Sere dina ni Lotu Wesele e Viti: “True Songs” The History, Culture and Music of Fijian Methodist Indigenous Liturgy Helen Black Submitted for examination 30thJuly, 2010 A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of The Australian National University. I testify that this thesis is entirely my own original work Preface My connection with the Fiji Islands dates back to 1879 when my great-great grandfather Leslie Walker sailed to Levuka, then capital of Fiji, with his wife and family. Fiji had just ceded to Great Britain (1874) and was a young colony. Walker accepted the job of Colonial Postmaster and is credited with establishing the postal system. Since then our mataqali (extended family) has lived continuously in Fiji until migrating to Australia in 1970. My interest in the indigenous music of the Methodist Church was aroused on a fieldtrip to Fiji in 1994 when researching Fijian women’s lullabies for my Master of Music degree. I was told of the indigenous liturgy of the Methodist Church and in particular the singing of same. Although I was well aware of fine Methodist hymnody, this music sounded intriguing and on completion of my degree I hoped at some time to undertake a full study. When such an opportunity came, my husband Edward and I went to Fiji in 2001 on a six-month fieldtrip to record and collect the music of which I had only, as it transpired, a very sketchy knowledge. It was difficult at first, even with my Fijian background, to know the protocol involved, the right people to consult, the logistics of travel and communication or even what to record. Fortunately I had been a judge at the Annual Methodist Choir Competition and met Qalo Rokotakala, the convener of the Competition, who was to be my mentor. Through her work at Methodist Headquarters, Epworth House, Suva, Qalo had all the contacts and the authority to help me along the way. I am indebted to Qalo for her help and friendship and to her daughter Vono Kula, interpreter and scribe, who often accompanied us. Part of the difficulty of working in Fiji is distance, access and timing. Most but not all recordings were made during Sunday worship. Village protocol demanded we explain our presence to the chief through a spokesman, and meet with the Methodist pastor before any service or recording session. This took serious and at times frustrating organisation, especially if the journey was long and in times of floods hazardous. To accomplish all this we needed to arrive early in the village to complete formalities and be in the church half an hour before worship to record the singing of the catechism (taro), followed by a two and half hour service conducted in the vernacular to record either a same or polotu. These three indigenous or indigenised compositions comprise the liturgy. To collect the fullest possible representation from the different Fijian communities I was greatly assisted by Miriama Dituvatuva who through her many connections particularly in Vitilevu and Cakaudrove organised excellent recording opportunities. Miri is my translator, interpreter and friend whose generous help and patient guidance through the minefield of Fijian custom gave me an understanding of Fijian society in breadth and depth. To Miri I owe deep gratitude. Fiji is a collection of different social groups each with its own dialect and customs, facts overlooked by many researchers who make sweeping generalisations about Fiji and the Fijians. I was to discover those differences as I travelled, particularly when it came to the naming and placing of vocal parts. The text of the two indigenous compositions same and polotu, in indigenous poetic form, are oral compositions and dependent on faithful memories. Lauan polotu in particular with its indigenised form (early Western and Tongan hymns) utilises names not necessarily Fijian for vocal parts. I discovered many interesting variations and had to be vigilant to correctly identify parts regardless of the name. This liturgy involves the whole congregation in participation and is particular to the Lauans who are proud of their connection to the initial missionary endeavour in Fiji. Over six months of fieldwork I amassed a considerable and rare collection, acquired an intimate knowledge of the many communities visited, and received kind and generous hospitality throughout Fiji. Above all was the realisation of the value of this research for the future preservation of this unique indigenous liturgy. So many people generously and patiently sat with me by the hour answering countless questions about their music and communities. To those men and women and to the Methodist church for all their help and encouragement I will always be grateful and hope that this research will inspire congregations to keep singing their liturgy. Back in Australia began the work of researching, discovering, transcribing, analysing, and writing; in all of this I was guided by my two longsuffering supervisors, Stephen Wild and Bronwen Douglas, whose extraordinary patience has at long last guided this thesis to completion. Well done both and many grateful thanks. So too the friends who patiently read through the many drafts and gave valuable advice. And to my Edward – what a journey – through rain, heat, yaqona, mosquitos, flies, mountainous seas, leaking boats, nonexistent roads: you saw the value of this music and patiently stayed, supported and cajoled me into finishing – as you say – ‘for the Fijians’. Thank you. Abstract In 1835 Fijian society was a complex web of discrete social groups, connected either by common ancestry or political affiliation, ruled by chiefs with varying degrees of authority. The largest and most powerful were the political matanitu (confederations) whose paramount chiefs ruled through turaga bale kei Viti, a powerful chiefly system sustained through tribute, approbation and reciprocity. Maintaining their power was a paramount force at the time of missionary contact when constant warfare embroiled all Fijian societies to a greater or lesser extent. The Methodist evangelists, first Westerners to make an impact of consequence on Fijian society, realised the overwhelmingly challenging task of introducing Christianity to so complex a society: tyranny of distance, deified chiefs, rigid mores, dialectic differences, diverse religious beliefs, priests with a vested interest in maintaining power; all these strands omnipresent in an ancient society with limited Western contact. Acceptance of the Christian God would challenge fundamental tenets of chiefly authority and power, as well as Fijian spiritual belief and worship. Making meaningful progress involved the missionaries acknowledging Fijian authority, working within the Fijian social system and, of paramount importance, training and providing Fijian Christian acceptors with the tools for their work of evangelisation. Most effective of all the tools of written language, single dialect, literacy and education, was the utilisation for a Christian liturgy of the meke. Meke, all indigenous sung poetry, is the repository of Fijian oral culture and the one unifying factor in Fijian societies at the time of missionary contact. Events of consequence, past and present, are recorded in the music text known and sung by all indigenous Fijians. Here then was the vital tool for imparting the principles of Christian theology in the semiotics of their first language. Known as taro (catechism), same and polotu, these compositions together with Methodist prayers gave Fijians a complete theological framework in the tradition of their music. i This thesis examines the pivotal role of Christianised meke as an evangelising tool in the introduction of Christianity. The text of this music spoke directly to Fijians in their oral tradition. Understanding the impact of that contact is to know the elements constituting Fijian society at the time of missionary contact, to be studied with the ethos of the missionaries and the process of adjoining Methodist theocracy to a polytheistic society. Examination of the music and text of the liturgy will show how an indigenous form so completely and uniquely accommodated a rubric for Christian worship. ii Table of Contents Preface Abstract i Figures and Maps vi Chapter 1 - Overview, Methodology and Chapter Summaries 1 Background…………………………………………………………………………………..1 Methodist missionaries……………………………………………………………………….2 Literature review……………………………………………………………………………..12 Methodology…………………………………………………………………………………18 Fieldwork…………………………………………………………………………………….19 Archival repositories………………………………………………………………………....21 Transcriptions and textual examinations…………………………………………………….23 Synopsis of the Chapters and conclusion……………………………………………………25 Chapter 2 - Early Fijian History to the Arrival of the Methodist Missionaries in 1835 Introduction ......................................................................................................................28 Geographical location and population distribution .............................................................28 Climate and agriculture .....................................................................................................30 Pacific migrations pertaining to Fijian society and land .....................................................31 Lapita ...............................................................................................................................31 Lapita navigation and settlement of Fiji .............................................................................32 Language..........................................................................................................................35