Center, this amples and in his theories, Koolhaas does not fit neatly time designed for the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) into a particular style category; while each of his projects in Chicago (completed 2004): adhering to his theory from show clear signs of his influence through certain key Delirious New York that unplanned encounters increase characteristics, a uniform style which can be summed up social energy, he positioned the new center directly un- in few words is not created. However, it is important to derneath the Chicago El tracks. The result of such posi- note that the qualities which transcend his architectural tioning was the need for a cylindrical tube to encase the works seem to stem from his connection to the Master tracks, a tube which in fact intersects with the roof of the Builders, as each of them has definitely had an influ- center. This dramatic interaction of old and new, of the ence on the course of Koolhaas’ work in some way. Le historic and the modern, is somewhat uncharacteristic for Corbusier, who Peter Blake calls the Master of Form, and Koolhaas but nonetheless creates spatial excitement and Frank Lloyd Wright, dubbed the Master of Space, are the an energy which makes the student center a lively hub- two individuals with whom Koolhaas probably shares bub of activity. the strongest connection. Aside from their heavy use of Spatial dynamics are not lost on Koolhaas’ residential concrete, he and Corbusier share a liking for the prome- commissions, either. The Maison à Bordeaux in France nade architectural and in general establishing controlled (completed in 1998), for example, is a multi-storey house circulation routes, a concept featured most prominently designed for a family with a disabled member confined in Corbusier’s Villa Savoye and in Koolhaas’ Kunsthal and to a wheelchair. In order to make circulating the house Seattle Central Library. Corbusier was also not afraid to easier for the man and also to be able to take full ad- experiment with new and different forms in his projects vantage of the hilly site, Koolhaas took his penchant for (best seen in his somewhat oddly-shaped buildings for human-architecture interaction to a new level; just as the capital at Chandigarh, India and the Church of Saint- has been seen in his other projects, Koolhaas used three Pierre in Firminy) like Koolhaas, but it does seem for the floors to create distinct spatial layers. He then introduced most part that the forms he employed were a bit more ra- a large lift (dubbed the disabled individual’s “office”) tional than those Koolhaas tends to (both men do seem to which can ascend and descend via hydraulics to each of value purity of form, though, which for Koolhaas applies the three floors, allowing for ultimate mobility in such a mostly to the exterior form of his works). Koolhaas’ urban large space. As the lift is parked at each of the three lev- theory on Bigness also appears to be similar to Corbusi- els, the character of each space changes, creating what er’s notions about the ideal urban environment; urban ar-

28 chitecture must not be so concerned with the details but Apian Sky rather with the overall effect and experience created by A map of the sky showing 48 individual constellations the collectivity of structures and buildings within the city as individual figures from Peter Apian’s book “The (Corbusier’s overpowering Villa Contemporaine concept Emperor’s Astronomy” written in 1540. Courtesy of for the city of Paris exemplifies this greatly). Special Collections, Lehigh University Libraries. Wright and Koolhaas seem to connect on a more theoretical level – both highly concern themselves with the crafting of dynamic space and establishing a user-friendly relationship of individual spaces to the entire program (which shows up in various forms throughout Koolhaas’ work and becomes almost a “trademark” for him). Wright, however, usually used the organization of his spaces about a central core (in most of his projects, which were residential, this central space was the living room), whereas Kool- haas tends to organize spaces usually without a distinct center “pivot,” although one could argue that the main music hall at the Casa da Musica goes against this claim. Nonethe- less, both men’s scope of work is full of projects which rely upon a dramatic and dynamic flow of interior space to keep the user interested and to create not simply a place to “inhabit” but rather a place to “experience”. Mies van der Rohe, who was not so much

29 experience. Exposition also forms a key programmatic element in architectural work for both of these men, as both Mies and Koolhaas consistently introduce transparency and translucency into their designs through glass and other similar materials. In the end, the creation of an “architectural experience” is precisely the undercurrent which runs through the gamut of Koolhaas’ works and unites his architecture without establishing “style”. Through careful attention paid to space through layering, the use of an exterior shell which does not explicitly belie the interior program, and a proclivity for “Bigness,” Koolhaas creates an architecture that even goes beyond style. Employing a “style” or de- signing for the sake of a style can result in buildings with little character or depth, but Koolhaas chooses instead to “change it up” as frequently as possible and to not rest on his laurels. In this way he does not simply copy from the Master Build- ers which preceded him but rather expands upon their thinking and ideas through his projects and theories. Innovation is the term which could best be used to describe his work, and it is precisely his innovation (which comes from reasoning and not simply for the sake of innovation) which will carry him and his architecture through a time when changing styles and tastes make it impossible for a successful architect not to be an innovator.

31 Art is a Symbol: Conceptualism and the Vietnam War

by Michael King

32 rt is a symbol. It serves as a visual man- ifestation of the ideas that shape an age, despite perceived distance and removal from that reality. Jackson Pollock, argu- Goodman Campus ably the most influential American The 500-acre site was given to A Lehigh during the 1960’s by artist, suggests, “The modern art- tation. It can be perceived from Bethlehem Steel in an agree- ist cannot express this age, the countless perspectives, based on ment that involved Lehigh airplane, the atom bomb, the ra- a viewer’s experience regarding giving up specific property to dio, in the old forms of the Renais- reality. Gleizes and Metzinger Moravian College. sance or of any other past culture.” present an essentially romantic Though Pollock was refering to view of creating art, one in which the 1940s and 1950s, his insight there are no rules. The only limits remains relevant in understanding are those within an artist’s mind. the art created during the Vietnam Subsequently, Williams and Gle- War. Upon first glance it may ap- izes argue that, “The truly modern pear as though conceptualism, the artist, the artist of the future, ‘will April 12, 1944 major American artistic movement fashion the real in the image of his of the 1960s and 1970s, demon- mind, for there is only one truth, Eighty-one Lehigh Engineers strated indifference toward the ours, when we impose it on every- find out that their recent de- conflict, but this claim could not one.’” This realization liberated ferment from the WWII draft be further from the truth. Con- artists, so that they could expose had been rescinded and even ceptualists of the Vietnam War era pieces of themselves in their graduating seniors are eligible looked to new means and tech- artwork and essentially dominate niques to convey the ideas and to perspective. The individuals who for service. analyze the events that inspired communicated through art during their motivations. To understand the Vietnam War adhered to these the relationship between this attributes outlined by Gleizes and particular artistic movement and Metzinger. the Vietnam War, one must first examine the artistic movements Art During the World War II Era that dominated American creative though over the course of the 20th With the spread of Adolf Hitler’s century. oppressive juggernaut throughout Europe, many of the continent’s Modern Art prominent artists sought refuge across the Atlantic in the United When the artists Albert Gleizes States. Subsequently American and Jean Metzinger published the art experienced significant influ- book, On Cubism, in 1912, they un- ence from the exiled artists and knowingly established a standard thinkers who were in the midst of for what it meant to be an artist in embracing the Surrealist aesthetic the modern world . In On Cub- as prescribed by the movement’s ism, the duo suggests that a work founder André Breton. Breton of art is open to a fluid interpre- claimed that, “Surrealism rests on

33 the belief in the supe- Hostile letters between rior reality of certain the Assistant Secretary forms of association of Defense and an Eth- hitherto neglected, in ics Committee Member the omnipotence of the about the Vietnam War dream, and in the disin- Memorial Wall, Cour- terested play of thought.” tesy of Special Collec- Influenced heavily by the tions, Lehigh Univer- work of Sigmund Freud, sity Libraries. Breton embraced the idea of psychic automatism. artistic movements. Psychic automatism can be In response to the described as a reconcili- evolving cultural ation of sorts between the context, the calcu- conscious and unconscious lated chaos of ab- realms of human existence stract expression- through permitting the con- ism took the then tent of dreams and other de- sacred ideal of sires to permeate one’s con- psychic automa- scious work. This practice was tism to a new lev- an attempt to depict the need el. Unlike their to expand the limits of human predecessors, reality in response to political the abstract and cultural turmoil that had expressionists consumed Europe. Though the neglected con- Surrealists tried vehemently to scious thought ensure that their work retain a all together sense of purity amidst American and allowed unconscious culture and influence it was not thought alone to manifest itself on canvas. meant to be. The different cultural Action painting, the primary technique of the abstract settings required new artistic forms. Art historian expressionists made famous by Jackson Pollock, Matthew Gale suggests, “This signaled the institution- paralleled the dynamism of modern life. That is, the alization of Surrealism in America where exhibitions apparent unpredictability of throwing and dripping passed outside the control of the movement. It was to paint onto canvases served as a reaction to the com- establish a pattern, which divorced the paintings from placency of the populace. Furthermore, the tech- their theoretical and experimental roots.” Despite the niques were a testament to constantly fluctuating geo- introduction of new ideas to American art the situation political demands. A visual style that challenged the was bleak. To refresh and save art from itself artists definition of what constituted art despite exhibiting had to look for new motivation. an undeniably torrid melody, abstract expressionism conveyed its cultural influences through aggressively Art Post-World War II emotive color and dynamic patterns of paint applica- tion. Although nonrepresentational, abstract expres- In the wake of World War II, the United States sionism was nevertheless a revolutionary reaction to entered a period of economic prosperity and social the world surrounding the artists. complacency. Half way around the world the Soviet In the mid to late 1950s and 1960s, artists turned Union emerged as a nuclear superpower threaten- away from abstract expressionism and began forging ing US dominance with nuclear war. This complex art out of images to which popular culture had already geopolitical backdrop led to the emergence of new grown accustomed. Though not necessarily intended

34 to be a critical movement in tone, the work of the President Lyndon Johnson. By the autumn of 1967, Pop artists did challenge established social institu- more than half a million US servicemen and women tions and structures. By appropriating elements that had been sent to serve in Vietnam, but because it was reflected popular tastes and trends, the Pop artists difficult for the public to recognize the importance conveyed a sense of irony as exemplified by, but not of Vietnam to American foreign policy, Johnson at- limited to, the work of Andy Warhol. A gifted tacti- tempted to saturate popular culture with pro-Vietnam cian of manipulation, Warhol used wit to demonstrate sentiment. his contempt for established values and practices. In President Johnson arranged for the White House a series of works known as Death in America, Warhol Festival of the Arts to be held on June 14, 1965. If he addressed the way in which the mass media reduces could win the favor of the painters, sculptors, writ- death to a trivial and meaningless happening. The ers, musicians, and photographers who were invited grotesque suicides and car accidents that Warhol through alleged interest in their work and recogni- reproduced from newspaper photographs initiated tion of their influence on American intellect, then it a shift in what was deemed acceptable to address appeared as though Johnson would have in a sense by contemporary artists. According to art historian legitimated his decisions as a leader by engendering Thomas Crow, “he was attracted to the open sores in respect and perhaps admiration on a personal level. American political life.” The Pop artists produced ar- Pulitzer Prize-winning poet Robert Lowell was one of tistic images that were directly referential, unlike the those expected to attend. In an effort to demonstrate subtle means pursued by the movement’s his contempt for Johnson’s insurgency into Vietnam predecessors. This perspective is vital Lowell publicly renounced his invitation stating, “I in understanding the movements that nevertheless can only follow our present for- emerged in the years to follow. eign policy with the greatest dismay and distrust.” He continued, The Origins of Conceptualism “Every serious artist knows that he The 1960s were characterized cannot by a shift in the foreign policy of enjoy the US government. The Kennedy public administration was preoccupied cel- with the “domino theory.” This ebration theory’s central principle was without that if a country fell to com- making munism the surrounding subtle countries would do the same. public com- Thus, when Ho Chi Minh’s mitments.” nationalist movement in Several other Vietnam was identified as notable art- embodying communist ists, including tendencies, President leading painter John F. Kennedy set the Mark Rothko and stage for massive US in- photographer volvement in the coun- Paul Strand, fol- try. Through a system lowed Lowell’s lead of military advisors, and denounced the Kennedy initiated event. The festival a prolonged con- took place despite flict that came to its tarnished image. fruition under Many of those in atten-

35 dance used the event as a The Students’ Army Training Corps “was estab- ever that his stance paralleled platform to publicly vocal- lished at Lehigh University on October 1, 1918, the conceptualist identity as ize their opposition to the and was continued until December 11, 1918.” aforementioned. Even before war. As President Johnson Here the announcement is being read in front Lowell rejected his invitation to reflected: “Some of them of Packer Church. Lehigh Register 1918-1919. the White House Festival of the insult me by staying away Courtesy of Special Collections, Lehigh Univer- Arts, artists had begun to imple- and some of them insult me sity Libraries. ment anti-establishment ideology by coming.” Instead in their work. In March of 1964 a of improving Johnson’s former minimalist and one of image and promoting the first artists to be labeled American involvement a conceptualist, Donald Judd in Vietnam, the White said, “I’m totally uninterested House Festival of the in European art and I think it’s Arts was a spectacle over with.” Instead his influ- of political protest that ences came from elsewhere. embodied the motiva- Judd suggested that he did not tions of many Ameri- want rationalism to be incor- can artists. porated into his work. Judd Several practicing contemplated what it meant artists embraced the to be an artist at a time when, ideas promoted by “the humanity of any individual Robert Lowell and his subject had just been cast in counterparts. In do- doubt by massive demonstration ing so they formed of the inhumanity of the human an artistic collabora- species.” For Judd, and other tive unlike any the artists like him, the answer to world had yet seen. this question came in the ironic Known as the con- metaphors that conceptualism ceptualists, these offered. radicals embraced Donald Judd used his dis- minimalist tenden- tinct processes to comment on cies, and forged the state of US foreign affairs. a new kind of art. Primarily based within the me- These individuals embraced the dium of sculpture, Judd turned to means to an end as the art. They conventional materials including believed the process, not the fin- the art.” To fully comprehend the sheet metal and plywood, to con- ished product, was where the key influence real world events had on struct his finished products. After to pure expression existed. The the work of the conceptualists an acquiring the desired materials, conceptualist aesthetic included analysis of the ideals embraced he would draw up meticulous blue highly abstract paintings with by these artists is necessary. prints that he would pass on to an seemingly no subject matter, as outside source. This source, usu- well as easily recognizable ob- Art as a Means of Political Dissent ally an industrial engineer, would jects that served as a record of then create geometric sculptures ideas. In his Paragraphs on Con- To say that Robert Lowell was based on Judd’s designs. For the ceptual Art (1967), Sol Lewitt ex- solely responsible for the emer- most part Judd’s sculptures con- plains, “What the work of art looks gence or organization of the sisted of identical cube-like or cy- like isn’t too important. The idea conceptualist movement would lindrical pieces to which he would becomes a machine that makes be false. It must be noted how- apply one color of paint. Fellow

36 artist Frank Stella, who worked refrained from imposing the Of his influences the concep- very closely with Judd, described modernism inherent to the pro- tualist Robert Morris explained, their kind of work as having, motion of its capitalist agenda on “I was making objects that were “no background or foreground. other sovereign states, then there involved with some kind of pro- Each piece is a kind of unit, but it world would have been a more cess or literary idea of history or locks together into what I think is stable environment marked not state that an object might have basically a stable or symmetrical by conflict but by the simplicity other than just that visual one.” situation.” This extreme visual of solidarity. These sentiments Morris recognized the signifi- simplicity and repetitive unity is were echoed in the work of Robert cance of contextual events. Like suggestive. Echoing a society’s Morris. Judd, Robert Morris need to sarcastically lambaste the failed rationalism that had manifested itself through the Vietnam War, Judd used a reduced rationalism to create work that demonstrated not only simplicity, but also beautiful order and equality. Per- haps Judd was trying to convey the belief that less is more. That is, if the United States

(Right) The Lehigh Student Army Training Corps circa 1915-1919. Courtesy of Special Collections, Lehigh University Libraries.

(Above) Lehigh Student Army Training Corps members during training circa 1915-1919 with Bethlehem Steel in the background. Courtesy of Special Collections, Lehigh University Libraries.

37 idea art, the conceptualists practiced Students playing leapfrog other forms as well. While it would be outside the Alumni Memorial exceedingly difficult to compile a defin- Building, 1915-1919, Courtesy itive list of artists whose work was influ- of Special Collections, Lehigh enced by the Vietnam War, Frank Stella University Libraries would be included. Stella looked to the articulated pure geometric abstraction practiced creative by several Europeans between the two world wars to thought develop his technique. He idolized Piet Mondrian, through whose paintings consisted of a variety of rectangular uncon- forms painted in solid colors. In 1965 Stella produced ventional the painting Empress of India. A canvas dominated sculpture. In 1968 Morris by four identical chevrons positioned differently in used his Untitled (Tan Felt) to articulate his belief relation to each other, Empress of India conveys his in the anti-form. The work was constituted of a num- exploitation of the conventional use of rectangular ber of felt strips that would never be placed in the canvases “to make quite sure that his pictures bore same position twice and thus presented differently ev- no resemblance to windows.” This vehement opposi- ery time the work was photographed or exhibited to tion to referencing modern entities demonstrated his the public emphasizing the importance of the process. work’s “self-contained” style. He confessed: “I began When coupled with the recognition of the influence to think too that it might be necessary also for me to of real world events on the interpretation of art, the have something different to say.” Stella further com- aforementioned realization of working both inside and municated his need to express his own style through outside the limits endemic to his pieces demonstrated the manner in which he painted his canvases. The the genius of Morris. Empress of India showcases four triangles painted It is likely that the ideas manifested in the art in different hues of brown and red with solid white created by Robert Morris were influenced by the lines separating both the different triangles from Vietnam War. He claimed, “I’m always aware of that each other as well as particular geometric regions of thing there in front of me. It’s not a matter of being each triangle. This emphasis on separation coupled lost.” Alluding to his awareness of environment, Mor- with a dark, gloomy color scheme evokes a feeling ris’ suggests his artistic intent was subtle. “I think of of loneliness and even desperation. These sensa- them as having this difference between what one sees tions are compounded by the use of powdered metal away from them and what one sees closer.” Morris’ paint, which gives the work an iridescent sheen. This forms reflect the influence anti-war sentiments had reflective quality speaks volumes about the personal on his psyche. Though making direct reference to his message on which Stella was fixated. Stella’s intro- sculptures, the previous statement can be regarded as spective tendencies related to a generation. Greg a call to disregard initial perceptions and to embrace Landon, a private in the U.S. First Infantry Division in the knowledge acquired from a closer examination Vietnam, echoed this dread when he wrote “Morale of of subjects. This approach is a response to the failed the men is fairly good considering the situation we’re rationality that had consumed American social and in, but there is an underlying gloom.” Using a simple political practices as exemplified by the war in Viet- technique, Stella’s Empress of India manifests the nam. This idea parallels the ideals pursued in the emotions that had colored his world-view. This work much larger anti-war movement. In other words, Mor- chronicled the general feelings of loss and shame to ris was enabled by the horrors unfolding in Southeast which Stella connected that had permeated society as Asia to challenge the idea of establishment in general. a result of the disillusioning Vietnam War. Despite ab- Morris’s work is a vehement critique of the flawed stract means, the conceptualists had indeed demon- rationalism that Donald Judd similarly believed had strated their frustration with Vietnam through painting corrupted modern man. and sculpture. Though sculpture may appear to have dominated To connect the world of high art to the real world 38 “Never Again”, a piece on Isolationism, Cour- Lehigh Bachelor: House party issue April 1941, Cour- tesy of Special Collections, Lehigh University Libraries tesy of Special Collections, Lehigh University Libraries

events of the 1960s, artist Leon Golub wrote: “This you are likely to stay below the sophistication of the is not political art, but rather a popular expression apparatus you are attacking.” Confirming their estab- of popular revulsion . . . but essentially the work is lished aesthetics, Haacke articulated the conceptualist angry against the war, against the bombing, against desire to create works that addressed themselves to President Johnson, etc.” Though there were excep- individuals through thought. It was the responsibility tions, most practicing artists of the 1960s believed it of a viewer to apply the content of a painting to their was taboo to directly address social issues in their life experience. He continued, “It is emotionally grati- work. The conceptualists adhered to this aversion to fying to point the finger at some atrocity and say this realism and turned to abstraction to communicate the here is the bastard responsible for it. But, in effect . . feelings of the American public regarding Vietnam. . appeals and condemnations don’t make you think.” Hans Haacke claimed: “If you make protest paintings, These artists were not practicing arbitration. Instead 39 their works were the products of standards, that is the emphasis Conceptualist Performance prophetic intent. these artists placed on process over finished work, exempli- Describing the artistic atmo- A Coordinated Effort fied the “popular revulsion” that sphere of the 1960s and 1970s demanded articulation. Through French artist Daniel Buren pro- As the Vietnam War reached its their unity the artists featured claimed, “Art is the safety valve of height in the late 1960s, the art in this exhibition fixated on the our repressive system. As long as world committed itself to respond- responsibility of art to manifest it exists, and, better yet, the more ing to the issue. In the autumn of meaning through forms “beyond prevalent it becomes, art will be 1968, a major exhibition of con- reality.” To convey the solemnity the system’s distracting mask. ceptual art opened at the Paula of the Vietnam War these artists And a system has nothing to fear Cooper Gallery in New York City had to “create these kinds of styl- as long as its reality is masked, as arranged by peace activist Ron ized forms which are so brutal that as long as its contradictions are Wolin and painter Robert Huot. A they jump beyond the stylization.” hidden.” Buren believed that, in coordinated effort to fundraise for In their own manner, conceptual- general, artists concealed com- the “Student Mobilization Against ists like Donald Judd, Robert Mor- mentary deep within the images the War” campaign, the show con- ris and Frank Stella embodied the they produced. Instead they al- tained pieces from fourteen lead- modernist principles outlined by lowed the infinite forms of beauty ing artists, including Donald Judd Gleizes and Metzinger to address to confront viewers upon initial and Robert Morris. Wolin and the Vietnam War. The abstraction contact with any particular piece. Huot offered a statement summa- in which these three men sought The work of many conceptualists rizing the artists’ thoughts regard- refuge, however, may not have is in keeping with this tradition. ing the manner through which resonated with Americans the There were those, however, who their work lambasted the war: way they would have liked. Their promoted a distinctly political fla- These fourteen non-objective critique of rationalist tendencies vor through their respective me- artists are against the war in instilled in another conceptual- diums. Hans Haacke was one of Vietnam. They are supporting this ist faction the importance of the the few artists who implemented commitment in the strongest man- process in successfully conveying this remarkably straightforward ner open to them by contributing ideas. It was this other more ac- ambition. major examples of their current cessible group of artists that truly A direct critique of the Vietnam work. The artists and the individ- captured the public’s eye. War, Haacke’s bold contribution ual pieces were selected to pres- to the “Information” show of 1970 ent a particular aesthetic attitude, at the Museum in the conviction that a cohesive group of important works makes the most forceful statement for peace. An inventive anti-war action that raised more than thirty thousand dollars for the campaign, the exhibition was a testament to the character of the pieces on display. The aversion to conventional

The city of Bethlehem welcomes home World War I soldiers at the war’s end in 1918. Cour- tesy of Special Collections, Lehigh University Libraries.

40 Parade for World War I soldiers upon their return home in 1918. Courtesy of Special Collections, Lehigh University Libraries.

Burden offers insight into the political significance of body art. Drawing technical influence from action embodied by the abstract- expressionists and the absurdity of the Surrealists, Burden set out to challenge complacent indiffer- it also championed physical action ence through a catharsis of fear of Modern Art in New York City as a form of artistic expression. that demonstrated the aggres- was his effort to “challenge the In keeping with conceptual- sion that characterized 1960s and political status quo.” An interac- ist thought, a number of artists 1970s politics and society. Rather tive piece that required the par- turned to body art as a means of than directing that aggression to- ticipation of visitors, Haacke’s creative exploration. Theatrical wards another individual or inani- work consisted of ballot boxes for in nature, body art accentuated mate object he used his “flesh as “yes” and “no” votes placed under the pivotal conceptualist belief material,” which surely accentuat- a plaque that read “Would the fact that the process was indeed the ed his aims. In the late 1960s Bur- that Governor Rockefeller has not main property of art. Furthermore den experimented several times denounced President Nixon’s In- body art is a testament to the with dragging his naked body dochina policy be a reason for you exhaustion of other forms. Those through broken glass and nails. not to vote for him in November?” who practiced body art believed Before an audience in 1971 Bur- This confrontational work chal- that they had no choice but to den shot himself through the arm lenged the very idea of what con- make their own bodies a canvas, and in 1974 his work culminated stitutes art by reducing the piece because more conventional forms with what he called Trans-fixed. to strictly a thought and process. of art could not accurately illus- For Trans-fixed Burden had assis- Hans Haacke’s Visitors’ Poll is trate the needs of the time. The tants crucify him to the back of a representative of a transitional widespread aversion to rational- Volkswagen that was then driven form of conceptualism. Making ism professed by these artists can around a motorway for more than reference to the notion that art be attributed to their disgust of two minutes with the majority should embrace a call to political the Vietnam War. of the sequence photographed. and social reform on literal levels, The work of American Chris Perceived by many as acts of self- 41 mutilation, Burden’s antics were not a plea for sym- Vietnam War protest outside the Pentagon in Wash- pathy. With a world-view colored by the Vietnam War ington D.C., Morrison doused himself in gasoline and his work chronicled the extreme intensity of the era lit himself on fire. While it is unlikely that Morrison and a nation’s habitual violence. The visual language considered himself an artist, his actions nevertheless Burden employed parodies the traumatic condition demonstrated an intention to express, and thus must that the US government had forced upon the populace be regarded as inherently artistic. The premise of as a result of its military involvement in Vietnam. It is art is representation. Though it assumes an abstract indeed rather derisive in tone. Through damaging the physical quality, the act itself possesses the potential human body, Burden’s work ironically mocks tradition- to communicate a distinct message. Self-immolation al value judgments regarding the sanctity of the is transcendental. A human flesh. friend of Morrison said, “Norman was preoccupied with Viet- nam and sometimes

Lehigh Bach- elor: “Lehigh Fall House Party”, Courtesy of Spe- cial Collections, Lehigh University Libraries

he made people uncomfortable. You don’t like to be re- minded constantly that your country is dropping napalm bombs on other people.” Mor- rison did exactly that. By sacrificing his own life he exacerbated an already bit- ter debate regarding the legitimacy of the actions of the US government in Vietnam. Although Morrison’s Furthermore, his irrational processes accentuated death was indeed a sacrifice for a cause much greater the destructive capability of the modern world that than his own existence, it must not be denied that one had been highlighted by the larger anti-war move- of the most basic human instincts is self-preservation. ment. To recognize the artistic nature of Chris Bur- Therefore, his distinctly irrational behavior placed den’s actions is to modify one’s perception of art. Morrison in the company of the conceptualists as it A Quaker and father of three children, thirty-one serves as a critique of the alleged rationalism prac- year old Norman Morrison was an unsuspecting ge- ticed by the war making United States. Moreover, nius. On November 2, 1965, as part of a larger anti- Morrison’s self-immolation challenged the common

42 man to examine their moral constitution, which pro- need to extend humanist sentiments over the mili- moted Morrison to serve as the embodiment of the tary industrial complex. Through sculpture, painting, definition of an artist as suggested by Albert Gle- body art, and self-immolation, idea art forced society izes and Jean Metzinger. His actions were artistically to redefine its very concept of art. The creation of a beautiful, yet tragic. Unfortunately he would not be new artistic aesthetic, in keeping with suggestions of alone. Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger, was a response If Norman Morrison had potentially conceived the to the new culture that was emerging out of the Viet- idea of immolating himself from the Buddhist monk nam War. Pollock said, “The strangeness will wear who had done the same just a day before the Quaker off and I think we will discover the deeper meanings had publicly communicated his grief, then perhaps in modern art.” Conceptual art was transcendental. Morrison inspired Roger Allen LaPorte to do the same. It served as the medium through which emotional A twenty-one year old philosophy major at Hunter abstraction could be reconciled with the minimalist College in New York City, LaPorte was a member of introspection necessary to artistically approach the the Catholic Worker Movement, a “charitable and Vietnam War. The conceptualists understood that pacifist organization in New York City.” On the morn- representation was more than other artists had let it ing of November 9, 1965, just one week after Mor- be; therefore it is no surprise that their tendencies rison’s death outside the Pentagon, LaPorte “knelt were suggestively nonrepresentational. T.J. Clark cross-legged . . . in the posture of the Buddhist wrote, “Abstract art is perniciously lively, but always monks,” poured a gallon of gasoline over his head seemingly on its last legs. And it has to be protected: and proceeded to light himself on fire in front of the something is at stake in it: something the culture as United Nations building. A guard outside the build- a whole is still trying to sort out, of which art is an ing spotted LaPorte after flames had consumed him emblem.” This statement could not be any more and did his best to extinguish the blaze. LaPorte was accurate. Abstract art is the embodiment of all that transported to Bellevue Hospital where he died from society and popular culture cannot or chooses not to his injuries the next day. Given his pacifist tendencies comprehend. Art is a testament to the fact that emo- and involvement with a group opposed to the war in tions, objects, ideas, and events are indeed more than Vietnam, it can be surmised that he wanted his death what they may initially appear to be. The conceptual to inspire dissent within the United States as part of pieces produced during the Vietnam War demonstrate the larger anti-war movement. Even if this assump- a starkly aggressive atmosphere that enables viewers tion is wrong, LaPorte’s action remains a work of art. to connect with the era on a personal level. This need His use of not only his body but, more importantly, his for a truthful sense of awareness was one of the driv- life as a means of expression must be considered a ing forces behind the conceptualists’ insatiable desire response to the Vietnam War’s rational irrationality. To to express, which has influenced all subsequent art. view the deaths of both Norman Morrison and Roger The conceptualists’ emphasis on documenting preva- Allen LaPorte as works of art is not an attempt to de- lent ideologies will exist until the end of mankind, as base their lives. Their actions exposed a philosophi- it is through the demonstration of contextually appli- cal truth embraced by a larger artistic movement. cable ideas that history is preserved. That truth being that art could no longer be visually distinguished from reality. The conceptualists, most notably Morrison and LaPorte, had transformed life and death into art. Oscar Wilde once said, “We spend our days searching for the meaning of life. Well, the meaning of life is art.” Wilde’s words speak volumes when considered in relation to the fine art produced during the Vietnam War era. Though other forms may have been more easily understood, it was the work of the conceptualists that provided an accurate record of the

43 44 Health

45 Biological versus Environmental Factors: Determining the Cause of Pervasive Developmental Disorders in Children

by Jami Zaretsky

46 eing diagnosed with a pervasive developmental disorder can mean that a patient may have mild to severe impairments. Four classic disorders have been identified within the spectrum – Asperger’s Syndrome, Autism, Chandler-Ullman Hall B Rett Syndrome, and Childhood hood Disintegrative Disorder are With the first wing of this build- Disintegrative Disorder – with much less prevalent. Rett Syndrome ing completed in 1883, it was Asperger’s Syndrome showing the affects approximately one of every so innovative for a chemistry lowest level of impairment. When a 10,000 to 15,000 girls. Similarly, building that it was awarded child’s symptoms are not typical of Childhood Disintegrative Disorder 3rd place (the Eiffel Tower re- these specific diagnoses, he or she affects less than two out of every ceived 1st place) for the design is placed in the category PDD-NOS 100,000 children, with the majority prize at the 1889 International (not otherwise specified). Char- of cases being reported in males. Exposition in Paris. A layer of acteristic of all these disorders is There are many children with sig- sand was constructed between delayed development in communi- nificant developmental delays, but the second and third floors to cation and social skills along with with symptoms that do not warrant a smother a chemical fire. affects on cognitive and behavioral diagnosis of a specific disorder. In functioning. The severity of impair- these cases, children are diagnosed ment differs between disorders and as PDD-NOS, which is the most com- even more between individual pa- monly diagnosed pervasive devel- tients. Because the differences be- opmental disorder (National Insti- tween the levels of impairment can tute of Mental Health Online, 2007). be so extreme, it is imperative that To be diagnosed with any pervasive Dink Hats research is given to each individual developmental disorder, a child disorder alone, instead of trying to must display specific characteristics, It used to be a long-standing treat the entire continuum. The pos- which are outlined in Appendix A. tradition that all freshmen wear sibility exists that each syndrome is Diagnosis usually occurs as early ‘dink hats’ until the Lehigh- caused by similar, but not identical as age two, although symptoms can Lafayette football game in the factors. If this is the case, the factors present themselves much earlier or fall. contributing to each specific syn- later than this. Depending on the drome must be individually exam- type of syndrome and the severity ined in order to find the appropriate of impairment, children can follow cures. different sequences in terms of early Aside from having their own development. Generally, children levels of impairment, each of the that fall under the autism diagno- pervasive developmental disorders sis will follow a typical pattern of has a unique rate of incidence. The development for up to 18 months, most well-known is autism, which at which point signs of autism may is diagnosed in approximately 3.4 become apparent (Sicile-Kira, 14). of every 1000 children ages 3-10. These children are usually with- Asperger’s Syndrome follows with a drawn, lack the skills necessary to diagnosis rate of approximately 2 in imitate others, and have irregular 10,000. The rarest and most severe speech patterns, if any at all. Chil- disorders, Rett Syndrome and Child- dren with autism can be regarded

Causational Factors as pesticides, household cleaners, and lead may have something to do with these disorders. With such a broad range of symptoms and an increas- A specific study was performed in California to test the ingly large number of children being diagnosed, the relationship between autism and pesticides. Spanning a underlying causes of pervasive developmental disorders two year birth period from 1996-1998, 465 autism diagno- must be examined. Various factors ranging from genetics ses were made within nineteen counties in the Sacramen- to food allergies have been said to be at the root of these to and San Joaquin Valleys. Nineteen pesticide varieties disorders. Some of the most frequently investigated fac- were tested and only one –organochlorines- seemed to tors include immunizations, neurological brain abnormal- pose a potential threat. Twenty-nine mothers living near ities, genetics, environmental toxins, and food allergies. agricultural fields where organochlorines were used in The possibility exists that any of these factors could work their first trimesters of pregnancy produced 8 children as a single agent or together with one another to cause later diagnosed with autism. This rate was 6 times higher the symptoms associated with pervasive developmental than found in a control group (News10 Online). While this disorders. Further research must be performed in order information is certainly shocking and warrants further to rule out or provide evidence toward which factor(s) are research, it does not tell us that pesticides are a definitive contributing to these devastating disorders. cause of autistic disorders. Food allergies have been said to contribute to perva- Despite the aforementioned claims, the most apparent sive developmental disorders. Celiac disease, a disor- cause for these disorders is a genetic defect. It has been der in which the body cannot process the protein gluten noted that children with autism spectrum impairments found in wheat, may be linked to the disorders (Center are likely to have a parent, sibling, or other close relative for Disease Control and Prevention Online). Evidence who also has the syndrome or another pervasive devel- supporting this claim is found in some children with opmental disorder (Constantino, 2006). Additionally, chil- pervasive developmental disorders, as removing wheat dren falling within the autism spectrum often have family We must recognize that patients with autism often think outside the box, and in order to find a cure we must do the same. At this point, it is unrealistic to believe that one factor is acting alone to cause pervasive developmental disorders and we must look for a combination of factors working together which cause these impairments. from their diets has successfully alleviated the majority members with other genetic abnormalities, which could of symptoms. In addition, a case has been made for brain contribute to the development of a PDD. With this being abnormalities playing a role in causing the disorders. It the case, it is evident that genetics plays at least a partial seems, however, that most of these neurological defects role in causing pervasive developmental disorders. are results of the disorders and not the immediate contributing factors (Ciaranello, 1995). In terms of immuniza- The Case for Genetics tions, the case has been made that the Measles, Mumps, Rubella (MMR) vaccination is specifically at fault. The There is roughly a 10% chance of sibling recurrence mercury levels found in this vaccine are to blame for its involved when at least one child in a family is affected alleged contribution to pervasive developmental disor- with a pervasive developmental disorder (Constantino, ders. Besides mercury, other environmental toxins such 2006). This statistic alone provides evidence toward the

49 existence of a genetic component defects to their children, there has to Girls have two X chromosomes, but being present. The problem with be a reason why some children ex- only need the genetic equivalent of identifying genetics as the cause for press the disorder in the first place, the information on one of the two pervasive developmental disorders especially when they are conceived chromosomes. Because of this, one is that the gene or genes respon- from two non-affected parents. One X chromosome (from the mother or sible have not yet been determined. explanation is the possibility that father) is inactivated and becomes a Recent research has isolated some pervasive developmental disorders Barr body. If the X chromosome car- of the potential genes believed to are recessive genetic disorders. In rying the mutation is inactivated, the be involved in autism, located on a recessive disorder not phenotypi- child may express milder or fewer chromosomes 7 and 15 (Waltz, 2003, cally expressed by either parent, symptoms of Rett Syndrome. In cas- pg 8). Additionally, the first gene both parents must be carriers of the es where the active X chromosome involved in speech disorders was defect in order for the child to be af- is the one carrying the mutation, the identified on chromosome 7, within fected. Assuming recessive inheri- child will experience full blown Rett close proximity to the gene mutation tance, there is a 50% chance that a Syndrome (RSRF Online). site believed to cause autism (Waltz, child could inherit a PDD when one There are two possible ways to 2003, pg 9). This is a significant find- parent shows signs of having the inherit a mutated MECP2 gene from ing, as speech defects are present in disorder. Autism and Asperger’s the maternal set of chromosomes almost all cases of pervasive de- Syndrome may be more prevalent when the mother appears to be velopmental disorders. Due to the than Rett Syndrome due to the per- unaffected by the disorder. The first Because the differences between the levels of impairment can be so extreme, it is imperative that research is given to each individual disorder alone, instead of trying to treat the entire continuum.

uncertainty as to which genes are centage of the population carrying is known as germline mosaicism, directly involved with the disorders, the affected genes. The assumed where the mother has the mutation it is impossible to perform genetic recessive pattern of inheritance in her eggs, but in none of her so- testing at this time. for most pervasive developmental matic (body) tissues. Secondly, the Assuming the claim that perva- disorders can be observed in Ap- mother may have the mutation, but sive developmental disorders are pendix B. be asymptomatic due to X-inactiva- caused by genetics can be substan- While the causes of autism and tion of the mutated X chromosome. tiated, it is interesting to examine Asperger’s Syndrome still remain It is also possible to inherit the the incidence of occurrence of unknown, studies have revealed mutated gene from the father; how- both Rett Syndrome and Childhood that Rett Syndrome is caused by a ever, since MECP2 mutation causes Disintegrative Disorder. If genet- mutation of the MECP2 gene on the mental retardation in males, it would ics is the only contributing factor in X chromosome during pregnancy. be previously known that the father pervasive developmental disorders, In boys, this type of mutation causes carries some genetic mutation (RSRF then what makes some disorders mental retardation, while in girls Online). more prevalent than others? While it it causes Rett Syndrome to occur. With this knowledge, it is pos- is true that children with Rett Syn- Girls with Rett Syndrome can have sible that the majority of pervasive drome and Childhood Disintegrative varying levels of impairment, which developmental disorders are caused Disorder rarely live long enough to may be due to which X chromo- by multiple genetic mutations, while reproduce and transmit any genetic some is carrying the defective gene. Rett Syndrome is caused by a single

Prevention Online, 2007). Further studies using larger While family members share similar genes, no two peo- sample sizes have supported the MMR vaccination’s in- ple have identical genomes (aside from identical twins). nocence; however, the debate still remains over whether In the case of identical twins, when one twin suffers from or not it has some contribution to the onset of autism. a pervasive developmental disorder, there is an 85% According to most medical studies, there is no signifi- chance that the other twin will have some degree of im- cant correlation between the first administration of the pairment as well (Constantino, 2005). This alarming sta- MMR vaccine and the onset of autism or other pervasive tistic shows us that autism spectrum disorders must have developmental disorders. A study in London tested chil- a definitive biological nature, and that a group of genetic dren born after 1979 for a link between the MMR vaccine anomalies shared amongst family members are contrib- and autism, and found no reason to believe that a correla- uting to the disorders. As previously discussed, patterns tion existed between the two factors. In London, the first of inheritance dictate that not all members of a family will MMR vaccines were administered starting in 1988. The actively express the genes related to pervasive develop- study showed that there had been a significant rise in the mental disorders; however, these phenotypically normal number of autism diagnoses from 1979 onward, but there family members may be carrying the detrimental genes was not a sharp increase after 1988 when the MMR vac- and passing them on to their children. While the exact cine was introduced. Many skeptics believe that vacci- genetic material involved in these disorders has not yet nated children would show signs of autism soon after be- been determined, we can be sure that a genetic compo- ing vaccinated; however, children who participated in this nent does exist based on the statistics involving identical study showed signs of autism at the same age, regardless twins and sibling recurrence rates. of whether or not they were vaccinated. Subsequent The genetic basis of pervasive developmental disor- studies in many countries have failed to find a correlation ders alone is not enough to explain why different chil- between the Measles, Mumps, Rubella vaccination and dren express the disorders to varying degrees. Addition- pervasive developmental disorders (National Institute of ally, at this time there is no explanation for why diet and Child Health and Human Development Online, 2006). other lifestyle alterations have miraculously cured some children of their disorders and not others. The best way Interpretations and Discussion to describe this phenomenon is to understand that all people process stimuli differently. Just as some people When attempting to determine the cause of any have a higher threshold for pain or loud noises; children disease or disorder, it is imperative to take into con- have different mechanisms for reacting to other envi- sideration the many factors that could contribute to the ronmental stimuli. Many cases have been documented problem, no matter how significant or trivial the contribu- where children have been cured from autism upon tion may seem. One of the biggest obstacles incurred removing wheat products from their diets, while this does in determining the cause of pervasive developmental not help other children in the slightest. In these cases, disorders is that we are dealing with children who often it is likely that both sets of children have the genetic cannot appropriately express themselves, if at all. In makeup related to autism, yet the onset of symptoms these cases, researchers must rely on parents, many of could have been triggered by an environmental factor, in whom are quick to try to blame anything they can for this case the addition of the protein gluten into the diet. their child’s disorder. This poses a great risk, as unsup- In these cases, the protein found in wheat could have ported theories can begin to circulate and cause much activated the genes responsible for expressing autism. scientific and public debate, such as the case with the When the stimulus is removed, the child’s body no longer MMR vaccination. Additionally, because there are five needs to react to it, and the characteristics of autism may types of pervasive developmental disorders, researchers be significantly reduced or entirely disappear. must carefully examine the possibility that each one may The case for the Measles, Mumps, Rubella vaccination be caused by a different factor. Taking into account all of having anything to do with the onset of autism is very the knowledge and insight we presently have in respect weak. While the timeframe for the initial dosage of the to these disorders, it seems that there is a single probable vaccination and the typical onset of autism symptoms do cause for pervasive developmental disorders. seem to coincide, the vast majority of medical research Each human has a unique set of genetic material. explains that this is a coincidental finding and that the

52 vaccination has no meaningful effect on whether or not a and not necessarily the disorder itself. With advances in child will develop a pervasive developmental disorder. modern medicine and technology, as well as increased Even if the MMR vaccine was found to play a role in the public awareness about disease and disease prevention, development of an autism spectrum disorder, the vac- it seems natural that more and more children are being cine itself would be acting as an environmental agent and diagnosed with a pervasive developmental disorder. In not as the underlying cause for the disorder. If the MMR terms of the medical world, autism is a relatively new vaccine was the real problem, every child who has been frontier and was not well studied in the past. The disor- vaccinated would have developed a pervasive develop- der was only discovered in 1943 and Asperger’s Syn- mental disorder. In the unlikely event that the vaccine drome was only introduced as a viable medical diagnosis has anything to do with these disorders, children would in America in 1994. With this being true, it makes sense be expressing the disorders due to their genes being that diagnoses are on the rise, as more and more par- activated by a stimulus, in this case the MMR vaccine. ents are learning about PDDs and physicians are able to The idea that genes react to environmental stimuli can understand and recognize the signs and symptoms. In be further explained when examining the case study years past, children presenting classic signs of autism regarding the rise of autism in select areas of Califor- may have been labeled mentally retarded instead of nia. The study found that when mothers were exposed receiving what we know now to be the proper diagnosis. to harmful organochlorines during their first trimesters It may be that the labels have changed, but the frequency of pregnancy, their children were 6 times more likely to of the disorders has always been the same. This is some- develop a pervasive developmental disorder than the thing that we will never be able to know, as we cannot go control group. It is very likely that prenatal exposure to back in time and re-diagnose patients. Fortunately, there these pesticides could have activated the genes involved are many physicians and scientists who understand the in autism, or could have triggered genetic mutations magnitude of the problem with pervasive developmental which in turn caused the children to express autism spec- disorders, who are dedicated to researching and finding trum disorders. a cure for tomorrow’s children. The most necessary component in solving the autism puzzle is determining which genes are responsible for causing autism spectrum impairments. Medical research has already made great strides in attempting to isolate these genes, and have recently found the first of these genes on chromosomes 7 and 15, which are also the sites of many other genetic disorders. Determining the location of the other genes responsible for pervasive developmental disorders will enable doctors and scientists to figure out how to better understand, explain, and eventually treat children diagnosed with these devastating ill- nesses. After isolating these genes, it will be possible to perform genetic testing on individuals trying to conceive children, so parents will know if their child is at risk for developing an autism spectrum disorder. Additionally, gene therapy may be useful in treating and correcting the problems that pervasive developmental disorders can cause. Lastly, greater knowledge of the biological basis of these disorders will lead to a further understanding of how environmental agents work to alter or intensify the phenotypic expression of these genes. Although pervasive developmental disorders are on the rise in the United States and throughout the world, it is important to recognize that diagnoses are on the rise

53 The Struggle Against a Killer

by Zachary Gray

54 hroughout the course of history, disease has played an important role in the way in Model Student which people live their lives. In the mid-

Contrary to the popular rumor dle ages, the Black Death struck Europe that the ‘model student’ on the killing an estimated thirty to fifty percent Memorial Walkway is a com- memoration of a youngster who T passed away prior to his arrival of the population and forever Catholics living in the world, ac- as a freshman at Lehigh, its altering the social landscape of counting for approximately 17% history with Lehigh begins at that region. In 1918, an extremely of the entire world population the beginnings of Gregory Far- virulent strain of the influenza (Ross 10). Although not all Catho- rington’s tenure as President virus caused the most widespread lics strictly follow every rule put (late 1990’s). While at a dinner pandemic in history. Today, an- forth by the Vatican, the doctrines with the Burman family Presi- other deadly disease known as of the Roman Catholic Church dent Farrington made a com- the Acquired Immunodeficiency have a definite influence over ment about the statue he saw Syndrome (AIDS) runs rampant peoples’ lives. In 1968, Pope Paul in their house. The next day the throughout the world. AIDS is a VI prepared an encyclical letter model student was sitting in highly destructive disease caused entitled “Humanae Vitae” in which front of the President’s House. by a retrovirus that affects the he outlined the Church’s stance Due to constant vandalism, immune system. Its victims can on all topics related to premarital however, the statue was re- survive for an average of ten years sex and the regulation of birth. moved and later relocated to its following infection; however these As one might assume, the Ro- current location on the Memo- ten years are not usually pleasant. man Catholic Church condemned rial Walkway. Researchers are constantly look- premarital sex and, for married ing for new ways to prevent this couples, denounced all forms virus from infecting humans, and of birth control, including abor- for ways in which current AIDS tion and other unnatural means patients can improve the quality of preventing or terminating a of their lives. Unfortunately, very pregnancy. The Pope’s reasoning little success has been achieved was that God’s will is infallible Philosophy Building in this endeavor. One method and married couples are to ac- that has been proven effective in cept the possible consequences Built in 1879, this building the prevention of AIDS is condom of performing the “conjugal act”. originally served as the gate- usage. In certain small popula- He writes, “[…] not every conjugal keeper’s house. After certain tions of the world, condom usage act is followed by a new life. God hours of the night the gates into has been mandated and, conse- has wisely disposed natural laws present-day Memorial Walk- quently, AIDS incidence in those and rhythms of fecundity which, way were closed and locked populations has fallen dramati- of themselves, cause a separation and access to the campus was cally. However, in many regions of in the succession of births. None- restricted. the world, certain religious beliefs theless the Church [...] teaches and social phenomena are acting that each and every marriage act as obstacles for safe sex and are must remain open to the transmis- therefore furthering the problem sion of life” (Pope Paul VI 3). Pope of the AIDS pandemic. Paul VI goes on to talk about how As of the middle of 2006, there the Church feels about methods were more than a billion Roman for deliberately preventing birth.

55 These methods include but are not limited to condom of Prague came out and publicly stated that he be- use, birth control pills, and birth control sponges. He lieves prostitution should be legalized. Prostitution is states: a serious problem along the German-Czech border, and Bishop Maly has been there to see the damage it Equally to be excluded, as the teaching of the Church is causing first-hand. Thousands of sex workers from has frequently declared, is direct sterilization, whether the Czech Republic are under the command of pimps perpetual or temporary, whether of the man or of the that care much more about the money their women woman. Similarly excluded is every action which, either can make than their well-being. Many of these women in anticipation of the conjugal act, or in its accom- are infected with sexually transmitted diseases such plishment, or in the development of its natural conse- as AIDS and syphilis, and many of the prostitutes be- quences, proposes, whether as an end or as a means, to come pregnant with the children of their customers. render procreation impossible (Pope Paul VI 3). Oddly enough, the clients of these women find these pregnancies to be desireable and, consequently, the Because the Roman Catholic Church has such strict pregnant workers can demand up to twice as much rules about birth control, many followers of the re- money as those who are not pregnant for performing ligion have found themselves in a moral catch-22 the same acts. Bishop Maly stated that, “[…] allowing over the past twenty-five years. Recall that when the prostitution to continue in legal grey area is a greater “Humanae Vitae” was written in 1968, AIDS had not evil than legalizing it and bringing it under control” yet come into the mainstream and Pope Paul VI did (Pigott 3). The bishop brings up an insightful argu- not need to address the issue. Times have changed, ment. So often in society people make statements however, and the AIDS crisis has complicated things from afar about things that need to be done, but few for the Roman Catholic Church. ever have a real life experience that would lead them Although Roman Catholic law still prohibits the use of to those conclusions. In this case, it might not be a condoms, certain individuals in the Catholic hierarchy bad idea to listen to a man who actually lives amongst have stated that it may be acceptable for a married the problem. Bishop Maly somberly stated, “It isn’t couple to use condoms if one of them, either the man enough simply to moralize, to judge, but it is neces- or the woman, is already HIV-positive. Cardinal Javier sary to do something” (Pigott 1). Lozano Barragan heads the Vatican office for health Although Bishop Maly’s stance may seem very radi- care, which is currently preparing scientific and moral cal when compared with the traditional Roman Catho- studies on the issues of condoms and AIDS. He be- lic teachings, he has not met any serious opposition lieves, as do some of his colleagues, that in certain in- in his country. Father Daniel Herman, who is in sup- stances condom use could be condoned as “the lesser port of the Bishop, also commented on the prospect evil” when the alternatives are considered. As Bel- of legalizing prostitution in the Czech Republic; he gian Cardinal Godfried Danneels points out, “[…] it says, “It doesn’t mean we don’t believe what the Bible would be a sin for an HIV-positive person to have sex says, or what the Church says, but we have different without a condom, since he or she would be violating problems today, for instance, than the people of the the Fifth Commandment, ‘you shall not kill’ ” (Associ- Church had three hundred years ago” (Pigott 4). ated Press 2). Although the Church still officially opposes condom This concept of the Roman Catholic Church ac- use, it has found numerous other ways to participate cepting the lesser of two evils also has parallels in in the fight against AIDS. Out of all the HIV treatment the world of prostitution. One theory is that if pros- centers in the world, 26.7% of them are Catholic- titution were legal, it would be much more regulated based. According to Cardinal Barragan, the Catholic and, therefore, sexually transmitted diseases like Church’s presence was felt in 62 countries as of June AIDS would come back under control. While it is 2006 and many of these nations have received free true that the Church is much more likely to condone retroviral drugs bought with funds raised by Catholic condom use than it is to allow prostitution, questions churches around the world. When it comes to preven- have been raised in recent years about the possible tion, their main goal is to educate people and their benefits of legalization. In 2002, Bishop Vaclav Maly families to the point that they will behave properly in

56 the eyes of the Church. According to Cardinal Bar- hope that they would make the 100% Condom Pro- ragan, they have found that when people live in a gramme into a national law; in August of 1991, they good environment that promotes and supports moral achieved this goal. The National AIDS Committee, behavior, the educational aspect of AIDS becomes chaired by the prime minister of Thailand, issued a a much easier task. The Catholic Church educates resolution that nationally implemented the 100% Con- through countless small publications, conferences, dom Programme. The resolution stated, “The gover- and personal interaction with the people in regions stricken with AIDS (Barragan 1-2). They fully support the education of new physicians, nurses, and paramedics who want to help AIDS patients, but one cannot help but wonder: if the Roman Catholic Church is willing to go to great lengths to impede the progress of the AIDS pandemic, then why are they so unwilling to openly accept condoms as an effective method of prevention? Although they are not 100% foolproof, they are proven to drastically reduce the chances of spreading the HIV virus. In 1989 in the Ratchaburi province of Thailand, a sort of “condom revolution” took place. With a sex worker industry that was thriving, Thailand was a prime location for the spread of disease. At that time, most male clients preferred to have sex without a condom so if a prostitute ever required one, she was most likely going to lose the customer. Consequently, most prostitutes did not require nor, the provincial chief of police and the provincial condoms. In 1989, however, the Regional Communi- health office of each province will work together to cable Disease Control officials in Ratchaburi came to the enforce a condom-use-only policy that requires all conclusion that the best way to combat these disincen- sex workers to use condoms with every customer. All tives for condom use was to require by law that every concerned ministries will issue directives that comply sex worker wear a condom with every client, every time. with this policy” (Evaluation 3). As a result, about 60 Soon thereafter, STD rates in Ratchaburi dropped signifi- million free condoms are being distributed per year cantly and the 100% Condom Programme caught on in throughout the sex establishments of Thailand and surrounding provinces (see Figure 1). condom use has become the norm (see figure 5). Even though the 100% Condom Programme be- Since the 100% Condom Programme was imple- came prevalent in the Ratchaburi area, the issue of mented nationally, STD rates at government-run clin- male clients making the trip to other provinces for ics have plummeted. In 1986, there were more than condomless sex still existed. Throughout the begin- 400,000 new cases reported and just ten years later ning of the year in 1991, many presentations were in 1996 that number had dropped to approximately made to high-ranking officials in Thailand with the 30,000 (see Figure 4).

57 deserts of Nevada, typically on the outskirts of the major cities of Las Vegas and Reno due to the Nevada state law that prohibits a brothel from being in operation in a county with more than 400,000 residents. All the women who work in these sex establishments are there on their own accord, and generally enter the business because of the large income that a popular prostitute may potentially earn. According to a Septem- ber 2007 article in the Chicago Tribune, prostitutes can make anywhere from $36,000 per year on the low end to a staggering $480,000 per year for upper-class workers (Scharnberg 2-4). In order to work in one of these establishments, a woman must first be tested for all sexually transmitted diseases. Once she is cleared to work, Nevada state law requires that all sex workers Some questions have been old, it still proves that condoms be retested once a week for the raised as to whether the prosti- are an effective means of prevent- duration of their employment. tutes and their clients are simply ing sexually transmitted diseases. These tests can cost anywhere going to non-government clin- On the other hand, some have from $70 to $120 per week and ics since the implementation of argued that condoms are inef- the money is taken directly out the 100% Condom Programme fective in specifically preventing of the workers’ salaries. In addi- and therefore artificially deflat- a disease like AIDS due to the tion, the state of Nevada requires ing the numbers, but surveys of extremely small size of an HIV that condoms be worn for all sex local pharmacists have indicated virus. In 2003, Cardinal Alfonso acts that occur on the premises otherwise. In interviews done Lopez Trujillo from Colombia of these establishments and all during the early 1990’s, 80% of came out and took this stance prostitutes reserve the right to pharmacists reported a significant claiming that condoms assisted turn away any customer that they decline in the quantity of drugs in the spreading of AIDS because suspect of being infected. At cer- sold for treatment of various they gave people a false sense tain brothels, the male clients are sexually transmitted diseases. In of security when having sex with required to expose themselves to addition, a survey of active sex an HIV-positive person (Associ- the prostitute prior to engaging in workers revealed that about 75% ated Press 2). However, despite any sexual activity so that she may of them still get tested and treated the Cardinal’s pessimistic views examine his genitals with a spe- by government-run clinics (Evalu- on condoms, statistics taken from cial lamp that is used in detection ation 26-28). the legal brothels in Nevada show of sores associated with various Although this case study was otherwise. sexually transmitted diseases. performed in the late 1990’s and These fully legitimate sex According to the Nevada Depart- the numbers are about ten years establishments are located in the ment of Public Health these tests

58 and precautions have paid off ciety when it comes to marriage. education becomes the issue with because no sex worker in the state The husband is undeniably the regard to AIDS prevention. Thera- of Nevada has ever tested positive dominant spouse, and it is desir- peutics Research-Education-AIDS for HIV (Scharnberg 2-4). able for his wife to be viewed in Training (TREAT) conducted a There are other social phe- the community as his subordinate. report in October 2005 in which nomena outside of religion that However, if the husband in a rela- they interviewed a young woman influence the use of condoms and tionship has AIDS, it seems rea- named Ayi Farida, who has been attitudes toward AIDS. Certain sonable that the wife would want working as a member of their cultures have a very strong stigma him to use condoms during sex to Asian Community for AIDS Treat- about AIDS patients. Some be- preserve her own health and well- ment and Advocacy (ACATA) for lieve that it only affects a certain being. However, this is not the eight years. She works primarily class or quality of people, and case. Japanese women in this situ- in Papua, which is the easternmost others have a strong lack of faith ation tend to avoid confrontations province of Indonesia (Farida 1). in modern medicine. In Japan, for example, AIDS is a growing problem. As of 2003, there were only 12,000 adults living with HIV, which represents less than 0.1% of the population there. However, the Japan Center for International Exchange estimates that the total number of AIDS patients living in Japan is doubling every four years. This rapid increase can be accredited to a few main factors. First, the citizens of Japan do not currently see the HIV virus as their problem and, therefore, it is typically acknowledged as a problem of foreigners. Sec- ondly, Japan has a very traditional culture. Most parents do not want their children to be educated on any sexual topics in school as they believe it will make them want to experiment at an early age. Con- sequently, these Japanese youths are undereducated about sex and, with their husbands out of fear of Many cultural issues have impeded when they do experiment, they being shunned by their peers. A her success as a treatment profes- rarely use condoms. Recently, professor at Gakugei University sional throughout her years there the Health and Welfare Ministry in Tokyo said, “A woman initiating including but not limited to total in Japan estimated that only 6% the issue of HIV with her partners lack of education, various spiritual to 25% of the population of Japan and asking them to use condoms beliefs of indigenous peoples, and uses condoms and many people in would appear rude and challeng- discrimination on the part of doc- that group only use them for birth ing, an image she would want to tors from that region. control and not for disease pre- avoid” (Global 1-2). It can be challenging to edu- vention (Global 1-2). Amongst indigenous popula- cate these populations about Japan is a highly patriarchal so- tions around the world, lack of AIDS. When one considers the

59 fact that a large portion of social learning is done the night and pray to the spirit (Farida 3). Although through reading and through watching television, it the shower might cleanse them enough to ward off is easy to see why teaching a culture of people with other sicknesses, the possibility of it curing AIDS are extremely limited resources about a complicated non-existent. biological disease like HIV/AIDS would be a difficult Cultural differences also make treatment of AIDS task. When asked what the main problems were that in Papua difficult because of the stigma that exists she faced working in Papua, Ayi said, “Treatment edu- around disease in that region of the world. Typi- cation – I wish I could tell you how hard it is! It’s such cally, when a villager gets a fatal illness, he or she is a great challenge to explain CD4 counts, the immune isolated from society. In certain situations, the other system, opportunistic infections, compliance, and villagers don’t allow the patient to leave an isolation drug resistance to people who don’t read, don’t watch room and he or she eventually dies of starvation or TV, and have never had access to any kind of informa- from unsanitary conditions. In even more rare circum- tion” (Farida 2). Nevertheless, Ayi and her colleagues stances, the afflicted are brought out into the forest try their utmost to educate the AIDS-stricken people and burned alive because the villagers believe the of Papua. Their primary message is that you cannot coming of a deadly disease is a curse. identify HIV-positive people simply by looking at Finally, Papuans have to deal with the issue of them. For some reason, the people of Papua seem to discrimination from doctors. Once these people are believe that a healthy looking person cannot possibly finally convinced to come in to the hospitals to get have AIDS because, if a person has the disease, he or treated, they are supposed to receive all the best anti- she will look skinny and will have a skin rash. This retroviral drugs available from people like Ayi and is quite obviously not true and Ayi and her team are the doctors she works with. However, sometimes doc- doing their best to eradicate AIDS myths such as this tors in Papua do not act in the most honorable of ways. one (Farida 2-3). Ayi gives an example: A second roadblock that Ayi has faced is the spiri- Recently one of the patients died tragically because the It seems that it is only a matter of time until researchers find a real cure for AIDS, but until that day comes, condoms remain the best method available for preventing this dreaded disease.

tual beliefs of the native tribes in Papua. Some tribes doctor refused to do a C-section when she had been still practice human sacrifice. After the sacrifice, in labor for almost 72 hours. She was being treated to many of the men in these tribes believe that they prevent mother-to-child transmission and she was very can cleanse themselves by having sex; however, they good, but finally the baby died inside and the doctor believe that sperm is a sacred substance that is not to still refused to take any action until she also died. We be wasted so, consequently, using a condom would be had followed her from the beginning with counseling completely out of the question (Farida 2). In addition, and medicine (Farida 5). many Papuans believe in holistic medicines and only go to people like Ayi as a last resort once nothing else Unfortunately, events like this seem to be common- has worked. For example, there is a regionally famous place in Papua and they are what Ayi calls the most fruit known as “red fruit” that the locals claim can cure frustrating part of her job. Despite her aggravations, AIDS. In reality, the fruit was probably just used on she still admits that the satisfied patients make the patients at a time when the HIV virus was going into whole thing worth it to her. She said, “But when I see dormancy and rumors of a cure spread amongst the the other patients smiling, when I watch their progress people. There is also a spiritual remedy where the and see what they’ve been able to do because of my patient is supposed to take a shower in the middle of assistance […] and especially when I see the children

60 – their eyes, their smiles, it encourages me to fight for that condoms are a very effective means of preventing their future and combat this epidemic” (Farida 5). this terrible disease, and they should be used in all It is easy for people to see and acknowledge the cases where transmission is a possibility. As it relates things they are doing, but sometimes it is not quite to prostitution, perhaps legalization and regulation as simple to realize the things they are failing to do. would not be a horrible reality. In the long run, HIV In the case of the Roman Catholic Church, it is con- infections in the commercial sex industry could be tributing huge amounts of money and effort to the eradicated as they have been in Nevada, not to men- fight against AIDS, but it is inadvertently enabling tion, boosting the economies of the areas that do le- the disease to spread by not allowing its members to galize. In the undereducated regions of the world, the use condoms. It seems that the Church is putting too best anybody can do is try to help. Attempts to help much faith in Catholics remaining virgins until mar- these people are being made worldwide and, if this riage as the best means for preventing AIDS. In 2003, continues, the concept of AIDS prevention will eventu- a longitudinal study of 12,000 American teenagers ally catch on as a global trend. Nearly every deadly was presented at the annual convention of the Ameri- disease in history, dating back to the time of the Black can Psychological Society in Atlanta, Georgia in which Death in Europe, has eventually met its match in hu- all the participants had taken virginity pledges. The man science. It seems that it is only a matter of time study showed that, although the pledges lasted for a until researchers find a real cure for AIDS, but until while, nearly 60% of the participants eventually broke that day comes, society needs to accept that condoms their vow. Additionally, the STD rate in this group was remain the best method available for preventing this higher than in a control group of teenagers that did disease. not take virginity pledges (Samuels 2). This study proves even further that the Catholic Church’s views on abstinence and condoms are not only outdated, but also ineffective. It is naïve to think that every Catho- lic is going to wait until marriage to have sex and it is even more naïve to believe that they will all marry somebody who has done the same. It is time for the Church officials to start facing reality and accept the manner in which much of the world works today because, although they believe they are making a conscious effort to fight the pandemic of AIDS, they are actually allowing it to spread by condemning the use of condoms. Other groups in the world are not as fortunate as the Catholic Church in that they do not possess the level of education required to make informed decision about condoms for themselves. One cannot fault the tribes of Papua for passing on AIDS because they truly are unaware of the great consequences of their actions. People like Ayi Farida work day and night to help these people, but all the cultural and spiritual barriers make education in that region of the world extremely difficult. Because of the controlling religious beliefs demonstrated by certain members of the Roman Catholic Church and social phenomena present in various cultures throughout the world, the AIDS pandemic remains rampant as many people forego the use of condoms for safe sex. It has been proven time after time

61 62 Politics

63 Nationalism, Identity and Democracy in Japan

by Emily Schulman

64 apan’s unique and modern democracy did not manifest itself smoothly. Its first attempt at democratization was sparked by the Western threat exemplified by the Unequal Treaties and reversed by a military coup that shaped Japan into Taylor Gymnasium (1904 & J 1913) a militaristic and imperialistic Tokugawa Regime in 1868. country that was not defeated In War and the Rise of the State, The arched entrance to the until the United States dropped Bruce Porter discusses how the building used to be an open two atomic bombs on it. Its Napoleonic wars of the early gateway tunnel to the former second attempt at democratiza- nineteenth century marked the football stadium. The stadium’s tion has proven durable, although end of feudalism and the dawn stairs were never removed, the country is now stripped of of the “modern warfare” state instead they were covered, its military power and the cur- (Porter 145-146). The institutions forming a hillside that many a rent government was styled by and tools for the modern-warfare student has sledded down on a the American occupation in the state were implemented wher- lunch tray. post-World War II era. Clearly, ever Europe had interests and external influences have played a influence. Porter says, “There large role in the democratization was, however, one non-European of Japan. There is still a question country, and one only, that re- of which factors, and to what ex- acted to the encroachments of tent the external world played in the imperial powers with such its influence of this highly unified a determined course of military country. Further, how can external and political modernization that Wilbur Powerhouse (1908) dimensions explain why that de- it rapidly won acceptance as mocratization reversed in Japan’s their equal: the island kingdom of Until its renovation in the first attempt and proved success- Japan” (146). As a country with a 1970’s Wilbur served as a power ful in the second attempt? tradition of isolation, and a strong plant to Lehigh’s campus. A The first attempt toward democ- national identity, Japan was willing vast network of underground ratization in Japan started after to do anything during the Meiji steam tunnels (some large Japan began to view the West as a Restoration, which ruled Japan enough to walk through) con- concrete threat when Britain went after the Tokugawa regime fell, in nects the building with almost to war with China in the Opium order to ensure its military equal- every major structure on Asa War of 1840, which opened Chi- ity with Western powers. There is Packer Campus. nese ports to foreign trade. Brit- an interesting juxtaposition here ain, France, Russia, and the United between the internal and external States now had an open door to factors for this extreme process easily exploit Japan. These for- of modernization. The process eign powers devised “unequal would not have begun without treaties” under which Japan was the western threat, yet external forced to make large concessions factors cannot explain why Japan to the West. The foreign merchan- decided it must modernize, while dise that entered Japan facilitated other countries, like neighboring the economic crisis that would China, lived in denial of the grow- contribute to the downfall of the ing imperative to modernize.

Japan was able to compromise its identity because its the last original “genros,” or founding fathers, of the identity was so unified and easily defined. Meiji Restoration died in early 1920’s, the Taisho de- Japan did not lose its identity in the modernization mocracy entered its golden age. At this time, suffrage process. Porter and Lynch’s theories on democratiza- was established for all men, a two party system began tion fit together nicely here. Porter discusses how war to develop, and the prime minister was now expected in Europe led to the evolution of the modern war-state to be a member of one of the parties represented in that Europe spread throughout the world. Some coun- the diet (Ishida 7). tries responded better to this imposition than others, Although the threat of the West caused the mod- but no state ran with the idea as fervently as Japan. ernization and democratization process, there were Japan’s reaction is explained by Lynch, who says that clearly internal processes of democratization occur- Japan acted as any gate-keeper state would. Although ring during this time period. Japan did not remain Lynch can explain why Japan modernized, he cannot a democracy for long. Ishida and Krauss assert that explain why Japan modernized with such intensity. I both domestic and international crisis played a role argue that Japan acted dramatically because of the in the disintegration of the Taisho democracy, which strength of Japan’s national identity. Porter supports ended in 1926. Just like Japan’s democratization was this argument when he describes the goal of Meiji sparked by a Western threat, Japan’s reversal was leaders. Porter says the goal was to “defeat the bar- sparked by the worldwide economic depression of barian by using the barbarian” (Porter 146). the early 1930’s. The fledgling democracy could not The country borrowed the administrative style of handle this crisis, which revealed weaknesses within France and the military style of Germany. It devel- the domestic government. The political parties were oped an officer training school, borrowed the Western dominated by big business in the city and the gov- practice of conscription, and created a cabinet. All of ernment could not react to the desperate poverty in these practices led to the democratization of the state, the countryside, which left the parties without sup- but also aided in the unraveling of the fledgling de- port (Ishida 8). Government simply could not react mocracy in the early twentieth century. The Meiji Res- like older and more stable democracies could. This toration, which was so obsessed with the industrializa- reveals a pattern. The Tokugawa regime could not tion and centralization of the government and military, handle the Western threat and it was left behind as was not concerned in the least with democracy; it was Japan modernized. Now, the government would shift concerned with protecting the identity of Japan. The again to meet the state’s new needs. Meiji Restoration created the institutions that could Not only did the Japanese government face prob- house democracy based on its efforts to face the lems at home, but its aggressive foreign policy led Western threat. Japan wanted to modernize as a form to isolation abroad as well, particularly after Japan of protection. Any democratization was based on this invaded Manchuria in 1931. International isolation attempt to appear modern to the West, not to actually combined with the extreme poverty at home mixed to give power to the people of Japan. create a good environment for the Japanese to recede There was a shift, after Emperor Meiji died in 1912, from democracy and rally around the Emperor and a and the original elites that ruled the new bureaucracy nationalist and collectivist mentality. Japan attributed were gradually replaced with younger and more ideo- the problems within the country to the worldwide de- logically liberal intellectuals who had an interest in pression. It then was faced with diplomatic isolation democratizing the country, due to increasing urban- when the League of Nations disapproved of the inva- ization and the influence of Western ideas. The de- sion of Manchuria, which led to feelings of alienation mocratization process lost its original purely respon- and resentment. Rulers trying to transform Japan into sive and defensive nature. These ideas inevitably a fascist and militarized government easily exploited influenced younger Japanese elites, despite the lack this hostility at a time of hopeless poverty, which was of interest that the original elites in the Meiji Restora- also attributed to the West. They turned it into anti- tion had in these ideas. Efforts to democratize were western and nationalist propaganda for the masses to facilitated by the young and inept Emperor Taisho rally around. who did not try to inhibit the intellectual’s efforts. As The weak institutions that hurt Japan’s democratiza-

67 tion effort could not protect the fledgling democracy United States’ involvement that should be analyzed because Japanese democratization essentially be- when discussing the second democratization of Japan gan as a defense policy. When democracy ceased to in the post World War II era. be a tool to ensure Japanese power on a worldwide Mark E. Pietrzyk discusses the reason that Japan scale, democracy ceased to be. The rise of fascism in was so willing to be dependent on the United States Europe certainly aided the push away from democ- after World War II. He says: racy (8). Right-wing groups began executing terrorist “The acceptance by…Japan of the status of depen- attacks on the government and assassinating officials. dencies does seem to violate the premise that states They were largely unsuccessful, but these outbursts are always trying to maximize their power. However, acted as an excuse for the military to gradually it is not so clear that this acceptance is due to de- increase its control in the government. After Japan mocracy. Historically, states have often accepted invaded China in 1937, the military took over the hegemonic leadership if that leadership is perceived government and reorganized it into a fascist state (8). as legitimate and the costs of challenging it appear Fascism was different in Japan than in Germany and high” (Pietrzyk 50). Italy because it came from above, rather than from a In this selection, Pietrzyk explains his issues with mass movement. So, although Japan certainly looked the democratic peace theory: democracies do not go toward the West and saw examples of fascism, Japan to war against other democracies. Within the context became fascist in its own top-down style which was of Japan, Pietrzyk says that if democratic peace theory accomplished by military elites. Authority descend- was true then there would have been no need for the ing from the top is deep in Japan’s Confucian, feudal, United States to remain in Japan after the democracy and industrializing tradition. In its reversal, Japan was established. reacted to internal and external factors in a way that Pietrzyk fails to recognize that democratic peace the Japanese perceived was best to ensure its security theory is not going to work if states do not remain and the most amount of power it could achieve on an democratic. The United States occupied Japan for international scale. an extended time period to ensure the stability of The military success of the new military govern- the state. Democratization reversed once in Japan in ment helped to ensure the government’s stability (33). some ways due to Western neglect and it could have Mansfield and Snyder say, happened again if the United States did not remain “The Japanese army invented a populist ideology, there. For the same reason, the United States made rooted in the nation’s imperial myths, designed to so- sure that Japan was totally demilitarized and included lidify the army’s links to a rural mass constituency and in the state’s constitution that Japan did not have the to denigrate the commercially-oriented Taisho demo- right to declare war. If the United States followed the crats. Thus, the foreign policy of these autocratizing democratic peace theory, then it would not need to states was at least partially shaped by the character of worry whether or not Japan had weapons or an abil- the democratic political they were escaping” (35). ity to wage war. Establishing a democracy does not The military success of the new government was ensure lasting stability. To ensure peace, the United proof that the fascist government could bring Japan States made sure another military takeover of the gov- security and dominance more effectively than the past ernment was not possible. government. Japan’s strong national identity contributed to the The military success did not last. Japan was defeat- ease in which the military could rally national support ed by the allies in World War II in 1945, which placed for a militaristic agenda. As evidenced by the coun- the nation back onto the road of democratization. It is try’s rapid modernization and then rapid militariza- impossible to even speculate about what Japan’s gov- tion, Japan consistently tried to gain as much power ernment would have been like if the United States had as possible on an international scale. After its defeat not occupied the state, stripped it of its military power in World War II, the smartest action for Japan to take and singlehandedly reorganized its government. The in order to gain power for itself was to ally itself with United States involvement was all encompassing. the U.S. hegemon. Although Japan was forced to give Even so, there are a couple of variables besides the up its military power, the nation used its relationship

A rock resembling George Wash- ington in Sayre Park from 1909. Courtesy of Special Collections, Lehigh University Libraries.

were less on how to create a successful democracy and more on the importance of being a democracy in order to ensure a positive relationship with the United States and a prominent role in the international economy. Huntington attributes part of Japan’s democratization success to the fact that the change was more of a “generational change” than an “opinion change” (265). Although the United States forced a democracy on Japan, the people’s support of democracy did not transition as quickly as the actual government did. Hunting- ton argues that it took about two decades for the people to grow into the democracy that the United States created (264). The externally implemented democracy produced supporters of democracy. The new generation was raised within the civil and educational tradition of democracy, and thus it supported the democracy more than the earlier generation who had not been raised in a democratic tradition. The generational change theory explains why democracy stuck in Japan better than the second try theory. If the second try theory held true for the Japanese case, than the first generation would have been more receptive to change and the generational change would have been less prominent. It is important to note that although the United States implemented democratization, the

70 external imposition could not party democracy. The collapse of of Japan’s own democratic tra- change the generation of Japanese Japan’s bubble economy in 1992 dition, and the new institutions who were not used to democracy. triggered Japan’s worst recession followed more of a British model There had to be a cultural transi- since the end of WWII, and the rather than an American model— tion that could only occur with 38-year rule of the LPD was ended another example of how Japan re- time. Thus, if the United States by a seven-party coalition (Wan tained its identity throughout the had created the democracy and 87). The LPD was back in power democratization process (157). left without eliminating the mili- shortly after, though. The brief The American occupation at- tary, it is very possible that the period when the LPD was not in tempted to change the Japanese democracy would not have con- power shows that Japan’s democ- identity, though. The turn from mili- tinued. A tradition of democracy racy may develop into a democ- tarism and toward democracy was is necessary for democracy to racy that has more regular party aided by the purge of individuals remain, especially an externally turnover. Still, Japan’s single- active during the war. Smith says: implemented one. This fact makes party democracy shows that even “The fact remains that barring the first stage of democratization with an externally implemented individuals from political and eco- extremely important. It explains democracy, Japan’s strong identity nomic life, like preventing the or- why externally implemented has not been lost. ganization of parties, championing democracies fail in most cases, Tony Smith argues that one of the old regime, contributed more with the exception of Japan and the reasons the democratization of than marginally to the promotion Germany after World War II where Japan was successful was because of democracy in both countries external involvement was more its “modern character as industri- [Germany and Japan]. The purges intense than any other case. al societ[y] had already been es- allowed new elites to arise and Despite United States occu- tablished” (Smith 147). Although new parties on the democratic pation, Japan’s unique form of the first attempt at democratiza- right to woo voters who might democracy reflects the nation’s tion did not impact the second, the otherwise have adopted extremist traditional values. Japan is his- fact that Japan was already mod- positions away from their wartime torically a Confucian state which ernized did play a large role in sympathies” (158). stresses the values of “the group the success of the second attempt Smith discusses that disband- over the individual, authority over at democratization. ing the military also played a liberty, and responsibilities over Smith discusses post-World significant role turning Japan rights…In Japan, Confucian values War II Japan as a country that the away from extremist positions, but were reinterpreted and merged United States could transform into these purges were able to set a with its autochthonous cultural tra- whatever form it pleased. There new tone for the new government. dition” (300-301). Japan has never were plans to make it a power- Although there is criticism that had a true party-turnover, which is less agrarian nation, or a military the purges could have been more considered one of the key aspects power that could balance the So- thorough, they contributed to the of democracy, but Japan is univer- viet Union. In the end, the policy “generational change” discussed sally considered a democracy. It was a compromise between these earlier. The United States created managed to fuse Confucian values two extremes: demilitarization, a democratic environment, which with democratic values. From a democratization, decartelization, was received by the new genera- Western perspective, it seems and deprogramming (Smith 154). tion. If the most extreme mem- impossible that a country that Democratization was dependent bers of the old generation had does not value liberty can still be on these other concepts. Smith been able to play active roles in a democracy, but no democracy is says, “Occupation authorities had the government, this generational perfectly democratic. Japan’s sin- a shared understanding that po- change would not have been gle-party democracy works within litical reform was the heart of the possible and it is this change that the Japanese culture. There is one democratization process” (155). has allowed stable democracy in brief exception to Japan’s one- The United States was conscious Japan.

71 The Lehigh Review: “A Lee-Eye View”. Courtesy of Spe- The United States needed to shift Japan from what cial Collections, Lehigh University Libraries it was, a militaristic and fascist state, to a peaceful democracy, but the United States would not and the nation’s collectivist values. Because the Japanese could not totally destroy the Japanese identity. The people gradually grew into the institutions that the new constitution, written by MacArthur and his staff, United States implemented, it did not matter as much “converted the emperor into a constitutional mon- what rights were written down. Japan faced economic problems after the war and arch and abolished the peerage. It vested supreme power in the Diet, now made wholly responsible to the the United States placed “exaggerated responsibility” people organized by competitive party elections. A (161) on Japanese industrial and financial firms for bill of rights was formulated, whose assumptions of the past militarism of the country. The United States individual and group freedom clashed with basic col- struggled to help the economy and break up the lectivist values enshrined in Japanese culture” (159). country’s cartels so that it would be possible for Japan It is hard to say whether Japan would have been better to have a liberal democracy. Unfortunately, “Ameri- or worse off if the bill of rights was more in line with can attempts to address socioeconomic obstacles to

72 democratization encountered some serious problems: trust-busting, reparations, and purges in Japan… so disrupted economic life that the population grew discounted, which in turn threatened efforts to bring about stable democratic political life” (161). Japan’s economy was dominated by zaibatsu (large con- glomerates) and destroying the zaibatsu was largely unsuccessful, at least in the long term. The zaibatsu reflect Japanese rather than Western values. The United States was not able to liberalize the Japanese economy to the extent that it wanted partially because of this values clash. Further, the United States reform strategy became more conservative in the early 1950’s because of the Korean War and fears of communism. The United States was successful to an extent and the liberalization of the economy helped to ensure government stability. In particular, Smith says the United States instituted land reform and opened up world markets, while encouraging self-sufficiency to a certain extent. Today, Japan is seen as one of the world’s major economic powers. Japan’s economic success helps to protect its democracy, contrasting the economic failure that brought about the Taisho Democracy’s downfall. Japan’s economy had ups and downs in the 1990s, but the democracy remained stable, which is a good sign for the current government. Smith also discusses the effort to psychologi- cally “deprogram” (166) the Japanese people mostly through education reform so their values would coincide with democratic values. The most effective way to “deprogram” is through the success of the democratic institutions and a liberalized economy. Cur- rently, Japanese textbooks minimize Japan’s involvement in World War II. Still, Japan found a way to make the democracy its own, and wield power through the economy rather than the military. Japan maintained its strong national identity from the Unequal Treaties through the occupation and today. The country is a democracy, but it is its own democracy. It has retained a strong sense of national identity, despite its externally imposed government. Now, the government has fully developed institutions that stabilize the democracy and it is hard to imagine another reversal, especially because it would be disruptive to the large role that Japan has in the world economy. Japan was democratized by the United States, but it has remained and is uniquely Japanese because of Japan’s strong and unique national identity.

73 ‘I Die Content’: Re-Imagining Slavery with Edgeworth and Aikin’s Devoted Slaves

by Christine Tucker

74 y the end of the nineteenth century, British colonial power extended through Europe, North and Central America, Africa, the Caribbean, and islands in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans: “the British Empire Packer Hall, The UC (1868) B was territorially the largest em- of Britain’s dependence on slave When construction began pire in world history, its popula- labor and their personal fears of 1865, a temporary railroad was tion of over 400 million people losing control over native people. built to transport stones to the to be found in all regions of the Two key points dominated the site. After immediate struc- globe” (Fulford 2-3). British defense of slavery in the late tural problems with the tower, colonial power extended through eighteenth century: one, slavery Lehigh hired architect Addison Europe, North and Central Amer- and the slave trade were vital to Hutton to design the new one. ica, Africa, the Caribbean, and Britain’s economic survival; two, They liked his work so much islands in the Atlantic and Indian Africans were similar to uncivi- that he was eventually hired to Oceans. But only a century ear- lized, dependent children who design the Linderman Rotunda, lier, in the decades preceding its needed the “protection” of be- the Packer Memorial Church, extraordinary expansion, multiple nevolent masters (Mellor 312). and the Chandler Chemistry events threatened Britain’s domin- Historical evidence indicates that building. ion: the nation lost the American the first argument was quite valid. colonies; its citizens were shaken In the late eighteenth century, by the French revolution and slave slavery, “Was the most profitable rebellions in the West Indies; enterprise known to British com- and it became overwhelmed by merce” (Carey 1). Plantations in a raging debate over the slave the colonies provided Britain with trade. During this period, Maria products such as sugar, cotton, Edgeworth, John Aikin, and Anna rum, and indigo. Even if individu- Laetitia Barbauld wrote children’s als did not own a plantation or literature that explored issues of slaves, they relied on slave labor slavery, colonialism, and race re- to sustain their lifestyles: “To lations. These authors celebrated Britain and its colonies in the mid loyal, submissive slave-figures in eighteenth century, commerce an attempt to appease whites’ fear was simultaneously the foundation of black rebellion. Edgeworth’s of liberty, power, and refinement” “The Grateful Negro” (1804), (Carey 1). On a more individual supplemented by “The Transmi- level, planters in the West Indies grations of Indur” and “Persever- often depended on African slave ance, against Fortune” from Aikin labor to repay debts they owed to and Barbauld’s Evenings at Home the Royal Africa Company, which (1794), illustrates the ambiguity had provided them with invest- that surrounded the issue of slav- ments to establish sugar planta- ery. These texts epitomize white tions and estates (Miller). Thus, man’s struggle to reconcile guilt plantation owners’ relationships and doubts about the humanity with the Company, as well as their of slavery, with their awareness livelihoods, relied on slave labor.

Little scholarship exists on John Aikin, so we do not grations of Indur,” I mean the metaphor’s implications know if he was indeed an abolitionist. Regardless, mo- for the actual institution. ments in his stories demonstrate an underlying aware- The masters in these texts have such sympathetic ness and endorsement of subservient figures’ loyalty characters that readers might overlook the fact that to their “masters.” they perpetuate other characters’ enslavement. The Unlike many of the anti-slavery authors of the pe- rebel slave, Hector, criticizes Caesar as one who, “Can riod, neither Edgeworth nor Aikin emphasizes slaves’ be so wrought upon as to forget all the insults, all the dreadful working conditions or slavery’s violation of injuries he has received from this accursed race,” but a person’s natural rights; rather, their work focuses he does not understand the degree of kindness from on the relationships between masters and slaves. which Caesar’s loyalty stems (Edgeworth 550). To- It seems that to these authors, the most noteworthy day, we find it difficult to excuse anyone who owned component of slavery is how a slaveholder treats his slaves, but in comparison to other slaveholders, human property, and how the slave responds to that specifically the character of Mr. Jeffries, Edwards is treatment. “Grateful,” “Transmigrations,” and “Per- indeed generous. He gives his slaves holidays, provi- severance” all venerate slave-figures who save their sion-grounds, and overtime wages; he takes responsi- “masters” from attack despite enduring previous suf- bility for the conditions on his plantation; he refrains fering at the hands of other men or masters. The first from using harsh punishment; and he keeps Caesar two stories convey much about the authors’ expecta- and Clara from being parted. Jeffries, on the other tions of slaves and masters, whereas “Perseverance” hand, is irresponsible: his slaves are seized to pay his informs the discussion of loyalty. personal debts, he never plans ahead for misfortune Edgeworth’s “The Grateful Negro” tells the story with his crops, and he ignores the harsh actions of his of Caesar, a hard-working, trustworthy slave who, out overseer, Durant. Edwards is forewarned and lives, of gratitude for being bought with his wife, saves his but he does not completely thwart the rebellion. Con- new owner, Mr. Edwards, from a group of rebel slaves. sequently, Jeffries’ slaves carry out their plan and Du- “The Transmigrations of Indur” relates the adventures rant, “Died in tortures, inflicted by the hands of those of a man named Indur who passes through eight lives who had suffered most by his cruelties” (Edgeworth as various animals—the last (and most noteworthy) as 555). Jeffries and his family are financially ruined and a dog who dies protecting his master from robbers— live in constant fear of future insurrections. Through before finally returning to his human state. “Persever- this story, we can see that Edgeworth clearly differen- ance, against Fortune” consists of Mr. Hardman’s ac- tiates between a good master and a bad one and that count of his determination to succeed even in the face there are repercussions for each man’s decisions. of adversity. The most relevant section of this story is Aikin also presents masters who merit their slaves’ the description of his time as a slave in Morocco. Ship- respect and allegiance. In “Perseverance,” Hardman’s wrecked and taken captive, Hardman despairs that overseer treats him well and gives him wages, so he will be a slave forever; but when he protects his that Hardman says, “‘[I] might have passed my time master from murderous, thieving “villains” who stab comfortably enough, could I have accommodated him in the process, he is rewarded with his liberty (Ai- myself to their manners and religion, and forgot my kin, PF 9). Though Caesar, Indur, and Hardman vary in native land’” (Aikin, PF 9). The overseer’s conduct is ethnicity (African, Indian, and English, respectively), good enough that Hardman could have lived tolerably and sometimes species, their situations parallel one in Morocco. We do not get much insight into Indur’s another to a point where we can equate their subser- owner’s character, but we can see that he is compas- vient positions and their heroic actions, to interpret sionate. As soon as the man sees Indur’s wounds, he, the stories’ implications about slavery in the British “Threw himself by the side of Indur, and expressed colonies. As I will elucidate later, I view and will refer the warmest concern” (Aikin, TI 33). Indur actually to Indur as a “slave” despite (and simultaneously fluctuates between positions of servitude and authori- because of) the fact that he is not human. I consider ty. He goes from being a master—a human who reigns Indur’s time as a dog to be a metaphoric slavery; thus, over the animal kingdom—to multiple sub-human when I discuss “slavery” in relation to “The Transmi- positions as animals. As a human “master,” Indur ex-

77 emplifies the trait that Edgeworth when he defends Edwards during Thus, he must remember all the commends most in Edwards: Indur the conflict, receiving a knife- instances when humans killed has a, “Gentleness of disposition wound in the process. When he him. The causes of Indur’s deaths and humanity towards all living wrongly believes that his wound (with the name of the animal he creatures” (Aikin, TI 1). He does is fatal, “The faithful servant is at the time), are as follows: not abuse his power by harming staggered back a few paces: his hunter’s falcon (antelope), man animals; rather, he does every- master caught him in his arms. ‘I (goose), cat (mouse), human thing he can to prevent their suf- die content’ said he” (Edgeworth warfare (elephant), harpooner fering. He dies, for the first time, 555). Caesar’s quasi last words (whale), suffocation/smoke by after trying to save a monkey from parallel Indur’s dying sentiments: beekeeper (bee), man (rabbit). a serpent. Because they have pre- Indur’s owner (accidentally) fires Except for when he is a mouse, sented the masters as kind, worthy the shot the kills him, yet, “Indur Indur meets his demise directly men, Aikin and Edgeworth imply died licking his [master’s] hand” or indirectly at the hands of men. that such kindness deserves to be (Aikin, TI 34). In “Perseverance,” Yet, at the moment when Indur repaid with loyalty, even though it Hardman is stabbed with a dagger can hark back to those wrongs, is actually a tool of oppression. then restored to health thanks to he does not. He chooses to pro- The authors clearly extol the his master’s care. All three char- tect his owner—a member of the slave characters’ fidelity, even to acters willingly put themselves species that caused him so much By giving readers insight into what it would be like to live as a slave, the authors call attention to and incite change in the institution of slavery.

people who have taken away their at physical risk for the men that suffering. Caesar similarly dem- basic rights. Caesar and Indur keep them captive, and none onstrates an ability to relinquish are practically defined by their bears a grudge for the affliction vengeful impulses. He puts Mr. loyalty. Caesar’s devotion to Mr. he endures in the process. On Jefferies and Mr. Durant’s abuse Edward overpowers his anger, the contrary, these slaves seem behind him, and places Mr. Ed- his friendship with Hector, and pleased to have suffered on their wards’ well-being over his own. even his feelings for his fiancée, masters’ behalf. The authors’ approbation of Clara. Edgeworth explains that Indur, Caesar, and Hardman Caesar and Indur seems to convey Caesar’s, “Sense of gratitude and possess the ability to remember the message that despite a slave’s duty could not be shaken by hope, wrongs inflicted on them, but they former maltreatment, an excep- fear, or ambition: nor could it be choose to ignore those injuries tionally kind master can win back vanquished by love” (554). Cae- for the sake of doing good. Aikin his trust and devotion to the entire sar knows that Hector’s revolt will specifically ensures that Indur’s white race. Edwards’ benefaction likely succeed, but he refuses to memory is preserved as he trans- makes Caesar see him as, “One participate. Neither the possibil- mutes from one animal to another. for whose sake all [whites] must ity of freedom nor the threat to In the story’s opening scene, Indur be spared” (Edgeworth 550). As a Clara’s life dissuades him. He is lies dying from a serpent bite, and member of the Koromantyn tribe, even willing to sacrifice his own the monkey he saved turns into Caesar had been taught his entire life: “He would stab himself to a fairy who grants his one wish: life that revenge is a virtue, but the heart, sooner than betray his “[To] retain a rational soul, with he releases all vengeful impulses master!” (Edgeworth 552). In- the memory of the adventures I once he is treated humanely. deed, he proves true to his word have gone through” (Aikin, TI 4). Hector somewhat complicates

78 the argument because even after which had driven her family to slave can save you and your loved Edwards pardons him, he is, “In- a nearby Protestant stronghold” ones, whereas a slave’s refusal to capable…of listening to anything (Botkin 195). She had seen social defend you puts you all at risk. but revenge” (Edgeworth 555). rebellion first hand, and with the The decision to place family Presumably, Hector’s character is knowledge of the St. Domingue members in danger emphasizes vengeful because he has never bloodbath, composed a text that the way that whites attributed bru- personally experienced white addressed the very real threat tal determination and capacity for benevolence. By the time Edwards of black insurgence. “The Grate- violence to slaves—slaves willing forgivingly addresses him, Hec- ful Negro” indicates that whites’ to kill (or let someone else kill) tor is at the point of no return. He greatest fear was blacks’ capacity an entire family in cold-blooded has endured excessive brutality, to rise up and harm them, either revenge. As previously mentioned, as Edgeworth explains: “Durant, physically or by removing their Hector and Caesar are indig- the overseer, did not scruple to power. The crux of the story is enous Africans who value venge- use the most cruel and barbarous Hector’s planned revolt against ful instincts. Edgeworth shrouds methods of forcing the slaves to all the white men, women, and their native culture in mystery and exertions beyond their strength” children in Jamaica. If he had suc- magic to imply that the violence (547). Durant’s conduct is brutal ceeded, every white person on Hector embodies is an inherent enough to harden Hector to any the island would have been killed, aspect of the African race. The future acts of kindness. Therefore, and the slaves would have gained character of Esther, the Obeah with Caesar and Hector, Edge- control. Caesar’s prevention of the sorceress, especially highlights worth simultaneously shows the massacre reassures readers that the slaves’ dangerous qualities. optimistic possibility of winning despite the existence of extremely Because of her connection to the slaves over with compassion violent and vengeful slaves, once African belief system, Obeah, Es- and the reality that slaves have a people re-evaluate and amend ther represents African mystique, threshold for the amount of cru- their treatment of the African race, witchcraft, and healing (Botkin elty they will endure before they enough slaves will be attached to 203). Immediately following the irreversibly abhor the white race. and protective of whites to ensure description of Esther’s supposed By writing about a heroic, loyal their safety. “supernatural powers,” Edge- slave, Edgeworth may have been Slaves’ loyal acts in “Transmi- worth tells us that she, “Stimulated trying to calm children’s (and grations,” “Perseverance,” and the revengeful temper of Hector parents’) anxieties about the “Po- “Grateful” are paired with al- almost to a phrenzy,” thus instigat- tentially violent nature of African ternative scenarios in which the ing the plan for insurrection (551). slaves” (Roth 85). Slave rebellions white masters and their families Additionally, the final confronta- like Hector’s periodically oc- are potential victims of violence. tion between Edwards’ and the curred in the colonies. The larg- Though Indur technically only rebel slaves occurs outside of est and most deadly revolt took saves his owner, the ruffians at- Esther’s house. Esther embodies place in 1791 on the French Island tack the man “near his own house” all that is foreign to white society, of St. Domingue—which would, where his wife and children slept and by connecting her to rebel- as a result of a thirteen year long (Aikin, TI 32). Mr. Hardman makes lion, Edgeworth makes her, and struggle, become the free black “a loud outcry to alarm the fam- hence the presence of African cul- republic of Haiti, in 1804. As a ily” of the villains’ presence, and ture on plantations, threatening. Protestant in a largely Catholic Caesar alerts Mr. Edwards, who, Frances R. Botkin rightly calls Ireland, Edgeworth wrote “The readers know, had brought his attention to the importance of Grateful Negro” eleven years after family into the company of slaves names in “The Grateful Negro.” the initial revolt, “In the turbulent earlier that evening (Aikin, PF 10). Esther, whose name conjures the wake of the French Revolution and The coupling of the whites’ salva- biblical woman who saved the shortly after the chaos of peas- tion with hints of an alternative Jews, seems to have a similar, ant uprisings in Ireland (1798) outcome shows that an obedient albeit fleeting, capacity to free

79 the slaves. Botkin writes of the men, “Caesar’s name as if there was little in being a slave but the name; but reverberates with at least dual meaning: he is simul- they who have been slaves themselves, I am sure will taneously the giver of empire and the destroyer of re- never make light of slaverey [sic] in others” (Aikin, PF public. Hector’s name, too, conjures unsettling images. 7-8). Hardman does not further condemn the institu- Unquestionably defeated, but the primeval ancestor of tion, however, so readers and his child listener, Theo- empire, Hector denotes a noble cause that anticipates dore, focus more on Hardman’s response to his situa- future success” (Botkin 206). Caesar is the “giver,” or tion than the situation’s inherent injustice. savior, of Edwards’ plantation “empire,” and the “de- George E. Boulukos effectively argues that “The stroyer” of Hector’s imagined slave “republic.” Hector Grateful Negro” is “Edgeworth’s attempt to re-imagine is indeed defeated, but Edgeworth’s text centers on slavery as humane” (13). In response to his interpre- the frightening possibility that he could have been, or tation, Botkin asserts that the story actually reveals will eventually be, successful. Appropriately, Indur’s Edgeworth’s desire for slavery to be abolished, but name reinforces the idea of selflessness: phonetically, through a gradual process that would benefit both “Indur” is similar to “endure.” Edgeworth even spells master and slave (206). Though Botkin makes some “endure” as “indure” in “The Grateful Negro” (553). excellent points, the textual evidence supports Bou- Abraham Bayley—the only character to have a first lukos’ position overall. Botkin uses Mr. Edwards’ and last name in Edgeworth’s tale—is a gentle over- comment to Mr. Jeffries—“The right should make the seer who agrees with and cares more about enacting law”—to argue that the text takes a moderate aboli- Edwards’ humane views than getting the most work tionist stance (201; Edgeworth 548). She ignores, how- out of the slaves. Bayley’s first name connotes the bib- ever, the implication of Edwards’ personal inaction— lical patriarch, and assuming that he is white --which he does not free Caesar, or any other slave, even after most overseers were-- reinforces the story’s theme Caesar saves his life. If Edwards truly represented that paternalistic benevolence is the most appropriate the abolitionist position, he would cease dealing in treatment of slaves. slavery, no matter what the cost. The fact that he keeps A significant difference between “The Grateful Caesar enslaved shows that the issue of importance Negro” and Aikin’s stories is that Edgeworth never is not that his slaves become free men, but that they grants her slave characters freedom, whereas Ai- become loyal men. Instead of giving them their free- kin does. Even though Caesar saves Mr. Edwards, dom, Edwards tries, “To make [his] negroes as happy the master (and perhaps Edgeworth) is still wary of as possible’” (Edgeworth 548). Edgeworth’s emphasis giving up control over him. Such an ending exposes on Mr. Edwards’ efforts toward “the melioration of the Edgeworth’s overall meliorist position. Aikin’s plot de- state of slaves” eclipses his brief mention that planta- cision, though, reveals a quasi abolitionist agenda. In tion-owners should consider slaves’ interests and that the last paragraph of “Transmigrations,” Aikin writes slaves could be replaced with wage laborers (547). of Indur: “So generous a nature was now no longer to Edwards’ hesitation about abolition stems from the be annexed to a brutal form” (34). The word “annex” concern that even if slaves were freed, they would connotes an appropriation of land, which is what Brit- continue to threaten whites’ control. When Edgeworth ain did in the West Indies and India. Like Indur, once and Aikin wrote, emancipation was by no means an the people of that land prove loyal to their superiors, inevitable event. Read together, their texts present a they might be freed from their sub-human status. Mr. sympathetic, meliorist position on slavery, but they Hardman is also rewarded with his freedom, which are certainly not abolitionist. “The Grateful Negro” suggests that slaves should be emancipated, but only defends the need for slavery’s continuation, primarily after they have proven their attachment to the white because of the indeterminable effects of emancipa- race—only after whites are sure that rebellion will not tion. Besides the chance that unowned (thus, uncon- ensue. “Perseverance, against Fortune” takes more of trolled) slaves would violently rebel, another apolo- an abolitionist stance by recognizing the hardships of gist argument was that emancipated blacks would slaves. Hardman’s shipmates die from, “The thought not be able to survive without whites’ guidance; they of perpetual servitude, together with the hard treat- were better off enslaved. For example, Mr. Edwards, ment,” and he later says, “I have heard persons talk “Wished that there were no such thing as slavery in

80 the world; but he was convinced…that the sudden emancipation of the negroes would rather increase than diminish their miseries” (Edgeworth 547). This logic reflects Kipling’s “white man’s burden” idea that Euro- pean influence and control actually betters other races. This justification lessens people’s guilt and, to them, excuses the inhumanity of slavery. Moments in “The Grateful Negro” do imply that the slaves actually wanted to be cared for. When Jeffries tells Edwards that he lets Durant manage his slaves, Edwards replies, “That is the very thing of which they complain” (Edgeworth 548). Edwards suggests that the slaves want their master to be more involved in

(Right) The Lehigh Campus and the city of Bethlehem circa 1915-1919. Photo taken from Packer Hall, probably from the tower. Courtesy of Special Collections, Lehigh University Libraries.

(Above) Students hauling material for the Lehigh/Lafay- ette bonfire up the hill, circa 1915-1919. Courtesy of Special Collections, Lehigh University Libraries.

81 their lives. Of course, they want his friends, and says, “Though cage, had a large one bought” Durant’s abuse to stop, but Ed- these little animals are inferior to (Trimmer 33). She calls the captiv- wards also implies that they want you, there is no doubt but they are ity “deliverance,” but in reality, their master to take responsibil- capable of enjoyments similar to it is a form of enslavement. Just ity for them, much like a parent these” (Trimmer 31). Mrs. Benson as Mr. Edwards believes that he would for a child. Similarly, when incites empathy in child readers is diminishing blacks’ miseries Indur is in his “master” position in an attempt to improve their by keeping them enslaved, Mrs. as a man, Aikin writes, “If he saw treatment of animals. If children Benson believes that the canary any opportunity of exercising his can imagine themselves as ani- is better off in the cage. Trimmer benevolence towards animals in mals, they will be less inclined places emphasis on “little” and distress, he never failed to make to harm them. By attributing the “large” to show that to Mrs. Ben- use of it” (TI 2). Here, Indur is very ability to feel pleasure to animals, son, the bird’s degree of freedom much like Edwards, who rescues Mrs. Benson humanizes them but is important. Again, similar to Ed- Caesar and Clara when they are simultaneously reinforces the idea wards, Mrs. Benson is not gener- in distress. Paternalistic behav- that they are inferior. ous enough to completely free her ior moves the slaves and animals Her daughter, Harriet, asks captive, but she is more generous to such a degree that they repay Mrs. Benson why, if capturing than other captors, which lessens their masters: Edwards receives birds is wrong, did she once keep her guilt. Caesar’s devotion, and Indur gets a canary in a cage. Mrs. Benson In “The Grateful Negro,” Mr. his dying wish granted by a fairy. proceeds to explain: “The case is Jeffries considers slaves to be, Parallel to eighteenth- and very different in respect to Canar- “‘A race of beings naturally nineteenth-century discourse on ies, my dear…By keeping them in inferior’…a different species from the slave trade was the emerg- a cage I do them a kindness. I con- himself” (Edgeworth 549). Though ing animal rights movement. For sider them as little foreigners who Edgeworth demonizes Jeffries and some, an animal’s status as “thing” claim my hospitality…as they are his beliefs, she never grants Cae- justified treating them poorly, always here bred in cages, they do sar complete human status; rather, but as the century progressed, not know how to procure the ma- he remains enslaved despite more and more people promoted terials for their nests abroad. And his valiant actions. Even though and accepted the argument that there is another particular which Caesar and his fellow slaves are animals experienced suffering. would greatly distress them were human, they remain owned and In 1822, Commons passed the Bill they to be turned loose, which is, sometimes treated as animals. for More Effectually Preventing the ridicule and contempt they Similarly, on the interior, Indur is a Malicious and Wanton Cruelty to would be exposed to from other man—his wish guarantees that his Animals (Ellis 94). Sarah Trimmer birds” (Trimmer 32). human identity is preserved as he is one author whose work teaches Mrs. Benson believes that her becomes different animals—but children the importance of being actions benefit the canary; she on the exterior, he is an animal, kind to animals. In Fabulous Histo- makes caging the bird seem like and is treated as such. As a dog, ries, she portrays animals expe- the humane deed. The bird needs Indur is a close human compan- riencing emotional and physical to be taken care of by a person ion, but until the story’s end he pain, and the maternal human or else it will either die or be is still shy of being one of their character, Mrs. Benson, encourag- harassed by other birds. Mrs. species; he occupies a sub-human es her children to imagine them- Benson’s rationalization echoes position of servitude. Aikin tells selves in animals’ places. When the “white man’s burden” concept us that Indur’s owner acquires him Mrs. Benson’s son, Frederick, that was hinted at in “The Grate- as a, “Faithful guard for his house expresses a desire to catch a bird, ful Negro.” Mrs. Benson also says and grounds” (TI 30). Indur is es- his mother disapproves. She asks that when she confined the ca- sentially a slave with limited free- Frederick if he treasures his free- nary, “I kept it some years, but not dom and an obligation to serve his dom to run about and play with choosing to confine her in a little master, which he willingly does.

82 Aikin writes, “Indur presently at- it would be like to live as a slave, his ability to sympathize with the tached himself to his master and the authors call attention to and slaves. Indeed, his recognition and all his family, and showed every incite change in the institution of treatment of Caesar as a human mark of a noble and generous slavery. Boulukos acknowledges with the capacity for suffering are nature” (TI 30). Indur’s identity the sentimental tradition in aboli- what cements Caesar’s loyalty to depends on and is defined by tion literature, and contends that him (Boulukos 14). He “was moved his master. Without his owner, he sentimentalism was also used by by [Caesar and Clara’s] entreat- would have no reason or chance to apologists for slavery (24). He ies” so he buys them both (Edge- exercise his loyalty, and therefore argues that Edgeworth depicts worth 548). The passage directly no chance to be humanized—liter- slaves as feeling beings so that following the purchase oozes with ally restored to human form. It is white readers can discern how sentimentalism. Edgeworth writes: only through his relationship with to better control them (13). Once “[Caesar’s] feelings were at this a person of higher social (and whites recognize slaves’ abil- instant so strong that he could not species) status that he is recog- ity to suffer, they can manipulate find expression for his gratitude: nized as a feeling being. that suffering to their advantage. he stood like one stupified [sic]! The issue of whether or not Boulukos’ argument is valid, but Kindness…overpowered his manly slaves were regarded as human in terms of textual evidence, it is heart; and, at hearing the words is complicated. As Markman Ellis more useful to examine how Edge- ‘my good friend,’ the tears gushed explains, “The controversy over worth’s (and to a degree Aikin’s) from his eyes…Gratitude swelled slavery caused by the abolition use of sentimentalism influences in his bosom; and he longed to be The grateful slave is like a dog—he is enslaved to a master, yet he helps that master retain control over other slaves. debate focused attention on the the characters’ sympathetic rela- alone, that he might freely yield to question of the boundary between tionships. his emotions” (549). Edgeworth’s animals and humans, things and Ellis provides fascinating in- description of Caesar’s emotional not things” (107). Though some sight into objects with “it-status” reaction shows that he is not an whites undoubtedly considered and the concept of sympathy in unfeeling piece of property; he is slaves to be people, but of a lower eighteenth-century England. He a man with the same emotions as social order, the most common in- describes sympathy as, “An act the readers. terpretation is that due to the way of imagination in which we proj- Ellis explains that the sympa- they were bought, sold, caged, ect ourselves into the place of thetic relationship between ani- and abused, they were consid- another” (Ellis 102). Edgeworth mals and humans has a “problem ered non-human commodities. A immediately presents Caesar as a with reciprocity” because animals large part of the abolition move- human character to whom readers cannot feel the same sympathy ment was to humanize slaves—to and other characters might relate. for humans that humans feel for make the public view them as The first indication of Caesar’s them (103). Without the potential men, women, and children who presence in the text is “the voice for mutual sympathy, people resist experienced human emotions and of distress” and loud “lamenta- sympathizing with animals; they responses just as whites did. Abo- tions”; readers then encounter know that there is nothing in it for litionists used the same technique Clara “weeping bitterly” (Edge- them, so to speak. Another factor that Mrs. Benson does to make her worth 547-8). We can reasonably that complicates the relationship children treat animals kindly. By assume that Edwards’ meliorist is the species divide. A man can giving readers insight into what attitudes about slavery stem from imagine himself as another man

83 more easily than he can imagine himself as a dog (El- lis 104). In the context of slavery, if slaveholders view Gathering for a gradution ceremony circa 1915-1919. their slaves as animals, they will not sympathize with Courtesy of Special Collections, Lehigh University them, and consequently treat them badly. Likewise, Libraries. as a result of masters’ cruel treatment, slaves will be unwilling, and perhaps unable, to sympathize with whites, and therefore more disposed to violent rebellion. Hector represents the result of this cause and effect relationship: because whites have de- humanized him, he has no sympathy for them, and is willing to cause them great suffering. Conversely, treating slaves kindly—as Ed- wards does to Cae- sar—would restore the mutually sympathetic relationship between slaves and masters, securing whites’ safety in the process. Thus, it makes sense that Edge- worth, whose text is so concerned with rebel- gang-master and enslaver, the dog” (qtd. in Ellis 92). lion, would include sentimental scenes that humanize The grateful slave is like a dog—he is enslaved to a slaves and show the positive result of a sympathetic master, yet he helps that master retain control over relationship between master and slave. other slaves. Aikin writes that Indur dies with “the sat- Aikin’s decision to have Indur display his loyalty as isfaction of seeing his master remain lord of the field” a dog is not accidental. More than any other creature, (TI 33). The language here conjures an image similar dogs have close relationships with humans. The famil- to that of Mr. Edwards reigning over his plantation—a iar maxim “a dog is a man’s best friend” conveys the condition that Caesar preserves. Significantly, the fact exact sentiment of “Transmigrations.” that the stories’ slave-figures are in British colonies Ellis quotes Ralph Beilby, author of General History gives them a degree of influence over all of Britain. of Quadrupeds (1790), as believing that the “key” to Colonialism, unlike the institution of slavery, which the history of the dog is the following: “Mankind’s rise removed individuals from their countries, worked to, to preeminence and domination over the animals had “Control people who lived in viable, if momentarily only been possible through the assistance of ‘one so defeated communities” (Miller). Though Caesar is an bold, so tractable, and so obedient as the Dog,’ with- African who has been brought to Jamaica, he plays out whose aid man could not have ‘conquered, tamed, a key role in maintaining European control over the and reduced other animals into slavery.’ Mankind was island. Without slaves’ cooperation, the colonies in master, but only because of the faithful role of his India and the West Indies would fall apart and power

84 would return to the native people. Indur and Caesar’s compliance in their own oppression reiterates the message that slaves could willingly accept their inferior position. By warning Edwards about the rebellion, Caesar prevents his fellow slaves from gaining control of the island, which would have put him on the path to freedom. As Botkin says, “In choosing being grateful over being free, Caesar embraces this paternalism” (201). He perpetuates inequality for himself and the other slaves. Caesar never once complains about being a slave; rather, he seems perfectly happy with his condition. Indur is also content as a dog, presumable because he is well-treated. He loves his family, so when the children: “Use him as roughly as their little hands were capable of,” he, “Never, even when hurt, [shows] any displeasure further than by a low growl” (Aikin, TI 31). By portraying submissive, silent slave-figures, Edgeworth and Aikin evade discussion of the inhumanity of slavery. If blacks did not seem to want equal rights, or even to be free, then the, “Question of whether they deserved those rights [became] wholly irrelevant” (Roth 107). The common, underlying fact of all interpretations of Aikin and Edgeworth’s texts is that they were intended for children. We cannot expect that children would have seen the slavery metaphor in “The Transmigrations or Indur,” but what would they have taken away from “The Grateful Negro?” Primarily, they would have received a lesson about race relations instructing them to treat slaves and other races kindly, as humans. But embedded in the message of benevolence lies the implication that other races are inferior to whites. As Sarah N. Roth puts it, “The young people who perused these texts encountered a model of race Key society pins, Lehigh Review 1934. relations that was at once highly affable and blatantly Courtesy of Special Collections, Lehigh University unequal” (89). The slaves seem relatively content, and Libraries. the masters benefit in the best possible way (by staying alive), but white Europeans remain in control. If ing to the capitalists of the next generation a way to the slave trade and slavery in the colonies were abol- avoid social upheaval on the part of the lower classes ished, late-eighteenth-century children would grow that would make up their workforce” (81). They make up to be the first generation of adults to interact with children sympathize with slaves, but only to the point an entirely free black race. From messages like the where they will treat them better, not emancipate one in “The Grateful Negro,” they would likely expect them. blacks to serve and obey them, as humans and paid The primary indicator of Aikin and Edgeworth’s laborers if not as slaves. Roth reasonably contends meliorist positions is their lack of attention to the that Edgeworth and Aikin may, “Have been suggest- injustice of slavery. Levy states that Evenings at Home 85 encouraged children to be Lehigh Bachelor: House party issue April 1942, “Bur- her trance,” and Caesar, engaged participants in po- sars Receipt”, Courtesy of Special Collections, Lehigh “thought he was still in litical dialogue, and to, “Be- University Libraries a dream” (Aikin, TI 34; come critical observers of Edgeworth 555). Trance and, where necessary, vocal reason (Boulukos 20). Both Hector and dream-like states resisters to authority” (123). The and Caesar are engulfed by their completely oppose clear-headed, problem is that because Indur’s passions, revenge and gratitude, rational thinking, so to say that owner, Hardman’s overseer, and respectively. They are driven by the slave figures occupied those Mr. Edwards treat their “slaves” purely emotional response. As the states throughout the text is to well, children do not see a reason stories end, Aikin and Edgeworth underscore their irrationality. to question their authority. Finally, reiterate the slave characters’ Suggestions of irrationality never the texts present one more jus- irrationality. Indur becomes hu- surround the masters in these tification for Caesar and Indur’s man, “awakening as it were from stories. In fact, Edgeworth actually enslavement, which is that they a trance;” Clara, once Esther’s points out that reason is one of Mr. are inferior due to their lack of potion wears off, “wakened from Edwards’ traits: “His benevolence 86 therefore confined itself within the is that if they want to sustain pow- bounds of reason” (547). Edwards er over blacks, they cannot treat is admirable because he thinks them as inhumanely as Durant and rationally, whereas the slaves are Jefferies do; instead, they must be lower and less human because as benevolent as Mr. Edwards. they do not. In the late eighteenth century, reason was highly valued and emphasized. In his treatise on childhood education, Emile: or, On Education (1762), Jean-Jacques Rousseau asserts that the ultimate goal of education was to turn a child into a reasonable, self- sufficient adult. With that context, children might have seen the slave characters’ irrationality as evidence of their deficiency. Readers of “The Grateful Ne- gro,” “Perseverance, against For- tune,” and “The Transmigrations of Indur” encounter slave characters who willingly serve benevolent masters to the detriment of their own well-being. Edgeworth and Aikin—whether or not they identified themselves, or were identified by others, as abolitionists, apologists, or meliorists—produced texts that acknowledged the inhumanity of slavery, but were complicated by a latent fear of the aftermath of emancipation. Images of grateful, compliant slaves lessened white readers’ fears of slave rebellions, arguably making them more sympathetic to slaves’ circumstances; but such images did not go so far as to incite abolitionist sentiment. Like Mrs. Benson in Trimmer’s Fabu- lous Histories, Edgeworth and Aikin seem to justify slavery with a “white man’s burden” attitude, glossing over the issue of inequality and focus on a kind of slavery that, to them, seems to benefit both master and slave. The stories’ implication for European children

87 The Decline of Democracy in Venezuela: The Deterioration of Venezuelan Exceptionalism and the Rise of Hugo Chávez

by Meredith Aach

88 any view Venezuela as a country with a nationalist authoritarian leader where democratic governance has steadily been on the decline. In Leopard Paw Print 2007, a United States-based organi- Lehigh’s first student body M consisted of 39 boys. From 1871 zation that focuses on advocacy and an environment of democratic to 1891 no tuition was charged, for and research on democratic governance from developing and but the national financial crisis rule, political freedom, and hu- continuing. Economically, the at the turn of the century deci- man rights around the world, Dutch disease, the phenomenon mated the value of the Lehigh ranked Venezuela as a 4 on a scale where an inflow of money from Valley Railroad stock that from 1 to 7, 1 being the most free natural resource wealth leads Packer had given to Lehigh, and 7 being the least free. This to currency appreciation, hurts which was the principal source number has risen from 1.5 in domestic industry, economies of income. 1986 and 2.5 in 1998 (Freedom tend to be less diversified, and House, 2007). There has been a countries often depend on the suppression of opposition from volatile oil industry for public workers of Petróleos de Venezu- spending and development. This ela Sociedad Anómia (PDVSA), allows vulnerabilities to exist Frisbee Golf Course the state oil company, and the which can intensify in times of closing down of RCTV, one of the crisis, increasing public dissatis- Right on South Mountain country’s oldest television stations faction. Culturally, dependence tucked into the Saucon Park are and critic of Hugo Chávez’s re- on oil prevents a relationship of 18 ‘holes’ that meander through gime. President Chavez’s political accountability from developing cleared woods. The rules of the agenda, reforms, and his moves to between the government and its game are identical to golf with strengthen the presidency have people because of the lack of a one exception: land the disc in led some to wonder for how long taxation system. It also fosters a the basket rather than the ball democracy will last in Venezuela. culture of consumerism ignoring in the hole. The proposition that Venezuela is the systemic and structural issues a model democracy has seemed that hinder equitable growth and to have completely disappeared. development (Hellinger, 1994; What has led to the decline in Karl, 1997; Ross, 2001; Schubert, democratic governance in Venezu- 2006). ela? Many theorists attribute the The impact of oil is one rea- decline in democratic governance son cited for Venezuela’s move to and in protecting civilians’ free- the left and its move away from doms to the “oil curse” (Friedman, democracy. Many contend that oil 2006; Ross, 2001). However, the serves as an impediment to de- history of oil is unique to each velopment for political, economic, country and needs to be explored and cultural reasons. Politically, in the context of other political, oil encourages rent-seeking be- economic, and social conditions. havior, corruption, and depending First, one must understand the on the timing of oil production; process of state building concur- it can prevent strong institutions rent with the finding and excava-

89 maintained almost unlimited power because of a lack of checks and balances established in the process of state development. Furthermore, factionalism, “partyarchy” and the formation of a pacted democracy allowed for the illusion that Venezuela had established a stable and honest democracy with representative rule (Ellner, Salas, et al., 2007; Karl, 1997). This illusion of a legitimate democracy ran parallel to the ideals of Western-style democracy and became known as “Venezuelan exceptionalism”; the idea that Venezu- ela avoided the crises plaguing the rest of the hemi- sphere including tendencies to authoritarian rule, civil strife, and weak political institutions (Ellner, Salas, et al., 2007; Levine, 1994). In the mind of the United States government, Venezuela became the exception and model that other countries in Latin America, who were dealing with racial conflict, military dictator- ships, and political instability, should follow. However, this illusion broke down in the 1980s under the weight of increasing debt, worsening impoverishment, and greater disillusionment with traditional “democratic” institutions. Venezuelan exceptionalism, according to Ellner and Salas, rested upon three principles. First, Ven- ezuela was economically “privileged” when compar- ing the country to others in Latin America. Second, it remained relatively free from class and racial conflicts that often hurt stability elsewhere in the region. Fi- nally, the system of democracy and the political system were viewed as “healthy and solid” by the United The Lehigh Review: “Chesterfield Are Milder”, Cour- States and other Western countries (2007, p. 5). This tesy of Special Collections, Lehigh University Libraries paper will focus on the third principle by addressing why Venezuela was accepted as a “model democracy, tion of oil. Second, the way in which oil has affected ” why this idea was ultimately rejected, and how this political institutions, especially the political parties, has led to declining democratic governance in Ven- can provide significant insight. Third, one must also ezuela today. evaluate how oil development and changes in gover- Venezuela was viewed as having a healthy democ- nance have impacted local public opinion, which has racy because of the relative stability maintained since reflected strong support for the internationally criti- the country’s initial democratic regime until the mid- cized Chávez regime. 1970s. Venezuela’s centralized government, power- sharing agreements among the elites, and the support Overturning Venezuelan Exceptionalism from oil income, determined this stability (Levine, 1994; Karl, 1997; Ellner, Salas, et al., 2007). However, In Venezuela, state-building began around this viewpoint was grounded in faulty assumptions 1920s which was about the same time oil was dis- and allowed for the government to avoid dealing with covered in the country. As Miguel Salas states, “oil serious problems. The embedded vulnerabilities of remained inseparable from the evolution of Venezu- the Venezuelan state system became apparent with elan state building” (2007, p. 35). The presidency the onset of the financial crises of the 1980s. The

90 realization that Venezuela was not a model democ- obtain crude oil supplies, and Gómez, who centralized racy then solidified with the increasing violence in his power and increased his personal wealth (Hell- the 1990s, and finally, with the two coups of 1992 and inger, 2000; Karl, 1997). Hugo Chávez’s rise to power. In order to understand Second, Gómez’s petroleum laws further allowed the decline of democratic governance today, one must him to empower the executive branch. For instance, look back to the factors that established the legitima- he declared private land rights unconstitutional in cy of Venezuelan exceptionalism, including the “sta- 1922 because the oil companies wanted to deal with bility” maintained by the strong central state authority one, weak, central authority rather than numerous, and “partyarchy,” and the effect oil had on Venezuela’s decentralized land elites (Karl, 1997). The move from political culture, institutions, and on the relationship caudillismo, mostly decentralized, to presidentialism between the state and the public . led to the expansion of state central authority. This would allow predation, patronage, and the notion that Strong Central Authority oil and petrodollars could be used to maintain stabil- Centralization of Power in the State: ity in a regime (Karl, 1997). This idea would remain dominant for the next century. Centralized power in the Venezuelan presidency The centralization and expansion of state author- has existed since the entrance of oil companies into ity included the expanded jurisdiction of the state. the country. This power was facilitated by a weak The public wanted the government to capture more congress, powerful political parties, and the use of oil rents from the “imperialist” oil companies that could to maintain stability. The expansion and centraliza- be used for social programs. In the mid to late 1940s, tion of the state laid the foundation for future presi- President Betancourt promised that the newly formed dents of Venezuela to maintain their authority and the Acción Democrática (AD), a dominant political party country’s stability, while preventing a strong, healthy in Venezuela, would demand a fairer, or more “just” democracy from emerging. share of oil earnings to improve the standard of living The role of the state in Venezuela fundamentally and the conditions in Venezuela (Hellinger, 1994). The changed during the regime of Lieutenant Juan Vicente Hydrocarbons Act of 1943 incorporated new taxes on Gómez during the early 1920s. Until the mid-twenti- oil companies, which would later lead to a “50-50” eth century, caudillismo, in which powerful landown- share in profits further increasing the complexity of ers and elites were the major nodes of political au- the state(Karl, 1997). thority, characterized Venezuelan leaders. There was The country’s economy was burdened with an influx a lack of political, social or administrative institutions; of dollars, and the Venezuelan currency became over- thus, political rules were established by force with valued, encouraging imports and ultimately stunting self-organized militias and leaders as the only legiti- growth of the domestic industries—the embodiment mate rulers. However, there was a persistent need for of the “Dutch Disease.” The agricultural industry was a strong central authority, which the caudillos, them- hurt and made uncompetitive with the complete col- selves, wanted to embody (Hellinger et. al, 1994). lapse of coffee and cacao exports (Karl, 1997). These The centralization of power in the state initially conditions led to the financial crises of the 1940s began with the entrance of oil companies into Venezu- because of the country’s massive deficits. Revenue ela in the early 1900s. Oil was first discovered at Lake could not be obtained through taxation of the people Maracaibo in 1922, and then subsidiaries of Standard, due to the damaged agricultural sector and because Shell, and Gulf entered the country (Hellinger, 1994). the urban class was already devastated by the crises. The scramble for petroleum during this time allowed Instead, the state had to rely on the oil companies for Gómez to consolidate power in the presidency. He income. The Hydrocarbons Act also led to rentier saw the benefits of linking himself with foreign capital behavior because of the domestic cooperation orga- and taking advantage of the competition between oil nized against the oil companies (Hellinger, 2000; Karl, companies. He led negotiations on concessions with- 1997). out the restraint and check of Congress, actions which served to benefit both the oil companies, who could

91 Jurisdiction versus Authority: spending which began to spiral systems about the expansive role out of control and outstripped of the public sector, new modes The nature of the petro-state revenue (Hellinger, 1994). Pérez of behavior and new vested in- requires a strong government then looked to United States’ terests” (Karl, 1999, p. 35). The because “both the requirements banks to borrow, putting Venezu- large role of the state is not only of oil exploitation and the deplet- ela in debt, allowing spending to a belief, but it is also perpetuated ability of the resource necessitate further grow uncontrollably, and because of key interests in the oil a highly centralized authority” damaging fiscal discipline for the rents. (Karl, 1999, p. 35). Beyond the long term. This also prevented Venezuelans seemed content 1940s, the centrality of state au- efforts at instituting a tax reform with how the country was being thority persisted. The state had because it was almost impossible run until the onset of the financial more responsibilities, but it was to persuade Venezuelans that the crises, which exposed fundamen- still weak and lacked the capacity state needed more money (Karl, tal vulnerabilities of the current to take on this role. Furthermore, 1997). The public felt the state political and economic system. strain on Venezuelan institutions was already rich and that it did The dependence on oil revenues and public dissatisfaction during not need to take more money from would prevent the necessary re- the seventies and eighties pro- them. The lack of a tax structure forms that might have enabled the pelled desire for more jurisdiction also prevented a healthy relation- state to more effectively deal with of the state; yet, the state was un- ship from developing between the current and future structural able to handle the new responsi- the state and the public, known problems of the country. These bilities it was handed. Corruption to some as the “taxation effect,” problems included the decline and administrative inefficiencies which further increases corrup- in the price of oil, the inabil- pervaded government institution (Ross, 2001). ity to increase productivity and tions (Karl, 1997). The history of The revenue received from the competitiveness, the inability to Venezuelan state building and the petroleum industry allowed for generate other forms of revenue, necessities of the oil state contin- the continuity of the myth that the and the deepening “petrolization” ued the expansion and increased state could effectively handle a (Romero, 1997). complexity of the central author- larger role in the economy. From Even attempts to reform led ity. As Karl explains, there was a 1917 until 1936, it is estimated to more corruption, cronyism, large gap between “jurisdiction” that 29% of state revenues came patronage, centralization, and and “authority”, or rather between from oil. In 1936 until 1945, that bureaucratic inefficiencies (Karl, the “scope or degree of interven- percentage jumped to 54% of 1997). Reforms were ineffective tion in the economy…and…its state revenue. And, between 1945 and increased public discontent ability to penetrate society and until 1958, the percentage of oil with current conditions. In one channel effectively the direction revenue that was a part of state instance, former President Car- of change” (1997, p. 14). This gap revenue was 71% (Salas, 2007). los Andrés Pérez implemented would lead to the crises of the The myth centered on the large reforms that were “diametrically 1980s. amount of money the state col- opposed to his policies of 1974 to In 1973, the Arab oil embargo lected from the rise in oil prices 1978.” Those past policies gave sent oil prices skyrocketing, and oil revenues, which meant it him the support to win the presi- quadrupling them overnight, and could effectively manage crises, dency for a second time. In con- making the push for nationaliza- and meet the public’s needs and trast to the late 1970s, he priva- tion strong. In 1976, Venezuela desires. This type of oil-based tized different corporations, cut nationalized its oil industry, and development caused a dangerous state employment and subsidies, finally, the oil “belonged” to Vene- reliance on the state. “When oil and agreed to an International zuela. Or did it only belong to the monies first come on stream, or Monetary Fund (IMF) program. elites? At the time the president, when booms occur, rapid petro- His proposed IMF program pro- Carlos Andrés Pérez, increased dollar flows encourage new belief voked massive, violent protests

92 that prevented A picture of ‘Old #1’ the him from imple- Packard car that arrived menting the just as Packard Laboratory agreement (Hell- was being dedicated and inger, 1994, p. 41). opened in 1930. It still is The reforms, dur- displayed in the building ing both the late today, Lehigh Bachelor: 1970s and 1980s, February issue “Cars”, led to rent-seek- Courtesy of Special Col- ing and the in- lections, Lehigh Univer- ability to reduce sity Libraries corruption, per- manently hurting the authority of the pacted democracy. Karl cor- rectly points out that these failures of the reforms “undermined the legitimacy of pacted democracy and its capacity to set any coher- ent economic policy” (Karl, 1997, p. 140). The history of state building and the entrance of oil into Ven- ezuela led to the development of a strong state role in the country’s political, economic, and cultural spheres. However, corruption, inflexibility, and inefficient man- agement plagued the state institutions. These factors led to public disillusionment with these institutions, especially directed towards the political parties because of the “partyarchy” and pacted democracy that existed in Venezuela. The strategy of pact-making and alliance building of the pacted democracy would be determined by oil rents and rent-seeking behavior, which would further prompt public discontent with political institutions in Venezuela. at Punto Fijo between three main Venezuelan Democracy political parties at the time, Ac- (COPEI), and Unión Republicana Pacted Democracy and ción Democrática—Democratic Democrática—Democratic Repub- “Partyarchy” Action (AD), Partido Social lican Union (URD). These parties Cristiano de Venezuela—Social maintained control over state In 1958, pacts were established Christian Party of Venezuela action through power-sharing;

93 however, URD eventually declined in importance with Since 1958, the parties “sustained an elite consensus AD and COPEI maintaining power for the next three and systematically insulated policymaking from sub- decades (Coppedge, 2002; McCoy, 1999). The power stantive debate” (Karl, 1997, p. 110). The avoidance of and stability maintained by AD and COPEI from the conflict through consensus prevented needed reforms 1950s until the early 1980s became defined as a from being implemented and allowed the state to system of “partyarchy” and pacted democracy under- ignore problems that it would eventually have to deal written by the massive oil revenues. Some viewed with in the future. Finally, they worked well with other the system as a “subsidized democracy” (Danopoulos actors, especially the military and the public sector and Sylvia, 2003). The economic expansion and social to compromise and keep each other content with the mobility experienced during this time legitimized the status quo (Coppedge, 2002). belief that Venezuela was a healthy, stable, and demo- The power of AD and COPEI is further described cratic nation (Karl, 1997; Coppedge, 2002). as a pacted democracy, which Terry Lynn Karl defines The term “partyarchy” was coined by Coppedge as “elite bargains and compromises during transi- (et. al, 2002) to describe the stability achieved by tion from authoritarian rule by selectively meeting giving a central role to the two main political parties demands” (1997, p. 93). Not only were pacts made who would govern through “compromise and shared between political parties, but also with business and spoils” (Danopoulos and Sylvia, 2003, p. 64). The Pact church elites. The groups agreed upon power shar- of Punto Fijo, which established both pacted democ- ing, reconciliation of grievances, respect for indi- racy and the partyarchy, intended to represent the vidual rights and liberties, reliance on the state as the lessons the political parties learned from past politi- major engine for economic development, postpone- cal mistakes especially the failure of the unilateral ment of proposals for redistributing wealth, and the rule during the trienio of 1945-1948 (McCoy, 1999). support for the United States in the Cold War (Myers, However, the pacts made in 1958 would have their 2004). These pacts ensured consensus and enabled own problems; chief among them were their inflexibil- the state to establish authority, power, and ultimately ity and exclusion. legitimacy through the stability achieved. Coppedge details AD and COPEI’s maintenance of Petro-states, like Venezuela, generally depend upon governability and stability between the 1960s to early oil revenues and political stability to govern. Between 1980s. First, the parties were seen as being broadly parties and among constituencies there were contests representative of society; yet, the party system was for the prize of “a greater share of rents through legal exclusive only to party representatives. The “partyar- and extra-legal practices…These parties evolved into chy” created bureaucratic and “hierarchical national organizations competing for their share in the oil-rent organizations and relied on oil revenues to satisfy trough” (Hellinger, 1994, p. 39). The allocation of rents the needs of their major constituencies…Oil revenue was extremely politicized within the pacted democra- remained inequitable and the parties gradually took cy, encouraging rent-seeking behavior and corruption control of most organizations within civil society” (Mc- among political and business leaders. The distribu- Coy et. al, 1999, p.64-65). Rather than representing tion of oil revenues depended upon satisfying the all of society, the parties retained the support of the key elite leaders and ensuring that there was at least elites through oil revenues. Second, the parties politi- “generalized improvement” in the standard of living cized non-party organizations like labor and student in Venezuela to maintain stability (Romero, 1997). This organizations, which furthered the parties’ outreach to balance allowed the system to remain intact, until the civil society (Coppedge et. al, 2002). They maintained vulnerabilities inherent in the system finally made this stability through incentives and constraints for vari- strategy of pacted democracy fall. ous interest groups. Third, the military was embed- As mentioned in the previous section, the structure ded into the political parties, a fact that coerced their of Venezuelan democracy prevented successful and constituencies into obeying the elites in power and efficient reform of the state to deal with the needs of fostered an environment of discipline. Fourth, both the society. The powerful political parties, institu- AD and COPEI continually sought consensus, avoiding tional rigidities, and “perverse incentive structure” conflict at all costs (Coppedge, 2002; Romero, 1997). were major obstacles to needed reform (Karl, 1999).

94 First, dependency on distribution hindered regulatory lars alone could no longer sustain the government’s processes from developing. “State officials became spending addiction” (Karl, 1997, p. 168). There was no habituated to relying on the progressive substitu- tax structure established, and the opposition to such tion of public spending for statecraft, thereby further a system was strong, especially from business elites weakening state capacity” (Karl, 1997, p. 16). The lack who distrusted the state’s ability to implement a tax of regulation within Venezuela’s institutions kept the system and believed that petrodollars could be used state highly centralized, as it was before the pacts of to satisfy their own needs (Karl, 1997). The increasing 1958 (Myers, 2004). It also allowed Venezuelan insti- debt led to the announcement of Pérez’s unpopular tutions to remain weak, to be plagued by corruption, economic plan agreed upon with the IMF, prompting and to have poor public administration (McCoy et al., riots and violence. The public was fed up with “pol- 2004). itics-as-usual” and the inability of the state to handle Second, Venezuela’s reliance upon distributive poli- the country’s crisis (Karl, 1997). cies to govern prevented any culture of accountability Democracy in Venezuela was viewed as healthy and from forming between the state and the public (My- stable until the late 1970s and early 1980s. Gover- ers, 2004). The immense budget available to the state nance did not rely upon institutional strength; instead, makes irrelevant a tax structure upon which rests gov- stability and governability of the state were deter- ernment accountability. As referred to earlier, this is mined by the agreements among the elite, distributive what Ross refers to as the “taxation effect,” where the policies, and factional clientelism. Venezuela’s pacted state feels less accountable to the public (Ross, 2001). democracy and “partyarchy,” combined with the in- The government lacks incentives to address the needs flux of oil money, allowed “institutionalization of privi- and desires of its people. “Governments that lack ac- lege” for certain groups (Karl, 1997). As explained countability…foster a nasty cycle of weakened institu- by Romero, the “influx of oil money has allowed the tions, patronage, and poor governance, which in turn Venezuelan democratic government to postpone the fosters even more corruption. Once unleashed, these ‘constellation of problems’ that led to the breakdown forces are difficult, if not impossible, to rein in” (Schu- of democracy in other countries in the region in the bert, 2006, pp. 7-9). 1960s and 1970s” (1997, p. 9). The increasing revenue Third, there were no incentives to be efficient or from petroleum allowed for the myth that the state was prudent in making policy because money was pour- able to continue political stability through pact-making into the central power structure perpetuating the ing of different groups, but this served as a detrimen- “inflexible system” and encouraging rent seeking tal vulnerability in the future (McCoy, 1999). (Karl, 1999). The influx of oil revenue produced un- controllable public spending and unrealistic expecta- Public Disillusionment tions of future income, especially on large, wasteful in- frastructure projects (Schubert, 2006). The high level Shown through public opinion polls, many in Ven- of rents would facilitate foreign borrowing, rather than ezuela claimed that a democracy was the most fair directly dealing with structural reforms needed. With and just political system that would keep its promises the loss of fiscal discipline, countries face inflation, to the public. As Romero points out, the democratic indebtedness, and develop a culture of corruption pacts and power-sharing agreements were based (Ross, 2001). Petro-states are not necessarily forced upon the premise that the “democratic state would be to adapt because of their use of oil as collateral and a more legitimate, stable, and efficient instrument for because their macroeconomic conditions do not mediating the distribution of oil rents,” in comparison necessarily show the problems they are facing (Karl, to the militaristic dictatorship before 1958 (1997, p. 1999). 8). Support for democracy is strong in Venezuela, as In the 1980s, Venezuela faced financial crisis from evidenced by opinion polls of the 1990s showing that over-spending and from the petroleum industry’s democracy is viewed as the best form of government inability to produce the rents similar to past experi- (Romero, 1997), and also those taken today as shown ences. “The growing gap between the value of oil by the Latinobarómetro report of 2007 (see page 24). exports and state expenditures meant that petrodol- While the majority of the population believed in

95 democracy as the best form of drop from 1963 to 1997 of the per their problem has become cor- government, there was strong capita oil revenue (Wilpert et. al, ruption instead of institutional, popular discontent with political 2005). The inequitable distribu- which has been the focus of public institutions and in their ability to tion of oil revenue contributed to discontent (Romero, 1997). Hugo deal effectively with the desires this notion that the government Chávez also takes advantage of and problems of the people in the and business elite were corrupt the public’s opinion on corruption 1990s. As referred to by Romero, and unconcerned with the coun- to gain popularity, support, and Andrew Templeton’s study on public opinion provided strong evidence of “long-standing popular discontent on economic issues, dissatisfaction with the efficiency of public administration, disillusionment with the capacity of existing institutions to resolve the nation’s problems and an increasing conviction that these institutions are not only inefficient but also corrupt” (Romero, 1997, p. 16). Romero attributes this difference between feelings about democracy and the actual conditions in Venezuela as a gap between “expectations and government performance” (et. al, 1997, p. 15). The public views corruption and ma- levolence as the cause for this gap and their decreasing standard of living. Furthermore, they feel that oil profits should be redistributed more evenly (Romero, 1995). The try’s poor. ultimately control. In the eyes of declining per capita state oil reve- Although the Venezuelan public the public, the paternalistic state nues and growing population from desires a strong central state and has an obligation to intervene in the 1960s to late 1990s signified a a statist model of intervention in the economy and to address the smaller redistribution of Venezu- the economy, the institutions are needs of the people. This has ela’s oil wealth. There was a 47% weak. However, the scapegoat for promoted a paradoxical lack of

96 trust in institutions due to corrup- Democracy in Crisis: The Emer- 1999). The two administrations tion and a simultaneous desire for gence of Hugo Chávez were viewed as untrustworthy, statist intervention. Yet, with such After the two 1992 military corrupt, and incapable of running a gap between jurisdiction and coups that tried to oust Carlos the country effectively. They were authority, the public has begun to Andrés Pérez, impeached for overspending, the country was trust personalities rather than the fraud, and after the 1994 collapse in debt, and the population was country’s institutions (Romero et. of the banking system of Rafael faced with impoverishment and al, 1997). Caldera, the Punto Fijo agreement a decreasing standard of living. finally collapsed in 1998 (McCoy, “Not only did these rulers believe

97 they could finance their major they looked to a “political out- this money for community based development projects at home, sider” to fix the system. The void “misiones” that provide basic but they could also invest or buy created by the disillusionment services to the poor in formerly resources and protection abroad” with traditional political parties marginalized communities. Ac- (Karl, 1999, p. 34). The lack of was filled by a strong, charismatic cording to Shifter, about $20 fiscal discipline led to increasing leader, Hugo Chávez. The public billion was used for “misiones” debt and forced the administra- became enchanted by “personal- to provide food, and education tions of Pérez and Caldera to ismo” because of the previously and health services to the poor adopt economic plans including centralized, exclusive, and corrupt between 2003 and 2006 (Shifter, austerity measures. The programs political institutions. Chávez un- 2006). seemed harsh for the poor and the derstood the drastic changes de- Second, Chávez’s project is antithesis of Venezuelans’ opin- sired by the people and he knew anti-neoliberal, or opposed to free ions on how the state should be how to earn the trust and support trade, state austerity programs, run. Both Pérez’s and Caldera’s of Venezuelans (Cameron, 2001; privatization, and deregulation. programs were incompatible with Romero, 1997; Shifter, 2006). Instead, he favors an “endogenous the public’s desire for the state to The aim of Chávez’s Bolivarian development,: education for the take care of its people. Revolution was to reject tradi- poor, and political and economic The plans adopted by the tional corrupt institutions and to integration of Latin America (Wilp- government were based on the ensure that all of Venezuela would ert et. al, 2005). He funds this type neoliberal model that the public enjoy the “fruits” of the oil wealth of development completely by oil rejected. They felt putting the (McCoy et. al, 1999). The public revenue. “The money that PDVSA burden on them was unfair. To is attracted to his “personalismo” does get from selling at market many Venezuelans, the actions and his drive to rid the country of prices goes to finance Chávez’s taken by the state showed how corruption, the long-time scape- revolution at home. Last year, corrupt the political and busi- goat of Venezuela’s problems PDVSA’s payments to the state to- ness elite had become. There (Romero, 1997; Rosenberg, 2007), taled more than $35 billion…35% was a common perception that and to his persistence to “correct of the company’s gross earnings” the country was rich due to the the power and wealth imbalances” (Rosenberg, 2007). He provides immense oil wealth, but the (Shifter, 2006). Chávez’s Bolivar- discounted oil to countries in Cen- policies recommended by the IMF ian Revolution, and his “oil revo- tral America and the Caribbean would have put the burden on the lution” planned to correct all the and also uses the money to finance people, instead of dealing with problems that have characterized the socially motivated “misiones” the corrupt leaders, which en- Venezuela for decades (Rosen- (Rosenberg, 2007). raged the public. Overspending, berg, 2007). Third, Chávez’s regime is par- structural problems, including the Gregory Wilpert explains the ticipatory. The system of democ- dependency on oil revenue, and Bolivarian Revolution through five racy is no longer representative, the changing market conditions characterizations. First, it was but instead based upon citizen caused all of Venezuela’s vulner- redistributive. The country’s oil participation, including local abilities to become apparent—the wealth was spread more evenly public planning councils (Wilpert, stage was set for a crisis (Romero, throughout the country by insti- 2005). Before, the two dominant 1997). tuting social programs and land parties, AD and COPEI, controlled After the fall of the pacted de- reform. Formerly, the wealth was politics and excluded the public mocracy even the association with siphoned off by the political elite from participating in the public AD or COPEI cost the candidates (Wilpert, 2005). Chávez also sphere. What remains to be seen support (McCoy, 1999). Venezu- directed the funds of the state oil is whether these programs actu- elans were tired of the way the company, PDVSA, into a fund over ally allow the public to participate political system had been handled which the president would have or if they merely act as a façade of during the past few decades; thus, complete control. He has used participation. Studies still must be

98 conducted to assess how corruption pledge, thus, involved the Revolution is attractive to the poor allows the public to be. and earns him popular Fourth, the Bolivarian support among them. Revolution is inclusive. While the Revolu- There are redistribution may seem to be a tive programs, like social positive alternative to projects and land reforms, the pacted democracy and affirmative action of the 1940s and 1970s, measures. Moreover “his Chávez’s political project symbolically integrative has prompted criticism discourse cultivates an by many Western gov- extraordinary sense of ernments, especially the belonging” (Lander, 2007, United States, for being p. 28). As stated before, anti-democratic, authori- the political system was tarian, and for suppress- extremely exclusion- ing civil and political ary under the Punto liberties. The view of Fijo, pacted democracy. Venezuelan exceptional- Chávez understood the ism is truly deteriorating: need to rectify this situ- “Venezuela [is] retreating ation and promised to from what seemed like an ensure inclusion of all unstoppable process of de- (Wilpert, 2005). mocratization” (Friedman, Finally, the Revolu- 2005). Chávez rejected the tion was based upon 1961 Constitution which he fighting corruption. viewed as a major cause of Theories of the oil Venezuelans’ problems; yet, curse and public per- there is no real consensus ceptions have led to that anything was essential- the belief of corruption ly non-democratic about it. as one of Venezuela’s On the other hand, it rep- main problems. After resented and symbolized the fiscal troubles of the Lehigh Bachelor: “Football the corrupt political parties 1980s, Romero com- Pole”, Courtesy of Special Collections, Lehigh Univer- that the public distrusted ments, “Corruption in sity Libraries (Wilpert, 2005). Human rights fact became a catch-all organizations and countries means of interpret- such as the United States have that promises to redistribute the ing a wide range of problems, voiced their opposition to Chávez country and take revenge on those especially the economic crisis” for his suppression of opposition. who are corrupt” (Romero, 1997, p. (Romero et. al, 1997, p. 20). Cor- He is particularly aggressive in his 24). Because the country was rich ruption remains a “scapegoat” for stance on the media as evidenced from oil wealth and a huge gap the country’s difficulties today. by his closure of RCTV. He also remained between the rich and “Venezuelans have placed their reacted to strikes by PDVSA poor, the public was left to believe faith in individuals rather than in employees by firing thousands of that corruption was preventing institutions. They want a leader- them (Rosenberg, 2007). the oil wealth from being distrib- ship style that is authoritarian, Besides his aggressive reac- uted equitably. Chávez’s anti- messianic, and nationalistic, one tions to opposition, his strategy

99 for improving the situation in Venezuela is viewed as stable in comparison to other Latin American coun- unsustainable. Shifter (2006) views his Revolution as tries. There is no doubt that freedoms have declined “hardly a sustainable model for Venezuela…[It] is fun- and that the executive has become more centralized damentally clientelistic, perpetuating dependence on and powerful, but the argument that Venezuela was state patronage rather than promoting broad-based a democracy for others to model is wrong. Instead, development.” Chávez is dependent upon a single the illusion of stability and the illusion that Venezuela commodity, and oil prices are increasing, but for how was a healthy democracy have made current devel- long can this last? The market is cyclical, a pattern opments surprising, and the exceptionalism thesis is that will undermine stability in the future if oil prices finally being questioned (Ellner & Salas, 2007). One drop or if a financial crisis occurs. Venezuela is still at must remember that vulnerabilities within the system the mercy of the volatile international oil market. were allowed to exist, and these have finally deterio- In contrast to the United States’ discourse of the rated democracy in Venezuela and allowed Chávez to Venezuelan decline in democratic governance, Ven- achieve strong support and popularity, and space for ezuelan citizens see their country’s democracy as achieving his Revolution. existing and succeeding in Venezuela. The Latino- Many Venezuelans seem content with current barómetro poll shows that 70% of Venezuelans be- conditions in Venezuela. A high priority is put on the lieve democracy is preferable to any other type of state’s role in the public sphere, especially its respon- government, although there was a large drop from sibility to solve the problems that the country faces. 78% in 2005. However, only 11% believe an authori- This expectation dates back to the beginning of the tarian government is preferable to a democratic one 1920s when oil was first discovered. The role that oil (The Latinobarómetro Poll, 2006). The public’s view of played in centralizing power in the executive and in the current situation in Venezuela is positive. Venezu- underpinning the pact-making and stability of the ela has the highest rate of satisfaction with democracy “partyarchy” has produced a strong incentive for the in Latin America, at 57% of the population, up 2% state to use its oil wealth to deal with any difficulty it from 2006. On a scale from 1 to 10, 10 being the high- faces. Sixty seven percent of the population believes est, the average Venezuelan gave democracy in the the state can solve all of the country’s problems and country a 7.6. The 2007 Latinobarómetro poll shows has the means to do so. This percentage is the highest that 52% of Venezuelan citizens believe that the eco- in Latin America, where the regional average is 37% nomic situation of the country is positive, the highest (Latinobarómetro, 2007). However, the public has percentage among all Latin American countries and been enchanted by Chávez’s call for ridding the coun- 30% higher than the second highest, Brazil. Not only try of corruption and for redistributing oil wealth to do they believe that their country’s economy is strong; the people. As shown in the graph above, corruption they also believe it will become even stronger. An is seen to have decreased between 2003 and 2005. incredible 60% of those polled believe the situation These conditions allow Chávez to maintain his sup- will improve (Latinobarómetro, 2007). port. The lack of trust Venezuelans have in institutions All indicators show support for democracy among has led them to look to personalities like Chávez. Venezuelans, as almost the highest in the region ac- The polls also seem to suggest that Venezuelans feel cording to Latinobarómetro, but the country is still included in the system, which is completely different viewed as anti-democratic. What can account for from how they felt during the “partyarchy.” McCoy these differences in perspectives? First, the view of suggests that the acceptance of Chávez is because Venezuela as a solid, healthy democracy was skewed Venezuelan political leaders failed to include new during the 1940s and 1970s. The perspective that participants in the political system and did not evolve democracy is in sharp decline is not completely valid, with their changing constituents (McCoy, 1999). because it was never truly the exceptional democracy Has the public allowed Chávez the space to rule it was praised to be. It was looked to as a “model because they welcome the larger role of the state? democracy” because of the circumstances of the time. Or, has the public enchantment with Chávez allowed The Venezuelan exceptionalism argument was put for- them to ignore the oppressiveness of Chávez’s rule? ward at the time of the Cold War, and the country was Are these social programs even effective and of qual-

100 ity? There are questions as to whether the Chávez its. Still, the executive is powerful and there is strong presidency allows true participation and inclusion support for Chávez because of his determined mis- when “virtually all key decisions are in the hands sion of redistributing oil wealth by instituting social of the president” (Shifter et. al, 2006). His oppres- programs and by ridding the country of corruption. siveness combined with the lack of sustainability in Whether or not the public will continue to trust the Chávez’s project leads to the question: how long will leader and his Revolution is becoming seriously ques- this enchantment last? The recent defeat of Chávez’s tioned, but democracy will continue to decline unless plan to extend term limits, to call for a state of emer- the public starts to look to reforming political institu- gency for an unlimited amount of time, and to in- tions like the exclusionary parties rather than trusting crease the state role in the economy casts the doubt the “personalismo” of individuals like Chávez. on Venezuelans’ clear support for Chávez.

Conclusion

Venezuelan exceptionalism was based upon the nature of the state and the government’s strategies during the period of pacted democracy and “partyarchy.” The centralized authority in the state and pact- making, along with the use of oil revenue, allowed the state to maintain relative stability and perpetuated the illusion that the Venezuelan state of democracy was healthy and stable among the public and in the United States. Furthermore, the public’s belief in a strong state to deal with all the country’s problems remains today. However, this approach to statecraft allowed Venezuela to hide vulnerabilities that inevitably developed into future problems, especially the financial crisis of the 1980s. The lack of fiscal discipline and corruption ultimately exposed these ignored problems. As a result, Venezuelans distrust state institutions, especially the traditional political parties, which are viewed as exclusionary and corrupt. They believe the country is rich from its oil wealth, but the masses have not benefitted from this wealth because the corrupt and malevolent elites stole the country’s money for their own benefit, rather than redistributing it to the people. This disillusionment opened up a vacuum of power conducive to the emergence of a charismatic leader. The public would look to personalities, like Hugo Chávez, who promised to change the status quo. The Chávez regime is criticized for its authoritarian, anti-United States, and socialist rhetoric and practices; yet, the countrymen seem content with the state of democracy in Venezuela, as evidenced by the Latinobarómetro polls. However, this poll contrasts with recent events by opposition movements like the defeat of Chávez’s proposed charter to end term lim-

101 10 in 8: A Realistic Approach to Oil Reduction in America

by Will Brehm

102 t’s easy for a President to say, “America is ad- dicted to oil.” American presidents are notorious Mountain Bike Trails for proposing long-term instead of short-term energy strategies. Many of these strategies will not Laced throughout Lehigh’s 670 acres of woods is a complex come into effect until after his or her presidency, network of mountain bike trails I that run for miles and miles. and often rely on technologies that years. These policies put a presi- Friendly to all skill levels, the are not completely developed or dent’s credibility and accountability South Mountain trails offer economically feasible. The frighten- on the line because if his polices a wide variety ranging from ing reality is, however, that like any drastically reduce the standard of easy-rolling single track to finite resource, oil will eventually living for Americans, re-election steep descents, technical run out. As of right now, the conser- becomes problematic. However, it is bridges, and large jumps. vative Cambridge Energy Research by adopting a short-term policy that Associates, Inc. predicts that in 20 or we can slowly begin to phase out 30 years, the world will have already oil consumption, and guarantee that used half of all proven oil reserves there will be no drastic changes to under the Earth’s surface. More our standard of living in the future. liberal estimates suggest that the Each successive President there- world has already used up half of the after can administer other small Sculpture Garden Earth’s oil reserves. While oil will decreases so that over an extended undoubtedly continue to be a major period of time, America will be able Commonly mistaken for the source of energy for many years to to reduce its oil consumption. former site of a fraternity, this come, the truth of the matter is: one Although it may seem radical, field is tucked away through day the world will have to function this policy aims to reduce America’s the woods at the top of The Hill without oil. consumption of oil by ten percent and contains an eclectic mix America can either continue its in eight years. Ten percent is not a of artistic pieces designed by reckless approach to oil consump- drastic change to either total con- students and local artists alike tion or it can phase in continuous sumption or the average American (including several pieces by small reductions to wean itself off standard of living, although it might Mr. Imagination). Initially the of oil. The longer America waits be just the boost America needs site of the campus leaf dump, to take action, the more severe the to begin the road to energy inde- the garden was founded several consequences will be, particularly pendence. As oil reduces slowly, years ago by religious studies because Americans currently con- Americans can learn to adapt to professor Norman Girardot sume almost twenty-five percent new lifestyles that less consumption while searching for a ‘spiritual of the world’s oil. Alternatively, requires. In 2006, a 10% decrease place’ for the student body. we can make small sacrifices now, equaled approximately 2.0 to 2.2 which are engineered to improve million barrels per day (mbpd). our standard of living, and slowly, Population increases will likely con- deliberately phase out oil before tribute to increased oil consump- it phases out naturally. In the past, tion; by 2015 World oil consumption it has been difficult for a President is predicted to reach 103.0mbpd to propose short-term goals in the (Schlesinger and Giusti, p. 6). By beginning of an administration that 2025, total World oil consumption can have an immediate impact on is predicated to equal 120.0mbpd oil consumption within four or eight (Energy Information Administra-

103 tion Annual Energy Outlook 2007, table B4). Assuming sumption in the immediate future. America will continue to consume approximately 25% of Reducing the number of vehicles on the road will World consumption, America will consume between 25.7 undoubtedly reduce the consumption of oil. There exist to 30mbpd. This policy aims to reduce oil consumption a number of ways to achieve this goal, mainly at a small between 2.6mbpd to 3.1mbpd—to overcompensate for expense to the average citizen (i.e. increased gasoline long-term projections—within eight years, or by 2017. prices). Without accounting for negative externalities— To reach this goal, this policy will take a look at several increased damage to the environment, congestion, and approaches to energy efficiency, although the main focus chance for accidents – the true price of driving becomes will be on transportation. This policy combines old and skewed. Americans must be made aware of these exter- new methods to counter the growing energy dilemma. nalities and be held accountable. To hold the citizenry According to “Winning the Oil End Game” by Amory accountable, the President should consider the imple- While oil will undoubtedly continue to be a major source of energy for many years to come, the truth of the matter is: one day the world will have to function without oil.

Lovins and Kyle Datta, oil used in the transportation mentation of two approaches. sector is predicted to increase by 72.8% by 2025, which The first approach centers on reworking the price makes transportation one of the most logical areas for im- of gasoline to reflect its true cost. Oil companies could provement. For short-term approaches, conservation can increase the cost at which they sell oil to accomplish this quickly decrease consumption. Therefore, conservation goal. The government would need to force oil compa- in the transportation sector will be the main approach. nies to push gasoline prices up by increasing corporate However, combining different approaches, which reduce taxes. Many oil companies receive reduced corporate oil consumption by a small amount each, work together in income taxes that skew gasoline prices. For example, a timely manner to add up to the 2.6 –3.1mbpd target. the average price/gallon of gasoline in America in 2005 The design of this energy policy assumes an eight- was $2.27. The average price/gallon in Beirut, Lebanon year time frame, the typical tenure for an American was $2.63, $4.24 in Tokyo, Japan, and $6.48 in Amsterdam, president, so the President would be held accountable for Netherlands (CNNMoney.com). If American oil compa- his or her policy. The approaches taken, however, must nies had to pay more money to the government, the price be more immediate than one might assume. Recently, of oil would increase as oil companies try to keep profit the Bush administration has been working to imple- margins equal, if not increasing. The companies—not the ment mid-term goals such as Corporate Average Fuel American government—would indirectly pass the price Economy (CAFE) standards. These standards, a specific burden onto the consumers. This approach, however, average mile per gallon minimum for an entire manufac- could result in the tax being wrongly allocated once in turer’s fleet of cars in one year, aim to increase automo- the government’s control; the new money would come bile efficiency. This much-needed piece of legislation from companies, not consumers. The second approach will undoubtedly reduce oil consumption, but will take provides stronger guarantees for proper reallocation longer than eight years to fully take effect. Even if new, (mainly to increase the standard of living of citizens to off- more drastic CAFE standards are passed in the begin- set the loss of standard of living from increased gasoline ning of the next President’s tenure, the standards will take costs) of the taxed money. time to come into effect because of the 6% car turnover The second and even more aggressive approach is a rate in America (Mahedy). For 50% of American cars to government-implemented tax on gasoline. Though this meet new CAFE standards would take nine years, so even would likely suffer severe political backlash, raising the though CAFE standards will eventually reduce oil con- federal and state taxes on gasoline, which the Energy sumption, more needs to be done to decrease oil con- Information Administration reported stood at 19% of the

104 (Right) The Bethlehem Steel Co. Band at Lehigh. Courtesy of Special Col- lections, Lehigh University Libraries.

(Below) The Bethlehem Steel Co. Baseball team in 1918. Courtesy of Special Collections, Lehigh Univer- sity Libraries.

Congressional Budget office predicts that a 46 cent-per-gallon increase would cost the economy, mainly the consumers, $2.9 billion, but would save 90.5 billion barrels within 14 years (Dinan and Austin). By the 15th year a 10% reduction in oil consumption would occur. Using a gasoline tax in conjunction with other policy approaches could achieve 10% within 8 years. The $2.9 billion could be invested into a gasoline fund that provides tremendous ad- vantages. The money earned from a tax could be used for various programs that would help the citizenry, such as total cost of one gallon of gasoline in 2005 (or 43 cents), increasing the social security fund or even as rewards for it would decrease consumption as well as help long-term private companies conducting research and design in goals like combating global warming (one of the nega- alternative fuel. A tax on the citizens would provide cer- tive externalities) and funding alternative fuels. The tain guarantees. First, the new money would be put into

105 an interest-earning fund. The fund but other approaches to reduce con- The last short-term policy ap- could financially support research gestion exist as well. For example, proach centers on reducing electric- and design into long-term energy increasing tolls or putting in driv- ity generation from petroleum. If policy approaches. Second, the allo- ing restrictions like that proposed electricity generation did not come cation of the fund would support the in New York City would cause a from petroleum, America could tax-paying citizens through fixing disincentive for Americans to drive save 197 thousand bpd. The En- social security or funding univer- in normally areas of congestion. Re- ergy Information Agency reports sal health care. The welfare state cently, New York City proposed even that America received about 3% of in America increases, and thus the more radical ideas, such as taxicab electricity from petroleum in 2005. standard of living for Americans will stands in certain areas of the city, To reduce the use of petroleum, increase even as the price to drive than Mayor Bloomberg’s congestion various incentives should persuade goes up. Of course, this thinking pricing proposal that charges cars to buildings to switch from petroleum requires Washington to break from drive in certain areas of Manhattan to natural gas electricity. If overall the conventional approach to legis- (Neuman). Implementing a federal electricity generation reduces, then The longer America waits to take action, the more severe the consequences will be, particularly because Americans currently consume almost twenty-five percent of the world’s oil.

lating: Congress essentially needs law on city congestion would reduce petroleum can be phased out and to emphasize the true cost of driving driving and, therefore, oil consump- replaced by the other forms of elec- while providing approaches (a gaso- tion. Another approach is city plan- tricity generation without increasing line fund) that benefit Americans. ning: with the construction of denser overall output. First, all government The other policy approach that communities, the ability for effec- buildings must be high efficiency. reveals the true costs of driving tive public transportation systems Simple measures include switching has to do with congestion control. increases as well as the likelihood incandescent light bulbs to compact Waiting in traffic costs money not for foot and bike commuters. florescent light bulbs or the instal- only in the productivity lost for the The last transportation policy lation of solar power to generate a people inside the cars or damage initiative is to reduce the highway portion of electricity. Second, dis- to the environment due to more speed limit from 75 miles per hour counts or tax breaks should provide carbon dioxide emissions, but also (mph) to 65mph (or from 65 to 55 the incentive for other companies for the fuel wasted while sitting mph). As automobiles travel faster, to follow suit. Eventually, America idle. Too many cars on the road air resistance increases and causes could wean itself off 3% of electrici- require American drivers to fill up less fuel-efficient driving. Highway ty and easily replace the petroleum- more often. The Texas Transpor- driving consumed 4.9mbpd in 2004 generated electricity with other, tation Institute estimates that 2.9 (Bureau of Transportation Statistics). potentially cleaner forms. Thus, billion gallons (approximately 180 The National Resource Defense another 197 thousand barrels of oil thousand bpd or about 6% of the Council (NRDC) reports that driving would be saved per year, or about target goal of 2.6 –3.1mbpd target 10 mph slower will reduce high- 7% of the average target goal. reduction) of fuel were wasted due way gasoline consumption by 15%. Between a large effort to reduce to congestion in 2005. If the govern- This translates into approximately consumption of oil in the transporta- ment could reduce congestion, fuel 745 thousand bpd saved, or about tion sector and a small push to stop consumption would decrease. Of 26% of the average target goal petroleum-generated electricity, course higher gasoline prices would (2.85mbpd) to reduce oil consump- America could realistically reduce reduce American automobile travel, tion by 10%. oil consumption by 10% within eight

106 years. Through lowering the speed limit, clearing congestion, and reducing petroleum-generated electricity, America can quickly reduce oil consumption by four percent. If an increase in gasoline prices can reduce consumption 10% within 15 years, a reduction of six percent within eight years is absolutely feasible. If the government increases the Gas-tax and puts the money into an interest-earning fund, the small decline in the standard of living will be elevated by the increase in the social institutions of America. Education rests at the heart of true change in the American understanding of oil. The government should begin to design an educational approach for public schools to inform students (and soon-to-be drivers) of the issues of over abun- dant energy consumption and its effects on America’s future, especially in terms of global warming. This effort could profoundly change the energy discourse, allowing for different governmental regulations to pass with great public support. Over time, as Americans begin to understand that oil is finite, future energy legislation will gain the support of American citizens. Each small step America takes now reduces the drastic lifestyle shift that will inevitably occur when the fateful oil draught reaches American gas stations. Phasing in small reductions in consumption will ease the shift away from a petroleum economy. Unless America has informed citizens, wise decisions and support for the slow change will be unlikely.

Lehigh Bachelor: “Chesterfield Ad”, Courtesy of Special Collections, Lehigh University Libraries 107 About the Authors

Meritt Parkway Art is a Symbol: Dylan Coonrad, a Junior from Ramsey, New Conceptualism and the Vietnam War Jersey, who is studying Architecture and Michael King on his work: Graphic Design. Outside the studio, Coonrad “I decided to write about this subject matter is a member of the Theta Chi because of my fascination with the way ideas Fraternity and frequently are manifested visually in appears on the Zoellner culture,” says Michael King, stage. “Merritt Parkway” a senior History major who was written as a final product wrote the essay “Art is Sym- of ARCH 363, “Evolution of bol” for a class about the Long-Span Bridges” taught Vietnam War. King says, “I’d by Tom Peters. The paper never heard much about the explores the implications of art world’s reaction, if any, to the built world and its effect the war in Vietnam. I’d always on the natural environment, thought of it as being pretty and analyzes from an architectural perspective, indifferent. So I looked into where the things we design enhance the way in it and ended up devising the argument I pres- which we live. ent in my paper. For me this paper represents a learning process.” Outside of the classroom, Rem Koolhaas: King is a racing cyclist and Co-President of the An Architecture of Innovation Lehigh cycling club as well as a member of Daniel Fox is a junior at Lehigh, double major- the NCC/Bikereg.com cycling team. King also ing in Architecture and Graphic Design. He is enjoys reading and spending time with friends involved with Leadership and family. He plans to attend grad school after Lehigh, the Epitome Year- graduation (though he hasn’t decided where book, and the Zoellner Arts yet) and hopes to eventually work in academia Center stage crew. After or the museum industry. graduation, Fox plans to pursue a master’s degree in Architecture and hopes to one day open his own architectural firm. His interests outside of Lehigh include swimming, bowling, watching movies and riding roller coasters.

108 Biological vs. Environmental Factors: Deter- Nationalisn, Identity and Democracy in Japan mining the Cause of Pervasive Developmental Emily Schulman is a senior International Rela- Disorders in Children tions and English major from McLean Virginia. Jami Zaretsky is a senior psychology major from During her time at Lehigh, she Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Throughout has written for The Brown and her time at Lehigh, she has been very involved White, worked with UP Music, in numerous organiza- and tutored other students. tions on campus, in- Last year, Emily studied cluding Kappa Alpha abroad in Strasbourg France Theta sorority and the where she did a case study on Lehigh University Hil- immigration in the European lel Society. Jami will Union. She worked in editing be attending medical over the summer and hopes school next fall and to pursue a career in journal- aspires to become a ism after graduation. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatri- I Die Content: Re-Imagining Slavery with cian. She is especially Edgeworth and Aiken’s Devoted Slaves interested in pervasive developmental disor- Christine Tucker is a senior English major with ders and looks forward to helping children with minors in Sociology and Creative Writing. She these disorders achieve their maximum poten- is a staff member at Lehigh’s Women’s Center tials. where she is the editor of Origyns, a feminist journal. She is also in- The Struggle Against a Killer volved in University Zachary Gray is sophomore Finance major in Productions-Arts and Ex- Lehigh’s College cursions and is the vice of Business and president of the honors Economics. He is society Phi Eta Sigma. from South Plain- Next year, she will be field, New Jersey a President’s Scholar at and comes from Lehigh, working toward a family of five. an M.A. in English and His essay, “The a Graduate Certificate in Struggle Against a Women’s Studies. She wrote the paper that ap- Killer” was written pears here in a graduate seminar called “Ro- for a religion class manticism and the Cult of Childhood.” entitled “Black Death to AIDS.”

109 The Decline of Democry in Venezuela: The 10 in 8: A Realistic Approach to Oil Reduction Deteriorization of Venezuelan Exceptionalism in America and the Rise of Hugo Chavez Will Brehm on his work: Meredith Aach is a senior majoring in Interna- “I hope this essay will begin a realistic, person- tional Relations and Anthropol- al discussion for oil reduction,” says Will Brehm, ogy. She is currently writing a senior International Relations major at Lehigh, her Senior Honors Thesis on “Even at Lehigh we can make changes to re- “The Limitations of Microfi- duce our oil consumption.” Brehm is actively nance: Theory and Practice” for involved in social justice both her Eckardt Scholar Senior issues on campus by Project and her Global Citizen- working with The Move- ship Capstone Project. She has ment and Kaleidoscope. been extremely active in glob- He also started a website ally focused clubs on campus the cultureofconversa- for the past four years including tion.com, which aims to the World Affairs Club, Global create a global student Union, and the newly founded social network. Aside Microfinance Club, which she co- from his work on cam- founded with four other Lehigh students. She pus, Brehm has taught received both the William D. Blake Award for English literature in academic excellence and promise of leader- Taipei and writes a blog ship and the Carey B. Joynt International Rela- at willbrehm.com. He tions Leadership Award. Next year, she will be plans to attend Teachers College at Columbia doing Teach for America in Washington D.C. University in the fall to work on a Master of Arts teaching Special Education. in International Educational Development.

110 111 Works Cited

Merrit Parkway Footnotes:

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