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Surface Tensions: Representations of Skin in the Long Eighteenth Century

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Surface Tensions: Representations of Skin in the Long Eighteenth Century SURFACE TENSIONS: REPRESENTATIONS OF SKIN IN THE LONG EIGHTEENTH CENTURY Sara Crouch A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of Doctor in Philosophy in English Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences The University of Sydney 2018 DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY I affirm that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, and certify that to the best of my knowledge all sources have been fully acknowledged. Sara Crouch 2 ABSTRACT This thesis examines the ways in which medical discourse and pseudo-scientific understandings of human skin shaped attitudes towards human skin during the eighteenth century. The eighteenth century is a critically significant period for skin theory as skin-based medicine and science became viable fields of enquiry. In Britain this occurred within the fields of surgery (formalised in 1745), dermatology (beginning with the first English language dermatological treatise in 1714), and taxonomies of human difference, which increasingly emphasised skin colour and ‘complexion.’ Since Michel Foucault’s ground-breaking The Birth of the Clinic was published in 1963 there have been numerous studies of the body in the eighteenth century. These studies have had a critical impact on our understanding of the epistemological status of the body and text however they frequently overlook the skin in favour of looking into the ‘body’ that is contained within. There are some important exceptions, of course, but these tend to contribute to broader studies on race or cosmetic and fashion histories. For these reasons, my thesis sustains a focus on the skin itself, rather than the body as a whole, and considers the ways in which eighteenth-century novelists harnessed the available litany of skin associations and metaphors (such as surface, border, porousness, sensation and touch, flaying, covering, marks, colour) to produce a network of textual meaning. Chapter 1 argues that the skin’s role as conduit of tactile sensation came into focus during the long eighteenth century, due in large part to John Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689). His concept of ‘solidity’ frames the skin as the point of resistance between bodies and helped to maintain the model of well-bounded and contained selfhood. However, empiricist theory also concedes that the well- bounded body could create a sense of claustrophobia and, by extension, the desire to pierce or flay the skin. Chapter 2 examines early eighteenth-century anxieties regarding weakened borders, both national and corporeal. It suggests that the publication of Richard Mead’s Short Discourse on Pestilential Contagion (1720) brought the communicable nature of the ‘poxes’ into stark relief for readers and that this knowledge challenged the way physical intimacy and spatial proximity were 3 conceived. Chapter 3 argues that the theory of maternal impressions left its mark on female authors and influenced the way that they depict maternal figures. This chapter anchors this argument with close readings of Frances Burney’s Evelina (1778) and Maria Edgeworth’s Belinda (1801). Chapter 4 considers the intersecting nature of disfigurement, race, and gender in order to examine the way that scars and blackness were used to encode female characters in late eighteenth-century novels. Being alert to these intersections enables a reading of two seemingly disparate novels side by side, Frances Burney’s Camilla (1796) and the anonymously published The Woman of Colour, A Tale (1808). 4 CONTENTS Acknowledgments 6 List of Illustrations 7 Introduction: The Anatomy of Skin 8 Chapter One: Touch 62 Chapter Two: Pox 111 Chapter Three: Marks 144 Chapter Four: Anomaly 189 Conclusion: Reading Skin 244 Bibliography 253 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My sincerest thanks to my supervisor, Vanessa Smith, for her unfailing patience, knowledge, encouragement, and guidance throughout my candidature. I would also like to express my gratitude to the members of the Long Eighteenth Century Reading Group: Amelia, Judy, Ursula, Eli, Alex, Shane, Nicola, and Olivia. The group were unstinting with their encouragement, critical insights, and enthusiasm for all things eighteenth century. I am forever grateful to my family and friends for their generosity, support, and encouragement. My mother Carol, sister Stephanie, and grandmother Angela, a triumvirate of strong women, without whom this thesis (and many of the ideas it touches upon) would not have been possible. My thanks also goes to Hillary, Nungs, Brea, Farah, Ellen, Jannus, Shivon, and Stephen for their love and friendship. Particular thanks to the friends that I’ve made along the way: Niklas, Lydia, Patrick, and Michael. The countless hours we spent ruminating and commiserating in Old Teachers College, Ralph’s, the Flodge, and Sephora were instrumental to the completion of this thesis. (The Shut Up and Write sessions were also helpful!) My sincerest thanks also goes to Don for his close reading and encouraging feedback in the final phase of writing. Finally, to John Street: a home, salon, writing hub, and site of the odd raucous party. You nurtured many friendships and you gave me Craig, whose love and kindness are beyond words and for whom my love and gratitude are immeasurable. 6 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1. Table 19 from William Cowper’s The Anatomy of Humane Bodies 15 2. Écorché from Juan de Valverde de Amusco’s Historia de la 80 composicion del cuerpo humano 3. Table 4 from William Cowper’s The Anatomy of Humane Bodies 81 4. Anon. ‘The Cutter Cut Up, or The Monster at Full Length’ 100 5. B.W. Higman’s Gradation Diagram 195 6. Aesop figure ca. 1755 222 7. John Nixon’s sketch of the public swings at Sydney Gardens in Bath 231 8. Thomas Rowlandson’s illustration of Bartholomew Fair in The Microcosm 231 of London 9. Isaac Cruikshank’s ‘The Abolition of the Slave Trade’ 232 10. Thomas Rowlandson’s ‘Gratification of the Senses’ 247 INTRODUCTION 7 THE ANATOMY OF SKIN How different is the satisfaction of an anatomist, who discovers the use … of the skin … the wonderful texture … at once a general covering, and at once a general outlet as well as inlet; how different is this from the affection which possesses an ordinary man at the sight of delicate smooth skin, and all other parts of beauty which require no investigation to be perceived?1 Advances in anatomy, the formalisation of surgery (in 1745),2 and the rise of dermatology (around 1800) 3 evolved medical understandings of skin. These developments, especially when coupled with the works of natural philosophers such as Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon and Carl Linnaeus, transformed the way the British viewed their skin and the skins they encountered through systems of empire (namely, colonial exploration and slavery) during the long eighteenth century. When discussing self-adornment and body modification, contemporary skin historians and anthropologists often compare human skin to canvas.4 The sheer frequency of this metaphor indicates the artistic and imaginative possibility that skin has always held. Skin is not only the body’s largest organ, it is arguably the most socially and culturally significant, being the surface upon which we project, observe, and read desire and anxiety. While the connotation of the skin as textual phenomenon did not begin in the eighteenth century, it was significantly expanded 1 Edmund Burke, A Philosophical Enquiry into the Sublime and Beautiful, Penguin: London, 2004, p.142. 2 In 1745 surgeons formally separated from the Company of Barber-Surgeons and established the Royal College of Surgeons in London. 3 Daniel Turner’s De Morbis Cutaneis, published in 1714, is the first English language work that focuses exclusively on skin disease. However, the emergence of dermatology as a focused branch of medicine is generally attributed to Robert Willan whose treatise On Cutaneous Diseases (1808) represents the first sustained classification of skin diseases. He died four years after its publication, leaving his student Thomas Bateman to continue and expand his work. Bateman did so by publishing A Practical Synopsis of Cutaneous Diseases According to the Arrangement of Dr Willan (1813) and a detailed atlas of skin conditions that use original illustrations by Willan entitled Delineations of Cutaneous Disease (1817). Dermatological advancements were occurring concurrently in France with the publication of Jean- Louis-Marc Alibert’s Descriptions des maladies de la peau in 1806. 4 See, Philip K. Wilson, Surgery, Skin and Syphilis: Daniel Turner’s London, Amsterdam and Atlanta: Rodopi, 1999, p.4, Caroline Palmer, ‘Brazen Cheek: Face Painters in Late Eighteenth-Century England’, Oxford Art Journal, Number 31, (2008), p.202, Morag Martin, ‘Beauty: Painting Artifice –Cosmetic Fashions and Portraiture in Late Eighteenth-century France and England’, Fashion and Art, eds. Adam Geczy and Vicki Karaminas, London and New York: Berg, 2012, pp. 87-97, Nina Jablonski, Skin: A Natural History, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 2013, p.142, and Mechthild Fend, Fleshing Out Surfaces, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2017, p.9. 8 and consolidated during this period due to changing relationships between doctors and patients, wherein patients were increasingly participating in the diagnostic process, even self-diagnosing and medicating. While previous generations, particularly rural populations, may have treated themselves according to folk medical traditions, the remarkable difference of the eighteenth century was that people could use institutional medical knowledge by consulting medical manuals and treatises that were newly written or translated into English at this time.5 In other words, the general population was turning to published material in order to better understand its own health and decipher the signs of ill-health as they appeared on the surface of the body. My thesis, therefore, sustains a focus on the skin itself, rather than the body as a whole, and considers the ways in which novelists of a certain era harnessed the available litany of skin associations and metaphors (surface, border, porousness, sensation and touch, cover, marks) to produce a network of textual meaning.
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