Aesthetic Foundations of Music Therapy: Music and Emotion James Hiller University of Dayton, Jhiller1@Udayton.Edu

University of Dayton eCommons

Music Faculty Publications Department of Music

1-5-2015 Aesthetic Foundations of Music Therapy: Music and Emotion James Hiller University of Dayton, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: https://ecommons.udayton.edu/mus_fac_pub Part of the Music Education Commons, Music Pedagogy Commons, and the Music Therapy Commons eCommons Citation Hiller, James, "Aesthetic Foundations of Music Therapy: Music and Emotion" (2015). Music Faculty Publications. 13. https://ecommons.udayton.edu/mus_fac_pub/13

This Book Chapter is brought to you for free and open access by the Department of Music at eCommons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Music Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of eCommons. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. CHAPTER 3 Aesthetic Foundati0ns of Music Therapy: Music and Emotion

James Hiller

he subject of aesthetic experience as it rola & Vuoskoski, 2013). More specifically, Trelates to music embodies a vast and fas I focus on a client's active music-making cinating territory of philosophical thought. processes wherein emotions might be ex Ancient philosophers to modern musicolo pressed in or through music rather than gists have engaged in scholarly debate over being elicited by music. I consider sources the topic from many perspectives (Davies, of emotion and where emotions might be 2010; Kivy, 1989). Not surprisingly, a simi located within music-making processes. lar intrigue surrounds questions regard And finally I explore theories that vari ing the clinical value of aesthetic aspects of ously explain how musical expressions of music and of music making forhealth, heal emotions might occur. These theories ing, and human development (Aigen, 1995, provide guidance for the music therapist 2007). who wishes to understand and respond to Numerous links between aesthetic expe the potential emotional meanings of a cli rience and therapeutic processes are found ent's music making. In fact, to gain insights in the music therapy literature. In fact, about a client's emotional world via music volumes could be filled with theories and making is a unique and clinically powerful philosophical arguments for and against facet of music therapy. the meaning and/or meaningfulness of aesthetic experiences in healing, such as those found in music therapy treatment Expression of Emotion processes. However, in this chapter, I de limit our exploration to an assortment of Emotional Expression perspectives that address, arguably, one of and Music Therapy the most clinically relevant aspects of the Aigen (2005) notes that, regardless of the aesthetic music experience: that of emotion nature of specific clinical goals in music and its expression in or through music (Ee- therapy, emotion is always a relevant con-

29 30 OVERVl[W AND ISSUES

sideration in treatment. Before examin (Hiller, 2011, p. 122) and thereby gain clar ing how a client might express emotions ity about it. through music, we must consider how such Bruscia (1987) highlights the usefulne s emotional expressions might be clinically of analyzing a client's improvised emo beneficial within a therapy process. What tional expressions for assessment and treat does it mean to the client, the therapist, ment via the Improvisation Assessment and/or the therapeutic process when we say Profiles (IAPs). Here, the product of the 7 that a client expresses emotion while mak client's music making may take precedence ing music? in analysis and interpretation of meanings. The notion of catharsis, or "release of dif Accordingly, the various musical elements, ficult, repressed, or unconscious feelings," as played and combined by a client, are con is found frequently in the music therapy lit sidered projections of aspects of personal erature when clinical focus is on emotion, ity and emotion. particularly with regard to the symbolic In short, a client's music making may nature of a client's expressive music mak serve as a temporary release of emotional ing (Aigen, 2007, p. ll5). But whereas ca energy (catharsis), as a representation of thartic release of emotional energies may the client's inner emotional world, or as a be powerful experiences for a client, such reflection of the way he or she expresses experiences have been considered to be aspects of personality and emotional ex only temporarily beneficial toward healing periences. Each of these perspectives may if not linked to cognitions about the emo benefit client and therapist toward gaining tion expressed (Yalom, 2005). Nonetheless, clarity about, and addressing, the client's such experiences undeniably take place, emotional expressions in the musically and it behooves a therapist to recognize based clinical situation. their occurrence and understand the clini cal implications and potentials for the treat Emotional Expression ment process. and Music Making In Priestley's (1994) analytical music therapy (AMT), an improvisational ap Throughout history, musicologists have de proach to music psychotherapy, a client's clared that emotions may be found in, or ex musical expressions are often recorded. pressed through, music Ouslin & Slaboda, The recordings are then reviewed by cli 2010). Music therapists know that there is ent and therapist and the material verbally a relationship between emotions and music processed. In assessment, this process aids making, for we sometimes hear emotion in understanding the client's emotional manifested in a client's music or see emo well-being, whereas in treatment it helps tion being expressed through a client's a client to gain insight about, and work music-related actions. We may even feel a through, conscious and unconscious issues client's emotions as they are manifested and related emotions. In AMT, the client's in his or her music through experiences process while musically engaged is primary. of transference, projective identification, In music psychotherapy there are times and countertransference (Bruscia, 1998b). when a client may be unaware of, or uncer But how do internal human experiences tain about, emotions attached to specific such as emotions find their way into music? events or relationships, and music making Where does the emotion come from, and provides an avenue for identifying these. how does it become apparent in music or a In considering a client's process of improvi music-making process? sational music making, I note that a client Musicologists most often have focused "may hear evidence in the music ... that on the relationship between emotions and an emotion is somehow being expressed" music from a listener's perspective; that is, Aesthetic of Music fherapy Foundauons 31 t t t ey have tried to deLermine how it is ha heavily researc h · • . h cc1 across many fields of u ic L r may be moved to e xperi mvesugauon ' mc· a m s lis ene 1 u c1·mg aesLheLics and Lhe ce em n or recognize iL in Lhe music area of study kn . . en oLio . own as the ajfectzve sciences r a Vuoskoski, 2013). In music (Lewis , Ha 1la hea d (Eerol & � ndJones, & Barnell, 2008). r clienL's experience is Let us beg111 . . the apy, however, a . our mquir· y wnh definiLions not r who may be moved of a few emo just as a listene tio n-ie. 1 ate cl terms from Juslin y c or a recordin ; the and Sloboda' b a therapist's musi ? ~ . s (2010) f'Jiandboolt of Music and c Lhe creation of Emotion· Theo lient is often an agenl in ·. ry, R esearc h , and A f1plications ea ingful musical sounds and interac and Robi. nson's (20 m n A 05) D eeper Than Reason. tion apist and oLhers Lhrough 1fect is an overa s wiLh a ther rching term for all ob laying, singing, and composing. !�is serva�le, emotion-related p experiences. The ed to music m term IS means that emoLions ascrib meant generally to refer lo experi belong ences of the clinical situation may sometimes emotion, but not as a reference to also means a y lo the client him- or herself. IL � �pecific emotion or emotional st.ale. in the music Err ot zon, that Lhe expression of emotion � on the other hand, refers Lo "a ng; that is g ui le is, in some way, of the client's doi brief buL imense affective reacLion" revealed, Uus lo say, an e motion is expressed, lin & Sloboda, 2010, p. 10) Lhat is di or manifested through the client's actions �ected toward a specific object and Lhat n as 1 cludes while making music. This seems � � both physiological and cogni of tounding actuality, given the sevenly llve co�ponents. An cmoLion may endure challenges faced by many clienls in music for a bnef period of minuLes or for hours therapy. Reviewing how musicologists have and Lypically elicils an action 1-esponse of sought to explain Lhcsc phenomena is our some sort Lhat might be expressed via fa present endeavor. cial appearance, bodily movements, and/ I A few researchers have examined how or vocalizations. AcLion responses elicited skilled performers imbue composed music by an emotion may be expressed inLen I - with a given emoLion fora musically trained tionally and Lherefore consciously, 01- be audience to hear and recognize (Behrens manifesled unintentionally and Lherefore & Green, 1993; Juslin, 2001; Juslin & Tim unconsciously. Robinson (2005) stresses mers, 2010). YeL music therapy clients, who that emotions or emotional responses are are generally a musically untrained group, processes LhaL occur over time and stem repeatedly exhibiL a similar ability to ex from human interactions with the environ press emoLion wiLhin musical processes of ment, with environment ofLen meaning an re-creating, improvising, and composing. interpersonal interaction. In that' emotions Before reviewing some select theories, let are internal processes that occur over time, us examine how the concepts of emotion it seems that. they possess an experiential and expression might be defined and con or phenomenal flow that one may subse sider the notions of locations and sources quently comprehend and recall. of emotion in music. A feeling is defined as "the subjective ex perience ofan emotion or mood" Uuslin & Sloboda, 2010, p. 10), or the way our bodies Terms Emotions and Emotion-Related and minds unde1·go an emotion. Feelings Whai- are emotions, and what do we mean entail experiences of energy relaLed to an when we say that one expresses them in emotion and movemenL related to that en music? Providing a definitive description of ergy. The feelingfu.l aspect of an emotional just what emotions are is an ongoing human experience is of particular interest for in enterprise. In fact, although emotion has vestigating expressions through music, for been of philosophical and psychological in it is a process that occurs over time with terest throughout recorded time, it remains variations in flow and form, similar to the 32 OVERVIFW AND ISSUES

way that music unfolds. The feelingful as questions: Can emotion be found in a di pects of emotions have been the basis from em's musical products (songs or pieces), or which many theorists have symbolically al is it found in the music-making processes lied emotions and music. that the client undergoes while playing, singing, or improvising? Can we recognize emotion in a client's physical actions while Expression 7 he or she makes music, or do we, rather, Juslin and Timmers (2010) begin their chap recognize emotion in the musical sounds ter, "Expression and Communication of thus produced? Does a client consciously Emotion in Music Performance," by stating, express emotions in/through music, or is "There is still no universally accepted defi it the case that the way the client's music nition of the concept of ex/Jression" (p. 454, sounds reveals properties of emotions that emphasis original). We nonetheless require are not necessarily in the client's conscious at least a working definition. The New Ox awareness? Can emotion be heard when ford American Dictionary (Jewell & Abate, listening to a recording of client-generated 2001) defines expression as "the process of music rather than in a live rendering? Does making known one's thoughts or feelings" a client need to feel an emotion while play (p. 600). Robinson (2005) believes that the ing/singing in order for expression of that "core not.ion of expression in the arts is emotion to occur in the music? Interest· derived from Romantic artists-primarily ingly, given the range of theorizing we en poets, composers, and painters-who counter below, the answer to any of these thought of themselves as expressing their questions can be yes. To summarize: Emo feelings and emotions in the artworks that tions may be found in a variety of locations they produced" (p. 232). Robinson further during music engagement, including, but holds to the Romantic view that expression not limited to, musical products and pro in the arts is about emotions, or more spe cesses, in bodily actions or in sounds pro· cifically, about experiences of emotional duced through them, in or outside of a processes. She invokes Kant's and Hegel's client's consciousness, in recordings, and/ support for the idea that artists, through or in the moment of feeling an emotion or their art, demonstrate a specialized sort of after a client's emotional experience has knowledge and insight about emotions and, passed (i.e., from a memory of the experi more i mportantly, the ability to uniquely ence). convey emotions through their particular From which source(s) of knowledge and/ media (Robinson, 2005, pp. 232-233). Al or experience might a client draw when ex though arguably not artists per se, clients pressing emotion through music? It seems m music therapy are nonetheless human that a client must first have some sense of �gents working in and through an artis the nature of emotions-for example, the tic medium and are therefore capable, on different ways that emotions feel internally �ome level, of gaining access to, recogniz- as they occur, or typical responses that 1?g, comprehending, and expressing emo people enact vocally, verbally, motorically, tional material through interactions with or via facial affect while feeling particular the medium-that. is, the musical elements. emotions. A client must also have experi ences with musical examples that are related to emotions in some way. These subjective �ocations and Sources of Emotion m Music experiences, it seems, may accumulate sim ply through living in a world where music The' impo 1 ·t ance o f 1 ocatJon · f · · o · emotion 111 and emotions both exist (Robinson, 2005). u m sic making should become evident as Hence, it is apparent that a key source for the reader reflects on each of the following emotional expression in clinical music mak- Aesthetic Foundations of Music 'herapy 33 ing is the confluence of a client's subjective in Robinson, 2005, pp. 28-29) theoretical understanding of how emotions feel, physi view of emotion as an inner, physiological cal responses to emotions of oneself or oth moving or stirring. Music, it is theorized, ers, and musical sounds that are related in resembles "the rhythm and pattern of [ emo some way to emotional experiences (Hiller, tions' J rise and decline and intertwining" 2011). (Langer, 1942, p. 238). Moreover, Langer's The concepts presented below are limited belief, like Hanslick's, is that there exists a to a class of theories that rely on symbolism structural likeness between the way music or representational thought and include so unfolds over time and the way emotions are matic, expressive code, contour, expression, experienced internally. An oft-quoted state and gesture theories. An important caveat ment by Langer helps to clarify this stance: is that none of the theories is more right or wrong than any other, but each provides po There are certain aspects of the so-called tentially useful concepts that a music thera "inner life"-physical or memal-which have pist may draw upon toward understanding fonnal properties similar LO those of music a client's emotional-musical processes and pauerns of rnoLion and resL, of tension and products. release, of agreement and disagreement, preparation, fulfillmem, excitaLion, sudden change, etc. ( 1942, p. 228) Symbolic Theories of Emotion and Music Hence, Langer believes that music sounds to us the way that emotions feel to us. In other words, our experience ofa particular Symbolism is "the use of symbols to rep resent ideas or qualities" Uewell & Abate, configuration of musical sounds may be so 2001, p. 1720). A symbol is the thing that similar to our inner experience of feelings represents something else. To refJresent is to that the music may seem to us to possess an "depict (a particular subject) in a picture or emotional character. In this regard, we may other work of art" (Jewell & Abate, p. 1445, infer that emotion is located in the musical parentheses in original). Many musicolo configurations that a client creates while gists believe that music can indeed sym making music. bolize something about human emotions Based on somatic Lheory, then, a clienL (Cumming, 2001; Robinson, 2005). Yet the may construct. musical representations of processes of representation, as explained in his or her emotions by using the musical the followingtheories, may occur in a vari clemenls in ways that imitate the feelings ety of ways. that are experienced internally; that is, in side the body. The client may intentionally use tempo, dynamics, and phrasing, for in Somatic Theory: Music and Feelings stance, to symbolize the flow of emotional Music philosophers refer frequently to the energy experienced. As noted earlier, such writingsofHanslick (1885/1974) and Langer configurations may also be manifested in (1942) as foundational in addressing the music unintentionally and later be recog symbolic relationship between music and nized by a therapist. or Lhe client as repre emotions (Robinson, 2005). These authors sentative of particular emotions (Priestley, focus on felt experiences of emotion, that is, 1994). further, a therapist may hear in the the experience of changes internal to the client's configurations certain sound struc human body. These may be termed somatic tures that arc reminiscent. of the therapist's theories of emotion in music, referencing own experiences of emotional energy, and the Greek word soma (body). This frame of he or she may thereby interpret that the reference is akin to William James's (cited music represents the client's emotions. 34 UVERVltW ANO ISSUES

WiLh such awareness, the therapist may re Juslin and his colleagues refer to a per spond in a way that serves Lo validate and/ former's manipulations as the expressive code or further explore the client's emotional or acoustic cues (Gabrielsson &Juslin, 2003; materials, musically and otherwise. Juslin, 2001). This particular research has focused on the following five basic emotions noted as those most ofLen studied: tender Expressive Code Theory: l ness, happiness, sadness, fear, and anger Music, Emotions, and Expressive Ouslin, 2001). The researchers hypothesize Vocal Inflections that Lhe effectiveness of the performer'se x Music psychologist Juslin (2001) and his pressive code is based on listeners' sharing collaborators aim Lo identify particular of that same communicative code. The re manipulation techniques (i.e., articula searchers further argue that the genesis of tions and inflections) that performers use Lhe code is in innate brain programs common in communicating emotion to an audience in human vocal expression across cultures via composed pieces. These researchers (p. 321). The acoustic cues (expressive code) seek to explain a performer's emotional com include timbre, tone attacks, tone decays, munication with an audience by comparing intonation, articulation, vibrato, timing, instrumental performance to the expres tempo, sound levels, and pauses Ouslin & sive nuances of human emotional vocal ex Timmers, 2010, p. 462). Coutinho and Dib pression Ouslin & Timmers, 2010, pp. 470- ben (2013) also include characteristics of 471). A performer manipulates the musical sharpness/roughness as factors related to elements in various ways by inflecting the timbre. By way of example, Juslin and Tim music similarly to the way an emotion-laden mers note that verbal statement might be uttered. For ex ample, a performer's use of diminuendo at sadness expressions are associated with slow the end of a particular phrase may mirror tempo, low sound level, legato articulation, the way a person might vocally inflect a ver small articulation variability, slow tone at bal statement of deep disappointment, as tacks, and soft timbre, whereas happiness expressions arc associated with fast tempo, if concluding a statement with a sigh. Simi high sound level, staccato articulation, large clip larly, a performer may certain notes of articulation variability, fast tone attacks, and a melodic phrase via staccato articulations, bright timbre. (pp. 462-46�, emphasis in just as a person might vocally articulate original) an utterance in an almost stuttering man ner while experiencing profound shock or According to expressive code theory, a cli dismay. The performer's manipulations are ent and therapist share a communicative then to be comprehended by an audience, code based on knowledge of the ways that but not necessarily felt by those listeners. emotionally charged verbal/vocal inflec Accordingly, we may identify emotion as tions sound. Thus, a client may emotionally being located in the nuances of musical in inflect aspects of performed or improvi ed flection rather than in the composed struc music in ways related to his or her experi tures, in the composer or performer him ences of vocal expressions. This seems the or herself, or in the listener. In other words, case because, as human beings, clients ex neither the composer nor the performer is perience nearly constant, lifelong exposure actually feeling the emotion articulated in to expressive inflections in the verbaliza the musical inflections. Rather, the emo tions/vocalizations of others and, in many tion is located in the inflection, which is cases, may themselves have learned to use drawn from knowledge of vocal emotional such inflections. Presumably, these expe expressions. riences of enculturation occur to a point Aesthetic Foundations of Music Therapy 35 where an individual's application of verbal/ things that we perceive (p. 59). With regard vocal inflections becomes a natural pan of to music, then, contour theory holds that general sound-based communication. music may sound sad to a listener because of the way the elements work together, but the perceived sadness is simply a trait o[ Contour Theory: the given music; the music itself is not ex Music and Emotion Resemblances pressing emotion, but rather it is exjJressive Davies (2010) and Kivy (1989) espouse varia of emotion. The music is not sad-it is not tions of a theory that the emotional expres in a state of sadness-it simply sounds that siveness of music involves the relationship way, and therefore we may hear sadness in between a work's "dynamic structures and music. behaviors or movements that, in humans, Given the tenets of contour theory, it present emotion characteristics" (Davies, seems that a music therapy client may ac p. 31). The idea here is that the dynamic cess memories of observing postures and/ properties (e.g., movement in rhythm, mel or comportments or others that reflect ody, harmony, dynamic changes) found in certain emotions to inform how to depict renderings of composed music represent those emotions via singing and/or playing. human behaviors and comjJortments (i.e., For example, a clienL, drawing from the how one carries oneself) that are equated image or a highly anxious person-pacing, with expressions of human emotions. Or, leaning forward with tense muscles, and said yet another way, dynamic (i.e., vary wringing hands-may drum in a highly ing, changing) structures in music sound contained and intense manner to express like what various emotion-based comport the experience or anxiety, playing a con ments of human beings looh like. According stant and quick barrage or subdivisions. to contour theory, therefore, emotion re Or, referring to observations of others' de sides in the resemblances between charac pressed countenances-slumped shoulders, teristics of a piece of music and an observ bowed head, and slow movements-a client able behavioral appearance t.hat generally may express such feelings on a xylophone reveals human emotion. Hence, the way a via downward melodic motion, soft vol person's physical body posLUre and move ume, and a series of slow thu.cls on the bars, ment characteristics appear when grumpy rather than using the rebounded energy of or anxious are represented through the way the mallet head as used in a light, energetic music sounds. Importantly, contour theory stroke. Through such representations a stresses that music does not express emo therapist may recognize and respond to the tion (because music is not a live, sentient emotional characteristics of a client's music being who can express emotion), but that making. music is expressive of emotion (Kivy, 1989). Robinson (2005) wittily refers to contour Expression Theory: theory as the doggy theory (p. 300), due to Music and Immediately the fact that both Kivy and Davies use as Occurring Emotions examples the sad-appearing faces of St. Bernard and bassett hound dogs. For al Expression theory holds that emotions ex though people may find these dogs' faces pressed in music belong to the composer or sad looking, it is not necessarily the case performerofa musical work, and that these r that the animals actually feel the way that emotions are drawn f om the composer or their faces appear; the dogs are not sad, performer's own immediate experiences of they just look that way. Yet, Kivy (1989) tells emotion during creation or re-creation of us, we humans have a tendency to animate music (Davies, 1994, pp. 170-173). Robin- 5

36 OVF FNlr WAND ISSUES advocate of expression this by choosing and articulating musical el son (20 05), a strong · t expression of emouons ements believed to most closely correspond theory' notes . tha . it_ _ s sh ares the same processes as to nonmusical emotional behaviors (Robin via t.he a 10· · · . p ssion typ1ca Id a1·1 y 1 1r, e. son, 2005, pp. 266-267). In clinical im ro emot10na1 ex re . . ' . p . an ind1v1dua I s parLJcu- visation, for instance, clients are sometimes She believes that- . 1 _.s , e nact- ed 111 response to an asked to improvise while in the role ofa per Jar behav10 .111 . . - r 1 o . e erience, a rc d1callve 01 son with whom they arc in conflict or f om em t.10na1 xp o . otion. An b server may evidenc e of that em whom they need to gain understanding of dividual's actions the tiiL ,s . infer rr om an in . that person's particular perspective-either uon ich those act10ns have em� from wh instance necessarily includes emotional ma . p 58). For example, an in- t.heir genesis ( · 2 terial. The client thus sounds the emotions o growling voca1. 1zal! . ons dividual , s t· h r aty' or the imagined other through interactions reliable ev1.d ence o f t h e may be cons1•d ered - f with the instruments. . r e of ange1 or ruslra- immed1ate. p -esenc - A music therapist's source for compre . a person hea1 s a noth er tion · That 1s, when hending the client's expression is past ex _ 1 or she may mfcr that Person g1 ow i·ng he periences of witnessing others expressing · s angry or frustrated for some emotion in various ways. The music thera the person 1 . _ , _ a music, the1 e,01 c, a com- evidence reason. I.,,e g rdi ng · pist thus may hear in the client's er's emotwns s J 10u Id be Poser or pei-farm . • • music that an emotion is being expressed n o ]istc111ng Lo their mus1- recog 1._z ba l e fr m and may att.ribute the emotion to Lhe client cal expressions. or to a persona of the client's imagining. . of S1gn1·r· 1ca nt to the usefulness expres- . binson's ( 200r.;):J accep- swn t 1 1e oi·y is Ro . . Gesture Theory: a jJersona, or imaginary tance o r the idea of . Music and Communicative Gestures music. 11stcner may perso. n, to whom a . . at.- . 111 tn b ute_ einotions heard music, rath e r Communicative gestures have been described the than attributing them t.o performer of as "any energetic shaping through time that k 259) For example, we may n t h e wor (p · · . . ot may be interpreted as significant" (Hatten, believe thal a performer who 1s playmg a 2006, p. 1), and they function when an in • o feeling piece n stage is ' in that moment, a terpret.er recognizes the communicative . . par t ICU Jar emotion and that the emouon. 1s intent of a given gesture. Imagine what l e music. We may more lik revea led ·n th . ely may be communicated through a rapidly notion that an emollon heard accep t the . . in shaken fist or the slow reaching out of an the music belongs to an 1mag111ed persona- could be open hand. These are simple examples of someone who feeling Lhal emotion communicative gestures, each with a par r right. then. So, a performer may imagine ticular "envelope" or now of energy f om o the e m tion that another person could be the beginning to the end of the gesture. In feeling and transmit that emotion through other words, each gesture has a rhythmic the music for the audience Lo hear. Or, a lis shape that, if repeated, reveals a recogniz tener may infer emotional meanings fr om able pattern. Emotions, too, possess a flow the music heard to an imagined persona of energy from the beginning of the emo rather than to the performer on stage or to tional experience to the end. Hatten hold the composer. that the information conveyed through a While making music, according to ex o gesture is often "affectively loaded" (p. l); pression theory, a client may c nsciously that is Lo say, it has to do with the expres transmit his or her own emotion or that sion of emotion. A communicative gesture, of an imagined persona onto instruments, then, is a brief (but repeatable) movement resulting in sounds that are artifacts of scheme, irreducible to its constitutive parts emotion-driven actions. The client does without losing its meaning, and born of a Aesthetic Foundations of Music Therapy 37

single human impulse (Lidov, 1987, p. 77). sage sounds different from that of other Lidov hypothesizes the existence of a lim players; his emotional experience is dif ited quantity of distinct gestures that hu ferent, as is the energy envelope of how he mans consistently correlate with particular might apply gesture in communicating his emotional messages, thereby making it pos emotion. Thus, a client's sounding of a mu sible for others to interpret our gestures. sical pattern has to do, in large measure, In linking perception of music with ges with how the rhythmic aspects are enacted, ture, Lidov (1987) hypothesizes that a lis meaning the unique energetic shaping of tener's perception of the shape or pattern a musical action (pp. 136-137). This con of grouped musical sounds is compatible nection is the case due to the inexti-icable with perception of the total rhythmic pro link between rhythm and bodily movement file of particular gestures. He therefore ar and gestures, which contain emotional in gues for the existence of a link between (1) formation (Hatten, 2006; Seivers, Polansky, the energy envelope of an emotion, (2) the Casey, & Wheatley, 2013). rhythmic shafJe of a bodily gesture that re Emotion, according to gesture theory, veals the emotion, and (3) the sound shape is located in the particular energetic flow of a musical/rhythmic expression (pp. 28- of the physical actions used when making 29). In other words, when a client seeks to music, either with instruments or vocally. express emotion musically, he or she may While interacting musically or listening draw from a repertoire of communicative to a client's music making, a music thera gestures and apply a gesture in the process pist may conceptualize the client's musical of interacting with an instrument. The re sounds as related to expressive movement '( sulting sounds, then, reveal the manifesta schemes (i.e., gestures). The therapist may I tion of the emotion. The presence of the thus witness and interpret the potential af ' I emotion thus becomes available for a thera fective meanings contained in the client's I pist to hear and interpret or for the clienL sounds toward understanding the emo to perceive and comprehend. For example, tional nature of the musical expressions. I J imagine a crowd of people rhythmically punching at the air as a collective expres sion of rage against an oppressor. A client Conclusions may draw from the same sort of motion to beat on a drum toward expressing anger in/ It is not an exaggeration to say that belief through music making. The resulting drum in the emotionally expressive potential sounds are considered congruous with the of music is thousands of years old. Mod emotion attached to the gesture used. ern theorizing on the su�ject has brought Cumming (2001) points out the rhythmi us numerous ways of understanding how cally embodied nature of musical gestures, human emotions may be rendered and in contrast Lo the actuality of written mu communicated through musical sounds. It sical notes, melodics, and/or phrases. Al seems noteworthy that many musicologi though an emotion may be inferred from cal theories relating emotion with musical a specific composed musical passage, it expression rely on the potential of music is the performer/client, drawing from a to function as a symbolic form of human repertoire of emotions and bodily move expression. Somatic theories allow us to re ment experiences (i.e., affectively loaded late the inner unfolding o[ emotional ener gestures), who uniquely inflects the music gies with the flow of musical and rhythmic through particular uses of communicative expressions. In expressive code theory, we gestures. This may explain why the in flec might relate musical expressions to the way tion of, for instance, Yo Yo Ma's musical verbal or vocal inflect.ions of emotions com phrasing of a particularly wrenching pas- monly occur, thus providing a point of in- --

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