The Struggle for Democracy in Nineteenth- Century Europe (1815–1914)
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The Struggle for Democracy in Nineteenth- Century Europe (1815–1914) The years from the end of the Congress of Vienna (1815) to the revolutions of 1848 are often referred to as the Age of Reaction, or the Age of Metternich. Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria set in motion a 30-year pattern of anti-democratic policies that was followed by the conservatives—monarchs, nobles, landowners, and Church elders—who dominated the continent of Europe. Metternich firmly believed that the American and French revolutions had been responsible for a generation of war, causing bloodshed and suffering in Europe. As a conservative, he had a passionate hatred of liberalism because it had generally become associated with national aspirations. The idea that each national group had a right to establish its own independent government threatened the very existence of the nobility as well as the Austrian Empire. Conservatives such as Metternich wanted to return the kings of Europe to power and restore the historic social class structure in society. Many peasants sup- ported the conservatives because they wanted to preserve their traditional ways that were being threatened by industrialization. In spite of the careful plans of the Congress of Vienna, there were a series of revolts inspired by nationalism or liberalism in countries such as Italy, Spain, Greece, and Portugal. These revolts spread to Austria, the German states, and France. Borrowing their ideas from the Enlightenment, the liberal thinkers of the 1820s and 1830s, many of whom represented the middle class, wanted a government based on a written constitution that guaran- teed the natural rights of the people. The struggle between liberalism and conservatism erupted in full-scale revolts in 1848. The tidal wave of revolution ended the Age of Metternich, and for many opponents of the old order it was the springtime of the people. The revolutions of 1848, beginning in Paris, affected all the countries on the European continent except Great Britain and Russia. In the German states, following the 1848 uprisings, Prussia’s failure to accommodate democratic changes contrib- uted to the growth of militarism within the country. Austria, meanwhile, struggled against the forces of democ- racy and nationalism threatened the foundation of its multilingual, multinational empire. In France, the revolutions of 1848 continued the nation’s uneven march toward democracy as the country grappled with the forces of liberalism and conservatism. In Russia, which was unaffected by the 1848 revolutions, efforts to modernize and reform the economy came into conflict with the goals of the Russian czar to retain absolute control. In Britain, however, different democratic reforms had evolved throughout the nineteenth century that helped to broaden the franchise and voter participa- tion. By the end of the nineteenth century, both Britain and France had created the foundation for a liberal democratic government. The Age of Metternich (1815–1848) Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773–1859) of the Austrian Empire took stern measures to combat the spread of democracy and nationalism. He began his diplomatic career in 1801 as Ambassador to Saxony, and later to Prussia in 1803. In 1806, the Austrian Emperor appointed him Ambassador to Napoleon’s court and by 1809, he was Foreign Minister, an office he held until 1848. In 1810, Metternich was successful in arranging the marriage of Marie Louise, the 18-year-old daughter of the emperor, to Napoleon, who had divorced his wife, Josephine. He also secured a temporary alliance with France. Metternich joined the War of the Sixth Coalition against Napoleon, after the French invaded Russia in 1812. Metternich reached the height of his power at the Congress of Vienna (see Chapter 5, “The Age of Revolution: The French Revolution and Napoleonic Era”), and after 1815, Metternich devoted his energies to upholding the settlements of the Congress of Vienna and maintaining the power of the Hapsburg Dynasty in Europe. The Metternich System employed censorship of speech and the press, espionage, and the suppression of revolutionary and national movements. It also used secret police and spies to establish control. The German Confederation, as states under Metternich’s control were called, was forced to adopt the Carlsbad Decrees (1819), 117 551004-ch07.1.indd 117 8/11/10 2:54 PM Part I: Subject Area Reviews with Sample Questions and Answers which banned freedom of speech and the press. Other countries in Europe adopted similarly restrictive policies. In Britain, the Six Acts (1819) were designed to control radical leaders, and in France the Four (or July) Ordinances (1830) forbade freedom of the press and reduced the number of eligible voters. Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia also formed a Quadruple Alliance and were later joined by France in 1818 ( Quintuple Alliance) to keep peace and maintain order of the existing status quo. This cooperation among the major powers became known as the “Concert of Europe.” Despite repression, reformers continued to demand democracy and independent governments. Frequent uprisings throughout the 1820s and 1830s weakened the Metternich System. The Revolutions of the 1820s From 1820 to 1823, revolutions broke out in Spain, Sardinia, Portugal, and Greece. The revolts in Spain and Sardinia were easily crushed by the members of the Quintuple Alliance. A constitutional monarchy was established in Portugal in 1822. In their rebellion against the Ottoman Empire, the Greek revolutionaries won worldwide support. The Greek revolt became tied to the so-called “ Eastern Question” in European history: a term used to designate the political and diplomatic problems created by the decaying Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. European countries, especially England, France, and Russia, feared the instability of the European territories controlled by the Ottoman Empire. Many Europeans wanted to support their cause because Christian Europe saw it as a struggle against the Muslims as well as a way to gain territory and weaken the Ottoman Empire. In 1824, the work of the Romantic painter Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) entitled The Massacre of Chios glorified the struggle of Greek freedom fighters against the Ottomans and won the support of nationalists. In 1829, Greece won its independence. The Revolutions of the 1830s A series of revolutions broke out in the 1830s, first taking place in France and then spreading to Belgium, Poland, Italy, and Germany. After the fall of Napoleon, Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI, was returned to the throne. Although undemocratic, Louis protected the people against the return of absolutism and aristocratic privilege. When Louis died in 1824, his brother Charles X (who reigned from 1824 to 1830) inherited the throne and decided to reestablish the old order, believing in absolute rule. In 1830, he suspended the legislature, limited the right to vote, and restricted the press. This sparked the July Revolution (July 26–29, 1830). Angry students, work- ers, and intellectuals rioted in Paris for three days. Charles abdicated and fled to Britain. The workers and intel- lectuals wanted a republic, but the upper middle class, who retained control, wanted a constitutional monarchy. Through the efforts of Talleyrand and the Marquis de Lafayette, the lower house of the Chamber of Deputies agreed upon Louis-Philippe as king—Louis-Philippe was a cousin of Charles X, and in his youth had supported the revolution of 1789. The French called Louis-Philippe the “citizen king”; he was plain spoken, dressed in a frock coat and top hat, carried an umbrella, and owed his throne to the people. He adopted the dress of the common man. He also replaced the Bourbon flag with the tricolore flag of the Revolution and increased the electorate to include the upper middle class. The vast majority of the people, however, could still not vote and Louis’ policy favored the middle class at the expense of the workers. The news of the successful July Revolution in France served as a spark to revolutions throughout Europe, leading Metternich to say, “When France sneezes, Europe catches a cold.” In 1830, Belgium revolted against Dutch rule, protesting against being governed by people who had a different language and religion. The Belgians received support from Louis-Philippe in France and from England, and in 1831 they became an independent state. In 1839, all the great powers recognized Belgium as a neutral state. Nationalist uprisings also took place in Italy, Germany, and Poland; these revolts were easily crushed by Austria and Russia, however. The successful revolutions in France and Belgium showed that even in Western Europe, the Metternich System could not contain the forces of democracy and nationalism. 118 551004-ch07.1.indd 118 8/11/10 2:54 PM The Struggle for Democracy in Nineteenth-Century Europe (1815–1914) The Revolutions of 1848 and Their Aftermath The specter of revolutions, which according to Karl Marx haunted Europe in 1848, was similar to the one that had previously haunted Europe in 1789 and 1830. In 1848, however—a time of social and economic change—the revolutionary demands were widespread and irrepressible. Agricultural disasters, such as the Irish potato famine, widespread unemployment, and tension between the urban workers and the new class of capitalists created by the Industrial Revolution added to the discontent. Moreover, the power of nationalism in the German and Italian states added fuel to an already smoldering fire. France As usual, France started the revolutionary tide by revolting early in February of 1848. King Louis-Philippe aroused the opposition of both the liberal and the radical Republicans. The liberal Republicans consisted of moderates and members of the middle class who supported the expansion of the suffrage for all male voters. The radical Republicans wanted to promote social and economic changes to help the lives of the workers. They opposed both a monarchy and the liberal Republicans, who had formerly supported Louis-Philippe, and they denounced the rampant corruption of his government and voting restrictions.