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On Social Neuroscience Methodologies and Their GPI0010.1177/1368430214546070Group Processes & Intergroup RelationsForbes 546070research-article2014 G Group Processes & P Intergroup Relations I Article R Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 2015, Vol. 18(3) 348–365 On social neuroscience methodologies © The Author(s) 2014 Reprints and permissions: and their applicability to group sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1368430214546070 processes and intergroup relations gpir.sagepub.com Chad E. Forbes1 Abstract Group processes and intergroup relations are one of the most important topics examined by social psychologists. Recent advancements in social neuroscience methodologies provide valuable insight into these processes by allowing researchers to examine different psychological phenomena via neural processes that instantiate them while individuals interact with ingroup and outgroup members. This includes responses that occur outside conscious awareness or are deemed undesirable to overtly express. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the different social neuroscience methodologies that afford these possibilities. Specifically, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), electroencephalography (EEG), functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and genetic approaches will be discussed. Each section includes a discussion of what the methodology is and how it is used to assess neural function. A secondary goal of the review is to highlight recent studies that have utilized the aforementioned tools to better understand intergroup processes and interactions. Throughout, advantages and limitations of each approach are discussed, particularly with respect to the study of group processes and intergroup relations. Keywords EEG, fMRI, fNIRS, genetics, group processes, social neuroscience, TMS Paper received 30 March 2014; revised version accepted 24 June 2014. Group processes and intergroup relations are one no better way to examine individuals’ meta-cogni- of the most important topics examined by social tive interpretations of interactions or impressions psychologists. To understand how individuals of others, these approaches are inherently at the interact with others that are similar to or different from them is to understand the cornerstones of 1University of Delaware, USA human society. Such knowledge provides insight at every level from small-scale to large-scale social Corresponding author: Chad E. Forbes, Department of Psychological and Brain networks. Traditional approaches to understand- Sciences, University of Delaware, 111 Wolf Hall, Newark, ing intergroup relations have relied heavily on self- DE 19716, USA. report and videotaping interactions. While there is Email: [email protected] Forbes 349 mercy of the type of information a given individ- Thus much can be gained from employing a ual understands or feels comfortable revealing social neuroscience approach to better under- about themself. With respect to perceptions of stand group processes and intergroup relations. outgroup members or intergroup interactions, the Recent advances in technology provide even bet- type of information deemed worthy to share is ter means for this as it has become increasingly particularly vulnerable to the individual’s biases, possible to examine neural responses within the motivations, and self-presentational concerns. context of dyadic and group interactions. That is, Advances in neuroscience methodologies over researchers can examine brain–brain interactions the past three decades have engendered a scien- while individuals interact with one another. The tific revolution, including the birth of a new field: purpose of this review is to provide an overview Social neuroscience. The field of social neurosci- of the different social neuroscience methodolo- ence involves the use of neuroscience meth- gies that afford these amazing possibilities. odologies to understand social psychological Specifically, functional magnetic resonance imag- phenomena, particularly mechanisms or cognitive ing (fMRI), electroencephalography (EEG), processes involved in social psychological topics functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), of interest. The other contributions of the field transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and stem from the fact that social psychological theory genetic approaches will be discussed. Note that and methodologies can also reveal integral knowl- social endocrinology is also an important facet of edge about neural function in general, particularly social neuroscience research. For a comprehen- with respect to how different social contexts can sive discussion of this approach see Page-Gould engender dynamic and varied interactions between and Akinola (2015) in this special issue. Each sec- neural networks involved in perception, cognition, tion begins with a discussion of what the meth- and emotion (Forbes & Grafman, 2013; Stanley & odology is and how it is used to assess neural Adolphs 2013). function. A secondary goal of the review is to Importantly, social neuroscience methodolo- highlight recent studies that have utilized the gies can also provide valuable insight into group aforementioned tools to better understand group processes and intergroup relations. Specifically, processes and intergroup relations. As such, each neuroscience methods allow researchers to exam- section contains a discussion of relevant litera- ine different psychological phenomenon via neu- ture. Throughout, advantages and limitations of ral processes thought to instantiate them on-line, each approach are discussed, particularly with or while individuals interact with ingroup and respect to intergroup processes. outgroup members. Neuroscience methods also afford the possibility of examining responses to Functional Magnetic Resonance intergroup members that occur outside of an individual’s conscious awareness or that they oth- Imaging erwise might not feel comfortable disclosing (e.g., Advancements in fMRI have almost singlehand- visceral, negative affective reactions elicited in edly fueled the social neuroscience revolution and response to outgroup compared to ingroup our understanding of both the neural correlates members). Finally, neuroscience methodologies, of intergroup processes and how different group particularly EEG, also allow researchers to exam- contexts alter neural function. fMRI provides an ine the time with which different psychological index of neural activation with excellent spatial processes unfold (on the order of milliseconds). resolution (i.e., where in the brain things are This in turn can provide valuable insight into the occurring), but the method itself is founded on a degree to which given processes and mechanisms series of assumptions that are ultimately inter- of interest occur more or less outside the con- preted as evidence of neural activation in a spe- scious awareness of individuals (De Houwer, cific neural region. The basic tenets of the fMRI Teige-Mocigemba, Spruyt, & Moors, 2009). methodology are as follows: A given task or 350 Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 18(3) stimulus activates neurons within specific neural of interest are not presented in regular intervals regions that are integral for the completion or with respect to one another. To account for these perception of said task or stimuli. This increased issues, two experimental design approaches are local neural activity increases metabolic demand typically utilized: Blocked designs and event- within that region. To account for this increased related designs. In a blocked design, trials of simi- metabolic demand, the brain’s default response is lar type are lumped together and presented in to flood the region with oxygenated hemoglobin; succession over a specified length of time. For more oxygenated hemoglobin than is actually instance, if a researcher was interested in how the needed or consumed (it is still unclear why this brain responds to the presentation of novel happens). This surplus response results in une- White compared to Black faces they would design qual concentrations of oxygenated compared to the experiment such that all novel White faces deoxygenated hemoglobin in the neural regions were presented in one block and all Black faces involved in the task or perception of stimuli. were presented in another block. Conversely, That is, there are greater concentrations of oxy- event-related designs present stimuli in close tem- genated hemoglobin than deoxygenated hemo- poral proximity with one another but utilize pseu- globin in a given neural region. dorandom intertrial intervals (termed jitter) or The acquisition of the functional MRI signal optimized trial order to accurately estimate the is predicated on the concentrations of oxygen- BOLD response to stimuli of interest. With ated compared to deoxygenated hemoglobin in a respect to the previous example, this means that given neural region while an individual completes both novel White and Black faces can be pre- a task compared to when they are completing a sented in the same block, assuming an appropri- task that does not involve the cognitive process ate jitter within and between the different face of interest or they are at rest; hence the term types are utilized. Event-related designs are the blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) signal. dominant design used by social neuroscientists Ultimately, the concentrations of oxygenated and currently (for a detailed review of the fMRI deoxygenated hemoglobin have different mag- methodology see Berkman,
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