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The Pennsylvania State University the Graduate School College Of The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Communications THE THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS OF CINEMA: AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF CATHARSIS THROUGH NARRATIVE MEDIA AND CONTEMPLATION A Dissertation in Mass Communications by Guan-Soon Khoo © 2012 Guan-Soon Khoo Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2012 This dissertation by Guan-Soon Khoo was reviewed and approved* by the following: Mary Beth Oliver Distinguished Professor of Communications Dissertation Advisor Chair of Committee Michael Schmierbach Assistant Professor of Communications Fuyuan Shen Associate Professor of Communications Jennifer E. Graham Assistant Professor of Biobehavioral Health Marie Hardin Associate Professor of Communications Associate Dean for Undergraduate and Graduate Education *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School ii Abstract Catharsis has been dismissed by behaviorists and media psychologists since the 1970s because the dominant venting model has failed to produce empirical support for this construct (Bushman, Baumeister, & Stack, 1999; Geen & Quanty, 1977; Zillmann, 1998). However, the notion of catharsis persists in the Humanities (Belfiore, 1992) and everyday usage. Using a broadened conceptualization, based on the clarification view (Halliwell, 1986; Nussbaum, 1986; Oatley, 2011), this research proposed a new catharsis theory and tested its hypotheses using narrative media and a 20-minute self-reflection task. A 4-condition controlled experiment was designed to examine and explore catharsis through mediated human drama in two modes: cinematic and text-based. Results showed that the direct effects of catharsis through media exposure and subsequent introspection were weak. Nonetheless, indirect cathartic effects through cinematic human drama were found in the form of improved general health and psychological well-being. These therapeutic effects were mediated by identification with fictional characters, improvements in self-efficacy in regulating sadness, increases in self-compassion, and the use of particular word categories during contemplation. For the latter, the use of greater insight and discrepancy words indirectly predicted better general health and mental well-being, whereas the use of more certainty and causation words marginally deteriorated health and well-being. This study provides evidence for media-centered cathartic effects and some explanatory mechanisms for their health consequences. Theoretical, research, and practical implications are discussed in light of future catharsis research and in support of nonimmediate or delayed media effects; study limitations and suggestions for follow-up investigations are also offered. iii Table of Contents List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. vi List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... viii Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1. LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................. 4 Previous Catharsis Research ....................................................................................................... 4 Three Perspectives on Catharsis ................................................................................................. 5 The purgation view ................................................................................................................. 5 The clarification view ............................................................................................................. 8 The coping view .................................................................................................................... 10 Towards a New Catharsis Theory for Media Psychology ........................................................ 13 Research Question and Hypotheses .......................................................................................... 21 Health effects of expressive writing ..................................................................................... 21 Identification ......................................................................................................................... 22 The link between identification and self-efficacy ................................................................. 24 Affective self-efficacy as a mechanism for health outcomes ............................................... 27 Meaningful affect .................................................................................................................. 28 The link between meaningfulness and self-compassion ....................................................... 29 Self-compassion as a mechanism for health outcomes ......................................................... 31 Proposed Model ........................................................................................................................ 31 Independent Variable: Tragic Reflection .................................................................................. 33 Chapter 2. METHOD .................................................................................................................... 35 Overview ................................................................................................................................... 35 Recruitment ............................................................................................................................... 36 Participants ................................................................................................................................ 37 Stimulus Material ...................................................................................................................... 37 Pre-testing stimulus videos ................................................................................................... 38 Final stimulus movies and scripts ......................................................................................... 40 Pre-testing the writing instructions ....................................................................................... 43 Manipulation check for stimuli ............................................................................................. 46 Manipulation check for written essays ................................................................................. 47 Procedure .................................................................................................................................. 51 Time 1 ................................................................................................................................... 51 Time 2 ................................................................................................................................... 52 Time 3 ................................................................................................................................... 58 Compensation ....................................................................................................................... 59 Mediating Variables .................................................................................................................. 60 Posttest mediator: Meaningful affect .................................................................................... 60 Posttest mediator: Identification ........................................................................................... 61 Follow-up mediator: Self-compassion .................................................................................. 61 Follow-up mediator: Self-efficacy ........................................................................................ 62 Dependent Variables ................................................................................................................. 64 Physical health ...................................................................................................................... 65 iv Psychological well-being ...................................................................................................... 67 Control Variables: Life Events and Gender .............................................................................. 69 Descriptive Statistics and Checks Prior to Path Modeling ....................................................... 72 Chapter 3. RESULTS .................................................................................................................... 80 Overview of Data Analysis ....................................................................................................... 80 Data Merging and Preparation .................................................................................................. 81 Preliminary Analysis of Gender Differences ............................................................................ 85 Testing the Hypothesized Model .............................................................................................. 86 Exploring the Research Question via Indirect Effects .............................................................
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