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International Journal of Research and Review www.ijrrjournal.com E-ISSN: 2349-9788; P-ISSN: 2454-2237

Original Research Article

What We Do When our Brain Decides: Neurophilosophy Find the Answers

Ferrara Lydia1, Flammia Aurora2

1Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples “Federico II,” Naples, Italy. 2 ISFOM, Istituto Formazione Musicoterapia, Naples, Italy.

Corresponding Author: Ferrara Lydia

Received: 25/02/2016 Revised: 08/03/2016 Accepted: 09/03/2016

ABSTRACT

Understanding the behaviour, their own and others, it gave rise along the entire course of human history, in various research methodologies. Over time they have developed two distinct cultures that have operated as if the human being was made up of two entities: on the one hand, the bodies, the object of study of the natural sciences, on the other, the mind, the object of study of the human sciences. Often, and culture, innate and acquired, genetics and environment have found ourselves in positions irreconcilable; however, thanks to the most recent findings on the functioning of the nervous system, it was possible to revolutionize the way we think about the relationship between mind, brain and behaviour. In this context, the "Neurophilosophy" arises as a discipline whose aim is to establish a relationship between and . Neuroscience infact, are influencing profoundly philosophical thought because, with their certainties, have questioned the classical view of the separation between mind and brain. The essence of Neurophilosophy is the thesis that knowledge of the mind essentially passes through the knowledge of the brain, but this does not imply that the up the whole understanding of mental phenomena. Recent developments in the neuroscience offer an increasing amount of “brain-based” explanations of decision-making in ethics (and economics). We reject brain-fundamentalism and we argue that neuroscientific developments support a moderate form of , according to which empirical results may indirectly influence moral reflection, but offer no direct evidence to radical reductive naturalism.

Key Words: Neurophilosophy, neuroscience thought, mind-brain, behaviour.

INTRODUCTION results adaptive and advantageous. Physical Every living organism to form, activity is functional to the collection of develop, maintain their balance and information related to the external reproduce needs energy. The evolution of environment through the different sensory different species allowed levels of systems. More complex and evolved are the adaptation to increasingly complex and sensory systems of the organism, the greater sophisticated. It has gone from single-celled is the number of information collected and life forms to plants, until the appearance of used to decide the movement to perform. the animals, which have a highly The most relevant problem, then, is to be autonomous movement in the environment. able to coordinate sensory input and motor So that the movements are deemed useful output, is the ability to select, among all for the survival and reproduction of the those possible, the appropriate movements, organism must be chosen so as to produce in response to inputs coming from the

International Journal of Research & Review (www.gkpublication.in) 25 Vol.3; Issue: 3; March 2016 environment, “selected and read", from the many aspects of reality, but is closely moment to moment. related to the representation that humans In animals, the specialized body in have of themselves. If only humans have a charge of this task is the Central Nervous "mind", they have a standard of living System (CNS), a network of cells called "mental" that exceeds and transcends the neurons, specialized in collecting and mere biological life. So the man oneself processing information, as well as in describes as radically different from reality modular, so complex, the different physical "mindless" surrounding it. Different mental activities. The neural network of brain representations of the self, culturally processes the information received and thus transmitted, as "the soul", "spirit" or "mind" permissible to establish: have in common with one each other, the a) when two different inputs require the effect of keeping us away and separated same motor response from the rest of reality, from nature, and, (generalization) or different motor from other aspects, even from our body responses (discrimination); and, above all, from the end of our body, b) if and when correlate the different that is from death. inputs (association); Objectives c) if and when correlate the present The goal to be pursued will be to inputs with the past input (memory); connect more firmly the human sciences to d) if and when you select the input the natural sciences, the "mind" with the information (sensorial gating / activity of the nervous system: [9] any information processing), so that the conduct, simple or complex, is the product motorial response depend only on of a specific neural activity. the choice (focus). [1, 2] The interpretation of human Performed the processing of sensory behaviour, in the light of current knowledge information, the CNS sends appropriate on the functioning of the nervous system, it stimuli to the motor system that, by has become possible only in recent decades controlling the muscles through contractions with the overwhelming progress of and relaxations appropriate and specific, knowledge from the neurosciences (Nobel produces the body's movements. React to Laureate Eric Kandel), which became an sensory stimuli with appropriate motions, instrument of general interpretation man and under the control of the nervous system, in the world. [10-14] The pedagogy itself is biology is called behaviour. The behaviour increasingly assuming a perspective of an organism has been always adjusted founded on neuroscience, using programs and objectively describable. [3,4] In the and methods of evaluation that make direct understanding of human beings, merely reference to the theories of learning, in considering only the external behaviour is terms of the relationship between mental not enough, it must have information about processes and brain structures. their mental life or psychological. For , created for the study of "mind" we mean a complex set of tasks: disorders, which occur as a result of specific attentional, cognitive and mnesic, emotions brain disorders, has become the study of and intimate affectsl, private, subjective, human behaviour in all its forms. The that's not always and not necessarily cognitive face the question translate into behaviour. [5] Every human of how psychological functions are being responds to external stimuli, in a generated by neural circuits. The emergence subjective way, as well as its "mind” has of powerful new measurement techniques, them processed, based on their emotions such as those of (ex. fMRI and personal thoughts and specific functional magnetic resonance memories. [6,7] In the opinion of Blaise imaging, PET, Positron Emission Pascal, [8] the "mind" is not simply one of Tomography SPECT Single Photon

International Journal of Research & Review (www.gkpublication.in) 26 Vol.3; Issue: 3; March 2016 Emission Computed Tomography), ability of the human mind is in electrophysiology and human genetic capacities of the . The analysis combined with sophisticated reductionist strategy tries to explain the experimental techniques cognitive macro (neuropsychological and cognitive psychology, allows neuroscientists and ability) in terms of micro levels (neural psychologists to deal with abstract questions network properties). Patricia Smith such as cooperative behavior, social Churchland in an article critically evaluates morality, selflessness, awareness, religious the arguments that deny the neurobiological feelings, etc., that is the way human interpretation of the mind. Reconcile aspects cognition and the emotion are mapped to of individual subjectivity of behaviour with specific neural substrates. [15-17] With these those of biological is difficult methods, the clinical study of pathological in the context of psychological and conditions, such as amnesia, aphasia, psychiatric sciences, but also in sensory neglect, helps to identify the contemporary philosophical thought. It morpho-functional correlations. 'difficult to reconcile the natural reality and Alongside the basic neuroscience, as objective with a subjective and an individual neurobiology and Neuropsychology, are mind. [31-33] In recent decades, several emerging and new disciplines such as high- philosophers have expressed reservations impact neuropedagogy, the neurosociology, about the opportunity to explain the the to arrive, with psychological skills, including the ability to , the "" and be aware, through neurobiological the "Neurophilosophy" neologisms coined mechanisms. Searle is unable to give up the in an attempt to overcome the distinction idea that man has a , the belief that between the natural sciences and the a person who performs a certain behavioural humanities. [18-21] Molecular biology has choice is given the opportunity to do things progressively expanded our understanding other than the one already made. On the about how the brain develops and which other hand, however, he argues that: all of generates several complex behaviours, from our mental states are caused by the early stages of life. [22-24] The human neurobiological processes that occur in the nervous system has many complex skills, brain that can only be the product of brain which include sensation, perception, activities regulated by physical laws. We are learning, memory, planning, decision therefore faced with a conflict between the making, and complex actions, such as the experience of the autonomy of choice and ability to be awake, asleep, dreaming, pay determinism of physical phenomena. Searle attention and be aware. Our neurobiological argues, however, suggested that aspects of knowledge is still insufficient to understand the brain related to the assumption of a how any capacity is attributable to neural voluntary decision not deterministic"; the functioning; the neuroscience may, reasons that determine a specific decision therefore, provide important information to constitute, in itself, cause necessary and come to understand the power of the mind, sufficient to impose that particular choice, that is, the mechanisms by which we can try and that, in the same way, the decision is perceptions, sensations, emotions, thoughts, not sufficient due to force a particular memories and motivations. [25-27] In the action. Therefore the possibility of coming decades, the neuroscience could intervention of a free agent is linked develop more techniques in the study of the temporal aspect, separating the various biological basis of the mind and of the states of the brain, leading to a particular consciousness. [28 -30] decision; each functional state of the brain is Admitting that neuroscience can not sufficient cause to give place to the next reveal the mechanisms underlying the condition. Only by postulating a self psychic functions, it is argued that the relatively autonomous from physical

International Journal of Research & Review (www.gkpublication.in) 27 Vol.3; Issue: 3; March 2016 phenomena and deterministic it is possible space; developments in theoretical physics to assume a certain degree of freedom in and subatomic twentieth century, as well as choices and decisions, therefore, a free will. many scientific discoveries confirm that our A self-conscious, not reducible to the brain, intuitions immutable (or our cultural bias?) for Searle is the fundamental premise of the can be simply erroneous. Similarly, "our" exercise of freedom, but it is also true that interpretive insights about "our" the mind every conscious state corresponds directly and "our" the consciousness, can be quite to what happens in the brain. The brain misleading. remains, in any case, in his vision, different Dennett argues that the study of the from the self conscious. Searle himself has physiological and anatomical brain does not recently revisited the dualistic approach lead to an understanding of the nature of arguing that the problem of human consciousness. [35] The premise of consciousness could receive a scientific consciousness is in the acquisition of solution, despite the scientific and language and the human capacity to speak philosophical obstacles to overcome. In a to others or to themselves. The parallel recent article, he offered solutions to the machine, that is to say the neural networks philosophical problems and proposals for of the brain would create, a machine virtual approaching the scientific problems. serial according to which the operations are The reasons to condemn the strategy performed, one at a time, according to the of neurobiological research, defined rules, in a time sequence. Acquire a reductionist, can be summarized in the language and speak silently to themselves, following statement: ... I cannot imagine in a kind of internal dialogue, it is to create how you can get awareness out from a piece a virtual representation, sequential, the of meat. [34] In fact, since we know little historical consciousness in the brain. In fact, about the way the human brain incorporates the claim that consciousness, and human in its neurons its diverse capabilities, it is mental life is equivalent to the acquisition obvious and predictable the difficulty and to the expression of language (internal encountered in imagining the neural and / or interpersonal) is contradicted by the mechanisms. The inability to understand simple that people with global and imagine not giving information about aphasia or left hemispherectomy, total the existence or non-existence of what you absence of language, are certainly aware cannot understand and imagine. As it can and keep some cognitive functions than provide information about our inability to languages. Only the baby has imagine. The implicit idea is incorrect and simultaneously inability linguistic and low that what is impossible or very difficult to awareness, but still incomplete development design provide sufficient information and of the central nervous system. [36] Against decision about his inability to exist in the hypothesis of Dennett, in addition, some reality. Many certainties and many doubts studies seem to show that Beer neural "a priori" prove, in the , networks can produce temporal sequences, serious failures, at the empirical verification without necessarily implying the existence The assertion, apparently intuitive and of a virtual machine serial. [37-39] The understandable, that "no grave can fly" is consciousness has become, in recent years a contradicted, today, simply by numerous topical issue, for various reasons, including fleets that ply the skies incessantly. rapid advances in neuroscience, the initial The possibility of a real space is not approaches to the artificial intelligence, but, Euclidean (in contradiction with our above all, for the unsatisfactory dualistic perceptions); the reduction made by the separation of mind from body. relativistic physics, time for a simple Consciousness is an ambiguous term. You dimension of reality, not absolute, but can refer to: 1. the waking state, 2. the relative to the state of motion of bodies in experience, 3. possession of any state of

International Journal of Research & Review (www.gkpublication.in) 28 Vol.3; Issue: 3; March 2016 mind. Self-consciousness is equally problem of consciousness. The phenomenon ambiguous in relation to subjective feelings, of blind sight, the emineglect, cases of split including: brain and anosognosia (unawareness of A. the preparation of embarrassment in neurological deficit in place) are extremely social contexts, challenging for theoretical reflection. B. the ability to identify our feelings Numerous studies of neuro-functional and remember our recent actions, imaging in vivo in humans, using magnetic C. the self-recognition, resonance imaging (MRI) and positron D. the sense of awareness, emission tomography (PET) have allowed E. the self-knowledge, in the broadest us to correlate specific functional damage sense. with particular regions of the brain. Clinical studies have defined the , in search of the main pathologies of the watch: coma, neurobiological basis of consciousness, has persistent vegetative state, the "locked-in proposed an attractive and simple: it is syndrome", akinetic mutism, brain death. necessary to adopt an experimental The interest for the neural basis of approach, developing testable hypotheses, sensitivity and perception focused on the which can connect the macro-behavioural vision. Experiments that take advantage of effects (mind) with micro-structures and the the circumstances in which the experience micro-dynamics of neuronal (neurobiology). subjective visual changes, while external In practice, according to Crick, we should stimulation is kept constantly provide define nuclear psychological phenomena: valuable experimental information about the 1. known in experimental psychology; link between consciousness and its neural 2. connected to circumscribed lesions, correlates. present in some patients and Working on the unconscious neural reproducible in experimental processes the experiments provide a animals; complementary approach to research. 3. connected to brain regions well Stimuli "uncollected" have detectable known on the neuroanatomical and effects at the neural level, but also on neurophysiological level, which are related behaviours and later, in a variety of known connections with other brain circumstances. In general scientific theories regions. on consciousness include theories about the The basic hypothesis is that the neurobiological mechanisms underlying the awareness of a stimulus, in terms supervision, theories focusing on the role neurobiological correlates, to functional played by knowledge in the processing of variations of specific brain structures, information and theories about the functions distinguishable from the condition in which of consciousness in a social context. you are awake and alert, but not aware of Certainly it can be said about of the stimulus. The search for such functional consciousness: differences may use data from studies of 1. It is a phenomenon is asking neuro-imaging tools such as functional explanation; MRI, PET, magneto encephalography 2. It is intimately connected to the (MEG) etc. The experimental evidence of activity of the brain; these differences, in the context of 3. It has an important influence on neurobiological data generally, could guide behaviour. [40] the development of a general theory about the basic mechanisms of consciousness. MATERIALS AND METHODS The construction of a general theory Within of the neuroscience are many of consciousness, verifiable with test acquired data, which have their own objectives, should be supported, of course, intrinsic importance in the definition of the by data at many levels of complexity of

International Journal of Research & Review (www.gkpublication.in) 29 Vol.3; Issue: 3; March 2016 brain organization. A general theoretical relations between mind and brain: the brain approach to consciousness will not include a can generate consciousness only if / and number of functional aspects of only when, the nervous system also consciousness, for example, attention and generates a representation of self. In this short-term memory. The approach of the context, the neurobiological mechanisms of initial research could address, however, a vision-inducing visual awareness, for partial aspect of awareness as the integration example, only if / and when interconnected of sensory data in space and time. Any with the mechanisms underlying the hypothesis, verified or falsified by representation of themselves, of everything experimental evidence, could represent, in that takes up space and lasts in time, that each case, an effective, albeit partial, feels, experience, that reminds and design. scientific progress. [41,42] Suppose that the only sensory For some processes, including awareness can be understood independently metacognition, introspection and awareness of a representation of itself is unreasonable. of emotions, for example, although relevant Striking is the experience and reflection of aspects of consciousness, we have not Damasio, [47,48] about the relationship enough data about their main between brain damage, body representation neurobiological correlates, so they must be and awareness related to self-representation. better investigated in the future. Instead The representation of the body, which is visual awareness can be investigated by consistently bodily stimulation and referring to a huge literature on the information on the state of the body, and of the provides the basic structure for the self- visual system. [43] representation and it is self-representation Llinas has proposed to give priority, that precedes and allows for full self- in search of the neurobiological correlates of awareness. awareness of differences - subjective and The representation of the body may objective - between , dream and be investigated, in fact, with the combined waking. This working proposal is striking techniques of neuropsychology, because the natural reduction of awareness, neurobiology and the study of the neural their deep sleep, could easily be compared network modeling. [49,50] From this to the brain function in a state of dream and perspective, the neural mechanisms of self- waking. The neuropsychological representation could be the subject of phenomenon "sleep" is present and be scientific research. [51] studied in many subjects and in many animal species. It 'likely that the hypothesis RESULTS of Time Synchronization, a phenomenon The three general approaches to highlighted in the neurons that carry signals neuroscience, Crick, Llinas and Damasio, in the CNS evoked by external stimuli, as can be considered complementary, proposed by Crick, neurobiological investigating different segments of the correlates of consciousness, may be related grand and complex problem of to the hypothesis of the involvement of consciousness. Each of them focuses its Llinas-cortical circuit intralaminar. [44-46] attention on specific aspects and details of Connections between brain stem structures the problem, but does not exclude, in its and the intralaminar nucleus of the thalamus essence, the contribution that can come may have a synergistic role in modulating from others. alertness (arousal), and, therefore, the level The neurophilosophy embraces the of awareness. hypothesis That what we call "the mind" is It remains to be addressed, however, in fact a level of brain activity. The term in terms not only experimental but also "neurophilosophy" was coined more than theoretical, the fundamental question in the twenty years ago to feature a new

International Journal of Research & Review (www.gkpublication.in) 30 Vol.3; Issue: 3; March 2016 interdisciplinary field. The term reflects features of "neurophilosophy" is its rejection developments potentially revolutionary, in of all forms of dualism that attempts to erect terms not only theoretical, about the mind- walls between a priori studies of the mind brain interaction in the light of advances in and brain studies: the dualistic interpretation neuroscience. A synergistic approach still seems to reign in the contemporary between the neuroscience, psychology, . From the genetics, evolutionary biology and neurophilosophyc perspective, however, philosophy, in this view, could lead to a dualism does not seem plausible: with this better understanding of the human mind In in mind it is a natural phenomenon. And 'the its simplest form, the idea of “nuclear brain "that thinks, feels, decides, sleeps and neurophilosophy" is that if you want to dreams"; mental activity is brain activity, a understand the nature of mind, you must certain level of functional organization of understand the nature of the brai:the. "mind" the brain. The antidualism and naturalism is actually a function of brain. [52] A are certainly essential in "neurophilosophy", corollary of this hypothesis states That we but, in its own context, the problem of can learn much about the reality of mental deserves particular attention. function by studying the brain at all levels In particular, one may wonder if the of organization. Until fairly recently, many different sciences, contributing to the philosophers preferred to believe That "neurophilosophy", cannot be reduced, important domains of mental function could ultimately, to a science of the brain. In a never be addressed using the tools of study of the neurobiological basis, empirical science. Many philosophers argue, underlying the human decision-making in even today, that the study of important areas "", some Italian authors of mental function can never be addressed argue the need for an inter-theoretical model using the tools of empirical science. across different disciplines (neuroscience, However, the progress of the co- psychology, and economics) that evolutionary psychology and neuroscience characterize the "neuroeconomics". The on many issues, including the theoretical approach of integrated consciousness, free will and the nature of disciplines, in fact, more than a reductionist knowledge, have suggested the need to approach pure, appears to provide a better reorient or update these beliefs. explanation of the natural human decision- Some large-scale mind-brain making. [54] P. Read Montague [55] has problems have not yet Been solved, and do explored new developments in the emerging require significant theoretical innovation. field of "neuroeconomics" and their Some important issues in the mind-brain relevance for neuroscience of higher have not yet been resolved. Such solutions, functions. From the point of view of probably, will require a considerable "neuroeconomics", the brain is basically a theoretical innovation. [53] machine decision whose choices are guided In Particular the problem of how to by interoceptive states, perception and understand the true nature of representations memory of past prize-gratification. Using remains unsolved. Today, the quantitative standardized behavioral tests, “neurophilosophy" is a fundamental part of while surveys are conducted neuroimaging the research about the philosophical aspects and / or neurophysiological, the related to mental processes, such as experimenters are able to study the different consciousness and meaning, the decision- evaluation strategies employed in the field making process, the nature of the self, etc., of choices between options. The "computer and includes many important sub-sectors modeling" can provide a brief such as the neuroeconomics, the about the relationship with structures and neuroethics, and the neuropedagogia and the neural functions. According to Montague, in . One of the most important this convergence of subfields we have a

International Journal of Research & Review (www.gkpublication.in) 31 Vol.3; Issue: 3; March 2016 clear example of the theoretical advantage how our ego extremely far from the model that you can get from the "fusion of two of the unitary subject in possession of the distinct intellectual traditions". [56] In a ability to equitable and rational deliberation. recent study of neurophysiology we were Neuroethics is another subfield of highlighted results on the functional neurophilosophy. Neuroimaging techniques properties of the cortical motor system, have been used to highlight the neural which challenge the traditional concept of correlates of moral decisions, highlighting human action, based on the meta-capability how individuals make these decisions. of representation of the act. According to These results begin to raise questions about the proposed by these authors, the type of brain activity underlying, indeed, you can "understand the actions of others the reasoning and the role played by through our" motor knowledge "- a emotions, in so-called "rational choices". M. mechanism that allows us to have an Reichlin [57] defines neuroethics as the "most immediate understanding of the intended spectacular" attempt to return to nature: the meaning of the action of others. naturalization of ethics, that is, "the descent The basis for this distinction is the from heaven of the morality of religion to contrast between two types of problems: the bare floor of our natural condition”. "what we can do problems" and "what we From a strictly scientific point of know problems". The first kind of issue view, however, despite this progress, there concerns what is allowed to do thanks to are reasons, not only practical but also neuroscientific findings; the second thing epistemological, so the mind-brain that we have to think of these discoveries. relationship could never become completely On the one hand, we then moral reflection decoded, in the individual, with finite on the consequences of the application of procedures of investigation. Features self- neuroscience: the legitimacy of consciousness and self-referential pharmacological or genetic techniques for representations, involved in strategic the enhancement of mental traits such as thinking and provisions, may remain intelligence - what we might call intractable in their essential aspects, when "intellectual doping" -; the legality of the investigated with the proper methods of "mind-reading" made theoretically possible neuroscience. It should be emphasized, by neuroimaging techniques. On the other however, like any scientific representation hand, searches of neuroethics challenge our of reality, and thus also of the human mind, ordinary ideas about the nature of conscious to the limits objectives, intrinsic to the rationality and even freedom. According to objects of analysis and methods of the many scholars, the science of the brain natural sciences, would not allow a full would show a person weakened by a understanding of mental subjective. [58] So plurality of neural agents, who decide and intrinsic part of our nature as human orient themselves based on and animals, that our nature as individuals and mechanisms very different from those who people is open to complementary education. naively ascribe to ourselves. All this opens It asks the plasticity of the brain, which has the door to the potential conflict between co-evolved with the complexity of our scientific and models of the mind ethically cultures. This asks the opening environment sensitive. It should be reported as the of our cognitive structure, which delegates neuropsychology has identified various to cognitive artifacts outside of the disorders of consciousness - including computational tasks supported by brain. In a hemineglect, "blind sight" (blindsight), picture of this magnitude, the question disconnection syndrome interemispheric "what does my brain when I make a (the so-called split brains), anosognosia, decision?" does not have a simple answer - prosopagnosia, "leaks" seizures, etc.. - and it passes through the clarification of the which make a lot of what we think about relationship between the self and its brain.

International Journal of Research & Review (www.gkpublication.in) 32 Vol.3; Issue: 3; March 2016 An analysis which leaves open many when presented a moral issue on which the options on how to respond to the individual decides not to act, because you neurophilosophical challenge. do not activate the emotional areas of the brain". [61] It has been suggested that when CONCLUSIONS we are involved in situations involving a The question of the relationship greater personal involvement on an between neurobiology and mind, in view of emotional level, our reaction appears driven its complexity, may seem irresolvable, by a "system" of government action based although already Freud argued, in his instinctive, automatic and visceral. On the "Project for a Scientific Psychology", in contrary, if we can distance ourselves from 1895, that: "One day it will be possible to ourselves, our ability to calculate a moral represent the psychic functioning in the impersonal seems to rely more on cognitive elements Organic Nervous System". [59] processes "cold" and rational. The Based on the evidence from physics, heliocentric hypothesis of Aristarchus of chemistry, evolutionary biology and Samos (about the third century BC.) has neuroscience, it seems very likely the collected evidence only after thousands of hypothesis that the ability of the human years; the humanity took thousands of years mind are determined neurobiologically. of culture before defining the table of the Affirming that this "biological chemical elements! reductionism" remains a hypothesis, It 'clear that deep truths are all at the neuroscientists are increasingly same time, simple and difficult to grasp; complementing the other disciplines also the problems faced by neuroscience and investigating the human mind. neuro experimental philosophy, today Interdisciplinary areas of neuroethics and appear complicated and difficult, but the neurophilosophy are beginning to address scientific and technological advances that some of the most complex issues, involving have allowed access to noninvasive the interactions of the brain with the mind functional processes in the brain in vivo in and consciousness. Eric Kandel, a humans, could lead, in the near future, a and Nobel Prize, the latest synthetic vision and objective on sound edition of its "Principles of Neuroscience" science. What now seems obvious it was wrote: "The last frontier of biological considered an incredible novelty, for the sciences, the ultimate challenge is to generations that preceded us. What until a understand the biological basis of few years ago it was a difficult subject to consciousness and mental processes by research, it is now the subject of educational which we perceive, act, learn and learning. Thus you can feed a cautious remember.” Recently, in fact, they have optimism about the possibility that scientific made their ability to calculate a moral progress can provide, in the near future, impersonal seems to rely more on cognitive surprising news about the nature of the processes "cold" and rational. [60] human mind and consciousness. To date it The heliocentric hypothesis of remains unresolved the fundamental Aristarchus of Samos (about the appearance question: is the self placed in the brain, or on the international stage a series of studies even identifiable with its functions? Perhaps that allow elucidate the brain mechanisms this question will accompany a long underlying moral reasoning [suggesting research in the scientific and philosophical That there is a brain-based account of moral debate on the subject. reasoning]. [...] These new data show that when an individual decides to act on a moral REFERENCES belief is because the brain areas involved in 1. Bolino F, Manna V, Di Cicco L, et alt. emotion are activated during the evaluation Startle reflex habituation in functional of the moral question involved. Similarly, psychoses: a controlled study.

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How to cite this article: Lydia F, Aurora F. What we do when our brain decides: neurophilosophy find the answers. Int J Res Rev. 2016; 3(3):25-36.

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International Journal of Research & Review (www.gkpublication.in) 36 Vol.3; Issue: 3; March 2016