Gauteng State of Environment Report - 2011 © Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2011 ISBN 978-0-620-54565-5

Suggested Citation: Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (2011). Gauteng State of the Environment Report 2011. Gauteng Provincial Government Report was compiled and edited by Gillian Maree, Janet Loubser and Gerard van Weele

Project Steering Committee: Independent review team Department of Environmental Affairs; Department of Water Affairs: Gauteng; Social: Aubrey Kekana (Gauteng Department of Economic Development), Felicity Kitchin Gauteng Department of Economic Development; South African Local Government (Gauteng City Region Observatory) and Anna Mampye (Department of Environmental Association; City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality; Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Affairs) Municipality; West Rand District Municipality; Merafong City Municipality; Mogale Land and agriculture: Garry Patterson (Agriculture Research Council) and Motlatjo Makaepea City Local Municipality; Chamber of Mines of South Africa; University of Pretoria; (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development) University of the Witwatersrand; Endangered Wildlife Trust; Wildlife and Environ- Atmosphere: Rina Taviv (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development) ment Society of South Africa. Water: Anet Muir (Department of Water Affairs) and Mogale Matseba (Department of Water Affairs) Biodiversity: Budu Manaka (SANBI) GDARD Project Manager Waste: Suzan Oelofse (CSIR), Zingisa Smale (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Teboho Leku Development) Assisted by Shafick Hoossein Vulnerability: Anna Mampye (Department of Environmental Affairs) and Mercia Komen (Federation for a Sustainable Environment) SSI Project Team Governance: Mercia Komen (Federation for a Sustainable Environment) Project Manager: Gillian Maree Drivers of change: Gillian Maree For more information on this document please contact: Social: Janet Loubser, Phyllis Kalele and Gerard van Weele Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development Land and agriculture: Gerard van Weele and Tasneem Collins Directorate: Environmental Planning and Impact Assessment Atmosphere: Lerato Khumalo and Stuart Thompson P.O. Box 8769, Johannesburg, 2000 Water: Charlotte Grobbelaar, Earl Herdien and Gillian Maree Tel: 011 355 1285 Biodiversity: Catherine Meyer, Luke Moore and Gillian Maree Website: http://www.gdard.gpg.gov.za Waste: Ntseketsi Lerotholi and Gerard van Weele Governance: Janet Loubser and Tasneem Collins GIS: Luke Moore Review: Raylene Watson, Toni Redman and Margot Ladouce Photo Credits: Gillian Maree, Stuart Thompson, Eben van Schalkwyk, Gerard van Weele, Charlotte Grobbelaar, City of Tshwane and Live4Design With contributions from Mercia Koman (Federation for a Sustainable Environ- ment) and Melinda Swift (GDARD) Graphic design and layout: Live4Design ([email protected]) Foreword by the MEC

As the economic hub of the country and the continent In short, the SoER is an environmental census, documenting and home to 21,5 % of the country’s total population1, the the status quo of our environment. It measures our accomplishments Gauteng Province’s natural resources are under threat. They are and identifies challenges requiring priority attention. vulnerable to a variety of pressures as the province attempts to The Executive Council has adopted the Green Strategic Pro- provide needed development and socio-economic infrastruc- gramme that consolidates the province’s activities in response to ture to meet the demands of society. This has been exacerbated challenges posed by climate change, that is the need to transform by the previous unsustainable development practices and their the economy into a low-carbon economy and facilitate environmen- impacts including spatial organisation, mining and agricultural tally responsible development. The report helps us understand where activities. we are so that we tailor our programmes and responses to address The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa is widely immediate and long-term environmental challenges. acclaimed for making provision for environmental rights. It This report provides an updated account of the state of our has been argued that this makes South Africa one of only two environment, highlighting progress from the 2004 State of Environ- countries to give the environment such priority. Embedded in ment Report (SoER), and the accomplishments and challenges facing the Constitution is the need to protect the environment for government in pursuing the Sustainable Development agenda. the benefit of present and future generations by preventing Generally it appears that we still have work to do in order to meet pollution and ecological degradation, promoting conserva- the ideals expoused above. tion and securing ecologically sustainable development while I would like to thank the Gauteng stakeholders who have allowing for economic and social development. In addition, the assisted the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development in South African government has adopted an outcomes approach compiling this detailed analysis of our unique environment. Most of to measure government’s performance on identified key areas. all, I hope that this report provides you with useful information about Amongst these outcome areas is the need to protect and environmental issues of importance in Gauteng and encourages enhance environmental assets and natural resources. Thus, the awareness and information sharing on environmental management State of the Environment Report (SoER) is a key instrument for and sustainable development for a more equitable future. tracking our efforts to protect the province’s environmental assets.

MEC Nandi Mayathula-Khoza 1Statistics above from the South Africa Survey 2008/2009 published by the South African Institute of Race Relations. Foreword i List of Acronyms

ABET Adult Basic Education Training GDACE Gauteng Department of Agriculture Conservation and OWMA Olifants Water Management Area

AEL Atmospheric Emission License Environment O3 Ozone AGIS Agricultural Geographic Information System GDACEL Gauteng Department of Agriculture Conservation p.a. per annum AMD Acid Mine Drainage Environment and Land Affairs PAHs Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons AQMP Air Quality Management Plan GDARD Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Develop- Pb Lead AQO Air Quality Objective ment PLAAS Programme for Land and Agrarian Studies ARC Agricultural Research Council GDP Gross Domestic Product PM Particulate matter ARV Anti Retroviral GEDA Gauteng Economic Development Agency PMTC Prevention of Mother to Child ASGISA Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative for South Africa GGP Gross Geographic Product PO₄ Phosphate BnM Basa njengo Magogo GIS Geographic Information System ppb Parts per billion C6H6 Benzene GOSP Gauteng Open Space Project QLFS Quarterly Labour Force Survey CBD Central Business District GPAES Gauteng protected area expansion strategy RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme CDE Centre for Development Enterprise GPG Gauteng Provincial Government RHP River Health Programme CH4 Methane GSDP Gauteng Spatial Development Perspective RQS Resource Quality Services CO Carbon monoxide GVA Gross Value Added RWQO Resource Water Quality Objectives CO2 Carbon dioxide GWIS Gauteng Waste Information System SA South Africa CoJ City of Johannesburg HCRW Health Care Risk Waste SAAQIS South African Air Quality Information System CoT City of Tshwane HSRC Human Sciences Research Council SADC Southern African Development Community CS Community Survey ICT Information and Communication Technology SADI South African Development Index CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research IDP Integrated Development Plan SAPIA South Africa Petroleum Industry Association CWM WMA Crocodile (West) Marico Water Management Area ILO International Labour Organization SD Sustainable Development DAFF Department of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries, ISCW Institute for Soil, Climate and Water SDF Spatial Development Framework formally DoA IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature SDI Spatial Development Initiative DBE Department of Basic Education IWMP Integrated Waste Management Plan SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment DBSA Development Bank of Southern Africa JIPSA Joint Initiative for Priority Skills Acquisition SEED Sustainable Energy for Environment and Development DEA Department of Environmental Affairs, formally DEAT LTMS Long Term Mitigation Scenarios SERO Socio-Economic Review and Outlook

DEAT Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism MDG Millennium Development Goal SO2 Sulphur dioxide DLARD Department of Land Affairs and Rural Development MLL Minimum Living Level SO₄ Sulphate DMR Department of Mineral Resources MR Mining Residue SoE State of Environment DMS Dissolved Major Salts MRAs Mine Residue Areas SoER State of Environment Report DOA Department of Agriculture MRF Material Recovery Facility StatsSA Statistics South Africa DOH Department of Health NCCRS National Climate Change Response Strategy TDS Total dissolved solids DPSIR Drivers-Pressures-State-Impact-Responses NEM:AQ National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act 39 TSP Total Suspended Particulates DPW Department of Public Works of 2004 UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and DWA Department of Water Affairs, formally DWAF NEM:BA National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act Development DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry 10 of 2004 UNDP United Nations Development Programme EC Electrical conductivity NEMA National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998 UNEP United Nations Environment Programme EIA Environmental Impact Assessment NEM: WA National Environmental Management: Waste Act 59 of UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Fund EMF Environmental Management Framework 2008 UV Ultra violet EMM Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development UV WMA Upper Vaal Water Management Area FRIDGE Fund for Research into Industrial Development, Growth NER National Electricity Regulator VCT Voluntary Counselling and Testing and Equity NGO Non-government Organisation VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds GAPA Gauteng Agricultural Potential Atlas NLC National Land Cover WMA Water Management Area

GCCRS Gauteng Climate Change Response Strategy NO2 Nitrogen dioxide WRDM West Rand District Municipality GCIS Government Communication Information System NO₂ + NO₃ Nitrate / Nitrite WRI World Resources Institute GCR Gauteng City Region NOx Nitrogen oxides WSNIS Water Services National Information System GCRO Gauteng City-Region Observatory NSBA National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development GDED Gauteng Department of Economic Development NWMS National Waste Management Strategy ii List of Acronyms Table of Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 Gauteng Environment: Setting the scene 7

3 Drivers of environmental change 17

4 Social 23

5 Land and agriculture 39

6 Atmosphere 51

7 Water 63

8 Biodiversity 77

9 Waste 91

10 Governance 101

11 Conclusion 111

12 Acknowledgements 121

Annexures 123

Table of Contents iii List of Tables

GAUTENG ENVIRONMENT: SETTING THE SCENE 2 Table 2.1: Population density of the Gauteng region compared locally 7

SOCIAL Table 4.1: Provincial overview showing population changes between WASTE 2001 and 2007 24 Table 9.1: General waste volumes generated in Gauteng 92 4 Table 4.2: Gini Coefficient rating for South Africa and Gauteng 30 Table 9.2: Estimate life-spans for Gauteng landfill sites for 2007 93 Table 4.3: Percentage of the population living below the Minimum Living Table 9.3: Summary of Gauteng survey data for generated and Level (MLL) in South Africa and Gauteng 33 9 treated HCRW quantities (tonnes per annum) 94 Table 4.4: Human Development Index for South Africa and Gauteng 33 Table 9.4: Gauteng commercial treatment capacity and throughput for all HCRW quantities 94 LAND 5 Table 5.1: Land transferred from 1994 to March 2011 45 GOVERNANCE 10 Table 10.1: Provincial expenditure on environmental management 107 WATER Table 7.1: Surface water quality ratings for Gauteng Province (2004 – 2011) 65 CONCLUSION Table 7.2: Effects of phosphate levels on ecosystems of Gauteng Province Table 11.1: Outcome focus areas and Gauteng Province 113 (2004 – 2011) 67 11 Table 11.2: Outcome 10 focus areas and Gauteng Province 115 7 Table 7.3: Trophic status for major dams in Gauteng 68 Table 11.3: Trends per chapter 116 Table 7.4: Groundwater quality ratings for Gauteng Province (2004 – 2011) 69 Table 7.5: Ecological State indicator references and descriptions 70

BIODIVERSITY Table 8.1: Summary of Red Data status for each taxonomic group in Gauteng 80 Table 8.2: Endemic species per taxonomic group 80 Table 8.3: The most important invasive plant species in Gauteng 81 8 Table 8.4: Level 1 and 2 protected areas in Gauteng 83 Table 8.5: Percentage of the Gauteng Province important for biodiversity 84 Table 8.6: Summary of the vegetation types in the Gauteng Province, habitat lost, the national conservation target, ecosystem status and protection level for each type 85 Table 8.7: Summary of wetlands in the Gauteng Province and percentage habitat lost 86

iv List of Tables List of Figures

INTRODUCTION ATMOSPHERE BIODIVERSITY Fig. 1.1: The DPSIR Reporting framework 2 Fig. 8.1: Average density of invasive alien species 1 Fig. 6.1: Modelled energy and CO2 emission balance for Gauteng 2007 52 8 in Gauteng 82 GAUTENG ENVIRONMENT: SETTING THE SCENE Fig. 6.2: Air quality monitoring stations within Gauteng 54 Fig. 8.2: Protected areas in Gauteng 83

Fig. 2.1: 2005 boundaries for Gauteng and the new local government Fig. 6.3: Average monthly monitored PM10 2004 to 2011 54 Fig. 8.3: Gauteng Conservation Plan Version 3 84

boundaries as of the 2011 local elections 8 Fig. 6.4: Average monthly monitored PM2.5 2007 to 2011 55

Fig. 2.2: Topography of Gauteng showing the major rivers and catch- Fig. 6.5: Average monthly monitored SO2 data for WASTE 2 ments 9 Johannesburg, 2004 to 2011 55 Fig. 9.1: Percentage contribution of the total volumes Fig. 2.3: Vegetation types of Gauteng 12 6 Fig. 6.6: Energy use by carrier and sector in Gauteng 9 of waste per stream for Gauteng 92 Province 56 DRIVERS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE Fig. 6.7: Total (dry plus wet) acidic deposition rates 57 GOVERNANCE 3 Fig. 3.1: Areas of natural and cultural resources that require protection Fig. 6.8: Gauteng Province carbon profile, showing the Fig. 10.1: Service delivery protests 102 in order to ensure sustainability of the province 19 necessity of stringent targets to meet the Fig. 10.2: Changes in the access to electricity requirements of the Long Term Mitigation services from 2001-2007 103 SOCIAL Scenarios (LTMS) 58 Fig. 10.3: Access to waste removal from 2001-2007 104 Fig. 4.1: Population growth per District Council 25 Fig. 10.4: Access to sanitation services for Gauteng Fig. 4.2: Education levels of persons in Gauteng 25 WATER 10 from 2001-2007 104 Fig. 4.3: Unemployment per Local Authority 26 Fig. 7.1: Water resources in Gauteng 63 Fig. 10.5: Alternative sanitation facilities for Fig. 4.4: Population structure by age distribution 27 Fig. 7.2: Location of active surface and groundwater Gauteng in 2007 105 4 Fig. 4.5: Night lights aerial photography for Gauteng 27 monitoring points in Gauteng Province 65 Fig. 10.6: Access to ICT services for Gauteng from Fig. 4.6: Type of dwelling in Gauteng in 2007 28 Fig. 7.3: Percentage of monitoring points in each 2001-2007 106 Fig. 4.7: Sectoral contribution and economic performance, 2002 - 2014 29 quaternary catchment exceeding water quality Fig. 10.7: The indices of multiple deprivation in Fig. 4.8: Link between ecosystem services and constituents of well-being 32 guidelines for Faecal Coliforms (2004-2011) 66 Gauteng 106 Fig. 4.9: Types of social grants disbursed per person in Gauteng 34 Fig. 7.4: Monitoring points showing spatial locations where ‘not acceptable’ ratings have been recorded for LAND 7 dissolved major salts and sulphates (2004 – 2011) 66 Fig. 5.1: Map of land use for Gauteng 2009 40 Fig. 7.5: Monitoring points showing spatial locations where Fig. 5.2: Land use for Gauteng 2000 41 ‘not acceptable’ ratings have been recorded for Fig. 5.3: Land use for Gauteng 2009 41 nitrates and phosphates (2004 – 2011) 67 Fig. 5.4: Dolomite areas and mine residue plan 42 Fig. 7.6: Ecological status of Gauteng rivers (RHP) shown as 5 Fig. 5.5: Radiation plan of the Witwatersrand area figure showing the percentage of the total number of sites 71 band of radioactive contaminated land that runs from west to Fig. 7.7: Western, central and Eastern mining basins 72 east along the mining belt across Gauteng 42 Fig. 5.6: Location and potential of agricultural resources in Gauteng 43 Fig. 5.7: Crop yields in Gauteng from 1993 to 2009 43 List of Figures v

Introduction 1

Introduction

A State of Environment Report provides an “environmental and to inform them about what is being done to improve The development of SoER reporting within Gauteng goes census” for the environment at a particular time for a the environment. Decision-makers will use the information back 15 years and informs future reports and provides a specific area. The State of Environment Report (SoER) presented to assist with achieving and reporting on environ- useful record of environmental trends. The first SoER in process will assist the Gauteng Provincial Government (GPG), mentally sustainable development and government targets Gauteng was initiated in 1997/1998 with the release of specifically the Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural for environmental management. a Department of Agriculture, Conservation, Environment Development (GDARD), as well as other decision-makers, and Land Affairs (erstwhile name of GDARD) State of the to make informed decisions about our environment. It is A SoER gives information on how we affect the environment, Environment Preliminary Report. The intention was to “... compiled to present information to the public about the and how the environment affects us. A SoER asks: continually identify new issues and priorities, collect informa- condition and quality of the environment that we live in, tion and update old data, with a view to ensuring effective • What is happening? monitoring of the state of our environment”. The report was • Why is it happening? subsequently updated during 2004 (Gauteng Department of • Are changes significant? Agriculture, Conservation and Environment, 2004). • What is being (can be) done? • Where do we want to be? This SoER is the third report on the state of environment in Gauteng and is a concise update of the 2004 report. The environment is the surroundings within which SoERs describe and compare environmental conditions in humans exist and that are made up of different geographical regions through the use of environ- mental indicators. Such reports have been compiled for (i) the land, water and atmosphere of the earth; many areas in South Africa and on different levels of scale (ii) micro-organisms, plant and animal life; including cities, provinces and countries. Indicators are (iii) any part or combination of (i) and (ii) and the proxies of environmental status, which can be monitored interrelationships among and between them; over time and space. and (iv) the physical, chemical, aesthetic and cultural properties and conditions that influence human health and well-being.

National Environmental Management Act No.107 of 1998 Introduction 1 What is sustainable State of Environment development? Reporting in Sustainable development is a broad term linking long-term South Africa intergeneration environmental equity to enhancing human well-being and quality of life for all. Resource use efficiency A State of the Environment (SOE) Report describes and intergenerational equity are the core principles of the condition of the environment against a set of key sustainable development. If this generation leaves the environmental indicators. It provides an evaluation next generation with degraded economic, social and of the status of the environment and establishes environmental assets and less wealth, then the result will linkages to the socio-economic and political environ- be an unsustainable future. Fundamental to understanding ment. The report is designed to cover a full range of Drivers Pressures sustainable development is recognising the interdependence environmental issues, reporting on changes Human influences and Pressures on resources of economic, social and environmental systems. A SoER, over time. Ultimately, a SoER should guide us natural conditions that and ecosystems as a result of human activities through its use of indicators over time, provides a snapshot towards sustainable resource management drive environmental of whether environmental conditions are improving or (Department of Environmental Affairs and change (macro issues) getting worse. Tourism, 2006).

In response to the sustainable development agenda South The report is based on the Africa has developed a National Framework on Sustainable international drivers-pressures- Development (2005), the purpose of which is to express the state-impact-responses (DPSIR) national vision for sustainable development and strategic framework which is used for most Responses interventions to re-orientate South Africa’s development South African SoE reporting. Actions taken by society State path in a more sustainable manner. and government in Condition of the response to negative Environment environmental impacts

Sustainable Development is “development that Impacts meets the needs of the present without compro- Impacts on mising the ability of future generations to meet resources and their own needs”. ecosystems as a result of human activities

World Commission on Environment and Figure 1.1: The DPSIR Reporting framework (adapted from UNEP/GRID-Arendal Development, 1987 Maps and Graphics Library, 2002) 2 Introduction Reporting commitments of Gauteng Indicators used in the Gauteng SoER Outcome 10 specifically focuses on “Environmental assets Province and natural resources that are well protected and continually Indicators used in this report were selected with two primary enhanced” and suggests the need to address four critical GDARD will use the information contained within the SoER criteria: problems: report to inform future reporting requirements as well as to improve responses to environmental conditions. • Where possible, using the same indicators as the 2004 1. Unsustainable use of water and declining quality and Gauteng SoER to allow continuity and changes to be quantity of water resources; To date SoE reporting has not been a legal requirement, measured 2. Rising green house gas emissions and a lack of strategies rather a voluntary commitment from the Gauteng Province • Using indicators from the National Environmental to cope with projected climate change impacts and the as part of its responses to environment commitments within Sustainability Indicators published by DEA as best practice rising trend in relation to the release of pollutants into the province. (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2009) the atmosphere; 3. Poor environmental management; and, Recently the National Environmental Management Laws Environmental indicators are developed to measure and 4. Inadequate biodiversity protection. Amendment Bill, 2011 proposed inserting provisions monitor the key environmental issues identified by the under the National Environmental Management Act, 1998 province. The indicator set used within this report was The indicators in the State of Environment Report are (Act No. 107 of 1998) that set out requirements for the determined through a review of indicators from the 2004 relevant to a number of outcomes, such as vibrant, equitable national Department of Environmental Affairs, provincial SoER report, consulting with relevant specialists and during and sustainable rural communities (Outcome 7), an efficient, departments responsible for environmental affairs and all a stakeholder workshop. Key environmental indicators competitive and responsive economic infrastructure network metropolitan and district municipalities to prepare and have been grouped according to themes within the SoER (Outcome 6) and sustainable human settlements (Outcome publish state of environment reports. This is proposed to Framework Report. A final set of indicators was selected at a 8). Indicators used within the 2011 Gauteng SoER include occur within 4 years of the provisions coming into operation stakeholder workshop held on 3 August 2011. reference and linkages to the relevant Outcome Priorities and at least every 4 years thereafter. for government. However, the most important outcome for sustainable environmental management is Outcome 10 and Sustainability indicators and the the specialist chapters deal with these outputs and indica- Measuring changes in the environ- Outcome Delivery Agreements tors in detail. ment Government has agreed on 12 outcomes as a key focus of Environmental indicators allow us to measure changes in the government priorities between 2010 and 2014. Combined, environment over time. Indicators enable better environ- these agreements reflect government’s delivery and imple- mental decision making by representing large amounts of mentation plans for its foremost priorities. Each outcome has complex data in a simple manner that shows both absolute a limited number of measurable outputs with targets. Each values and trends. output is linked to a set of activities that will help achieve the targets and contribute to the outcome. The 12 outcomes are coupled to a delivery agreement with measurable targets.

Introduction 3 Indicators used in Chapter Indicator Indicator: Existing (from 2004) or new (2011) this report Trends in population growth Existing Population density Existing To ensure continuity from the 2004 Gauteng State Population structure Existing of the Environment Report, the same or similar Housing types and households Existing indicators have been used in this report, except Sectoral employment for the economically active population Existing for new areas or environmental priorities. Household income Existing Social Unemployment Existing HIV/AIDS Existing Infant mortality Existing Poverty (Minimum Living Level) New Human Development Index (HDI) New Education Existing Adult literacy Existing Land cover Existing Land transformation Existing Land unsuitable for human use (mining residue, dolomitic land Land & radiation) New Agricultural potential New Percentage lost high potential agricultural land New Soil Loss Existing Ambient sulphur dioxide concentrations Existing Ambient particulate concentrations Existing Ambient nitrogen dioxide concentrations Existing Trends in household energy use per energy type Existing Atmosphere Annual rainfall deviations relative to the mean annual rainfall Removed and replaced with temperature period 1961-1990 as an indicator of climate change Ambient Air Quality (Ozone Concentrations) Existing Sectoral sources of greenhouse and criterion trace gas emissions New Annual temperature deviation New

4 Introduction Chapter Indicator Indicator: Existing (from References 2004) or new (2011) Surface water nutrients Existing Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. (2006). Faecal contamination Existing South African Environmental Outlook. A report on the Ground water nutrients Existing state of the environment. Pretoria, South Africa: DEAT. Surface water toxicity Existing Department of Environmental Affairs. (2009). Environmental Water Surface water use per sector Existing Sustainability Indicators, Technical Report 2009. Pretoria: Ecological State of Rivers Existing Department of Environmental Affairs. Green drop status New Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment. (2004). Gauteng State of the Environment Blue drop status New Report 2004. Johannesburg: Gauteng Provincial Govern- Threatened and extinct species per taxonomic group Existing ment. Endemic species per taxonomic group Existing UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. (2002). Distribution of invasive alien species New DPSIR framework for State of the Environment Reporting. Extent of conserved areas Existing Retrieved September 2011, 2011, from http://maps.grida. Biodiversity Habitat Transformation Existing no/go/graphic/dpsir_framework_for_state_of_environ- Wetland rehabilitation New ment Percentage irreplaceable/CBAs (CPlan) Existing, altered according to NEM:BA Protected area expansion targets New Available landfill lifespan Existing Landfill space Existing Per capita generation of waste / per household or municipal generation of waste Existing Waste Hazardous waste Existing Mining waste Existing Domestic waste removal Existing Health care risk waste Existing Access to services Existing, with additions Governance IDP Commitment to the environment New Budget allocation New

Introduction 5

The Gauteng environment - setting the scene 2

Introduction The Gauteng City Gauteng Province is the economic centre of South Africa and Region people (Statistics South Africa, 2001). Urban development plays a pivotal role in the African economy. Collectively, the extends to the east of Johannesburg through towns including urban cluster of cities, town and nodes, and the surrounding Gauteng is the Sotho word for “place of gold” and the name Germiston, Springs, Boksburg and Benoni. Urban develop- rural areas within commuting distance form the “Gauteng describes a province shaped and built on gold. The under- ment to the west includes Roodepoort and Krugersdorp. City-Region”. The region contributes 50% of South Africa’s ground gold reserves of the Witwatersrand have been mined While Vereeniging and Vanderbiljpark, important industrial economic output, and attracts a cosmopolitan array of and processed in Gauteng since the 1800s and the location and coal-mining towns, are located in the south. In the north immigrants and migrants. of the mines shaped the development of the urban areas of Johannesburg are the economic nodes of Sandton and for decades. Although the province has many urban nodes, Randburg. Rapid urban expansion continues northwards to Gauteng is the smallest of the 9 South African provinces, yet three large metros dominate – Johannesburg, Tshwane and the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, including it is the most populous. Home to over 11 million people, the Ekurhuleni. Midrand, and the national capital, Pretoria. population density is the highest of all the provinces. The province’s capital city Johannesburg, extends over By 2015, a population of 14.6 million is expected to inhabit 1 645 square kilometres. To the south west is Soweto1, the Gauteng City, making it the 14th largest urban region in originally a township for African/black people under the the world. (South African Cities Network, 2011) apartheid system, now a thriving centre of over 2-million Table 2.1: Population density of the Gauteng region compared locally (South African Cities Network, 2011)

Region People per square Gauteng Province is the economic centre of South Africa and kilometre plays a pivotal role in the African economy. The province is the Johannesburg and Ekurhuleni 2 500 smallest of the 9 South African provinces and is home to over Tshwane 2 750 11 million people. It was built on the wealth of gold resources but the economy has since diversified, with sectors such as Average South African Metropolitan 2 960 finance, manufacturing and services sectors now providing the density most job opportunities. The high levels of economic growth and rates of urbanisation have resulted in pressures on the ______natural environment, and has been particularly evident on water, air, biodiversity and agricultural resources. 1 South Western Township Gauteng - setting the scene 7 Note: the reconfigured boundaries for Gauteng have had Geography of Gauteng implications for modelling of some of the indicators. Data (especially for social indicators) are only available at the Administrative regions Reconfiguration of the municipal boundaries took place after spatial scale of the previous district municipalities. To allow the 2011 South African local government elections. The new for comparison between the SoERs indicators and the 2004 Gauteng is bordered by four other provinces: Limpopo to municipal boundaries have resulted in the former Metswed- report, the pre-2011 municipal boundaries have been used the north, Mpumalanga to the east, Free State to the south ing District Municipality being incorporated in the City of as units of analysis. This is also done in the case of social and the North West province to the west. Three of these Tshwane Metropolitan Area. Tshwane is now the largest data where it is not possible to reconfigure the census data provinces are within a 150 km radius of Johannesburg, and metropolitan area in Africa and the third largest in the world to the new demarcation boundaries. together they form the extended economic footprint of the after New York and Yokohama/Tokyo2. Gauteng City Region. These areas are functionally integrated with Gauteng, as the following focus points of industry: City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality • To the northwest is the city of Rustenburg, the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality centre for platinum mining. Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality • To the southwest several towns represent the Metsweding District Municipality Sedibeng District Municipality legacy of gold mining, including Potchefstroom Sedibeng District Municipality West Rand District Municipality and Klerksdorp. West Rand District Municipality • Sasolburg lies to the south and is the production City of City of Tshwane centre for oil from coal. Tshwane • A series of towns to the east provide coal, and Metsweding iron and steel manufacture, including Witbank, Middleburg and Secunda. Mogale City Mogale City (GCRO, 2010, Working Towards a Successful Gauteng City-Region) Randfontein City of Ekurhuleni Randfontein City of Ekurhuleni Johannesburg Johannesburg Gauteng has five local government areas, namely the Westonaria Westonaria three populous metropolitan areas of Johannesburg, Lesedi Lesedi Tshwane and Ekurhuleni, and two district municipali- Merafong City ties, Sedibeng and West Rand Districts. Most people Emfuleni Emfuleni live within the economic hub of the three metropoli- tan areas, where historically many of the economic Midvaal Midvaal and job opportunities occur (The Presidency, 2006). ______Figure 2.1: 2005 boundaries for Gauteng (left) and the new local government boundaries as of the 2011 local 2 quote: Executive Mayor, Kgosientso Ramokgopa at his budget speech April 2011 elections (right) (data from the Demarcation Board) 8 Gauteng - setting the scene Primary Catchments Climate Landscape Wetlands

Gauteng has a mild sub-tropical climate with a distinctive The province is located on the Highveld of South Rivers wet summer and dry winter season, significantly influenced Africa, a high-altitude plateau of extensive by the high altitude of Gauteng – Johannesburg, i.e. about grasslands about 1 500 m (4 900 ft) m amsl. Cullinan 1 km above mean sea level (amsl). The rainy season is Pretoria Bronkhorstspruit concentrated between October and March and the annual The Gauteng landscape is marked by numerous average rainfall varies between 700 mm around Witwa- ridges, one of which is a watershed separating LIMPOPO Magaliesburg tersrand (approximately 1 700 m amsl) to approximately the Vaal and Crocodile West catchments. These OLIFANTS-NORTH 600 mm north of Magaliesberg (approximately 1 100 m catchments drain into the Atlantic and Indian amsl) (Dyson, 2009). Most of the rain occurs in afternoon oceans respectively. Johannesburg thunderstorms, and is occasionally accompanied by hail. Springs Winters are cool and dry with an average daily temperature The Witwatersrand (“ridge of white waters”) Carletonville of 9.8 ͦC. Frost is common in the southern areas due to runs in an east-west direction through Gauteng. the dry and still winter weather. (Gauteng Department of It is the source of 40% of the gold mined from VAAL Heidelberg Agriculture, Conservation and Environment, 2004). Cool the Earth. The ridge comprises of quartzite, temperatures, dry air and the absence of wind in winter conglomerates and shale. Most of the gold that Vanderbijlpark City of Tshwane also create conditions where atmospheric pollution from has been mined in South Africa has come from industrial and manufacturing activities is trapped close to the Witwatersrand goldfields lying to the south the land surface, transforming a typical clear winter sky into of the Witwatersrand ridge. The gold mines in a haze of pollution and causing the formation of acid rain this area are situated around an ancient sea (over Figure 2.2: Topography of Gauteng showing the major rivers and (UN-HABITAT, 2008). 2 700 million years old) where rivers deposited Mogale City catchments

Randfontein City of Ekurhuleni Johannesburg

Westonaria What is a temperature inversion? Lesedi their sediments in the form of sand and gravel which Merafong City subsequently became the conglomerate containing gold Emfuleni A temperature inversion is a thin layer of the weather-related effects: (McCarthy & Rubridge, 2005). The Witwatersrand Basin is atmosphere where the normal decrease in Midvaal temperature with height switches so that the • It traps pollutants below the inversion, allowing approximately 350 kilometres long and 200 kilometres wide. temperature increases with height. An inversion them to build up in the lower atmosphere. acts like a lid, keeping normal convective over- • It causes clouds just below the inversion to turning of the atmosphere from penetrating spread out and take on a flattened appearance. through the inversion. This can cause several • It prevents thunderstorms from forming. Gauteng - setting the scene 9 Part of a continental watershed between the Vaal and Geology Water Olifants/ Crocodile (West) Marico Water Management Areas (WMAs) is located in Gauteng. The watershed causes From its earliest history, the character of urbanisation has been Water resources are essential for human development water to move out of Gauteng, and consequently the shaped by the mineral resources of Gauteng. Development and economic growth; yet human population growth and province has little of its own bulk water resources to satisfy within Gauteng continues to be strongly influenced by its geology development are also the greatest drivers of change in an ever-growing demand for water. and terrain. Gold occurs in the sediments of the Witwatersrand the condition of the water resources in Gauteng. The key Supergroup. A number of gold mines are still active along an east- activities that influence the quality of water resources Water from the Upper Vaal Water Management Area (UV west belt of the goldfields running through southern Gauteng. are water demand; access to water and sanitation; urban WMA) provides most of the province with potable water development; and, increases in population growth. Poorly through the Rand Water distribution network. Large parts Though gold has been mined for well over 100 years and still managed water use results in numerous impacts on the of the Crocodile (West) Marico Water Management Area contributes to economic development in Gauteng, the chance of water resources, including an increase in pollution loads (CWM WMA) supports the urban land uses of Gauteng. finding new gold deposits in Gauteng is small. Gold production is and channel modification, live-stock and agricultural These urban activities tend to impact negatively on water now done largely through reworking/remining and extraction of malpractice. Aquifer dewatering and re-watering are the quality in many areas. economic minerals from the slimes dams and mine sand dumps. major impacts on the state of water resources.

There is a large kimberlite-diamond producing area in Cullinan and Rayton in the eastern part of Tshwane. The area yields an unusually high proportion of large gems (Council for Geoscience, Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) 2011). Some smaller operations are found in Randfontein and Bronkhorstspruit. AMD occurs when sulphate bearing minerals in rocks rock dumps, and uranium slimes dams. Many of become exposed to oxygen. This exposure may occur the original slimes dams are placed on wetlands, There are at present four dolomite and limestone mines in naturally, but it is significantly accelerated by the compounding the risk to water systems. Gauteng which mine the carbonate rocks belonging to the mining process. The pyrite (“fools gold”) oxidises Malmani Subgroup of the Transvaal Supergroup. The minerals more rapidly still when water flows over the exposed Radioactive minerals are associated with gold are important industrial commodities and have numerous rock surfaces. During active mining operations, water and uranium waste, and the National Nuclear industrial applications. Silica of metallurgical grade is being is pumped out of the underground tunnels. Ground Regulator is required to ensure the safety of the mined from Magaliesberg quartzites. water is constantly present and flowing into these public and workers. spaces, and when operations cease, the void left by Refractory clays are extensively used in industry and are mined mining activities fills with water. Once full, the water AMD is generally characterised by one or more mostly in north and east Gauteng. These clays are closely associ- decants, but as “acid mine water”. AMD is therefore of the following: low pH (i.e. highly acidic), high ated with shales of the Vryheid Formation of the Karoo Super- not confined to underground tunnels, but may be in Total Heavy metals being mobilised at low pH, group. Brick-making clay resources in Gauteng are important streams, dams, aquifers, wetlands and even oceans. and elevated salt levels that can pose a risk to for building projects and the resources are scattered across the Surface sources of AMD that present the greatest human health and to the integrity of the aquatic province. Aggregate and sand operations supply development threat to the environment are coal discard dumps ecosystems while also impacting negatively on the projects (Council for Geoscience, 2011). and slurry dams, gold tailings, slimes dams, waste economy. 10 Gauteng - setting the scene Only a small portion of the Olifants Water Management Area Development, 2010). Food security is closely tied to the (O WMA) is located in Gauteng, but it is the headwaters and state of the environment, healthy ecosystems and produc- Biodiversity top of the catchment. Impacts from Gauteng are experi- tive land. Outcome 7 stresses the importance of providing enced by downstream users in Mpumalanga. affordable and diverse foods. The affordability of food is Biodiversity refers to the variety and richness of plant and directly related to the quality of the ecosystem services animal species, ecosystems and landscapes, which together Most of the water resources in Gauteng are over-utilised and and producing environment, which determine the cost of provide the ecological and evolutionary processes that degraded. The situation is caused by extensive urbanisation, interventions or improvements which may be required. support life on earth. Our economic growth and develop- encroachment into riparian areas, mining and industrial While food security is often described as a problem in rural ment depends on biodiversity. The dependence is clear in development as well as poor management of water and outlying areas, urbanisation trends will impact on food the rangelands which support commercial and subsistence resources. Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) associated with mining security. Agriculture is wrestling with specific environmental farming, tourism, medicinal applications, and are the basis activities is the greatest current concern relating to ground- challenges, including Climate Change; post-disaster recovery for fishing. Less obvious may be the role of biodiversity in water resources. and rehabilitation; drought management; and, soil degrada- ensuring the ongoing production of clean water, prevention tion, which includes soil fertility, compaction, acidification of erosion, carbon storage to counteract global warming and erosion. and the provision of clean air. People are ultimately fully Agriculture and soils dependent on living, functioning ecosystems. Loss of biodi- Agricultural practice is responsible for degradation of the versity leads to ecosystem degradation and subsequent loss The Gauteng Agricultural Potential Atlas shows that environment; with soil erosion responsible for about 40 of important ecosystem services. The loss of these services approximately 28.7% of the provincial land area has been percent of land degradation worldwide, much of it caused tends to harm the poor more directly; the wealthy are identified as suitable for agricultural use (Department of by tillage (FAO, 2002). Innovation in agriculture practise is buffered against the loss of ecosystem services by being able Agriculture, Conservation and Environment, 2006). The required to prevent further degradation. to purchase basic necessities and scarce commodities. Our potential is classified further as 15.1% of high potential and path towards poverty reduction and enhancement of human 13.6% of moderate-high potential land. It is the underlying well-being is dependent on how effectively we conserve soils which determine the suitability, and consequently the biodiversity (Driver, et al., 2005). spatial location.

The agricultural sector is characterised by a dual economy: a well-developed commercial sector; and, less formalised subsistence sector. There is significant pressure on agricul- tural areas in Gauteng from development and urbanisation, especially where high potential resources exist close to developing urban areas. The pressure drives the need to protect this land specifically for agricultural use and to enhance both food security and the green economy.

Food security is about making healthy, nutritious food acces- sible to all (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Gauteng - setting the scene 11 According to C-Plan Version 3 only 2.4% of the provincial Vegetation area is in Level 1 and 2 protected areas that can be consid- ered ecologically intact. Level 1 and 2 protected areas are Two-thirds of Gauteng is within the grasslands biome and areas that are proclaimed in terms of relevant legislation the remaining third is classified as savanna (Mucina & and ecologically intact. Previous figures quoted in the SoER Rutherford, 2006). Species diversity in grasslands is second of 5.1% of the province include level 3 and 4 areas that are only to the Cape Floristic Region, but this biodiversity is not proclaimed in terms of legislation or are degraded and highly threatened. The degradation and loss of grasslands require management intervention (Gauteng Department of has a direct negative impact on human well-being (Grass- Agriculture and Rural Development, 2011). lands Programme Factsheets, SANBI, available at: www. grasslands.org.za). Vegetation Type

Andesite Mountain Bushveld The Grassland Programme concludes that urbanisation Carletonville Dolomite Grassland Biome can lead to near complete transformation of the grassland Central Free State Grassland Savanna habitat, leaving only small isolated fragments and disrupted Central Sandy Bushveld ecosystem functioning. This means an extreme loss of Eastern Highveld Grassland Cullinan habitat and species and an increased threat of invasive alien Eastern Temperate Freshwater Wetlands Pretoria species (Grassland Programme Project Document, August Bronkhorstspruit Egoli Granite Grassland 2007, available at: www.grasslands.org.za). Frankfort Highveld Grassland

Trees and other woody plants are rare and confined to Gauteng Shale Mountain Bushveld Magaliesburg specific habitats like ridges. However with climate change, Gold Reef Mountain Bushveld the encroachment of woody plants into grasslands may Loskopdam Mountain Bushveld increase. Marikana Thornveld Johannesburg Springs Moot Plains Bushveld The savanna biome is the most widespread in Africa and is Norite Koppies Bushveld Carletonville characterised by a more tropical climate where the herba- Northern Afrotemperate Forest Heidelberg ceous vegetation includes discontinuous and sometimes Rand Highveld Grassland Grassland open tree layers or bushveld with rich faunal diversity. Soweto Highveld Grassland

Springbokvlakte Thornveld Vanderbijlpark The biomes are further grouped into 17 distinct vegetation Subtropical Freshwater Wetlands types. Due to rapid urbanisation and human activity much of Subtropical Salt Pans the vegetation in Gauteng has been transformed. Of the 17 Tsakane Clay Grassland vegetation types in Gauteng, 7 are now considered Endan- Waterberg-Magaliesberg Summit Sourveld gered (refer to the biodiversity chapter for more details). Figure 2.3: Vegetation types of Gauteng (Mucina & Rutherford, 2006)

12 Gauteng - setting the scene To be sustainable, the province must respond to climate Saulsville, Chris Hani, Tokoza, Vosloorus and the Johannes- Land use change challenges, establish viable communities and create burg city centre (South African Cities Network, 2011). people-friendly urban settings. For spatial planning it is Land is an important resource in Gauteng but is inefficiently important to address factors which perpetuate inequality by The pattern of development in South Africa has tended to managed. Gauteng is the most urbanised province in South at least lessening the gap between the extremes. create areas of separate rather than mixed land use. These Africa with the majority of its population living in urban patterns lead to greater distances between work and home. areas. According to the Gauteng Growth and Development Figure 4 shows the fragmented settlement pattern of A high reliance on vehicles has resulted, with increased Strategy (2005), the population of the province is estimated Gauteng. The population in the province is concentrated transportation costs and longer travelling time. These factors to be 97% urbanised. in the urban areas in the south of the province. There are compound the environmental impact that exhaust emissions high densities in Soweto, Alexandra, Tembisa, Mamelodi, from vehicles have on air quality.

Resilience in Urban Settings

Resilience implies something about the process of producing the built environment. A prescriptive, top-down model of Soshanguwe ‘delivering’ housing and services to passive local communi- Persons/ha Sparse ties risks providing inappropriate, inflexible or unaffordable Saulsville Mamelodi Pretoria Mandela Village 1-25 facilities. In South Africa, progress in the built environment Ashanti 26-50 Centurion is usually measured in physical terms, such as the number of Zandspruit 51-100 Alexandra Tembisa 101-250 new houses built and the number of households provided with 251-500 clean water, sanitation and electricity. These are important Princess Johannesburg given the large numbers of people lacking proper shelter or Rosebank Emaphophe Chris Hani access to essential services. Protection from the elements, Germiston privacy and security are fundamental for human survival, Soweto Wattville dignity and social stability. Yet indicators of physical progress Tokoza White City do not explain whether the location and form of housing are Lenasia Vosloorus appropriate, or whether the provision is in response to people’s Nigel needs and sustainable in the long term. The wider context of housing – including the intensity of land development, the Cerutiville quality of the surrounding environment and facilities, and Orange Farm accessibility to jobs and amenities – is critical to the creation of viable communities.

State of the Cities Report, 2011 Figure 2.4: 3D image of population density in Gauteng (South African Cities Network, 2011) Gauteng - setting the scene 1 3 The spatial pattern of land use may also entrench social and able for high density development or human habitation. The economic inequity. It has been calculated that if a resident of impediments include geological instability and residual toxic The cultural landscape the southern-most area, Orange Farm, were to walk north- mine waste. wards to the inner city, the journey would take three days As of June 2011 the population of Gauteng represents 22.4% (Gauteng Provincial Government, 2005). A study in Tshwane This does not necessarily follow that fragmentation must of South Africa at 11.3 million people. Population growth is found that car users travel twice as long as commuters in be overcome. The relatively open areas could be used to largely due to in migration of people from other provinces cities such as Moscow, London, Tokyo and Singapore. Public mitigate against development impacts, to support the green and other African countries for employment (Statistics transport in the same comparison takes three times as economy or to buffer negative environmental impacts. South Africa, 2011). long. The delays are attributed to the low density of the city and displaced urbanisation which resulted from apartheid From a spatial perspective, the major land uses within The major languages spoken in Gauteng are isiZulu (21%), planning (South African Cities Network, 2011). Gauteng are cultivation (16%) and urban uses (18%). Afrikaans (14%), seSotho (13%) and English (12%) (Statistics Approximately 28% of the province is undeveloped, with South Africa, 2001). Spatial fragmentation is not necessarily overcome through 39% of the land remaining in a natural condition. Chapter 5 infill and densification. Some undeveloped areas are unsuit- on Land and Agriculture further details land use in Gauteng. Gauteng’s recent history is shaped by mining and politics. The wide variety of architecture and development influences bears testament to this. The ornate mansions of the rand lords, the historic buildings of downtown Johannesburg and Pretoria, and Vilakazi Street in Soweto provide insight into the rich tapestry that is the province’s past. Rural Development Gauteng has many heritage sites of local, national and international significance. Important heritage resources of Rural development is about enabling rural people to food, essential oils, packaging, floriculture, Gauteng include the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage take control of their destiny, thereby dealing effec- medicinal plants, natural remedies and health Site; monuments and museums (like the Apartheid Museum tively with rural poverty through the optimal use and foods. and Voortrekker Monument); architectural heritage management of natural resources. It is a participatory (Constitution Hill, Union Buildings and the Newtown cultural process through which rural people learn over time, Rural development is acknowledged as one of the precinct); parks, botanical gardens and nature areas (the through their own experiences and initiatives, how to key areas for development and social transforma- Johannesburg Zoo, Magaliesberg Protected Environment and adapt their indigenous knowledge to their changing tion, and affects the most vulnerable of South Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve) as well as economically active world (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Africa’s citizens. It therefore requires careful heritage resources such as the Cullinan Diamond Mine. Development, 2010). planning in order to ensure that development The agricultural sector provides the cities and towns initiatives are conceived in a holistic manner, and of Gauteng with fresh produce. Ekurhuleni Metro- executed in a way that ensures the sustainability of politan Municipality, the City of Tshwane, West Rand the interventions from a social and environmental and Sedibeng District produce maize, ground-nuts, perspective. sunflowers, cotton and sorghum. New and competitive niche products under development include organic Gauteng Rural Development Strategy, 2010 14 Gauteng - setting the scene Priority environmental References issues for Gauteng Council for Geoscience. (2011). Summary of Economic South African Cities Network. (2011). Towards Resilient Geology of Provinces: Gauteng Province. Retrieved Cities: A reflection on the first decade of a democratic and Environmental priorities for Gauteng are broad and mostly September 22, 2011, from http://www.geoscience.org. transormed local govenment in South Africa 2001 - 2010. driven by the rapid economic growth and urbanisation za/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=160& South African Cities Network. within the province. The top environmental priority areas Itemid=147. Statistics South Africa. (2011). Mid-year population are: Driver, A., Maze, K., Rouget, M., Lombard, A. T., Nel, J., estimates. Retrieved September 10, 2011, from http:// Turpie, J. K., et al. (2005). National Spatial Biodiversity www.statssa.gov.za/ • Land degradation, the loss of productive agricultural Assessment 2005: priorities for biodiversity conservation Statistics South Africa. (2001). South African Census, 2001. land and less effective ecosystem services. This is mostly in South Africa. Pretoria: South African National Biodiver- Pretoria. the result of continued urban sprawl encroaching onto sity Institute. The Presidency. (2006). National Spatial Development important conservation and agricultural areas, but also Dyson, L. L. (2009). Heavy daily-rainfall characteristics over Perspective. Pretoria: Republic of South Africa. unsustainable agricultural practices, poor soil manage- the Gauteng Province. Water SA (Online), 35 (5), 627-638. UN-HABITAT. (2008). State of African Cities 2008: A ment and water management. FAO. (2002). Food security and the environment. Fact Sheet, framework for addressing urban challenges in Africa. • Water stress resulting from increased demand for human Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN- and commercial water consumption. The situation is Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. HABITAT). aggravated by poor water quality, access limitations and (2011). Gauteng Conservation Plan Version 3 (C-Plan 3). management of water resources. Directorate Nature Conservation. Johannesburg: Gauteng • Poor air quality. Household fossil fuel, vehicle emissions Provincial Government. and industrial processes cause concentrations of air Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. pollutants. Air quality is an extremely important issue (2010). Rural Development Strategy for Gauteng. Johan- for Gauteng to deal with as it directly impacts on human nesburg: Gauteng Provinical Government. health and acid precipitation. Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and • Overburdening and inadequate maintenance of existing Environment. (2006). Protection of Agricultural Land in infrastructure. The high urbanisation rates and population Gauteng. Johannesburg: Gauteng Provincial Government. growth result in a continued increasing need for provision Gauteng Provincial Government. (2005). Gauteng Growth of basic services (such as waste removal, housing and and Development Strategy. Gauteng Provincial Govern- sanitation). Inadequate access to basic services can result ment. in poor human health and increasing vulnerability to poor McCarthy, T., & Rubridge, B. (2005). The Story of earth and environmental conditions, particularly in marginalised com- life: A southern African perspective on a 4.6-billion-year munities. Inadequate access to services also has an impact journey. Cape Town: Struik Publishers. on the receiving environment and may lead to problems Mucina, L., & Rutherford, M. (2006). The vegetation of South like increased solid waste volumes or dumping, ground Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (Strelitzia 19 ed.). Pretoria: water contamination, high e-coli counts and cholera. South African National Biodiversity Institute. Gauteng - setting the scene 15

Drivers of environmental change 3

Introduction Gauteng macro- Demography and Drivers of change in the environment are defined by the economic challenges human well-being affects people have on their environs. The major drivers of change are population growth, urbanisations, economic Economic growth in Gauteng is constrained by food security, Human vulnerability to environmental change in Gauteng is activities, governance and technology and innovation available energy, water quality and quantity, and poverty the result of a complex range of circumstances and condi- (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2006). (Gauteng Department of Economic Development, 2010). tions. These conditions include population growth, HIV/AIDS, Climate change is an emerging driver of change. poverty and unemployment, inadequate access to sanitation The population growth and limited land availability for services, basic infrastructure and social services, and the agriculture has resulted in Gauteng being dependent on food degradation of natural resources. The SoER guidelines grown outside its borders, and transported into the province. state that “…responding to vulnerability requires building In the future, food insecurity will be a significant issue on people’s own responses, providing institutional support, considering that the impacts of peak oil, climate change and and promoting resilience and adaptive capacity among the energy shortages are likely to raise food prices (Gauteng people most at risk (http://soer.deat.gov.za/). Department of Economic Development, 2010). Rising commodity prices (particularly for fossil fuels) along with The population growth in Gauteng is high and both the concerns for energy delivery will decrease energy security. size and structure (including location) of people along with What are drivers of environmental change? South Africa is a water scarce country and Gauteng is pre- their patterns of consumption and use of resources drive dominantly dependant on interbasin transfers of water. The changes in resources and the environment. More people in Drivers of change are macro issues that often affect water supply is likely to decrease due to poor water quality the province are in need of resources for food, water, shelter, the environment in non linear ways and come with and climatic uncertainty resulting from climate change. High energy, clothing, transport, education, employment and both positive and negative effects. For example, levels of poverty, inequality, unemployment and illiteracy will cultural needs (Department of Environmental Affairs and commercial or industrial development can provide continue to drive changes on the environment. Tourism, 2006). Economic productivity, social development economic growth, job creation and raise the and human well-being are fundamentally linked to human standard of living for people, but it can also create health. The number and distribution of people in Gauteng air and water pollution (Department of Environmen- has a direct bearing on the ability of the biophysical environ- tal Affairs and Tourism, 2006). Understanding what ment to function and provide ecological goods and services. the drivers of change are and their positive and Therefore, with increasing population, additional provision negative effects is important when making balanced of services, infrastructure and housing, the capacity of the and informed decisions for sustainable development natural environment to function optimally is compromised. in Gauteng Drivers of environmental change 17 Poor levels of public health may result in the inability to work The current recession has hit cities harder than other and be economically independent, thereby increasing the places, setting back earlier progress on employment, public Spatial planning in vulnerability of people and increasing dependence on the spending and their induced effects. After experiencing the natural environment to support themselves. This could lead strongest growth during the 2000s, the metros in Gauteng Gauteng to increasing environmental degradation and poor quality appear to have been worst affected by the downturn. (South of natural resources such as water, soil and air. In addition, African Cities Network, 2011) Recently there have been two major spatial planning where there is poverty, the incidence of poor health is higher initiatives in Gauteng, namely the Gauteng Spatial Develop- as people are less likely to have access to adequate water, Improved economic opportunities have encouraged people ment Perspective (Gauteng Provincial Government, 2007) sanitation, waste removal and basic health services. to move towards the cities, mostly to informal settlements and the Gauteng Spatial Development Framework (GSDF). and backyard shacks in the townships. Some migration flows The former reflects the vision of growing, sharing and have been temporary, while others have been reversed by sustaining in Gauteng, which aims “…to serve as a common Economic growth the recession. Nevertheless, the provision of housing and platform for planning and investment, in that it is a tool to services by the public sector has struggled to keep pace with help all stakeholders in the province to agree to a common Gauteng dominates the South African economy, particularly the combination of urbanisation and natural population understanding of the nature and functioning of the provincial in the secondary and tertiary industries. The most important growth. Hence, the number and proportion of households space economy” (Gauteng Provincial Government, 2005). economic sectors are the services and manufacturing sectors living in informal dwellings in the cities have actually and activities favour labour-intensive development – such as increased. Meanwhile, the share of informal housing in the The PSDP aims to provide guidance to the development tra- the tourism and hospitality industries, health and education rest of the country has been falling, and access to electricity jectory for the province, the formulation of a spatial strategy, services, transportation, logistics management, and business and sanitation has increased more in the rural areas than the preparation of IDPs and sector specific responses or services. in the cities as a result of improved delivery starting from a plans. The study is a response to the high but unequal lower base (State of the Cities report). The significance of growth, environmental degradation, fragmentation and Gauteng accounts for 33% of national GDP and is responsible this trend is that it outpaces the Local Authorities’ ability to long travelling distances, differences in quality of life, and an for nearly half of all employee remuneration in the country provide, and that has an impact on environment because institutional challenge of prioritizing, focusing and co-coordi- and half of all turn-over of institutions (Gauteng Provincial settlement is unplanned, human well-being is negatively nating the actions between different spheres of government Government, 2005). The economic growth rate in Gauteng affected and the loop is then closed when people become and the business sector (Gauteng Provincial Government, is higher than the national rate and Gauteng continues to more reliant on the environment to sustain livelihood and 2007). The PSDP focuses on three key challenges: support- be an attractive centre for job seekers. Unfortunately the well-being. ing economic activity and accelerating growth; sharing the province is attracting job seekers faster than it is able to growth; and, ensuring sustainability. absorb newcomers into the formal labour market (Gauteng Provincial Government, 2005). As a result, despite the Figure 1 depicts areas of natural and cultural resources that highest per capita income level in South Africa, the gap require protection in order to ensure sustainability of the between the rich and poor is widening in Gauteng (Gauteng province. The PSDP states that not only are areas of cultural Provincial Government, 2005). and heritage resources important for conservation and quality of life, they are also important recreation and amenity areas which are integrated into the economic fabric of the region.

18 Drivers of environmental change The more recent Gauteng Spatial Development Framework inclusion for all its citizens. Recognising that the province is (2010) aims to provide a clear future provincial spatial not meeting sustainability principles, the Gauteng City- structure that is sufficiently robust to accommodate growth Region Observatory (GCRO) was established in 2008. The and sustainability; specify a clear set of spatial objectives vision is for a fast-growing and dynamic urban region, that for municipalities; propose a set of plans that municipalities through better planning and management, and in particular have to prepare in their pursuit of these objectives; provide improved co-operative government relations between the Significant heritage/cultural areas a common language and set of shared planning constructs spheres and sections of government responsible for its parts, Natural conservation priority areas for municipalities to use in their planning processes and will become more functionally integrated, spatially coherent, (Reserved, irreplaceable and plans; and, enable and direct growth. economically competitive, creative, innovative, environmen- important sites tally sustainable and socially inclusive. (http://www.gcro. Poverty concentrations According to the GSDF, the province aims to develop as ac.za/) one of the world’s significant emerging conurbations, or Economic activity areas ‘mega-cities’ based on truly sustainable spatial development principles (Gauteng Provincial Government, 2010).

The principles of sustainable spatial development include:

• significantly reducing reliance on private mobility in favour of safe, convenient and affordable public transport and non-motorised transport; • significantly reducing present rates of non-renewable energy use; • reducing the rates of energy expended in the manufac- ture of goods, the delivery of these goods to market and the import of goods; • integrating open space systems into the city region and providing sustainable ecosystems, urban agriculture, and quality of life as a fundamental of the province’s develop- ment patterns; and, • promoting a democratic urban order in terms of access to opportunity for all.

Figure 3.1: Areas of natural and cultural resources In achieving these, the Gauteng City-Region will become that require protection in order to ensure increasingly competitive nationally and globally, and grow a sustainability of the province sustainable urban economy that supports quality of life and Drivers of environmental change 19 mental governance according to the 1997 White Paper on Governance Environmental Management Policy requires that: Science and

Government is responsible for good environmental • Government departments are responsible and account- technology governance through policies, laws, and strategies and can able be defined as the “structures of rule making, rule applica- • Regulations are enforced Science and technology drive both positive and negative tion and rule adjudication in a given society” (Hattingh • Integrating mechanisms and structures facilitate partici- effects on the environment. They can drive the development et al., 2004). Governance on the other hand can be pation of new technologies that allow more efficient resource use, defined as “the process of informed decision-making that • There is interdepartmental coordination enable recycling, improve food production, clean water and enables trade-offs between competing users of a given • Institutional responsibilities for regulating environmental so on. Innovation and scientific advances can also accelerate resource so as to balance protection with beneficial use impacts and promoting resource exploitation are urbanisation, land transformation and increase pollution and in such a way as to mitigate conflict, enhance equity, separated waste (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, ensure sustainability and hold officials accountable” • People have access to information 2006). (Turton and Hattingh, 2006). Good governance requires • There is institutional and community capacity-building. that many sectors of society participate - including The South African Department of Science and Technology government departments, the private sector, non-gov- Co-operative governance can be challenging and govern- (DST) is mandated to drive the direction of innovation at a ernmental organisations, public benefit organisations and ment spheres and sectors have not worked together well national level. Within the context of a developing country community-based organisations. in all circumstances. There has been insufficient flexibility and economy much of this focus is on promoting interna- and creativity in policies towards state-owned land, housing tional competitiveness and improving the lives and opportu- The ability of local government to implement environ- and infrastructure. Consequently, not much progress can nities for South Africans. For the DST, this includes focused mental management strategies and programmes, as well be detected in integrating the fragmented structure and interventions and acting as a catalyst for change in terms as capital projects, is important in the assessment of layout of South African cities through, for example, in-fill and of productive components of the economy, and targeted the state of environment. The preparation of Integrated densification of well-located areas. Without a better balance toward the development backlog existing among the poorest Development Plans (IDPs) by local authorities is required in the location of new housing development and of employ- components of our society. to include environment considerations and the ability to ment, the transport system has had to cope with rising implement development ideals without compromising demand for travel and long commuter flows (South African the underlying natural resource base. Good environ- Cities Network, 2011).

20 Drivers of environmental change References

Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. (2006). South African Environmental Outlook: A report on the state of the environment. Pretoria: Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. Gauteng Department of Economic Development. (2010). A strategy for a developmental green economy for Gauteng. Johannesburg: Gauteng Provincial Government. Gauteng Provincial Government. (2005). Gauteng Growth and Development Strategy. Gauteng Provincial Govern- ment. Gauteng Provincial Government. (2007). Gauteng Spatial Development Perspective: A perspective of growing, sharing and sustaining. Johannesburg: Gauteng Provincial Government. Gauteng Provincial Government. (2010). Gauteng Growth and Development Strategy [Final Draft]. Gauteng Provincial Government. Hattingh, J., Maree, G.A., Strydom, W., Kgomongoe, M., Turton, A., Van Wyk, E. (2004). Obstacles to Successful Implementation of Governance Tools. CSIR Internal Report No. ENV-P-I 2004-017. Pretoria: CSIR. South African Cities Network. (2011). Towards Resilient Cities: A reflection on the first decade of a democratic and transormed local govenment in South Africa 2001 - 2010. South African Cities Network. Turton, A.R. and Hattingh, J. (2006). Chapter 17 in Turton, A.R., Hattingh, J., Maree, G.A. Roux, D.J., Claassen, M., and Strydom, W. (eds). Governance as a trialogue - Gov- ernment-Society-Science in transition. Springer-Verlag.

Drivers of environmental change 21

Social 4

Introduction

Gauteng is the most densely populated and economically a result the communities in these areas experience Gauteng services can be seen as those life-giving (and free) functions developed province in South Africa, and the well-being of its differently. There are stark contrasts in living conditions and that the natural systems provide, such as flood attenuation, people is therefore very important. This chapter looks at the levels of income with the result that there are still people carbon sequestration, reduction of heat islands, provision of people of the province – where they live, how they behave, living in dire poverty despite the fact that Gauteng makes water; as well as providing a sense of place and identity and what jobs they occupy, and what their levels of education, the largest contribution to national GDP. contributing to overall human well-being. Failure of these health, and living conditions are. systems leads to increased social vulnerability and further The relationship between people and the natural environ- environmental degradation. Gauteng is characterized by varied conditions across the ment is important in a fast developing and highly urbanized province including areas that are highly urbanized, informal province. Rapidly increasing levels of unemployment, the Gauteng province starkly demonstrates both green and settlements, townships, suburbs and rural farming areas. As prevalence of HIV/AIDS, the widening gap between the brown environmental issues where green issues are focused rich and poor, and the increasing levels of poverty in the on conservation and biodiversity aspects, and brown issues province all have a detrimental impact on the biophysical are those relating to waste management, mining, water and environment. This also has implications for the provision of sanitation, and poverty. These are not mutually exclusive infrastructure and services and the sustainable use of natural as socio-economic growth and urban development tend to The relationship between people and the natural envi- resources. It has been demonstrated that people become place increasing pressure on the natural environment, the ronment is important in a fast developing and highly more reliant on the natural environment as poverty levels so-called green resources (Goldblatt, 2002). urbanized province. People become more reliant on increase but their vulnerability and lack of resilience to the natural environment as poverty levels increase, and environmental degradation and pollution also increases. This chapter will focus on the key social and economic issues yet, their vulnerability and lack of resilience to environ- facing people in Gauteng. The indicators that are important mental degradation and pollution also increases. Gauteng’s natural environment is therefore intricately for this section are population growth, distribution, structure Gauteng is characterized by varied conditions across linked to the social environment. An improvement in living and density, income and employment, and human settle- the province including areas that are highly urbanized, conditions, a decrease in poverty, and the development ments. Indicators relating to access to basic services (water, informal settlements, townships, suburbs and rural of sustainable human settlements will result in a more sanitation, energy, waste and ICT) are included in the chapter farming areas. As a result, communities experience functional and healthy natural environment. This enables on Governance, as well as comment on service delivery Gauteng differently. There are stark contrasts in living the natural environment to function optimally and to render protests which are also an important part of the social conditions and levels of income with the result that ecological goods and services. context. The Social chapter concludes with indicators relating there are still people living in dire poverty despite the to social vulnerability; namely poverty, social grants and food fact that Gauteng makes the largest contribution to The role of natural resources in providing ecological goods security. national GDP. and services is becoming more and more critical. These Social 2 3 between the 2001 Census and the 2007 Community Survey. In-migration accounts for 35% of the national total and is Pressures and attributed to the concentration of economic activities in The population of Gauteng increased by 13.9% between Gauteng (Gauteng Provincial Government, 2007). Estimates challenges 2001 (Census) and 2007 (Community Survey (CS)). During indicate that approximately 367,100 people are expected 2001, KwaZulu Natal had the highest population share which to migrate to Gauteng by the end of 2011 (Statistics South Population growth was surpassed by Gauteng in 2007. The most populated Africa, 2011a). municipalities are City of Johannesburg, followed by Ekurhu- The number and distribution of people in Gauteng has a leni and the City of Tshwane respectively (Figure 1). The influx of people into Gauteng results in increasing direct bearing on the ability of the biophysical environment density in certain areas (mostly lower-income areas), and to function and provide ecological goods and services. An As of June 2011, the population of Gauteng is estimated at an increase in the number and size of informal settlements increasing population means additional provision of services, 11.3 million with the largest share (22.4%) of the 9 provinces as an entry point to finding formal housing. This places infrastructure and housing increasingly threatens the ability (Statistics South Africa, 2011a). The growth in population additional pressure on the provision of social services, of the natural environment to function optimally. Table 1 could be in-migration of people from other provinces and infrastructure and job creation, and the ability of the natural indicates a comparative overview of population statistics other African countries in order to seek employment. environment to function optimally.

Table 4.1: Provincial overview showing population changes between 2001 and 2007 (Statistics South Africa, 2001 and 2007)

Area Gauteng

2001 2007 Percentage Growth Average Growth

Area size (km2) 16 927.1 (1.4% of South Africa) Total population 9 792 961 (19.4% of SA) 10 451 713 (21.5% of SA) 13.9% 212 140 persons per annum (p.a.) Population density (persons per km2) 578.54 584.18 13.9% 12.5 persons p.a. Total households 2 735 168 (24.4% of SA) 3 175 579 (25.4% of SA) 16.1% 73 402 households p.a. Average persons per household 3.6 3.3 (8.3%) (0.05) Population groups Black African (74.6%) Black African (75.2%) Black African (0.6%) Black African 12 580 persons p.a. Coloured (3.8%) Coloured (3.7%) Coloured (0.1%) Coloured – 650 persons p.a. Indian/ Asian (2.5%) Indian/ Asian (2.7%) Indian/ Asian (0.2%) Indian/ Asian 141 persons p.a. White (19.9%) White (18.4%) White (1.5%) White – 8 015 persons p.a. Gender Male (50.1%) Male (50.3%) 0.4% increase in males Female (49.9%) Female (49.7%) -0.4% decrease in females Age group Working age (72.1%) Working age (70.0%) 2.1% 24 Social Education levels during the Census 2001 and 17% during the Community ladder of prosperity. Survey (CS) 2007 as shown in Figure 2. Furthermore, only an Education is vital for personal and societal development, average of 6% of the population has obtained degrees and According to a study by the World Economic Forum, South particularly in securing decent jobs, creating jobs, acquiring 11% of the population has no schooling at all. Africa is ranked 125th for primary education, 130th for skills and continuing learning in today’s competitive world secondary education and 99th for tertiary education out of (South Africa, 2010). The Community Survey 2007 revealed that 60% of the popu- an overall 139 economies. This poor performance is cause lation in Gauteng had not completed primary and secondary for concern since the largest budget allocation is made to The highest level of education achieved by most people in schooling. The low levels of schooling become an obstacle education. During the 2007/08 financial year, R105.5 billion Gauteng is Grade 12 (secondary school) with 28% recorded for people in securing employment and gaining access to the and R14.5 million was allocated for education nationally and for Gauteng respectively (Department of Basic Education, 2008; Gauteng Department of Finance, 2011). However,

4 4 Census 2001 since then performance has been gradually improving and Census 2001 CS 2007 Gauteng has higher educational levels than those of the CS 2007 country in general. For instance, the number of people of 15 years or older that have no schooling has been decreasing

(Gauteng Department of Finance, 2011).

3 3

Adult literacy

2 2 The ability to read and write is required for basic daily demands as denoted by the adult literacy index. Literacy has been described as “an agent for social change and a means Population (million) Population Number of people (million) towards the creation of peace and stability, the promotion of poverty reduction and an improvement in democratic gov- ernance” (Gauteng Department of Finance, 2011). Illiteracy, 1 1 inequality, unemployment and poverty have been identified as some of the macro-economic challenges in Gauteng and which consequently impede growth (Gauteng Department of

0 0 Economic Development, 2010).

Sedibeng West RandEkurhuleni Nationally, the adult illiteracy rate was 25.9% in 2007 Metsweding No schooling City of Tshwane Primary school w i t h g r a dTertiary e 1 2 degree according to statistics published by the Presidency in Secondary schoolwithout grade 12 City of Johannesburg Certificate/DiplomaCertificate/Diploma 2009. More adults are becoming literate and this could be Figure 4.1: Population growth per District Council (data Figure 4.2: Education levels of persons in Gauteng (data attributed to a number of initiatives by the Department of from Statistics South Africa, 2001 and 2007) from Statistics South Africa, 2001 and 2007) Basic Education. Social 25 In Gauteng, the literacy levels have been on the increase, Recent information obtained from the Quarterly Labour Unemployment remains a major challenge in rural areas and especially in the African population group (from 71.9% in Force Survey (QLFS) for Quarter 1 2011, reveals that the rate those who are employed are generally poorly paid. This is a 1996 to 80.1% in 2009). Asian people experienced marginal of unemployment in Gauteng was highest during the period major cause of migration to urban areas. The concentration increase in literacy from 90.5% (1996) to 92.6% (2009). There January to March 2010. This gradually decreased in the next of economic activities in the province is also a major cause of was a slight increase for the Coloured group (from 89.4% in quarter and stabilized from July to December 2010. The in-migration of people from other provinces (which accounts 1996 to 92.8% in 2009) whereas the White population group unemployment rate rose slightly by 0.2% in the next quarter, for 35% of the national total) and other African countries remained constant at a high percentage (>96%). The Socio- which can be attributed to the traditional decline trend that (Gauteng Provincial Government, 2007). Most of the Economic Review and Outlook (SERO) report postulates that is usually observed at the start of the year (Statistics South unemployed are concentrated in informal settlements and government has been more effective at spreading literacy Africa, 2011b). townships (Gauteng Department of Economic Development, than reducing poverty (Gauteng Department of Finance, 2009). 2011). The state of the economy in Gauteng directly influences the Census 2001 level of unemployment where in times of economic growth, levels of unemployment are low while during economic Unemployment CS 2007 dips unemployment spikes. For instance, 330,000 jobs Unemployment is described by the International Labour were lost since the second quarter of 2008, which was the Organization (ILO) and the United Nations Development period when the global financial crisis was commencing,

600 Programme (UNDP) as a situation when “people are without and overall, the unemployment rate in Gauteng in 2008 was jobs and they have actively looked for work within the past 21.7% and this increased to 24.1% in 2009 (Gauteng Depart- four weeks or persons aged 15 years and above who are ment of Finance, 2011).

400 neither in paid employment nor self employed but who are available for work and have taken specific steps to seek paid South Africa is ranked by the International Labour Organiza- employment or self employment” (Gauteng Department of tion as amongst the ten countries in the world with the Finance, 2011; United Nations Development Programme, highest number of unemployed adults (Gauteng Department

2010). (thousands) Persons of Economic Development, 2009). It has been proven that unemployment and poverty are related; the unemployed

200 During the period from 2001 to 2006, the unemployment are unable to get the basic needs (food, shelter and clothing) level in Gauteng decreased by 12% (Statistics South Africa, and therefore their risk of falling into poverty is magnified 2001 and 2007). According to the Community Survey 2007, (Gauteng Department of Finance, 2011). As of 2009, the

0 more than 3 million people in Gauteng province have low employment to population ratio was 24%, which is high and skill levels and more than 1.5 million people are unemployed shows that increased poverty still looms and a large number Sedibeng West RandEkurhuleni (Figure 3). Therefore it is vital for more employment oppor- Metsweding of people are dependants. tunities to be created in order to enable greater participation City of Tshwane in the economy and improvement in the standard of living City of Johannesburg (Gauteng Department of Finance, 2009). Figure 4.3: Unemployment per Local Authority (data from Statistics South Africa, 2001 and 2007) 26 Social Health State 1992 Economic productivity, social development and well-being Population structure are fundamentally linked to human health. Poor levels of public health may result in the inability to work and be eco- A large proportion of the population in 2001 was composed nomically independent, thereby increasing the vulnerability of females (53%) while males constituted 47% and this of people and their dependence on the natural environ- remained constant in 2007. Mid-year population estimates ment to support themselves. This could lead to increasing for 2011 (based on the new Gauteng boundary of 2011) environmental degradation and poor quality of natural show a balance of population distribution within the two resources such as water, soil and air. In addition, where there genders with males comprising 48% and females 52% of the is poverty, the incidence of poor health is higher as people total population nationally. are less likely to have access to adequate water, sanitation, waste removal and basic health services. Youths aged between 20 and 29 years comprise the largest portion of the Gauteng population (Figure 4). It has been Concentration of night lights observed that most of the youth in Gauteng are found High: 63 predominantly in areas with high incidences of poverty. As a result, investment on the development of youth as Low: 0 85+ the future of the nation is a key priority in order to enable 80-84 Male them to access and participate meaningfully in the economy 75-79 2009 Female (Gauteng Provincial Government, 2007). 70-74 65-69 60-64 The number of persons in the age group 30-34 and above 55-59 50-54 gradually decreases and the least number of persons in the 45-49 province are 85 years and above. 40-44

Age 35-39 30-34 25-29 Population density 20-24 15-19 10-14 Gauteng is the most densely populated province in South 5-9 0-4 Africa. In 2001, the population density (number of people per square kilometre) was 578.54 and this slightly increased

600 000 400 000 200 000 0 200 000 400 000 600 000 to 581.18 in 2007. The population distribution among Number of people the various local authorities indicates most of the people Figure 4.4: Population structure by age distribution (2007) are concentrated in City of Joburg, Ekurhuleni and City Figure 4.5: Night lights aerial photography for Gauteng (data (data from Statistics South Africa, 2007) of Tshwane. Townhouse complexes, country estates and analysed from NASA night lights satellite images) Social 27 middle- to upper-class suburbs tend to be naturally less Poor living conditions and limited social services are densely populated. In contrast, townships and informal prevalent in informal settlements with associated unemploy- settlements are more crowded since space is limited and ment and environmental degradation. The building of houses cannot satisfy the demand for housing and infrastructure, through the Reconstruction and Development Programme for example Diepsloot, Atteridgeville, Soweto, Tembisa, (RDP), and subsequently the development of human Soshanguve and Mamelodi. Gauteng has the highest number settlements through the Breaking New Ground programme, of informal settlements in South Africa. reflects government’s mandate to provide decent shelter for all and the creation of sustainable human settlements. NASA night lights aerial photography is an indication of popu- Nationally, the number of households living in formal lation density and urbanization but also the implementation dwellings improved from 75.5% to 76.9% (South African of electrification programmes. Of significance is the increase Institute of Race Relations, 2011). in the northern parts of Tshwane, particularly Ga-Rankuwa, Soshanguve, Mabopane, WInterveldt, Suurman, Dilopye and Hammanskraal; and to the south Orange Farm, Ennerdale, Evaton and Sebokeng. The decline on the far West Rand near the mines of Carletonville and Welverdiend could be attributed to the closure of mines, declining towns and cost-saving measures in terms of electricity consumption. By comparison, the “thickening” of the urban core around Midrand is also indicative of the amount of growth and development that has taken place in this part of Gauteng in the last decade. 1 House or brick structure

2 Traditional dwelling/hut Housing type Flat in block of flats Town/cluster/semi-detached house Most of the people in Gauteng (about 57%) live in formal House/flat/room in backyard dwellings specifically houses or brick structures as reflected in Figure 7. A further 18% live in flats, town houses, cluster 6 57 Informal dwelling houses or semi-detached houses, or houses, flats or rooms Room/flatlet on shared property in a backyard. Nevertheless, approximately 24% of the 5 population lives in informal dwellings as depicted in the 2007 7 statistics (Statistics South Africa, 2007). 0

Figure 2:4.6: Land Type use of fordwelling Gauteng in Gauteng 2009 (GTI, in 20072009) (data from Statistics South Africa, 2007) 28 Social Economic development Recent data for 2010 indicates that manufacturing; govern- numbers of manpower (Gauteng Department of Finance, ment, social and personal services; financial and business 2011). Levels of education and employment directly influence services are the sectors that contribute the most to the GVA1 social well-being and development. With high levels of in the province (Gauteng Department of Finance, 2011). In Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has increased from R1 386 unemployment and low levels of education, social and addition, other significant sectors include wholesale and trillion in 2002 to reach R1 784 trillion in 2009. The fore- economic development is challenging. The 2003 World retail trade, and transport and communications, which casted growth is expected to reach R2 122 trillion by 2014. Bank study reveals that unhealthy environmental conditions provide employment opportunities albeit on a smaller scale. Only finance and business services are expected to keep the exacerbate urban poverty, and conversely that poverty The latter is ascribed to the fact that they require large growth momentum for the next three years. exacerbates environmental problems (World Bank, 2003).

2002 Community, social and personal services provided the most employment opportunities during 2001 (Statistics 2009

30 South Africa, 2001). By 2007, this distribution had changed 2014* with manufacturing being the leading sector in providing employment in Gauteng (Figure 7).

20

(GDPR) in R billion Gauteng green economy 10

The Gauteng Provincial Government has initiated

Gross Domestic Product by Region by Product Domestic Gross a strategy to establish a green or low carbon 0 economy during the next 14 years in order to stem the tide of unemployment. This economy and water “grows by reducing rather than increas- and fishing retail trade which Finance and Construction Transport and ing resource consumption” will have a double Manufacturing Electricity, gas Wholesale and communications business services personal services benefit of easing environmental impact while Government, social, Mining and quarrying also creating green jobs. Green jobs have been Agriculture, forestry identified as sustainable for the future and will Figure 4.7: Sectoral contribution and economic performance, 2002 - 2014 (HIS Global Insight, 2011) be founded on administrative, research and *Indicates forecast year ______development, manufacturing and service sectors

(GDED, 2010). 1 Gross Value Added (GVA) measures the value added/ contribution made by each individual producer, industry or sector to the economy. Social 29 Household income Income inequality HIV/AIDS prevalence

According to Census 2001, the percentage population with Gini coefficient is a measure of income inequality and it HIV/AIDS is a serious challenge in all respects of society in no income was 60% and change has been sluggish, with ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 signifies a state of absolute Gauteng. For example, death due to HIV/AIDS is seriously 48% still having no income in 2007. The majority of people equality where income is uniformly distributed whereas 1 eroding the skills base; industries have to continually invest in Gauteng earn an income of a maximum of R1 600 per signifies absolute inequality. Gini coefficient ratings can vary in training new people which is expensive; child and elderly month. In 2007, 5% of the population earned R6 401-R12 based on the combination of factors that have been used in headed households are increasing where AIDS orphans are 800 while 3% earned R12 801-R25 600. The high earners in the calculation. The rating can be based on gross income, net estimated to be 2.01 million (Statistics South Africa, 2011). the province (R25 601 and above) constituted a mere 2.3% of income, expenditure, inclusion or exclusion of social grants, the population. and household or per capita income (RSA, 2010). A Gini coef- In 2001, a total of 4.21 million people in South Africa were ficient rating that is greater than 0.5 indicates high inequality. estimated to be living with HIV and this has increased by The 2007 Community Survey revealed that 47% of the popu- about 28% to an estimated 5.38 million (10.6% of estimated lation survives on less than US$2 per person per day, which The Gini coefficient for South Africa and Gauteng outlines population) in 2011 (Statistics South Africa, 2011). According is the international poverty line (Gauteng Department of a worsening trend with only a slight improvement during to the South African Development Index (SADI) report, the Economic Development, 2009). Put into perspective, South 2009. Data tracing back to 1996 shows that income inequal- HIV infection rate has remained at 11.8% compared to the Africa is classified as a middle-income country (international ity has continued to increase within Black, Coloured and previous quarter (South African Institute of Race Relations, poverty line is US$2.50) although there are large disparities Asian population groups. South Africa scored an average 2011). Females aged between 25 to 29 years and males aged in the distribution of wealth and a large number of people rating of 0.58 for the period 2000-2010 (United Nations between 30 to 39 years are at a greater risk of contracting constitute the low-income population. In 2006, 9.7% of Development Programme, 2010). However, the provision HIV (South Africa, 2010). people nationally were living on less than US$1.25 and of various kinds of social grants has helped reduce the Gini efforts are being made to meet the Millenium Development coefficient rating while at the same time reducing poverty In 2004, 12.4% of the population in Gauteng was HIV+ and Goal (MDG) target of 8.5% by 2015 (South Africa, 2010). levels (South Africa, 2010). The Gini coefficient is directly this decreased to 10.9% in 2009. There is a correlation related to poverty levels. Therefore, high levels of inequality between poverty and the number of people who are HIV+. indicate that a large proportion of the population is poor. It This is because it has been established that the greater the can therefore be concluded that the vast income inequalities poverty the higher the number of people who are HIV+. experienced in Gauteng are cause for alarm since poverty Although the prevalence of HIV is still considered high, there levels are also elevated.

Table 4.2: Gini Coefficient rating for South Africa and Gauteng (Gauteng Department of Finance, 2011; Gauteng Department of Economic Development, 2009)

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

South Africa 0.62 0.66 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.65 Gauteng 0.60 0.64 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.69 0.68 0.63 30 Social is gradual reduction. The major factors responsible for this per 1000 live births in 2010 (South African Institute of Vulnerability are: Race Relations, 2011). The infant mortality rate in 2011 is assumed to be 37.9 (Statistics South Africa, 2011a). This The Department of Environmental Affairs SoER website • the extensive rolling out of the Anti-Retroviral (ARV) can be attributed to increased (66.1% in 2001 to 95.3% defines human vulnerability as “...the interface between programme which has made access to ARVs easier; in 2009) immunization of infants under 1 year against exposure to the physical threats to human well-being and • campaigning and educating of people on the need to go tuberculosis, measles, tetanus, hepatitis B, diphtheria, polio, the capacity of people and communities to cope with those for frequent counseling and testing; and haemophilus influenza. The target as per the Millenium threats. It is strongly linked to the complex make-up of society, • widespread launching of Voluntary Counselling and Development Goals is to reduce it to 18 per 1000 live births. including class, gender and age, past loss and misfortune, and Testing (VCT) centres; In Gauteng, the average stillbirth rate was 21,8 babies born susceptibility to future losses” (http://soer.deat.gov.za/). • providing prevention of mother to child transmission dead per 1,000 births in 2006-07. This improved to 20,9 (PMTC) services at health centres; and, per 1,000 in 2007-08, before increasing by 0,1 percentage Vulnerability of people in Gauteng to environmental change • increasing accessibility of condoms (The Republic of points to 21 per 1,000 in 2008-09. This figure is still below is due to a complex range of circumstances and conditions. South Africa, 2010). the national average of 22,3 per 1,000 for that year (Gauteng These conditions include population growth, HIV/AIDS, Department of Finance, 2011). poverty and unemployment, inadequate access to basic Projections from statistical models indicate that deaths infrastructure and social services, and the degradation of resulting from AIDS are expected to decrease to 8% by 2015, natural resources. DEA further states that “responding to which is a significant positive change compared to 2003 Leading natural causes of deaths vulnerability requires building on people’s own responses, when it was 42%. Similarly, the prevalence rate of people providing institutional support, and promoting resilience and who are HIV+ will dwindle to -2% by 2015 compared to The Gauteng Socio-Economic Review and Outlook (Gauteng adaptive capacity among the people most at risk” (http:// a prevalence rate of 8% in 2003 (Gauteng Department of Department of Finance, 2011) includes a comparison of the soer.deat.gov.za/). Finance, 2011). leading causes of deaths in Gauteng and South Africa for 2008, which is based on StatsSA and Mortality and Causes In the case of Gauteng, The Poverty and Inequality, Facts of Death Report, 2010. For both Gauteng and South Africa, Trends and Hard Choices report 2010 provides insight into Infant mortality tuberculosis was the number one cause of death accounting the status of human development and states that “inequal- for 10.9% and 13.9% of deaths respectively. Influenza and ity has been persistently stubborn in South Africa and in Infant mortality refers to the possibility of a child dying pneumonia made up the second cause of death for both Gauteng. It has become a balancing act of whether Govern- before turning one year old in a specific year; it is measured Gauteng and the country at 9.7% and 8.5% respectively. TB, ment should concentrate on distributing current wealth per 1000 live births. A variety of internal and external influenza and pneumonia are also HIV/AIDS opportunistic in the economy, or try to create new wealth. A solution to factors are responsible for infant mortality, e.g. congenital illnesses, the deaths of which could have resulted because of reduce high levels of both poverty and inequality requires heart defects, respiratory disorders, diarrhoea due to poor AIDS. HIV was the eighth leading cause of death for Gauteng improvement in education and training systems” (Gauteng hygiene, and diseases, such as measles and malnutrition. (Gauteng Department of Finance, 2011). Department of Finance, 2011).

The national infant mortality rate indicates a decreasing The term ‘human development’ refers to the extent to trend; in 2007 it was 53 (South Africa, 2010), in 2009 it which people can develop their full potential and expand improved to 43 (UNICEF, 2010), and it deteriorated to 47 their choices, and “human well-being” is defined as Social 3 1 “having sufficient access to the basic material for a good inter-connected as is outlined in the Millennium Ecosystem climate, floods and disease; supporting, such as nutrient life, health, freedom and choice, good social relations and Assessment. This was initiated in 2001 under the auspices cycles, soil formation and crop pollination; and cultural, such security”. In South Africa, high levels of poverty continue to of the United Nations and was designed to assess the as spiritual, aesthetic, educational and recreational benefits. constrain human potential and choices and to undermine consequences of ecosystem changes for human well-being well-being. This situation has fundamental implications for (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment describes the the environment, as well as increasing human vulnerability impacts of human activities on ecosystems around the to adverse environmental conditions (http://soer.deat.gov. The assessment grouped ecosystem services into four broad world. Figure 9 indicates the link between ecosystem za/). The same can be said for the Gauteng province where categories: provisioning, such as the production of food, services and the impact on human well-being where the human well-being and environmental sustainability are water, wood and fuel; regulating, such as the control of thicker the arrow the larger the impact.

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES CONSTITUENTS OF WELL-BEING

Provisioning Security ARROW’S COLOUR • Food • Personal safety Potential for mediation by • Fresh water • Secure resource access socioeconomic factors • Wood and fiber • Security from disasters • Fuel Low • … Basic material for good life • Adequate livelihoods Medium Regulating • Sufficient nutritious food Supporting Freedom of choice • Climate regulation • Shelter High • Nutrient cycling • Flood regulation • Access to goods and action • Soil formation • Disease regulation Opportunity to be able • Primary production • Water purification Health to achieve what an ARROW’S WIDTH • … • … • Strength individual values doing • Feeling well and being Intensity of linkages between ecosystem Cultural • Access to clean air and water services and human well-being • Aesthetic • Spiritual Good social relations Weak • Educational • Social cohesion • Recreational • Mutual respect Medium • … • Ability to help others LIFE ON EARTH - BIODIVERSITY Strong

Figure 4.8: Link between ecosystem services and constituents of well-being (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005) 32 Social Some of the strengths are inter alia: Minimum Living Level Human Development Index

• There is an explicit connection between ecosystem The Minimum Living Level (MLL) is directly proportional to Human Development Index (HDI) is a measure of accom- functions and human well-being; the disproportionate the size of the household; the smaller the household the less plishment in 3 spheres (United Nations Development impact of ecosystem degradation on the poor is acknowl- income needed for the upkeep of household members. This Programme, 2010): edged, while clearly stating that wealthy nations will also indicator is important for planning and covers items such as be affected. food, clothes, utility payments to local authorities, medical • a long and healthy life (includes life expectancy at birth as • There is recognition that the situation regarding expenses, education, transport, taxes and so on (The Presi- an indicator) ecosystem degradation is serious and getting worse; the dency, 2006). In contrast to Gauteng’s flourishing economic • access to education (includes mean years of schooling report clearly states that the use of many ecosystems is base, a substantial percentage of people live below the MLL and expected years of schooling as indicators) currently unsustainable. of a US dollar a day (Gauteng Provincial Government, 2007). • decent standard of living (includes Gross National Income • There is recognition that there will be increasing demands (GNI) per capita as an indicator) on these already strained ecosystems if we continue The Spatial Development Perspective states that in terms our present course of activities (Millennium Ecosystem of population distribution, the 30 provincial poverty HDI is measured from 0 to 1 with 0 signifying lack of human Assessment, 2005). concentrations contain 60% of all households in the province development and 1 signifying a high level of development. (Gauteng Provincial Government, 2007). Furthermore Table 5 indicated the HDI for South Africa and Gauteng from Against this background, the following sections detail specific the top 10 poverty concentrations in terms of number of 2002 until 2010. aspects of vulnerability on the social environment, namely households contain 60% of households under the MLL. Minimum Living Level, Human Development Index, social These areas include Soweto, Tembisa, Ivory Park, Orange SA is ranked 110 out of 169 countries and has a HDI of 0.59 grants and food security. Farm, Sebokeng, Tokoza, Vosloorus, Tsakane, Langaville, which is lower than countries with medium human develop- Soshanguve, Mabopane, Etwatwa, Mamelodi, Alexandra and ment. Additionally, the life expectancy at birth in SA is 52 Johannesburg central (Meiklejohn, et al., 2006). These areas years (United Nations Development Programme, 2010). In are typical results of apartheid spatial planning. Gauteng, the HDI from 2002 to 2007 has remained fairly constant though information on 2009 and 2010 was not available.

Table 4.3: Percentage of the population living below the Minimum Living Level (MLL) in South Africa and Gauteng (Gauteng Table 4.4: Human Development Index for South Africa and Gauteng (Gauteng Department Department of Economic Development, 2009) of Economic Development, 2009; United Nations Development Programme, 2010)

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2009 2010

South Africa 47.9 47.2 47.5 47.0 46.8 46.5 South Africa 0.59 0.59 0.60 0.59 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.59 Gauteng 28.1 27.7 27.9 27.6 27.3 27.0 Gauteng 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.68 - - Social 3 3 It is important to note that HDI is determined according to Responses and the adverse consequences of large-scale environmental “the averages for people in places rather than the actual change, such as land degradation, biodiversity loss, and number of persons”. This explains why urban areas with a The inter-connection between vulnerability and environ- climate change. In a developing country such as South Africa, large proportion of wealthy people usually score high HDI mental change is most aptly summarised by the following people living in poverty tend to be the most vulnerable and yet there are masses of poor people (The Presidency, statement: “Vulnerable populations have limited capacity to to environmental disturbance, because they have fewer 2007). protect themselves from current and future environmental resources to help them to cope with disaster” (http://soer. hazards, such as polluted air and water, natural disasters, deat.gov.za/). Social grants

400 Disability Social grants play a crucial role in easing the impact of Child support poverty, though they should not be regarded as a substitute Care dependency for jobs. Child support is the most significant grant for Foster care people in Gauteng as shown by statistics obtained by the Multiple social Community Survey 2007 (Figure 11). The City of Johan- nesburg had the largest number of claims for grants (35.9%), 300 specifically the child support grants. Ekurhuleni was second with total social grant claims of 26.4% and City of Tshwane was third with total social grant claims of 21.3%. Metsweding 200 had the lowest social grants claim at only 2.1%. Foster care grants are the least claimed compared to the other catego- ries. Countrywide, 14.1 million persons were receiving social grants as of 2010, compared to previous years where only 2.6 million persons received grants (South Africa, 2010).

Number of grant claims (thousands) Number of grant 100

People in the rural areas, informal settlements and

townships greatly rely on social grants for their livelihood

since employment opportunities are few and incomes are 0 low.

Sedibeng West Rand Ekurhuleni Metsweding City of Tshwane City of Johannesburg Figure 4.9: Types of social grants disbursed per person in Gauteng (data from Statistics South Africa, 2007)

34 Social The ability to achieve environmental sustainability will rely allowing them to participate in the economy and contribute on eradicating poverty and inequality, and improving socio- to the development of their communities and the country economic conditions and well-being of people in Gauteng. as a whole. The specific outcomes include temporary job Numerous strategies and programmes are underway to creation, poverty alleviation, skills transfer, and project- directly target poverty, illiteracy and social inequalities. specific natural resource management targets. GDARD is the Provincial Lead Sector Department for the Environment In addition to the focus on developing and empowering and Culture Sector (E&C) of the EPWP. In this role GDARD people in Gauteng, reducing the degradation and the provides support to all municipalities regarding national unsustainable use of natural resources is needed. Poor air reporting, training, and project planning. quality, increased waste volumes, pollution of land and soil, depletion of water resources and reliance on fossil fuels for In addition, GDARD provides a support service and profes- energy are challenges. The inability to address these unsus- sional expertise on best practices in managing and conserv- tainable practices will limit our ability to create sustainable ing natural resources and land, to private and public land communities and increase economic growth in the province. owners, across a variety of land uses (pers. Comms. GDARD officials). To address the pressures on Gauteng’s natural The impact of the reduction of water quality and quantity resources, the SRM component of the GDARD establishes on especially vulnerable Gauteng residents is manifest in projects that strive to meet these challenges by creating increased disease, decline in the quality of food and health, partnerships for the wise use of natural resources in order and negative impacts on livelihoods and economic activities. to enhance livelihoods, for the citizens of Gauteng. The The increasingly devastating impact of floods in Gauteng Expanded Public Works Programme with an emphasis on job is due to poor urban planning, destroyed wetlands, storm creation, and skills & human development from the environ- water drains blocked by waste or poor maintenance, and ment for the environment is implemented through projects non-conservation of natural areas to manage water run-off. that create jobs for women, the youth, disabled, men; This leads to human suffering, loss of life and belongings. ensure skills transfer; eradicate alien vegetation; rehabilitate The many non-compliant Gauteng’s sewerage treatment wetlands; combat soil degradation; fire management; and plants, and industrial and mining pollution (including mine clean-up rivers. residue, radioactivity, AMD), are a further risk to human health, and particularly the health of people who rely on Responses in the form of policies, tools and legislation across direct access to untreated water for household and agricul- all scales applicable to the social environment are listed in tural use (pers. comms GDARD officials). the summary table.

In response to these challenges the Expanded Public Works Programme (EPWP) is one element within a broader govern- ment strategy to reduce poverty and unemployment through creation of work opportunities for unemployed persons,

Social 3 5 Summary Table

International Responses Millennium Development Goals New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) Johannesburg Plan of Implementation Johannesburg Declaration National Responses The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa National Spatial Development Perspective Medium Term Strategic Framework (MTSF) 2009 - 2014 National Strategy for Sustainable Development New Growth Path National Planning Commission – Low Carbon Growth workstream Industrial Policy Action Plan (IPAP-2) Housing Act (No. 107 of 1997) Population Policy for South Africa (1998) Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Strategy Short term job creation programmes e.g. Expanded Public Works Programme (EPWP) Joint Initiative for Priority Skills Acquisition (JIPSA) Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative for South Africa (ASGISA) Provision of free basic services, i.e. water, electricity, housing and sanitation Improved distribution of social grants Strategic Plan for 2010-2013 Kha Ri Gude (“Let us learn” in TshiVenda) adult literacy campaign Adoption of policy on ‘no fee’ schools Adoption of the National Schools Nutrition Programme Recapitalisation of Further Education and Training (FET) institutions Adoption of the Quality Improvement and Development Strategy and Upliftment Programme (QEDS-UP) National Strategic Plan (NSP) for HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted infections for 2007–2011 National operational plan for comprehensive HIV care, management and treatment The Maternal, Child and Women’s Health Policy of South Africa, 1995 Infant and Young Child Feeding Policy 2008, Development of the national Basic Education Action Plan Adult Basic Education and Training Act of 2000 Provincial Responses Gauteng Spatial Development Framework Gauteng Spatial Development Perspective Gauteng Employment Growth and Development Strategy Strategy for a developmental green economy for Gauteng Blue IQ initiatives for industrial and tourism development Provision of free transport to learners who live far from schools Adoption of a Strategy for a Developmental Green Economy for Gauteng Gauteng Primary Literacy Strategy, 2010-2014 36 Social References

City of Johannesburg. (2008). State of the Environment Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems and Report. ISBN: 978-0-620-44094-3. City of Johannesburg. Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis. Washington Department of Basic Education. (2008). The development of DC: World Resources Institute. education: National report of South Africa. Department of South Africa. (2010). Millennium Development Goals Basic Education. - Country Report 2010. Pretoria: Republic of South Africa. Gauteng Department of Economic Development. (2009). South African Institute of Race Relations. (2011). The South Gauteng Employment Growth and Development Strategy. African Development Index (SADI): Second update for Johannesburg: Gauteng Provincial Government. 2011. Pretoria: South African Institute of Race Relations. Gauteng Department of Economic Development. (2010). A Statistics South Africa. (2007). Community Survey 2007. strategy for a developmental green economy for Gauteng. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. Johannesburg: Gauteng Provincial Government. Statistics South Africa. (2011a). Mid-year population Gauteng Department of Finance. (2011). Socio-Economic estimates. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. Review and Outlook. Johannesburg: Gauteng Provincial Statistics South Africa. (2011b). Quarterly Labour Force Government. Survey: Quarter 1, 2011. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. Gauteng Provincial Government. (2007). Gauteng Spatial The Presidency. (2006). National Spatial Development Development Perspective: A perspective of growing, Perspective. Pretoria: Republic of South Africa. sharing and sustaining. Johannesburg: Gauteng Provincial UNICEF. (2010). Levels and Trends in Child Mortality: Government. Estimates Developed by the Inter-agency Group for Child Goldblatt, M. (2002).Pro-poor interventions for urban envi- Mortality Estimation: Report 2010. UNICEF. ronmetnal management (1st draft), Palmer Development United Nations Development Programme. (2010). Human Group Paper. Johannesburg: Palmer Development Group. Development Report 2010. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Meiklejohn, C, Goss, H. and Whisken, J. (2010). Achieving World Bank. (2003). What are the Policy Issues? http://www. focused infrastructure investment in South Africa: unep.org/geo2000/english/index.htm. Technical advances in provincial spatial planning. Pretoria: CSIR Built Environment.

Social 3 7

Land and Agriculture 5

Introduction Pressures and More than 100 years of rapid development and unsustain- challenges able land use practices have resulted in multiple pressures on land in Gauteng. Land is a critical resource, with a Apart from the issues common to urban areas all over the threatened or protected ecosystems. Co-location of compat- complex range of drivers that determine condition and the world, Gauteng has to deal with pressures related to rural ible activities and the need for efficiencies of scale become suitability of land uses. Maintaining land in a good condition development, restitution of historic inequalities and the pro- important considerations for natural resource management is particularly important for agriculture and the protection of tection of particularly sensitive biodiversity. The pressures in urban areas. natural resources, where soil quality and habitat transforma- on the quality of available land are linked to demands from tion is properly managed and controlled. The peripheries of a growing population, and from ongoing expansion and Johannesburg is the economic hub of Gauteng, and is urban areas experience multiple developmental pressures development in manufacturing, technology, agriculture and developing at a rate above the national growth rate (City of and are under pressure from transformation to urban general industry (Department of Government Communica- Johannesburg, 2008). Similarly, its neighbour the Ekurhu- land uses. Protection of important agricultural and natural tions and Information Systems, 2011). leni Metropolitan Municipality is referred to as ‘Africa’s resources for the purpose of maintaining environmental Workshop’ as it accounts for a quarter of the Gauteng quality and natural productivity is a challenge. economy and contains the largest concentration of industries Competition for land in South Africa (Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality, 2010/2011). Ekurhuleni and its surroundings are set to Gauteng is undeniably the economic centre of South Africa become an ‘aerotropolis’ or airport-centred city. Land is a critically important resource to Gauteng. and Africa, despite being the smallest province. As such, The use of land determines the efficiency of it draws together a wide variety of economic sectors and Gauteng functions as South Africa’s manufacturing and urban systems, health of the living environment, demands for the use of land for urban growth, industry and industrial hub and hosts industrial activities related to basic resources for development and food security. agriculture. iron and steel processing, fabricated metal products, food, Inappropriate and wasteful land use practices machinery, electrical machinery, appliances and electrical impact on the functioning of the economy, Areas of high natural resource value are often highly sought supplies, vehicle parts, accessories and chemical products constricting development and may lead to a after for residential or agricultural use. For example, prime (Department of Government Communications and Informa- range of social problems. Proper land planning, agricultural land is often found within sheltered valleys in tion Systems, 2010/2011). These concentrations of economic sustainable natural resource use, adequate focus the heart of the urban complexes, yet the same natural activities require well-located land, for proximity to transpor- on reliable food production and the rectifying of resources are prized as ideal land for urban densification or tation networks and labour. land degradation are strong themes arising from development as well as the conservation of poorly protected of the investigation into land and agriculture.

Land and Agriculture 3 9 Infrastructure Unsustainable agricultural practices State Development in Gauteng is supported by a network of roads, airports, rail lines, telephones, electricity and telecommu- Clearing land for agricultural activities impacts Land cover nication grids that ensure extensive connectivity between negatively on vegetation types associated with deep the economic and industrial nodes. To further stimulate fertile soils and disrupts ecological functioning. In The 2004 Gauteng SoER reported that the majority of the economic activity, an amount of R34 billion is planned for Gauteng, of particular concern are areas of grassland province remains in a natural or semi-natural state (classi- infrastructure investment in the major economic areas; that have been extensively cleared for cultivation. fied as ‘unspecified/other’ and ‘conservation’), with urban namely the Vaal Triangle, East, West and Central Rand and Stock farming, although not widespread in Gauteng, Pretoria (Department of Government Communications and contributes to land degradation, predominately Information Systems, 2011). in the former ‘townships’ where overgrazing and Gauteng Land Use 2009 overstocking are rife. Changes to soils and vegetation A high growth rate and active economy results in a rapid rate from agricultural practices have consequences for Cultivated Disturbed Lands/ Old lands of land use transformation, especially through the process biodiversity, specifically affecting species’ richness and Man-made Water of urbanisation. This transformation and urban expansion is abundance of invertebrates, amphibians, birds and Mines predicted to result in the cities of Tshwane, Johannesburg mammals (Department of Environmental Affairs and Smallholdings and Ekurhuleni spatially merging by 2015 to create the Tourism, 2006). Urban twelfth largest megacity in the world (City of Johannesburg, Veld 2008). In Midrand, the boundary between Johannesburg and Centurion has visibly blurred over time as new developments Mining fill the land along the N1 highway. Mining is a further land use that competes for space. A mining corridor stretches across the province from Population growth Springs in the East to Carletonville in the West. The west of Gauteng is dominated by mining activities, Gauteng has a population of over 11 million people, with a with a mining corridor to the south and west of growth rate of 13% as measured over the past decade. This Randfontein in the West Rand District. Large-scale implies an escalation of population density and growing mining offers opportunities for the development of pressure on natural resources, land availability, agriculture small-scale mining-related operations in the region, and municipal infrastructure. however the region also holds potential for intensive farming activities (West Rand District Municipality, 2011).

Figure 5.1: Map of land use for Gauteng 2009 (GTI, 2009) 40 Land and Agriculture Land transformation and cultivation land uses accounting for the next biggest Urban land uses were calculated at 17.8% of the spatial coverage: natural areas and mining. The area covered by categories (Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conserva- extent of Gauteng in the 2004 Gauteng SoER (Gauteng mining reduced by 0.3%. This change is not significant and tion and Environment, 2004). Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment, could be attributed to differences in data collection or 2004). There has been a continued increase in urbanisa- classification. Natural areas are slowly being transformed to Improved remote sensing techniques have allowed refine- tion, with the built environment now covering 20.4% of other more formal urban land uses. ment of the 2004 ‘unspecified/other’ land use category. This the landscape in 2009 (GTI, 2009). A similar comparison changes the way land use is classified, making comparisons between the 2000 and 2009 land cover information shows difficult. The latest land cover information for Gauteng that active or recently cultivated land was at 16.1% of shows that only 39% of land is now considered as ‘natural’, Gauteng in 2000 and is now at 21.3%, a 5.2% increase. and 10.8% classified as degraded (previously cultivated, non-vegetated or degraded) (GTI, 2009). Only two land use categories show a reduction in spatial

Natural 2 1 2 2 2 5 Cultivation 18 Degraded 20 1 Urban built-up 39 % 60 % Waterbodies 16 Plantations 11

Mines 21

Figure 5.2: Land use for Gauteng 2000 (CSIR, 2000) Figure 5.3: Land use for Gauteng 2009 (GTI, 2009) Land and Agriculture 41 Land unsuitable for human use Dolomitic land

Extensive mining has resulted in contamination by mining The Department of Public Works (DPW) identified 25% of residues, radiation or degradation of many areas within Gauteng’s land as dolomitic (Department of Public Works, Gauteng. In addition, undermined (or shallow mined) areas 2003). This land includes some densely populated areas and dolomitic land restrict development due to the threat such as Bekkersdal, Katorus, Centurion, Dobsonville and of surface soils and rock collapsing into caves, or voids that Deapmeadow. About 86 810 structures in 77 informal result in sinkholes and dolines (Department of Public Works, settlements, and 129 housing projects (planned or in 2003; Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Develop- existence), are located on dolomitic land (Gauteng ment, 2009a). Areas which may be unsuitable for human use Department of Housing, 2008). DPW recorded in Gauteng are indicated in Figure 4, which highlights areas that by 2003, 38 people had died in sinkholes Dolomites posing constraints on land use. and an excess of 1000 sinkholes occurred on the Mine residue on dolomite West Rand, 800 south of Pretoria, Centurion and Mine residue not on dolomite Atteridgeville and approximately 150 on the East District Municipalities Mining residue Rand (Department of Public Works, 2003).

In some instances, mine areas can be rehabilitated or reclaimed for development; for example, for use as landfill sites or recreation like quad biking. However, because of the nature of mining activities and ore bodies, in most instances the land is so contaminated, or the fear of causing further contamination is so high, that remediation is not possible and the land is unsuitable for human habitation or use (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2009a).

Figure 5.4: Dolomite areas and mine residue plan (Gauteng Depart- ment of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2009a)

42 Land and Agriculture Radiation Agricultural potential

Another factor that needs to be considered before undertak- the land can be taken (Gauteng Department of Agriculture In 2002, 28.7% of the province was classified as having high ing development in old mining areas is low-level radioactive and Rural Development, 2009a). However, the removal of and moderately high arable land, and 23.4% as potentially contamination associated with gold mining residue. The tailings disposal facilities and rehabilitation of radioactive arable (Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation contamination remains even after re-mining or rehabilitation land could nevertheless improve on the quality of surface and Environment, 2002). Just under a third of the high and poses a severe restraint on land use (Gauteng Depart- runoff and the water percolating into the groundwater potential land in Gauteng was actively cultivated in 2004 ment of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2009a). system (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural (Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Development, 2009a). Environment, 2004). There has since been a downward trend More research is required to determine the lifespan of such in primary agriculture, most of which is a consequence of radioactivity before more informed decisions on the use of other development pressures for land.

Blue Low Agricultural Potential

Yellow Medium Built-up Red High High Low Medium

Figure 5.5: Radiation plan of the Witwatersrand area figure showing the band of radioactive contaminated land that runs from west to east along the mining belt across Gauteng (map from Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Figure 5.6: Location and potential of agricultural resources in Rural Development, 2009a) Gauteng (Gauteng Provincial Government, 2010) Land and Agriculture 4 3 Gauteng experienced a high rate of loss of high potential grain and sorghum (Department of Government Com- Soil loss agricultural land from 2002 to 2006; with the area of high munications and Information Systems, 2011; Department of potential agricultural land decreasing to 17.3% during Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries, 2010). Erosion hazard is described as the likelihood of serious that time (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural erosion occurring in the near future (approximately 3-5 Development, 2006). Nevertheless, 21,3% (387 902ha) of An agricultural census by GDARD (Gauteng Department of years) (Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conserva- the province is currently cultivated (GTI, 2009), of which Agriculture and Rural Development, 2009b) found that tion and Environment, 2004). This erosion hazard can be only 47% is occurring in acknowledged high potential soils, 357 546ha is currently used for summer crops and this shows calculated based on a number of factors such as soil type, according to the 2002 soil distribution classification. By impli- a good correlation with the 2009 land cover data. Grains and existing landuse and condition, and weather patterns; can be cation, further expansion of agricultural activities is possible. oil seeds were cultivated on 128 710 ha, other summer crops expressed as an erosion intensity and rate. on 7 107ha, and an additional 221 729ha is taken up by The main crop cultivated in Gauteng is maize, supplemented planted pastures and arable fallow lands. In winter, less than Soil loss is an important indicator, as it is strongly linked by wheat, dry beans, soya beans, sunflowers, ground nuts, 1% of Gauteng is cultivated with crops. Vegetables represent with land use activities, degradation and land capability. the highest amount of winter Food security is of particular importance to Gauteng, and crops at 4 704ha of Gauteng may be compromised in areas where soil erosion threatens 1000.0 land surface area (Gauteng agricultural potential of the land. This may have impact on Department of Agriculture and the economy where additional resources are required to Rural Development, 2009b). counteract the loss of agricultural potential of the land. In 2009, 9.7% of the available high potential agricultural land 100.0 in Gauteng was classified as degraded (as modelled from GTI (2009)). Maize 10.0 Wheat The predicted soil erosion hazard is very low to low over Dry beans most of Gauteng with only the northern region of Tshwane predicted to have a moderate to high erosion potential 1.0 Soyabeans (AGIS, 2011). However, the actual soil loss over Gauteng Sunflower could vary considerably as a result of the high level of Yield per 1 000 tons Yield Groundnuts pressure on land in Gauteng. The real risk is not soil erosion 0.1 Grain sorghum as such, but rather other forms of land degradation that render the land unproductive or unsuited for specific land uses. 0

1993/94 1994/951995/961996/971997/981998/991999/002000/012001/022002/032003/042004/052005/062006/072007/082008/092009/10

Figure 5.7: Crop yields in Gauteng from 1993 to 2009 (Department of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries, 2011) 44 Land and Agriculture Responses Agricultural development Conservation agriculture (CA)

To stimulate agricultural development in a manner that will entrepreneurship. This enabled a number of local interest CA, according to the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) improve the value chain of agricultural produce and optimise groups to establish projects such as: of the United Nations, aims to improve livelihoods of farmers the use of agricultural land, a strategy for the development through sustainable and profitable agriculture. CA has three of agricultural hubs and agri-processing facilities has been • Medicinal plants cultivation nurseries in Devon (Lesedi principles: minimal soil disturbance, permanent soil cover adopted in Gauteng. The agricultural hubs designate areas Municipality) and Thokoza (Ekurhuleni); and crop rotation. The scale of demand from small-scale where good quality agricultural resources are found and • Recycling and paper-making in Ivory Park (City of Johan- farmers exposed to land degradation for inputs and support consequently, where agriculture or agri-related industry nesburg); has resulted in GDARD partnering with the Agricultural should be encouraged. Agri-processing, and specifically • Land rehabilitation and food security in Sebokeng Research Council in establishing a trial site in Winterveld, ‘agri-parks’, that contain state-owned agricultural processing (Emfuleni Municipality); north west of Pretoria, with 35 emerging farmer beneficiar- facilities, will be encouraged to stimulate economic growth, • Traditional healer medicinal plants cultivation training ies. This scheme will incorporate adaptive research on CA create employment and transfer much needed skills in the (City of Tshwane); and, undertaken through the Gauteng Agricultural Research sector. • Permaculture food gardens for township schools. Agenda programme.

GDARD does not have a farmer-based LandCare Programme. Gauteng province is not immune to climate variability and its Community based natural resource Instead, the Expanded Public Works Programme (EPWP) impacts on agro-ecosystems. There is mounting interest to management (CBNRM) project approach is used to combine the objectives of apply and use a conservation agriculture approach, so as to LandCare with job creation in farming areas. conserve water, use natural resources optimally and protect CBNRM is about local people coming together to protect soils. their land, water, animals and plants for sustainable livelihoods. The GDARD Directorate of Sustainable Resource Management implements several CBNRM projects including medicinal plants management, agri-waste recycling, land restoration and environmental education (pers. com.). The projects encourage communities living in poverty stricken areas, or areas where the land is degraded, to drive the process of their own development through cooperatives and

Land and Agriculture 45 Land reform and food security community with food security for all. Output 2 of this 2011 (Department of Rural Development and Land Reform, agreement is about “Improved access to affordable and 2011). The Gauteng Rural Development Strategy focuses on stimu- diverse food”. The output promotes affordable and diverse lating economic growth and reducing poverty in rural areas food production and consumption, especially poor communi- Given the relative scarcity of high potential land in Gauteng, (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, ties. The Integrated Food Security Strategy in Gauteng was coupled with increasing population pressures, it is impera- 2010). The strategy consists of seven pillars, and two are developed as a response to this need. tive that the design of land reform projects be informed by important to this chapter; namely Promotion of Sustainable environmental considerations, including physical (natural Land Reform and Access to Sufficient Food Security for All Land Reform is an important catalyst for poverty alleviation, resources), social (population factors) and economic (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, job creation, food security and entrepreneurship through (agricultural budget) aspects. It should be noted that one 2010). the distribution of arable land to previously disadvantaged of the severe limiting factors to agricultural development in persons. AgriBEE objectives state that 30% of South Africa’s many parts of Gauteng is theft, necessitating often dispro- The South African Government Measurable Performance agricultural land should be owned by black South Africans portionately expensive measures by producers to ensure an and Accountable Delivery agreement, Outcome 7, focuses by 2014. In Gauteng, 38,000ha of land had been delivered adequate yield. on developing a vibrant, equitable and sustainable rural through restitution, redistribution and tenure reform by

Table 5.1: Land transferred from 1994 to March 2011 (Department of Rural The South African Land Reform Programme Development and Land Reform, 2011)

The South African Land Reform Programme was launched in 1994, as a three- Province Restitution Claims Restitution (ha) Redistribution (ha) tiered approach to addressing previous race and gender discriminations: Redistribution provides the disadvantaged and the poor with access to land Eastern Cape 16 254 129 075 399 180 for residential and productive purposes. This includes the urban and rural poor, Free State 2 672 51 452 365 825 labour tenants, farm workers and new entrants to agriculture. Gauteng 13 161 16 378 38 043 Land restitution resolves cases of forced removals that took place after 1913. KwaZulu-Natal 15 075 669 898 588 019 This is the responsibility of the Land Claims Court and Commission, established under the Restitution of Land Rights Act 22 of 1994. Limpopo 3 326 548 044 100 349 Land tenure reform is addressed through land policy, as the administration and Mpumalanga 2 778 409 665 366 000 legislation to improve the tenure security of all South Africans and to accommo- Northern Cape 3 707 559 634 1 144 618 date diverse forms of land tenure, including communal tenure. North West 3 718 372 544 302 466 The Government’s intention is to transfer 30% of the land to black South Africans Western Cape 15 537 3 837 142 729 by 2014, through restitution, redistribution and reform. (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2006; CDE, 2005; Lahiff, 2008) TOTAL 76 228 2 760 527 3 447 229

46 Land and Agriculture Land rehabilitation Sustainability

A GDARD study on reclaimed mine residue areas identified Urban areas in Gauteng are developing sustainability strate- areas that pose a threat to communities and the environ- gies as a response to the high levels of land transformation, ment, and areas which could be rehabilitated or reclaimed competition for natural resources, pollution and degrada- for an assortment of appropriate development types tion. Recent strategies include the Gauteng Strategy for Sus- (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Develop- tainable Development, Midrand EcoCity, food gardens and ment, 2009a). Despite the obvious threat, dolomitic land roof top gardens. Concern remains over threats of severe may provide positive benefits as a buffer to AMD. Residual environmental contamination through mining and industrial dolomitic soil could reduce some of the impacts by buffering activities, and the rapid loss of high potential agricultural salinisation percolates that would otherwise filter through to soils or ecosystem services though land transformation. the ground water system (Gauteng Department of Agricul- ture and Rural Development, 2009a). The challenge is to set clear and realistic targets for land use preferences in fast developing urban areas, coupled with enforceable protection and management strategies. The need for poverty alleviation, job creation, sustained economic growth and reduced human vulnerability, means that decisions regarding optimal allocation and use of land should take environmental opportunities and constraints into consideration. “The concept of sustainability with respect to land Responses in the form of policies, tools and legislation across management must address the human, cultural all scales applicable to land and agriculture are listed in the and ecological dimensions and include the wise summary table. management of natural resources and restoration of ecological systems. Sustainable land manage- ment ensures the health and vitality of human life, culture and nature, for present and future generations, by ending activities that destroy human life, culture and nature, by conserving what exists, restoring what has been damaged, and preventing future harm.”

Stephen Viederman (GDARD, 2009)

Land and Agriculture 47 Summary Table Summary Table

International Responses UNESCO listing of World Heritage Sites Provincial Responses LandCare Millennium development goals Extension Recovery Program for extension advisory services National Responses Medium Term Strategic Framework (MTSF) Outcomes Gauteng Spatial Development Framework Ministerial Delivery Agreements Gauteng Agricultural Potential Atlas Spatial Planning & Land Use Management Bill Gauteng Agricultural Hubs Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 2010 Gauteng Agricultural Development Strategy Environmental Management Framework Regulations, 2010 Gauteng Agricultural Research Agenda programme National Agricultural Extension Forum Gauteng Integrated Food Security Strategy including the Siyazondla Program Comprehensive Rural Development Programme Establishment of a Provincial Advisory Committee to advise Land Reform Programme the Land Bank on financing of agricultural enterprises Draft Green Paper on Land Reform West Rand Agricultural College Agri-parks and Agri-processing infrastructure development Gauteng Farmer Settlement Programme (GFSP) Letsema/ Illima farmer support program Land Redistribution and Agricultural Development Programme (LRAD) CRDP projects in Devon, Hekpoort, Sokhulumi and Bantu Bonke/ Mamello Development of Environmental Management Frameworks for sensitive areas threatened by development pressures GDARD input into local authority IDPs, SDFs, and SEAs of SDFs Peat Working Group Identification and management of an urban edge Gauteng City Region initiative Initiative to set up a Strategy for a Developmental Green Economy for Gauteng Local Authority Responses Integrated Development Plans Spatial Development Frameworks State of Environment Reports Successful constitutional challenge of the Development Facilitation Act by the City of Joburg

48 Land and Agriculture References

AGIS. (2011). http://www.agis.agric.za/agismap_atlas/Print. Department of Public Works. (2003). Appropriate Develop- Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and jsp (13/9/2011) ment of Infrastructure on Dolomite: Guidelines for Environment. (2002). Gauteng Agricultural Potential CDE. (2005). Land Reform in South Africa: A 21s century Consultants. Department of Public Works. Atlas: v.2. Gauteng Provincial Government. perspective. CDE Research, Policy in the Making, 14. Department of Rural Development and Land Reform. (2011). Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Johannesburg: The Centre for Development and Enter- Land Redistribution and Restitution Statistics. Chief Direc- Environment. (2004). Gauteng State of the Environment prise (CDE). torate: Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation. Department Report 2004. Johannesburg: Gauteng Provincial Govern- City of Johannesburg. (2008). State of the Environment of Rural Development and Land Reform. ment. Report. ISBN: 978-0-620-44094-3. City of Johannesburg. Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality. (2010/2011). Gauteng Department of Housing. (2008). Housing Statistics. Department of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries. (2010). Integrated Development Plan 2010/2011, Ekurhuleni Gauteng Provincial Government. Annual Report 2009/10. Department of Agriculture Metropolitan Municipality. Gauteng Provincial Government. (2010). Gauteng Agricul- Forestry and Fisheries. Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. tural Potential Atlas. Gauteng Provincial Government. Department of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries. (2011). (2006). Gauteng Agricultural Development Strategy. GTI. (2009). Gauteng Land-cover dataset: Summary report Abstract of Agricultural Statistics, Directorate Agricultural Gauteng Provincial Government. and metadata. Report compiled by GeoTerraImage (GTI) Statistics, Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. on behalf of the Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Fisheries. (2009a). Conceptual study on reclaimed mine residue Rural Development. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. (2006). areas for development purposes. Gauteng Provincial Lahiff, E. (2008). Land Reform in South Africa: A status report. South African Environmental Outlook: A report on the Government. Research Report 38. Programme for Land and Agrarian state of the environment. Pretoria: Department of Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. Studies (PLAAS), School of Government, University of the Environmental Affairs and Tourism. (2009b). Gauteng High Value Crop and Livestock Data Western Cape. Department of Government Communications and Informa- Georeferencing Project, GT/GDACE/97/2008. Pretoria: SiQ West Rand District Municipality. (2011). Integrated Develop- tion Systems. (2011). Land and its people: South Africa Pty (Ltd). ment Plan 2010/2011. West Rand District Municipality. Year Book 2010/2011. Department of Government Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. Communications and Information Systems. (2010). Gauteng Rural Development Strategy 2009 – 2014. Gauteng Provincial Government.

Land and Agriculture 49

Atmosphere 6

Introduction Pressures and Air quality in Gauteng has been influenced by rapid urbanisa- ment. An emerging air quality issue is climate change, challenges tion and associated growth in industry, power generation, possibly one of the greatest environmental challenges facing transportation systems and domestic fuel burning. A lack society today. of adequate urban planning controls has led to industrial Energy sources of air pollution being located in close proximity Pollution problems are exacerbated when winds transport to densely populated areas. As the rates of urbanisation, pollutants long distances away from their source, adding The main sources of energy for cooking in Gauteng (2002- motorisation and economic development increase, air to the levels of locally produced air pollution, and greatly 2010) are electricity (83.8%) and paraffin (10.3%)(StatsSA, quality in many areas deteriorates. Air pollution is seen as a increasing the intensity of air quality concerns. Transbound- 2010). A challenge facing Gauteng is the use of multiple key threat to human health, quality of life and the environ- ary air pollution is an important consideration as air pollution fuel types for domestic energy needs, particularly in poorer does not follow political or administrative boundaries. households, based largely on their inability to afford electricity. The use of domestic fuel sources such as paraffin, coal and wood has contributed to ambient levels of sulphur

dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO),

carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone (O3), particulate matter (PM), The atmosphere is a resource linked to both and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere. ecosystems and human development. Its variable Domestic fuel burning normally occurs under less than ideal nature in South Africa affects food production, combustion conditions and indoor burning of these fuel human health, and biodiversity. The main issues sources in densely populated townships and informal set- of concern for the atmosphere are: tlements has exacerbated the problem of indoor pollution. Incomplete combustion of fuels results in the release of high • Indoor and ambient air pollution, with associ- concentrations of pollutants into living environments. ated health impacts • Climate change • Depletion of stratospheric ozone Vehicle emissions

The quality of air depends on the quantities of Vehicle tailpipe emissions are associated with pollutants natural and human-caused emissions and the such as CO2, CO, methane (CH4), nitrogen oxides (NOx) potential of the atmosphere and ecosystems to (greenhouse gases), N02, benzene (C6H6), polycyclic aromatic absorb and remove pollutants. Atmosphere 51 hydrocarbons (PAHs), aldehydes and ozone. The main inadequate emission control, poor vehicle maintenance and Mining highways within the province (the M1, N1, N3 and N4), as high average age of vehicle fleets. The phasing out of leaded

well other busy main roads, are located close to residential petrol has resulted in lead emissions from vehicles no longer Mining activities are a major source of particulates 10(PM ,

areas. This has led to vehicle emissions occurring in close being a major air quality problem. PM2.5 and Total Suspended Particulates (TSP)). This is partic- proximity to the breathing zone of people resulting in high ularly evident in open cast mining, and pollution is generated exposure and substantial health risks. Given the large and through activities such as land clearing, excavation, drilling, increasing number of vehicles in the province, it is expected Industry blasting, vehicle movements on unpaved roads, storage that Gauteng consumes the largest amount of diesel and piles, processing plants and tailings dams. Trace emissions of

petrol fuel in the country (SAPIA, 2010). Various industrial operations are located within the province; NOx, CO, SO2, CH4, and CO2 may be released during blasting including iron and steel processes, waste incineration, operations. There are approximately 160 mines in Gauteng, Within Gauteng, a lack of public transport and high numbers cement production, lead and power generation. Pollutants many of which still operate on the outskirts of densely

of vehicles, especially private vehicles, is expected to associated with industrial operations include SO2, PM, populated areas such as Johannesburg.

continue to increase. In city centres and on busy highways, O3, CO2 and NOx. Not only are these industries resource- it has been estimated that vehicles may be responsible for intensive, but may produce large amounts of hazardous and Mine residue areas (MRAs) have been identified as an 90-95% of CO, 60-70% of NOx and hydrocarbons emissions toxic wastes. emerging air pollution problem and include areas for tailings (Schwela, 2004). The causes of high emission rates include disposal, waste rock dumps, open cast excavations and quarries. Some of the MRAs contribute to particulates, dust and release of radioactive substances. A major cause for 500 70 concern is that some residential areas are located in close proximity or downwind of these sources of dust, and in some 60 400 cases, radioactive dust. Gauteng Province currently has 380 50 MRAs of which the majority are gold-mining residues (Figure B - Appendix A). Most of these mining residues are radioac- 300 40 tive due to the presence of uranium (GDARD, 2011). Energy use (PJ) 200 30 High dust fallout rates have been measured in close

Emissions (Mt)

2 CO Emissions (Mt) 2 proximity to poorly controlled tailings impoundments, with 20 CO the potential effects significantly increased where residential 100 10 settlements occur in close proximity. In addition, gold tailings

Final Energy Consumption (PJ) Final Energy contain compounds such as cyanide and heavy metals, which 0 0 pose additional health risks.

Industry Transport Electricity Refineries CommerceGovernment Residential In some cases, the radioactive tailings co-exist with iron sulphide mineral pyrite, which is the major cause of acid

Figure 6.1: Modelled energy and CO2 emission balance for Gauteng 2007 (Tomaschek et al., 2010) mine drainage (AMD). Since this acid solution is capable of

52 Atmosphere dissolving and mobilizing the naturally occurring radioactive Fire minerals, the considerable tonnage of low-grade uranium ore at surface constitutes one of the most serious pollution A further emerging air pollution problem within Gauteng hazards in the province. Chapter 7 contains more informa- is biomass burning. Veld fires are a natural and necessary tion on AMD and its effects. phenomenon in grassland ecosystems, and are widespread in the province and across the country. The frequency of fires increases during the dry winter months when a temperature Waste inversion also traps emissions. Human influences like poor veld management and improper fire management greatly Landfills located in various areas of the province emit increase the intensity and impact of fires. Emissions from gaseous emissions that include odorous and toxic gases. veld fires are similar to those generated by coal and wood

Landfill gas usually contains between 40% to 60% CH4 combustion (PM, NO2, NOx, O3, SO2, VOCs and CO). and similar percentages of CO2. The range of odoriferous and toxic gases emitted from landfills includes hydrogen sulphide, xylene and ethyl benzene. Landfill gases are of Climate change particular concern due to their potential impacts on human health; including risks from various carcinogens like benzene Climate change is widely recognised as an environmental and methylene chloride, and several non-carcinogenic toxins problem globally and requires urgent action. Gauteng is the such as phenols and chlorobenzene. economic hub of South Africa and is a major contributor, and victim, to global climate change. The province has a fossil- The potential of emissions of volatile organic compounds fuel based energy-intensive economy and is highly vulner- during waste water treatment is a cause of concern. Meas- able to the impacts of climate variability and change. Climate urements at waste water treatment works have included change poses a risk to the various sustainable development hydrogen sulphide, mercaptans, ammonia, acetone, toluene initiatives in Gauteng by undermining their effectiveness. and ethylbenzene. The most important odorants include hydrogen sulphide, mercaptans and ammonia. Odour impacts have the potential to be a serious annoyance and nuisance to local communities.

Emissions from incinerators (commercial, hospitals, etc.) emit a variety of pollutants such as PM, SO2, NOx and CO.

Atmosphere 5 3 State Particulate matter

Various instruments for air quality management such as Small air particles (between 2.5 and 10 micrometers) are In Ekurhuleni, data for the period January to August 2011

emissions inventories, ambient monitoring and air quality called PM10 and cause severe health effects. PM2.5 particles indicates that no exceedances of the provincial AQO were

management plans have been developed over the years. are a subset of PM10 and are air pollutants with a diameter recorded. However, the increase in PM10 concentrations in Monitoring provides the necessary scientific basis for policy of 2.5 micrometers or less, small enough to invade even residential sites in Ekurhuleni during winter is significant. and strategy development, objective setting, compliance the smallest airways. These particles generally come from measurement against targets and enforcement action. It activities that burn fossil fuels, such as traffic, smelting, and Over the long term, all monitoring stations with long-term is through ambient monitoring of various pollutants that metal processing. data, with the exception of Delta Park, exceeded the annual 3 the state of ambient air can be determined. The ambient average AQO of 40 µg/m . The elevated PM10 levels can

monitoring stations are found throughout Gauteng and the In general, PM10 levels are increasing in Gauteng with mostly be attributed to domestic fuel burning in townships pollutants measured at each of these monitoring stations are exceedances of the Gauteng Province Air Quality Objective and informal settlements, and the use of these fuels is shown in Figure 6.2. (AQO) of 75 µg/m3 observed. Data from the City of Joburg particularly intense during winter months for space heating

monitoring stations indicate elevated PM10 levels from 2004 purposes. Some of the peaks from domestic fuel burning can

to 2011, with the highest PM10 levels and exceedances of the be attributed to power outages, especially during the years AQOs in the township of Alexandra (Figure 6.3). 2008 and 2009 which resulted in most households making 400

350

300

250 Alexandra

3 Buccleuch 200 Delta Diepsloot

µg/m Ivory Park

10 150 Jabavu Newtown

PM 100 Orange Farm

50

0

2004/03/01 2004/06/01 2004/09/01 2004/12/01 2005/03/01 2005/06/01 2005/09/01 2005/12/01 2006/03/01 2006/06/01 2006/09/01 2006/12/01 2007/03/01 2007/06/01 2007/09/01 2007/12/01 2008/03/01 2008/06/01 2008/09/01 2008/12/01 2009/03/01 2009/06/01 2009/09/01 2009/12/01 2010/03/01 2010/06/01 2010/09/01 2010/12/01

Figure 6.2: Air quality monitoring stations within Gauteng (GDARD, 2009) Figure 6.3: Average monthly monitored PM10 2004 to 2011 (City of Joburg) (SAAQIS, 2011) 54 Atmosphere use of coal, wood and paraffin. Predicted PM10 concentrations Nitrogen dioxide Sulphur dioxide in areas (Sebokeng, Orange Farm) exceed the national PM10 standards and these form part of the Vaal Triangle national NO2 results vary significantly across Gauteng and indicate Recorded SO2 concentrations indicate a general increase in priority “hotspot”areas. The PM10 concentrations for the other a general increase in concentrations. In Johannesburg Gauteng. However, the concentrations are mostly below monitoring stations in Gauteng are shown in Appendix A. between 2004 and 2011, NO2 levels reported were the annual standard of 19ppb at most of the monitoring generally above the national annual limit of 21 parts per sites. Exceedances of the annual standard were recorded at

Trends for PM2.5 indicate a general increase in concentrations, billion (ppb) in Newtown (inner city), Alexandra (domestic Buccleuch, which has the highest SO2 concentrations within with exceedances of the proposed PM2.5 air quality annual fuel burning area) and Buccleuch (close to highway). In Johannesburg (Figure 6.5). In Tshwane, high SO2 concentra- 3 standard of 25 µg/m , at the Buccleuch monitoring site. This Tshwane, exceedances of the annual limit were recorded in tions were recorded in Booysens, while the SO2 levels at the is most likely due to vehicle tailpipe emissions. Exceedances Pretoria West while in the Vaal Triangle exceedances were various DEA Vaal Triangle monitoring stations were below of the standard have also been recorded in some areas in recorded in Diepkloof, Kliprivier and Sharpeville. the national SO2 annual limit of 19ppb. Although the data in the Vaal Triangle, such as Diepkloof, Kliprivier, Sebokeng and Ekurhuleni is for a short time period, there is a noticeable

Sharpeville due to domestic fuel burning (Figure 6.4). increase in SO2 levels, especially during the winter months due to domestic fuel burning.

140

120 70 60 100 50 Alexandra 80 Diepkloof Buccleuch 3 Zamdela 40 Delta Klieprivier Diepsloot 60 µg/m Sebokeng Ivory Park

Sharpville ppb 30 Jabavu

2.5 Three Rivers 2 Newtown

PM 40 SO Orange Farm 20

20 10

0 0

2007/03/01 2004/03/01

2007/05/01 2004/07/01 2007/07/01 2004/11/01 2007/09/01 2005/03/01 2007/11/01 2008/01/01 2005/07/01 2008/03/01 2005/11/01 2008/05/01 2006/03/01 2008/07/01 2006/07/01 2008/09/01 2006/11/01 2008/11/01 2007/03/01 2009/01/01 2009/03/01 2007/07/01 2009/05/01 2007/11/01

2009/07/01 2008/03/01 2009/09/01 2008/07/01 2009/11/01 2008/11/01 2010/01/01 2010/03/01 2009/03/01 2010/05/01 2009/07/01

2010/07/01 2009/11/01 2010/09/01 2010/03/01 2010/11/01 2010/07/01

2010/11/01

Figure 6.4: Average monthly monitored PM2.5 2007 to 2011 (DEA Vaal Triangle) (SAAQIS, 2011) Figure 6.5: Average monthly monitored SO2 data for Johannesburg, 2004 to 2011 (SAAQIS, 2011). Atmosphere 55 Greenhouse gases transport. The current energy demands by sector and major contributor to the health impact of air pollution. In by carrier for Gauteng are shown in Figure 4. There is a South Africa this was confirmed in a study undertaken by Anthropogenic activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels large demand for coal in Gauteng and industry has a high the Fund for Research into Industrial Development, Growth and the clearing of forests, have increased the concentration demands for energy which impacts on the state of air. The and Equity (FRIDGE), to assess the social and economic of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This in turn has use of coal will require mitigation measures to reduce its impact of phasing out ‘dirty’ fuels in South Africa. According increased the atmosphere’s ability to absorb the earth’s impact on the climate. to the study, 69% of hospitalisations related to respiratory outgoing infrared radiation. Higher temperatures are more problems were due to the impact of air pollution, mainly likely to influence rainfall patterns, sea surface and tem- Impact on human health from domestic sources (FRIDGE, 2004). Close to 70% of peratures. The monitored results for ozone indicate higher premature deaths in the areas (mostly urban) that were concentrations in the Johannesburg monitoring stations of The health impacts of air pollutants are numerous, varied and included in the study were attributed to air pollution Buccleuch and Alexandra. affect various areas of the human body. The pollutants that (FRIDGE, 2004).

are responsible for health effects are SO2, NO2, PM10 and CO.

Electricity production is a major emitter of CO2 emissions in Gauteng, followed by industry and transport. However, Air pollution from the domestic sources of air pollution (for industry is the major energy consumer followed by example, coal, wood and paraffin) has been described as a

Sector Energy carrier 1 4 4 0 Industry Coal

16 Passenger Diesel transport Freight 26 Petrol transport % 44 35 Residential % Electricity 14 Government Natural gas

Commerce Kerosene LPG 22 21 13

Figure 6.6: Energy use by carrier and sector in Gauteng Province (GDARD, 2010) 56 Atmosphere Acid rain sources of SO2 and NOx (Josipovic, 2009). Elevated concen- 0.27°C and 1.26°C is possible for April, May, June and July

trations of SO2 and NO2 are experienced in the industrial (Department of Science and Technology, 2010). An increase Air pollution affects plants and animals and produces Highveld and increase the possibility of acid deposition to of between 0.6°C and 1.16°C is expected in the minimum complex changes in normal soil chemistry. It also causes other regions of the country from this zone. daily temperatures for all months of the year,. An increase staining and chemical corrosion of buildings and monuments in total annual rainfall is expected for the whole region. in the form of acid rain. Common air pollutants like SO2 and Acidic deposition over Gauteng is shown to be high in the (Department of Science and Technology, 2010).

NOx form acids in water. According to a study undertaken north east of the province. This gives weight to regional on acidic deposition, high levels of acid deposition occur concerns about urbanisation and industrialisation with over the central industrialised Highveld, close to the major regard to pollution effects from emissions of SO2 and NOx.

Smog

Emissions from vehicles contribute to photochemical smog, which is air pollution caused by reactions between sunlight Climate change and pollutants like hydrocarbons and NO2. This occurs Climate change is widely recognised as one of the especially in areas that experience high traffic volumes major environmental problems facing the world and such as the Gauteng central business districts (CBDs) and requires urgent mitigation measures. Gauteng is the main highways. economic hub of South Africa and is both a major contributor and victim of global climate change. The Climate change province has a fossil-fuel based energy-intensive economy and is highly vulnerable to the impacts of Climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion are climate variability and change. expected to have a range of health effects such as skin cancer, and environmental impacts such as heat waves, With the social and economic benefits from Indus- drought, heavy precipitation and sea level rise. Both trialisation, urbanisation and an increase of motor climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion are transport follows an increase in greenhouse gas linked by various chemical processes in the atmosphere. emissions. These emissions intensify the natural Climate change is expected to have impact on temperature greenhouse effect, contributing to climate change. and higher temperatures are more likely to influence rainfall patterns and sea surface temperatures (Davis, Climate change has the potential to impact on 2010). An increase in annual maximum day temperatures public health, particularly in poorer communities, 15 30 50 70 90 110 130 meq/m2 p.a. 200 km of approximately 0.5°C is predicted in most areas in South and on women, children and the vulnerable, as they Africa (including Gauteng) and a decrease of between are without the means to cope or adapt, and lack Figure 6.7: Total (dry plus wet) acidic deposition rates the resources for coping or adapting to extreme (meq/m2 per year), (Josipovic et al., 2009) events or negative impacts.

Atmosphere 57 Economic effects Responses

The health and environmental effects of air pollution have Responses to air pollution vary according to the source reduces the level of ambient and indoor air pollution and led to high expenditure on health and mitigation and of the pollution. Mitigation measures implemented for related respiratory diseases. abatement measures. In some areas, the deterioration of domestic fuel burning include Basa njengo Magogo (BnM), a land value can occur as a result of air pollution, e.g. areas fire-making method that has been demonstrated to reduce At a national level, climate change mitigation measures located close to sources of dust such as mine dumps. The particulate emissions by 80% and fuel consumption by 20% have included the development of a National Climate economic effects of air pollution can include the reduction of (Friedl et al., 2009). Researchers at the SeTar Centre, Univer- Change Response Strategy (NCCRS). The DEA is in foreign investment or direct industrial investment. sity of Johannesburg, have set out to develop an enhanced the process of developing a comprehensive national brazier (imbaula) that will lead to a further reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventory that will be incor- emissions and fuel consumption. Electrification of homes porated into the South African Air Quality Information System (SAAQIS) and regulations for the management of ozone-depleting substances. Provincially, Gauteng has developed the Gauteng Climate Change Response Strategy (GCCRS) and Action Plan to address climate 400 Business as usual growth (no fundamental Strategy (EE) change in approach to the future) change. Strategy (EE + RE) 350 Carbon profile with current national efficiency and renewable energy targets implemented in the province Policy The cities of Johannesburg, Tshwane and Ekurhuleni 300 Carbon profile with more stringent energy efficiency targets implemented LTMS EE + RE are part of various programmes and initiatives aimed 250 BAU at addressing air pollution, energy and climate change. These include Sustainable Energy for Environment 200 and Development (SEED), Commission on Sustainable 150 Development, South African Cities Network, Air Quality Billion kilograms Carbon profile with stringent energy efficiency and Management and Climate Change Multi-Stakeholder 100 strong renewable energy targets implemented Reference Group, the Gauteng-based EnerKey 50 Carbon profile required by the LTMS programme and collaboration on Clean Development Mechanisms. 0 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 Monitoring provides the necessary sound scientific basis for policy and strategy development, objective setting, Figure 6.8: Gauteng Province carbon profile, showing the necessity of stringent targets to compliance assessment against targets and enforcement meet the requirements of the Long Term Mitigation Scenarios (LTMS) (Gauteng actions. In fulfilment of the requirements of the Air Department of Local Government and Housing, 2010)

58 Atmosphere Quality Act of 2004, AQMPs and ambient monitoring Responses in the form of policies, tools and legislation have been developed for various municipalities in across all scales applicable to atmosphere are listed in the Gauteng. summary table.

The control of vehicle emissions has included the phasing out of lead-based additives to petrol, reducing the maximum sulphur content of diesel, benzene content of petrol and introducing European vehicle emissions regulations for petrol-driven vehicles. In addition, comprehensive vehicle-emissions monitoring has been undertaken by the Cities of Johannesburg and Tshwane.

Industrial processes include listed activities in terms of NEMA (2010 Regulations) and all listed activities have to apply for an Atmospheric Emissions License (AEL) to undertake any operations. Emission limits have been developed for industrial activities by provinces in collabo- ration with DEA under the Listed Activities and Minimum Emissions Standard Setting Project.

In response to windblown dust from MRAs in the province, a feasibility study and a Strategy and Imple- mentation Plan were undertaken to align existing efforts in order to enable the extensive MRAs to be reclaimed and/or rehabilitated to the point where they become safe for human use. In the Witwatersrand area, a dust fallout monitoring network exists in the vicinity of the Crown Mines, City Deep gold reclamation operations and adjacent areas of Soweto and has been operational since 1985.

Atmosphere 59 Summary Table Summary Table

International Responses United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Provincial Responses Gauteng Provincial AQMPs and State of Environment Reports Kyoto Protocol Ambient monitoring networks run by district and metropoli- Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the Ozone tan municipalities Layer Gauteng Integrated Energy Strategy Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer Gauteng Mining Environmental Forum Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants GDARD Feasibility Study and Strategy and Implementation Air Pollution Information Network Africa Plan on MRAs Clean Air Initiative Gauteng Strategic Plan for Air Quality Management Millennium Development Goals Strategic Environmental Assessment for the Vaal Triangle National Responses National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act of 2004 Local Authority Responses Various ambient monitoring sites and various legislations that directly or indirectly affect the Vehicle emissions implementation of the AQA, e.g. National Veld and Forest AQMPs for various municipalities, e.g. City of Joburg, City of Fires Act (Act of 1998), Occupational Health and Safety Act Tshwane, Ekurhuleni etc. (Act of 1993), CoJ, CoT and EMM Metropolitan Municipalities are part of National Environmental Management: Waste Act of 2008 various programmes and initiatives aimed at addressing air Clean Household Energy Strategy pollution, energy and climate change National Framework for Air Quality Management with various projects such as SAAQIS Project, Listed Activities and Minimum Emission Standards Project, Greenhouse Gas Information Management Project. National Electrification Programme Clean Fuels legislation Declaration of Priority Areas, e.g. Vaal Triangle and Highveld Priority Areas National Climate Change Response Strategy Basa njengo Magogo Initiative

60 Atmosphere References

Davis, C. (2011). A Climate Change Handbook for North South African Highveld: A Critical Levels and Critical Load Eastern South Africa. CSIR Climate Change Research Assessment. PhD Thesis. Department of Geography, Envi- Group, Natural Resources and the Environment. ronmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Department of Science and Technology. (2010). South Johannesburg. African Risk and Vulnerability Atlas. Department of Josipovic, M., Annergan, H. J., Kneen, M. A., Pienaar, J. and Science and Technology. Piketh, S.J. (2011). Atmospheric Dry and Wet Deposition FRIDGE. (2004). Study to examine the potential socio- of Sulphur and Nitrogen Species and Assessment of economic impact of measures to reduce air pollution from Critical Loads of Acidic Deposition Exceedance in South combustion. Airshed Planning Professionals and Bentley Africa. South African Journal of Science, 107 (3/4), 7-10. West Management on behalf of the Trade and Industry SAAQIS. (2009). South African Air Quality Information Chamber / Fund for Research into Industrial Develop- System. Accessed at www.saaqis.org.za ment, Growth and Equity (FRIDGE), Johannesburg. SAPIA. (2010). http://www.sapia.co.za, 2011. Friedl, A., Holm, D., Pauw, C, J., John, J., Kornelius, G., Schwela, D. (2004). Air Quality Management: Sustainable Oosthuizen, R. and Van Niekerk, A.S. (2009). Air Pollution Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy Makers in Developing in Dense, Low-Income Settlements in South Africa. Report Cities: Module 5. for the Royal Danish Embassy and Department of Environ- South Africa. (2009). Vaal Triangle Air-shed Priority Area Air mental Affairs. Quality Management Plan. Government Notice R.613, Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. Government Gazette32263, 28 May 2009. (2009). Conceptual study on reclaimed mine residue areas Statistics South Africa. (2010). General Household Survey (pp for development purposes. Gauteng Provincial Govern- 24-25). Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. ment. Tomaschek, J., Dobbins A and Fahl, U. (2010). Modelling of Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. the Transport Sector of Gauteng in TIMES. EnerKey. (2011). Feasibility Study on Reclamation of Mine Residue UNEP. (2009). http://www.unep.org/geo/geo3/english/pdfs/ Areas for Development Purposes: Phase II: Strategy and chapter2-1_socioeconomic.pdf, 2011 Implementation Plan. Gauteng Provincial Government. Gauteng Department of Local Government and Housing. (2010). Gauteng Integrated Energy Strategy. Gauteng Provincial Government. Josipovic, M. (2009). Acidic Deposition Emanating from the

Atmosphere 61

Water 7

Introduction

Freshwater resources in South Africa are considered limited the available fringe water resources contained in the due to the semi-arid nature of the country’s rainfall regime Vaal River Catchment. Gauteng’s water is supplied by and as a result of over-use by people (Department of three significant Water Management Areas (WMAs); Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2008). The hydrological namely the Upper Vaal, the Olifants and the Crocodile cycle surface water filters into groundwater though seeps (West) Marico. These WMAs supply the ever-growing Primary Catchments and infiltration; and in turn, groundwater interacts and region of Gauteng with large quantities of transferred replenishes surface water resources via springs or the head- water, from as far as Lesotho, via the Tugela/Vaal and Wetlands waters of rivers. Wetlands or lower-lying valleys where the Senqu/Vaal River inter-basin transfer schemes. The Rivers groundwater tables breaks through the surface are generally transfers result in an integrated network of bulk water considered as surface water. services, supplied mainly through the Department of Water Affairs (DWA), Rand Water and the Magalies Cullinan Gauteng province does not have any significant water Water Board. The DWA estimates that the water in Pretoria Bronkhorstspruit resources within its own boundaries and has long since used the Upper Vaal (UV) WMA contributes to nearly 20% of South Africa’s Gross Domestic Product, with the LIMPOPO Magaliesburg OLIFANTS-NORTH Crocodile (West) Marico Water Management Area (CWM WMA) is a similarly significant contributor to the national economy (Department of Water Affairs, Johannesburg Springs 2011b). Freshwater resources in South Africa are consid- Carletonville ered limited due to the semi-arid nature of the The watershed between the Orange (including Vaal) VAAL Heidelberg country’s rainfall regime and as a result of over- and Limpopo primary catchments cuts through use by people (DEAT, 2008). Water resources in Gauteng. It is considered to be strategically significant Gauteng are under immense pressure to supply for the region because the catchments are shared by Vanderbijlpark water for development and the health of aquatic four countries (South Africa, Botswana, Namibia and ecosystems and water quality has been severely Zimbabwe) and has reached the point where there is affected. little or no more water left to be allocated (Turton et al., 2006). Figure 7.1: Water resources in Gauteng

Water 6 3 Pressures and challenges

The key activities that influence the quality and availability of locations of clustered urban development in the past, often water resources in Gauteng are the demand for water, access located away from water resources. These areas have since to potable water and sanitation services, urban develop- developed with a diverse range of land uses including stock ment, agriculture and population growth. General increases and subsistence farming across the landscape. Urban devel- in water use give rise to increases in pollution loads, channel opment, agriculture and in-migration seem to have resulted modification, livestock and agricultural malpractice, aquifer in a decline in good water practice at the local water- dewatering and re-watering, as well as the loss of wetlands. user level, thereby placing profound stress on water-use Emerging concerns relate to the state of the province’s management. The pressures are unlikely to relent, due to groundwater, primarily with regards to mining activities and Gauteng’s attractiveness in terms of (real or imagined) job associated AMD. opportunities, the establishment of the second or informal economy, poor land management practices as well as a Gauteng is responsible for 11% of the country’s total water lack of awareness amongst residents about the need for use. The urban sector consumes 80% of the total water biodiversity protection and water conservation. in the province, mining and industry 9% and irrigation 6% (Holtzhausen, 2006). It is important to understand that impacts on water resources extend throughout the water resource system to beyond the Most of the formal and informal housing sectors have access borders of Gauteng, the focus of this report will remain the to potable water and sanitation services (Holtzhausen, 2006). current state of Gauteng’s water resources. The Water Services National Information System (WS NIS) indicates that the City of Johannesburg has the most signifi- cant backlog for sanitation and potable water service supply and Randfontein Local Municipality has the most significant backlog on sanitation services (Department of Water Affairs, 2011c).

The influence of Gauteng’s mining history should be acknowledged in relation to water use and water use management. Significant mining hubs determined the

64 Water Water Quality Monitoring Points State Surface water quality Groundwater Surface water Freshwater quality is discussed in terms of both groundwater Data from the national Resource Quality Rivers and surface water and is assessed through five indicator Database was used to determine the state of Cullinan variables are used to assess freshwater quality. The indica- Gauteng province’s surface water resources Dams Pretoria tors show the effects on humans, animals and ecosystems, (RQS, 2011a). There are 841 surface water moni- Bronkhorstspruit and provide an indication of the type of pollution involved. toring points in Gauteng province, of which 362 are actively being monitored by the Department of Water Affairs (DWA). Magaliesburg

Johannesburg Springs

Carletonville

Heidelberg

Table 7.1: Surface water quality ratings for Gauteng Province (2004 – 2011) Vanderbijlpark Dissolved Major Salts Sulphates Nitrate/Nitrite Faecal Coliforms No of No of No of No of Samples % Samples % Samples % Samples % Figure 7.2: Location of active surface and groundwater monitoring Total Samples 10 398 21 667 26 387 16 003 points in Gauteng Province Not Acceptable 26 0.25 641 3 19 0.07 10 647 66.53 Poor 86 0.83 347 2 216 0.82 899 5.62 Fair 699 6.72 704 3 1 226 4.65 516 3.22 Good 2 262 21.75 2 073 10 2 206 8.36 1 549 9.68 Very Good 7 325 70.45 17 902 83 22 719 86.10 2 392 14.95 % Data 19% 39% 47% 29% (where: No of Samples - Number of sample data points 2004 – 2011; % - Percentage of sample points within category; Total Samples – Total amount of samples for specific variable; % Data – Percentage of total sample with data) Water 65 Faecal Coliforms (commonly E.coli) are used as an indicator correlates with the level of faecal coliform contamination of Dissolved Major Salts and Sulphate Exceedances to assess faecal pollution in water resources as they originate water. DMS from coliform bacteria in human, mammal and bird faeces. The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (1996a) Dissolved Major Salts (DMS) levels are used as an indicator Sulphate states that the risk of being infected by microbial pathogens for health effects on humans. ‘Fair’ levels of DMS will not Rivers result in any short term health effects; whereas a ‘poor’ to ‘unacceptable’ DMS ranking indicates Dams Cullinan Percentage of Not Acceptable Ratings per Catchment for that consumption may result in disturbances of the Pretoria

E. Coli in Channels, Rivers and Dams body’s salt balance (Department of Bronkhorstspruit Water Affairs and Forestry, 1996a). 0% - 0.01% 0.02 - 0.15% DMS have a major impact on the Magaliesburg 0.16% - 1% functioning of freshwater aquatic 1.01% - 1.5% ecosystems. 1.51% - 2.5% Johannesburg Springs 2.51% - 5% Sulphates (SO₄) are discharged 5.01% - 14% Cullinan Carletonville 14.01% - 23% from acid mine wastes and Pretoria industrial processes and therefore Dams Bronkhorstspruit Rivers can be used as a good indicator of Heidelberg the level and magnitude of mining Magaliesburg impacts on water resources. Vanderbijlpark High sulphate levels make water unpalatable or taste salty and may Johannesburg Springs lead to diarrhoea after consump- tion and taints water. Carletonville Figure 7.4: Monitoring points showing spatial locations where ‘not acceptable’ ratings have been recorded for dissolved Significant levels of Nitrates major salts and sulphates (2004 – 2011) Heidelberg and Nitrites (NO₂ + NO₃ as N) is indicative of the oxidation Vanderbijlpark (breakdown) of organic matter from plants, animals and human excrement or agricultural run-off polluted by fertilizers (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Figure 7.3: Percentage of monitoring points in each quaternary 1996a). Inorganic nitrates leads to catchment exceeding water quality guidelines for Faecal eutrophication (excessive nutrient Coliforms (2004-2011: DWA Resource Quality Services data) 66 Water enrichment) of water resources. The Department of Water aquatic species diversity, a nuisance growth of aquatic plants ated AMD decanting. The most affected surface waters are Affairs and Forestry (1996b) states that ‘fair to unacceptable’ and blooms of blue-green algae. the Blesbokspruit, Witbankspruit and Leeuspruit (Depart- nitrate levels can indicate conditions of hypertrophica- ment of Water Affairs, 2011b). The Leeuspruit is further tion with low species diversity and a high probability of Water quality monitoring data is ranked according to a five affected by eutrophication due to waste water related blue-green algae blooms. The blue-green algae blooms can tier ranking system, as prescribed by the Water Quality discharges (Department of Water Affairs, 2011b). Other include species which are toxic to man, livestock and wildlife. Guidelines from the Department of Water Affairs (Depart- sensitive systems that are at risk include the Klip River and its ment of Water Affairs and Forestry, 1996a; Department of wetlands that are regarded as strategically important surface Phosphates indicate the level of eutrophication of a water Water Affairs and Forestry, 1996b) and Statistics South Africa water resources due to their natural purification function resource. Eutrophic conditions are associated with low (Statistics South Africa, 2005). The water quality rating sheet (McCarthy & Venter 2006). is attached in Annexure 2. The Crocodile catchments are said to be highly impacted by Poor water quality is measured in the Vaal River downstream poor water quality, experiencing issues related to elevated Nitrate and Phosphate Exceedances of Gauteng. This is ascribed to mining activities and associ- nutrient levels and salinity from wastewater discharges Nitrate/Nitrite

Phosphate

Rivers Cullinan Table 7.2: Effects of phosphate levels on ecosystems of Gauteng Province (2004 – 2011) Pretoria Dams Bronkhorstspruit Count of Percentage of Effects on Ecosystems (dams excluded) number of sample points samples from within Magaliesburg 2004 - 2011 category Total Samples 37 822

Johannesburg Springs Hypertrophic (very high nutrient concentrations where plant growth is determined by 1 0.00 Carletonville physical factors; water quality problems are serious and can be continuous) Eutrophic Heidelberg (rich in nutrients, very productive in terms of aquatic animal and plant life 2 0.01 and showing increasing signs of water quality problems)

Vanderbijlpark Mesotrophic (intermediate levels of nutrients, fairly productive in terms of aquatic ani- 575 1.52 mal and plant life and showing emerging signs of water quality problems) Oligotrophic (the dam is low in nutrients and not productive in terms of aquatic animal 37 244 98.47 Figure 7.5: Monitoring points showing spatial locations where ‘not and plant life) acceptable’ ratings have been recorded for nitrates and phosphates (2004 – 2011) % Data 68% Water 67 and flow regulation (Department of Water Affairs, 2011b). Trophic status of dams Eutrophic: rich in nutrients, very productive in terms of Importantly, these catchments generally remain non- aquatic animal and plant life and showing increasing signs compliant with the phosphate Resource Water Quality Eutrophication is a process of nutrient enrichment of a water of water quality problems. Objectives (RWQO). The state of rivers in the Olifants WMA system and it classified by the stage at which this process is Hypertrophic: very high nutrient concentrations where plant is said to be relatively poor due to nutrient loading from in a particular water body. It is often indicated by growth of growth is determined by physical factors. Water quality dysfunctional sewage treatment works that discharge high aquatic plants and algae on a dam surface, sometimes seen problems are serious and can be continuous. organic, nutrient and microbiological loads to the river as floating mats of plants (for example, water hyacinth on systems (Department of Water Affairs, 2011b). Roodeplaat Dam). The National Eutrophication Monitoring Programme maintains data on the trophic status of dams in South Africa. Wastewater services in Gauteng are performed by twelve The following classification system is used (NEMP): Data for dams over the 2010 winter season and 2010-2011 Water Services Authorities via a network comprising of 56 summer seasons are summarised below for Gauteng dams wastewater collector and treatment systems. Approximately Oligotrophic: the dam is low in nutrients and not productive currently monitored. 99% of the current design capacity of waste water treatment in terms of aquatic animal and plant life. works (WWTW) is taken up by the current operational flows, Mesotrophic: intermediate levels of nutrients, fairly produc- Eutrophication is of significant concern in Gauteng as it leaving no surplus to meet the future demand unless new tive in terms of aquatic animal and plant life and showing can have numerous negative impacts on aquatic resources, capacity is created (Department of Water Affairs, 2011b). emerging signs of water quality problems. ecology (deterioration of water quality and loss of biodiver-

Gauteng was awarded a blue drop (drinking water quality) status rating of 95% (Department of Water Affairs, 2011a) and Table 7.3: Trophic status for major dams in Gauteng (data from the National Eutrophication Monitoring a green drop (waste water quality) rating of 78.8 % for 2011 Programme phosphorus and chlorophyll summaries, available at: http://www.dwa.gov.za/ (Department of Water Affairs, 2011d) compared to 53% in iwqs/eutrophication/ NEMP/report/ NEMPyears.htm) 2009. This places Gauteng in the third place of top performing provinces in South Africa after KwaZulu-Natal and the Western Winter 2010 Summer 2010/11 Cape. Generally, the lack of maintenance and further develop- (2010-04-01 to 2010-09-30) (2010-10-01 to 2011-03-31) Dam ment of infrastructure contributes to a poor green drop rating. Eutrophication Eutrophication Of concern is the erstwhile Kungwini Local Municipality which potential Trophic status potential Trophic status received an overall green drop rating of 29.3%. This poor score relates to high surface water nutrient loads. Bon Accord Dam significant hypertrophic serious hypertrophic Rietvlei Dam serious hypertrophic serious hypertrophic A further river water quality problem typical of urban areas Roodeplaat Dam negligible hypertrophic serious eutrophic is large amounts of refuse being washed downstream during Leeukraal Dam serious hypertrophic serious hypertrophic rain events that can obstruct and damage infrastructure like bridges or dams and storm water channels. Bronkhorstspruit Dam serious eutrophic serious eutrophic Vaal River Barrage negligible eutrophic negligible eutrophic Vaal Dam (dam wall) n/a hypertrophic negligible eutrophic 68 Water sity), aesthetics, recreational value and human health. These impacts have a significant economic impact and require high Table 7.4: Groundwater quality ratings for Gauteng Province (2004 – 2011) levels of management and intervention to correct. Dissolved Major Nitrate/Nitrite Sulphur Salts Groundwater quality No of No of No of Gauteng is underlain by an abundance of aquifer systems. Samples % Samples % Samples % There are 3242 groundwater monitoring points in Gauteng Total Samples 560 679 504 but only 989 are actively monitored. A lack of groundwater Not Acceptable 0 0 140 21 31 6.15 data impacts on the manner in which the state of ground- Poor 4 0.71 31 5 water resources is reported on. Available data suggests that the majority of the province has access to high quality Fair 45 8.04 61 9 38 7.54 groundwater. Emerging issues related to AMD threatens to Good 25 4.46 80 12 change this picture. Very Good 486 86.79 367 54 435 86.31 % Data 17% 21% 16% (where: No of Samples - Number of sample data points 2004 – 2011; % - Percentage of sample points within category; Total Samples – Total amount of samples for specific variable; % Data – Percentage of total sample with data)

Water 69 Ecological status of rivers in Gauteng Province The ecological state of rivers reflects the management management perspective. of those aquatic ecosystems and progress made towards achieving a desired outcome for the health of river systems The Upper Crocodile/Pienaars River and Olifants Catchment in a region. systems exhibit a ‘poor’ classification of ecological state, with the rivers in southern Gauteng slightly better off with a To estimate the ecological state of Gauteng’s rivers, 35 River ‘fair’ classification. These results show the degree of land use Health Programme (RHP) monitoring sites were selected transformation in the province as well as provide a sensitivity from River Health State of Rivers Reports. Of these, 8 rivers rating for rivers in the province. Rivers in Gauteng are highly are in the southern Gauteng Rivers (Upper Vaal WMA), 16 transformed from their natural state and show high levels in the Olifants River Catchment (Bronkhorstpruit, Wilge of loss of biodiversity. Multiple disturbances to the rivers by and Elands Rivers) and 11 in the Upper Crocodile/Pienaars humans and overexploitation of freshwater resources has (Crocodile West-Marico WMA). The River Health Programme occurred. categorises the state of rivers according to an ecological and

Table 7.5: Ecological State indicator references and descriptions (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2008)

Category Ecological Perspective Management Perspective

Natural (N) No or negligible modification Relatively little human impact

Some human-related disturbance but ecosystems Good (G) Biodiversity and integrity largely intact essentially in a good state

Sensitive species may be lost, with tolerant or Multiple disturbances associated Fair (F) opportunistic species dominating with the need for socio-economic development

High human densities or extensive resource Mostly tolerant species; alien invasion, disrupted Poor (P) exploitation population dynamics; species are often diseased

70 Water Upper Crocodile/Pienaars 1 3 7

Olifants River Catchment 1 4 11

Riparian Riparian Vegetation Southern Gauteng 1 4 2

Upper Crocodile/Pienaars 1 2 8

Olifants River Catchment 1 6 9

Health Overall Fish Fish Overall Southern Gauteng 8

Upper Crocodile/Pienaars 1 2 8

Olifants River Catchment 1 4 11

Aquatic Aquatic Invertebrates Southern Gauteng 2 6

Upper Crocodile/Pienaars 1 2 8

Olifants River Catchment 1 5 10

Habitat Habitat Integrity

Southern Gauteng 1 5 2

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Natural Good Fair Poor

Figure 7.6: Ecological status of Gauteng rivers (RHP) shown as percentage of the total number of sites (the number in the bar reflects the number of RHP sites in the catchment that were assessed) Water 71 Mining and acid mine drainage (AMD) in gold mining areas where pyrite is present in the walls (Western Central and Eastern Basins) started in 2002, of mine voids. These voids gradually fill with oxygenated when it appeared first in boreholes, and later in open and Gold mining in Gauteng has a history dating back to the water from rainfall, groundwater recharge, mine residue abandoned mineshafts. The Council for Geoscience (2010) 1800’s. This has left its impact on water resources, and is seepage, seepage from existing surface waters, waste water found that existing pumping infrastructure installed within highlighted in the recent concerns over Acid Mine Drainage and stormwater and so on, resulting in AMD. Acid water the western basin is inadequate to effectively control the (AMD) (McCarthy, 2011). generally oxidizes on exposure with oxygen and can be seen rate at which water is decanting. The majority of decanting where it precipitates along a riverbed, leaving a trail of bright water drains into the Tweelopie Spruit, a tributary of the AMD occurs where oxygenated water causes pyrite to orange slick. Crocodile River, and to a lesser extent the Wonderfonteins- break down and form sulphuric acid. The acidic water pruit. Both are situated in the Upper Vaal Catchment. then further dissolves minerals leaving the water toxic and McCarthy (2011) states that the decanting of AMD corrosive (McCarthy, 2010). It is particularly problematic through the groundwater basins on the Witwatersrand The Department of Water Affairs (2011b) states that the management of mining activities in the Upper Vaal Pretoria WMA is critical to the management of water quality in the Basins short term, to alleviate the current salt loads released in Far Western the natural waterways, as well as for rehabilitation and Central decanting of gold mines and associated AMD. Magaliesburg Eastern Impacts from the flooding of underground voids include increased seismic activity, contamination of shallow Western groundwater resources and geotechnical impacts close to Rivers Johannesburg the surface. Where the water surfaces, it will pollute surface water resources and devastate ecological systems. District Municipality Springs Boundaries It is feared that AMD can affect the Cradle of Humankind Carletonville area and vast areas of groundwater abstraction points (Council for Geoscience, 2010). The Cradle of Humankind Heidelberg centred on the Sterkfontein Caves is located in the Western Basin and there is a growing concern that the growing AMD pollution head might affect the World Heritage Site. Pumping and treatment interventions have been installed in the basin Vanderbijlpark to avoid damage to the area, but there remains concern.

Concerns over the sterilisation of groundwater resources Figure 7.7: Western, Central and Eastern mining basins relates to the assumption that if the rate at which water flows into a mine void is greater than the rate at which the

72 Water water flows though the void, it will manifest at a number smaller waste water treatment works (WWTW) operating Stock farming and agriculture of decant points. This will include boreholes sunk to below in the Upper Vaal WMA. The state of rivers is affected by the decant depth. As an example, when the Environmental encroachment into the riparian area and over-utilisation of Stock farming and agriculture is a major land use in Gauteng, Critical Level (ECL) in the central basin is reached, particularly the natural surroundings of the water resources, which leads and is closely linked to water and rivers. The costs involved in the dolomitic aquifers to the south, then the Rand Water to a lower rate of natural pollution filtration. mitigating the impacts related to agricultural activities, such Zuurbekom Wells may be at risk. An ECL is the highest water as nutrient loading, channel modification (straightening, bed level within the mine void where no AMD flows out of the modifications), cattle mismanagement (overgrazing, lack of mine workings to surrounding groundwater or surface water Urbanisation proper slaughtering facilities, faecal coliforms from feedlots), systems. vegetation transformation (invasive alien plants, damage to Gauteng Province has a large population and a high demand wetlands) and aquatic habitat loss, often surpasses the scale Indirect impacts on the ecological systems may also be for access to basic water services. Uncontrolled urban sprawl and income generated from the activity. experienced where, for example, pumping underground and a lack of proper planning for urban development can acid water at the Grootvlei Mine in the eastern basin results lead to large quantities of pollutants entering surface waters in water discharged into the RAMSAR-listed Blesbokspruit and seeping into groundwater aquifers (Department of Responses wetland. Water Affairs, 2011b). The impacts of poor water quality on social, economical and physical environments will extend far Re-use of water and waste water AMD is not limited to Gauteng and extends to the coal and beyond the boundaries of Gauteng. platinum belts of neighbouring Mpumalanga, North-West Holtzhausen (2006) states that Gauteng Province generates and Free State provinces. AMD originates at different sources, 80% of the total waste water stream in South Africa. There is and affects catchment areas that cross provincial boundaries, Water transfers and water use consequently growing pressure for the re-use of waste water highlighting the need for transboundary water management. from waste water treatment works, industries and mining A debate is underway at a national level about the alloca- The dilution of pollutants and salt levels in Gauteng’s surface operations in Gauteng Province (Department of Water tion of management obligations and the most appropriate water resources is strongly dependant on water transfers Affairs, 2011b). Water reuse is an important and active mitigation options. into the Vaal and Crocodile catchments. During dry periods strategy to secure water supplies in the province. the volume of transferred water is decreased, leading to the accumulation of pollutants in surface waters. These Waste water treatment pollutants impact on the ecological functioning and state Mining of the surface water resources as well as the treatment of Nutrient loads in surface waters in Gauteng generally exceed waste water. It is estimated that the water level in the mine voids located the Resource Water Quality Objectives (RWQO) for phosphate within the central groundwater basin is rising at 12m per levels (Department of Water Affairs, 2011b). The nutrient The Department of Water Affairs (2011b) identifies illegal month (McCarthy, 2011). It may reach an Environmental loads cause eutrophication of water resources, and are often abstractions of water to have significant impacts on the Critical Level in June 2012 and decanting is projected attributed to non-compliance in waste water related dis- Upper Vaal WMA. Not only does the illegal abstraction to occur in the central sections of Boksburg (Council for charges. The Department of Water Affairs (2011b) states that alter the dilution effect on the rivers but it affects the water Geoscience, 2010). there is a lack of compliance in wastewater discharges from demand management options in the catchments. Water 7 3 Pumping of water from mining voids in the eastern basin became sporadic towards the end of 2010, and only a single pump station is currently being operated at the Grootvlei Mine (McCarthy, 2011). The water quality of discharged water is observed to be higher than the surrounding basins Summary Table due to inflow of large volumes of good quality dolomitic water with a high alkalinity; and the removal of a large International Responses RAMSAR Convention number of surface residue deposits in the basin (Council for Millennium Declaration and WSSD Targets Geoscience, 2010). National Responses National Water Act Water Services Act An Expert Team of the Inter-Ministerial Committee under Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act the Coordination of the Council for Geoscience made GDARD participation in DEA and DWA working groups recommendations on short-term interventions for the Working for Water Programme management and rectification of AMD in Gauteng (Council National Waste Management Strategy for Geoscience, 2010). The most significant recommendation Provincial Responses River Health Programme for all three basins is to pump and treat AMD before it is released into surface water resources. Additional recom- Input to various municipal IDPs mendations are given for on-going monitoring of water Considerations of NEMA principles and sustainable development issues in department approvals and programmes quality and levels in the basins, as well as monitoring seismic Development and implementation of compliance and enforcement guidelines events in the basins, inspections of mine integrity and issuing directives to operational mines that are not complying with Participation in catchment management forums – Blesbokspruit and Klip River Forum their water-use license requirements. Co-ordination with other provincial departments and local municipalities on EIA authorisa- tions, mining authorisations and water use licenses Progressive implementation of National Waste Management Strategy Implementation of Resource Quality Use of Cleaner Technology Capital Find to province technical assistance to companies and Objectives municipalities seeking to implement cleaner technology initiatives Local Authority Responses Various Local Authorities’ Catchment Management Strategies, wetland assessments and water resource management policies The Department of Water Affairs implements a water Reserve model to manage water resources in a holistic manner. Under this model the allocation of water-use rights is balanced with specifications for the management of water resources for ecological viability.

Responses in the form of policies, tools and legislation across all scales applicable to water are listed in the summary table.

74 Water References

Council for Geoscience. (2010). Mine Water Management Holtzhausen, L. (2006). Gauteng: Save water or pay the price. in the Witwatersrand Gold Fields with Special Emphasis The Water Wheel, 5 (1). Water Research Commission. on Acid Mine Drainage. Report to the Inter-Ministerial McCarthy T.S. & Venter, J.S. (2006). Increase pollution levels Committee on Acid Mine Drainage. Council for Geo- on the Witwatersrand recorded in the peat deposits of the science. Klip River Wetland. South African Journal of Science, 102, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. (2008). 27 – 34. Environmental Sustainability Indicators, Technical Report McCarthy, T.S. (2010). The Decanting of acid mine water in 2008. Pretoria: Department of Environmental Affairs and Gauteng city-region: Analysis, prognosis and solutions. Tourism. Gauteng City-Region Observatory. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. (1996a). South McCarthy, T.S. (2011). The Impact of Acid Mine Drainage in African Water Quality Guidelines (second edition), Volume South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 107 (5/6), 1: Domestic Use. Department of Water Affairs and 1 – 7. Forestry. RQS. (2011a). Department of Water Affairs Surface Water Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. (1996b). South Quality Data 2004 to 2011. Database accessed though African Water Quality Guidelines (second edition), Volume personal correspondence with Dr Silberbauer of the 7: Aquatic Ecosystems. Department of Water Affairs and Directorate of Resource Quality Services (RQS). Depart- Forestry. ment of Water Affairs. Department of Water Affairs. (2011a). Blue Drop Report. RQS. (2011b). Department of Water Affairs. Groundwater Pretoria: Department of Water Affairs. Quality Data from 2004 to 2011. Database accessed Department of Water Affairs. (2011b). Planning Level Review through personal correspondence with Dr Silberbauer of of Water Quality in South Africa. Resource Directed Resource Quality Services (RQS). Department of Water Management of Water Quality, Sub-series No. WQP 2.0. Affairs. Directorate Water Resource Planning Systems: Water Statistics South Africa. (2005). Natural Resource Accounts: Quality Planning. Department of Water Affairs. Water Quality Accounts for South Africa, 2000. Pretoria: Department of Water Affairs. (2011c). Water Services Statistics South Africa. National Information System (WS NIS) Version 4.0. Turton, A., Schultz C., Buckle, H., Kgomongoe, M. Malungani, Retrieved September 2011). http://www.dwa.gov. T. and Drackner, M. (2006). Gold, Scorched Earth and za/dir_ws/wsnis/default.asp?nStn=wsnisindex. Water: The Hydropolitics of Johannesburg. Water Department of Water Affairs (2011d). Green Drop Report. Resources Development, 22 (2), 313–335. Pretoria: Department of Water Affairs.

Water 75

Biodiversity 8

Introduction Pressures and Biodiversity is critically important in the context of South management, prevention of erosion, carbon storage (to challenges Africa’s economic growth and development, as it provides counteract global warming), and clean air, relies heavily on a “basis for our fishing industry, rangelands that support the preservation of our biodiversity. Loss of biodiversity will commercial and subsistence farming, horticultural and agri- not only jeopardise our economy and quality of life, but Destruction and fragmentation of cultural industry based on indigenous species, our tourism will reduce socio-economic options for future generations natural habitat industry, aspects of our film industry, and commercial (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2006). and non-commercial medicinal applications of indigenous Habitat destruction and the conversion of natural environ- resources” (Department of Environmental Affairs and Gauteng’s biodiversity is not only threatened by industrial ments for other uses is the most significant cause of Tourism, 2006). The ongoing provision of ecosystem services, and economic activities, such as mining and agriculture, but biodiversity loss in South Africa (Department of Environ- such as production of clean water though good catchment by urban expansion, high levels of poverty and unemploy- mental Affairs and Tourism, 2006). Gauteng is no exception ment, all of which increase pressure on the natural environ- to this. Changes in landcover due to human activities, such ment. While Gauteng is characterised by high biodiversity, as cultivation, urban sprawl and mining, alters (or destroys) more than 56% of the natural landscape has been lost and natural habitats, resulting in degradation and fragmenta- much of the Highveld grassland biome is poorly conserved tion of the remaining habitats. Overall, this results in loss (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, of ecosystem function and can be attributed to losses of 2011a). For these reasons, Gauteng is at risk of losing its biodiversity and declines in overall ecosystem health (Driver Biodiversity refers to all organisms (plants and natural biodiversity if it is not prioritised for conservation in et al., 2005). Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation animals), species and populations, the genetic the near future (Pfab and Victor, 2002). pose the greatest threats to the biodiversity of Gauteng, variation among these, and all their complex including threatened plants (Pfab and Victor, 2002), and 1 assemblages of communities and ecosystems . This chapter provides an overview of the current pressures threatened animal life (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibian Biodiversity includes the interrelatedness and threats to the biodiversity of Gauteng, the state of and invertebrates). between these elements and their interactions various biodiversity indicators and the steps taken to with the physical environment (Gaston, 2010). mitigate the decline in the biodiversity of one of the Over-exploitation country’s richest provinces. Exploitation and utilisation of biological populations by humans, driven by human population growth and the ______resultant demand for natural resources to sustain these 1 http://www.esa.org/education_diversity/pdfDocs/biodiversity.pdf populations, have become two of the prevailing threats to the persistence of biodiversity on a global scale (Peres, Biodiversity 77 2010). Over-exploitation (or unsustainable use of natural under threat. Particular species, such as Drimia sanguinea The Sustainable Resource Management (SRM) component’s resources) occurs when the rate at which natural resources and Lithops lesliei subsp. lesliei have experienced dramatic LandCare programme in the GDARD implements a traditional are harvested or utilised exceeds natural replacement population reductions in recent years by 20-25% and 15%, healers training programme and supports the establishment rates, either through reproduction alone in closed popula- respectively, as a result of medicinal harvesting. Of the of modest community-based nurseries and homestead tions or through both reproduction and immigration from 23 plant species in Gauteng listed as threatened (pers. gardens to propagate not only plants for food, but traditional other populations (Peres, 2010). Over-exploitation is often Comm. Mills, L., GDARD), four have medicinal value and are medicinal plants as well. unintentional due to the effect on non-target species which harvested extensively. Eight of the threatened species and inadvertently result from harvesting activities (Peres, 2010). three of the medicinal plants are protected under provincial Climate change (Gauteng Nature Conservation Ordinance of 1983) and In Gauteng, a particular area of concern in this regard national legislation (National Forest Act No 84 of 1998). Changes in climatic conditions as a result of human activity is trade-driven exploitation in the form of the trade in are likely to have far-reaching and cross-cutting implica- medicinal plants. More than 15% of medicinal plants species traded in local tions for biodiversity. Whilst habitat change due to altered muthi (traditional medicine) markets are harvested from climatic regimes is of primary concern, many animal species natural and protected areas of Gauteng Province. Research are undergoing related change in terms of the timing of Medicinal plants shows that there is an exponential increase in the harvest- their life histories (phenology), while many plant species ing of indigenous plants for traditional healing practices. have been noted as flowering earlier (Lovejoy, 2010). Biodiversity is important to human livelihoods and plants The great purge towards the use of the practice is due to Furthermore, climate change is likely to cause a shift in in particular are important because of their value for easy access of plants, affordability and poverty. It has been species distributions, both animals and plants, in response to healthcare, financial income, cultural identity and resources shown from market surveys that many local plant species habitat changes (Lovejoy, 2010). In addition, fragmentation to meet basic needs (Williams et al., 2007). Indigenous plant- including Urginea sanguinea, Hypoxis spp., Sarcophyte of natural ecosystems as a result of anthropogenic activities based medicines are important for harvesting and trading sanguinea and Clivia miniata are extremely rare in natural such as agriculture, industrial and urban expansion may within Gauteng, as well as across its boundaries. areas of Gauteng, due to illegal and uncontrolled harvesting increase the probability of extinction, as very little untrans- from the wild. It is recommended that Conservation Man- formed natural habitat currently remains. Commercial overexploitation of indigenous plants for agement Authorities consider the following interventions: medicinal purposes, and to a lesser degree for ornamental and horticultural purposes, is a major factor contributing 1. Enhancement of medicinal plants cultivation and to the declining biodiversity and near extinction of plant increased ex situ conservation; species in Gauteng. The second largest market for medicinal 2. Establish plants nursery cooperatives; plants (following KwaZulu-Natal markets) is in Gauteng. 3. Development of entrepreneurial and management skills; The retail value of the central medicinal plant trade market 4. Trade monitoring; is estimated at R2.22-R4.72 million per annum (Williams 5. Research on evaluation of Provincial Medicinal Plants et al., 2007), with 63% of these resources extracted from Management Programmes; woodlands/forests and 10% shared with the grassland 6. Environmental Education for traditional healers and other biome (Williams, 2003). Consequently, the biodiversity of traditional practitioners. the already pressured biomes of the province is continually

78 Biodiversity State Threatened and extinct species per Endemic species per taxonomic group taxonomic group Indicators on the status of endemic and threatened species An endemic species is one that is confined to a certain geo- for Gauteng Provide a gauge of the province’s success in Spiders and scorpions are no longer included in the list of graphical area and does not occur naturally anywhere else protecting biodiversity. For South Africa it is estimated that conservation priorities for the province due to the paucity in the world. Endemics are at risk of becoming endangered about 13.4% of its species are endemic and 6.5% of species of existing data on the former and wide distribution of the or even extinct if their restricted habitat is transformed or are classified as threatened (Department of Environmental latter (Pers. Comm. Ian Engelbrecht). Conservation efforts destroyed by anthropogenic pressures. Thus their long-term Affairs and Tourism, 2008). have turned to focusing on specific species of conservation survival is dependent on the preservation of their unique interest as opposed to animal groups. Currently, there habitat. Of the 58 plant taxa of conservation concern in are three invertebrate species of conservation interest in Gauteng, 11 are endemic to South Africa. Furthermore, 0.9% Gauteng which qualify for IUCN Red List status: two butterfly of the country’s threatened flora falls within the boundaries species, the Highveld Blue (Lepidochrysops praeterita) and of the province (Raimondo and Von Staden, 2009). the Heidelberg Copper (Chrysoritis aureus); and, a scarab beetle Ichnestoma stobbiai. These species are the only invertebrate species currently included in the Gauteng conservation plan. An additional four butterfly species are proposed as Red List species: Aloeides dentatis dentatis, Extract from the Gauteng Protected Area Expansion Orachrysops mijburghi, Metisella meninx and Platylesches Strategy, 2011: dolomitica (Henning et al., 2009). There is one vulnerable fish species on the Red List which is the Orange-Vaal River Between 1995 and 2009, 229,953 ha of natural Largemouth Yellowfish (Labeobarbus kimberleynsis). habitat was lost in Gauteng, which represents a 13% loss within a 15-year period. Over 56% of the The Red Data Book of Mammals of South Africa lists 3 natural habitat in Gauteng has been lost, leaving mammal species that are Critically Endangered, 12 Near only 798,397 ha of land in a natural or semi-natural Threatened and 10 Data Deficient species for Gauteng. The state. Of the remaining land that is in a natural or 2004 SoER listed only one Critically Endangered, 1 Near seminatural state, much of it is highly fragmented Threatened and 2 Data Deficient, showing a clear increase in and subdivided amongst many landowners. Many the number of threatened species in Gauteng. of the grassland vegetation types, in particular, have experienced high rates of natural habitat loss, resulting in the loss of considerably more than 50% of their original extent. Given the rates of habitat loss, which appear to be increasing, it is likely that ______virtually no natural habitat will remain within Gauteng by 2050. 2 Ian Engelbrecht GDARD (2011) Biodiversity 79

Table 8.1: Summary of Red Data status for each taxonomic group in Gauteng

Total no. species No. Species in Gauteng (% SA % Threatened species IUCN Red Data category (% of Gauteng total) Taxonomic group 2 occurring SA species found in Gauteng) (No. threatened species) EX CR EN VU NT DD Plants 20 4573 2 1604 (11) 1.1 (23) 1 (0.05) 0 8 (0.37) 13 (0.60) 20 (0.93) 1 (0.05) Mammals 2965 130 (44) 7.7 (10) 0 3 (2.3) 3 (2.3) 6 (4.6) 12 (9.2) 10 (7.7) Birds 694 4736 (68) 3.6 (17) 1 1 0 16 (3.4) 22 (4.7) 0 Reptiles 363 927 (25) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Amphibians 111 227 (20) 0 0 0 0 0 1 (4.5) 0 Butterflies8 820 2119 (26) 6 0 0 1 (0.5) 4 (1.9) 1 (0.5) 0 Total 2 2 12 39 45 3 Critically Endangered (CR); Endangered (EN) and Vulnerable (VU). Red Data categories include CR, EN and VU as well as Extinct (EX), Near Threatened (NT) and Data Deficient (DD)

Table 8.2: Endemic species per taxonomic group

No. of species % Endemic species (No. of No. of species endemic to No. of species endemic to Taxonomic group in Gauteng endemic species) Gauteng (% Gauteng total) South Africa Plants 2 160 1.2 (2510) 16 (0.76) 13 26510 Mammals 130 6.2 (8) 0 3611 Birds 469 7.9 (3712) 0 9112 Reptiles 92 9.8 (9) 0 13013 Amphibians 22 22.7 (5) 0 6213 Butterflies14 211 9 (19) 1 19 ______

2 The distinction between threatened and Red Data species should be noted: the former (Raimondo and Von Staden 2009). 9 Henning et al., 2009 5 includes only species that are facing a high risk of extinction, grouped as critically endangered Driver et al., 2005 10 Von Staden et al., 2009 6 (CR), Endangered (EN) or Vulnerable (VU), while the latter includes all species listed according All birds data from SABAP2 project data and classification http://sabap2.adu.org.za/ 11 Rouget et al., 2004b to the IUCN Species Survival Commission criteria. The above figures include threatened checklists.php# Animal Demography Unit 2011 Department of Zoology - University of 12 http://sabap2.adu.org.za/checklists.php# Animal Demography Unit 2011 species only. Cape Town (downloaded 19/9/2011) Department of Zoology - University of Cape Town 3 7 Von Staden et al., 2009. Gavin Masterson GDARD (2011) 13 Le Roux 2002 4 8 SANBI 2011. Statistics: Red list of South African Plants version 2011.1 Total invertebrate numbers have been limited to butterflies only, as this is the only 14 Henning et al., 2009 http://redlist.sanbi.org/stats.php. The above figures include 2117 indigenous species invertebrate group for which comprehensive data is available for Gauteng. 80 Biodiversity Table 8.3: The most important invasive plant species in Gauteng (Kotze et al., 2010)

Number of Average density Average condensed area Percentage area of Species quaternaries invaded per quaternary (%) per quaternary (ha) Total condensed area (ha) Gauteng invaded Eucalyptus spp. 44 9.7 845.76 37 948.0 2.05

Acacia species (A. mearnsii, 38 12.4 867.05 32 948.0 1.81 A. dealbata & A. baileyana) Populus spp. 21 4.3 411.91 8 650.0 0.48 Pinus spp. 20 2.6 167.61 3 352.3 0.18 Jacaranda mimosifolia 9 3.1 355.99 3 203.9 0.18 Salix babylonica 21 1.7 137.70 2 891.7 0.16 Melia azedarach 20 1.5 133.67 2 673.3 0.15 Cereus jamacaru 9 1.3 173.65 1 562.8 0.09 Agave spp. 5 1.6 150.06 750.3 0.04 Opuntia spp. 8 0.5 85.16 681.3 0.04 Solanum mauritianum 1 3.0 407.63 407.6 0.02 Lantana camara 1 1.3 149.38 149.38 0.01 Arundo donax 2 0.3 23.58 47.2 0.003 Total 58 94 531.3 5.20

Biodiversity 81 0% - 2% Distribution and abundance of 3% - 6% selected alien species 7% - 10% 11% - 16% According to Global Invasive Species Programme, alien species) and savanna biomes (23 species) (Forsyth et al., 17% - 25% species are defined as“non-native organisms that cause, 2011)(Appendix 1). These two biomes are highly vulnerable 26% - 50% Cullinan or have the potential to cause, harm to the environment, to invasion by virtue of the suitable climate of the region Pretoria 15 economies, or human health” . They are introduced into (Rouget & Richardson et al., 2004a). Savanna is most at Bronkhorstspruit an area where they did not occur before through human risk (>25 potential invaders), followed by grassland which influence, either deliberately or accidently. An invasive alien is moderately susceptible to invasion (16–25 potential Magaliesburg species is one that has the potential to alter ecosystems invaders). and landscapes at the expense of endemic fauna and flora

(Department of Environmental Affairs, 2009). Globally, As a third of the province comprises savanna, management Johannesburg biological invasions are a major threat to natural biodiversity of these rangelands could be vitally important in curbing Springs and ecosystem functioning (Rouget & Richardson et al., the spread of alien invasives and protecting the vulnerable Carletonville 2004a). and poorly protected vegetation types of the region (Rouget & Richardson et al., 2004a). Heidelberg Invasive alien species not only consume a significant portion

of the country’s water resources (7%), but negatively Vanderbijlpark influence agricultural productivity, increase the severity Extent of conserved areas in the of environmental disasters such as flooding and fires, and province contribute to the deterioration of river and estuarine ecosys- tems, and poor water quality (Department of Environmental In Gauteng, the Norite Koppies Bushveld is completely Affairs and Tourism, 2006). Of the 9 000 introduced species unprotected, five vegetation types are very poorly in South Africa, it is estimated that approximately 198, protected, three are poorly protected, seven are partially Figure 8.1: Average density of invasive alien species in Gauteng which cover about 10% of the country’s surface area, can protected and protected area targets have been met for six (data from SANBI Working for Water Programme, be deemed invasive (Department of Environmental Affairs, vegetation types (SANBI, NPAES 2011). Less than 25% of the Forsyth et al., 2011) 2009). protected area targets for vegetation types within Gauteng have been met and in most instances considerably less than Currently, 215 alien plant species have been recorded for the this has been achieved. Gauteng province16. There are 43 species which have been listed as priority invasive alien plants for the grassland (29 According to C-Plan 3 only 2.4% of the provincial area is require management intervention. Since the 2004 National ______in Level 1 and 2 protected areas that can be considered Spatial Biodiversity Assessment, which demonstrated that ecologically intact. Previous figures quoted in the SoER of South Africa’s current protected area network is insufficient 15 Global Invasive Species Database 2008. 5.1% of the province include level 3 and 4 areas that are to conserve biodiversity and ecological processes effectively, URL: http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/content.asp . not proclaimed in terms of legislation or are degraded and the National Protected Area Expansion Strategy (NPAES) was 16 http://www.agis.agric.za/wip/ SAPIA 2011 82 Biodiversity developed and approved for imple- Table 8.4: Level 1 and 2 protected areas in Gauteng (from Gauteng Depart- RAMSAR wetland mentation in March 2009. The NPAES ment of Agriculture and Rural Development C-Plan 3.3, 2011b) Cradle of Humankind identifies priority areas for protected World Heritage Site area expansion to conserve a compre- Ridges Protected Area Type Level Hectares hensive and adequate representation Wetlands Cullinan Abe Bailey Provincial Nature Reserve 2 5 090.43 of biodiversity and the key ecological Protected Areas Pretoria

Alice Glöckner Provincial Nature Reserve 2 155.19 processes. Bronkhorstspruit De Onderstepoort Private Nature Reserve 2 2 948.39 Provincially, the Gauteng Conservancy Ezemvelo (Gauteng part) Private Nature Reserve 2 2 733.53 Association represents 34 different Magaliesburg Faerie Glen Municipal Nature Reserve 2 126.59 types of conservancies of variable Glen Austin Bird Sanctuary 2 20.19 size in Gauteng, including rural, urban, educational and Johannesburg Klipriviersberg Municipal Nature Reserve 2 696.12 Springs informal settlement conservan- Korsman Bird Sanctuary 2 45.33 cies. Although not formally Carletonville Krugersdorp Municipal Nature Reserve 2 1 351.42 protected, these play an Heidelberg Leeuwfontein Provincial Nature Reserve 2 2 224.97 important role in contributing to the vital conservation of Marievale Bird Sanctuary Provincial Nature Reserve 2 1 011.93 Gauteng’s environmental and agricul- Vanderbijlpark Melville Koppies Municipal Nature Reserve 2 48.08 tural resources. Collectively these conserve Plovers Lake Nature Reserve Natural Heritage Site 2 261.93 6.3 ha (%) of Gauteng. Rhenosterpoort Private Nature Reserve 2 905.53 Rietvlei Dam Municipal Nature Reserve 1 4 479.71 The Gauteng C-Plan 3 (version 3.3) shows the number of level 1 and 2 protected areas Rondebult Bird Sanctuary 2 99.63 Figure 8.2: Protected areas in Gauteng (data from Department within Gauteng. Level 1 protected areas are of Environmental Affairs, 2008) Roodeplaat Dam Provincial Nature Reserve 2 774.93 defined as proclaimed protected areas Ruimsig Municipal Nature Reserve 2 13.23 in terms of relevant legislation specifically Suikerbosrand Provincial Nature Reserve 1 11 657.60 for the protection of biodiversity (or for the purposes of nature conservation), and Suikerbosrand extension Provincial Nature Reserve 2 6 322.15 where a management plan is in place with plan is in place with conservation of biodiversity as the Tswaing Meteorite Crater Reserve 2 1 980.93 conservation of biodiversity as a priority priority management objective. These areas are considered Voortrekker Monument Private Nature Reserve 2 259.04 management objective. Level 2 protected to be ecologically intact (Gauteng Department of Agriculture Walter Sisulu Botanical Garden 2 286.24 areas are also proclaimed areas in terms of and Rural Development, 2011). Wonderboom Municipal Nature Reserve 1 120.13 relevant legislation or where a management Biodiversity 83 Habitat transformation Responses Irreplaceable Area This indicator reports on the rate of clearing or alteration of Conservation planning in Gauteng Protected Area terrestrial natural vegetation types, per clearing activity/land Important Area use. The purpose of this indicator is to monitor the change in The purpose of the Gauteng Conservation Plan (C-Plan) the distribution of land use over time, with specific reference Version 3 is to identify and map areas that are of impor- Ecoclogical Support Area to how land use changes affect the extent of the natural tance to biodiversity protection in Gauteng through areas in the region. a systematic and empirical conservation-planning programme, and to provide recommendations and Between 1995 and 2009, approximately 13% of natural policy strategies for the conservation and management habitat within Gauteng was transformed for other land of these areas (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and uses. This amounts to 229, 953 ha of natural habitat lost to Rural Development, 2011b). Since the 2004 Gauteng urbanisation over a 15-year period (Gauteng Department of SoER the Gauteng C-Plan has had two major updates Agriculture and Rural Development, 2011a). Overall, more resulting in C-Plan version 3. A further refinement to than 55% of Gauteng’s natural habitat has been lost with only the latest Conservation Plan is that it is now in line with 798,397 ha of natural and semi-natural land remaining in a the requirements and terminology of the Biodiversity highly fragmented state. Grassland vegetation types which Act (NEM:BA 10 of 2004) which divides important are hardly protected have experienced the greatest rate in biodiversity features into Critical Biodiversity Areas habitat loss, particularly the Frankfort Highveld Grassland and (CBAs) and Ecological Support Areas (ESA). the Central Free State Grassland, which have been reduced by 94% and 55%, respectively. Table 8.5: Percentage of the Gauteng Province important for biodiversity (according to Gauteng C-Plan 3) Figure 8.3: Gauteng Conservation Plan Version 3, (Gauteng C-Plan 3 Category Area (hectares) Percentage Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2011b) CBA 477 692.37 26.3% Important Area 303 613.84 16.7% Irreplaceable Area 130 123.02 7.2% Protected Area 43 955.51 2.4% ESA 319 329.71 18.1% Grand Total 807 022.08 44.4% Total Gauteng area 1 817 830.55 84 Biodiversity Table 8.6: Summary of the vegetation types in the Gauteng Province, habitat lost, the national conservation target, ecosystem status and protection level for each type

% of Gauteng % of each % of % of % Habitat lost National Biome Vegetation Type comprising each vegetation type vegetation vegetation between 1995 Conservation Ecosystem Protection Level vegetation type found in Gauteng lost in 199517 lost in 200918 and 200918 Target (%) Status Andesite Mountain Bushveld 4.23 35.61 13 25 -12 24 LT Poorly protected Central Sandy Bushveld 6.29 6.95 24 41 -17 19 VU Poorly protected Gold Reef Mountain Bushveld 3.07 25.68 27 30 -3 24 LT Mod protected Loskopdam Mountain Bushveld 2.09 17.15 1 5 -4 24 LT Mod protected Marikana Thornveld 5.76 38.68 48 61 -13 19 EN Hardly protected Moot Plains Bushveld 2.32 13.59 49 54 -5 19 VU Poorly protected Norite Koppies Bushveld 0.23 15.03 17 24 -7 24 LT Not protected SAVANNA (29%) SAVANNA Gauteng Shale Mountain Bushveld 3.91 64.86 21 31 -10 24 VU Hardly protected Springbokvlakte Thornveld 1.20 2.28 23 42 -19 19 EN Hardly protected Carleton Dolomite Grassland 15.75 29.05 41 58 -17 24 VU Poorly protected Central Free State Grassland 0.47 0.50 18 73 -55 24 VU Hardly protected Eastern Highveld Grassland 2.10 2.79 70 78 -8 24 EN Hardly protected Egoli Granite Grassland 6.43 100.00 68 74 -6 24 EN Hardly protected Frankfort Highveld Grassland 0.18 0.31 1 95 -94 24 EN Hardly protected Rand Highveld Grassland 11.26 18.56 42 57 -15 24 EN Hardly protected

GRASSLAND (71%) Soweto Highveld Grassland 31.44 33.66 61 70 -9 24 EN Hardly protected Waterberg Summit Grassland 3.29 23.16 0 1 -1 24 LT Well protected Ecosystem status is based on the percentage of the original area remaining untransformed in relation to the biodiversity target and a threshold for ecosystem functioning (EN: Endangered; VU: Vulnerable, LT: Least Threatened). Protection level is based on the % of the biodiversity target conserved in Type 1 protected areas. Source: Rouget & Reyers et al., 2004b)

______

17 Gauteng PAES 2011 18 www.wetlands.za.net/gauteng/documents/gwf_wetlands_in_crisis.pdf Biodiversity 85 Wetland rehabilitation in Gauteng

CBAs are areas critical to meeting biodiversity targets; • Degradation of water resources and water quality as A wetland is an area of “land which is transitional between namely the remaining areas of Critically Endangered vegeta- a result of wetland degradation, and the potential for terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is tion types and areas required to protect threatened species; increased human diseases; usually at or near the surface, or the land is periodically any area that is required for meeting process thresholds • Reduction in the provision of goods and services provided covered with shallow water, and which land in normal (such as areas important for climate change adaptation) and by natural ecosystems including wetlands, rivers and circumstances supports or would support vegetation hydrological process areas such as high priority wetlands and other ecosystems; typically adapted to life in saturated soil” (National Water catchments, pan clusters and pans within priority catchments • Over-exploitation of natural resources and degradation of Act 36 of 1998). There is a variety of wetland types including (Holness and Skowno, 2011). Ecological Support Areas are natural environments will lead to dysfunctional ecosys- rivers, bogs, vleis, seeps, lakes and springs. As South Africa important as they ensure sustainability in the long term and tems resulting in a decline in economic productivity and is a semi-arid country, wetlands are a critical component of include landscape features that are essential for the mainte- long-term sustainability; the natural network for collecting, managing and supplying nance and generation of biodiversity in sensitive areas. ESAs • Poor management and degradation of natural habitats water to the environment and for use by humans. They include dolomitic areas, rivers, wetlands, pans, corridors for may lead to a long-term loss in tourism interest/invest- perform essential ecological functions for example, water climate change and species migration and ridges (Gauteng ments; purification, flood attenuation, streamflow regulation, Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2011b). • Increased conservation efforts through the development erosion control, recharge of aquifers and water storage. of reserves and community conservation programmes Wetlands also provide other important goods and services As per the 2004 SOE report, the consequences of biodiversity such as the Working for Water and Grasslands Pro- that have direct socio-economic and cultural value (provision loss remain relatively unchanged: grammes, which assist in poverty alleviation by providing of food, water, resources for agriculture and grazing) and job opportunities. also contribute significantly to tourism and environmental • Loss of ecosystem functioning and concomitant education. Of paramount importance is the ecological value extinction of indigenous and endemic species; that wetlands possess through the maintenance of rich biodiversity and providing critical habitat to a wide variety of animal and plant life. Table 8.7: Summary of wetlands in the Gauteng Province and percentage habitat lost (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2011a) In Gauteng, wetlands cover approximately 1.5% of the province. In comparison with vegetation loss, wetlands Area of wetland type in % of wetland % of wetland % Habitat lost have experienced a considerably lower rate of degradation Wetland Type between 1995 between 1995 and 2009. Nonetheless, important wetland ha (% of Gauteng area) type lost in 1995 type lost in 2009 and 2009 Eastern Temperate Freshwa- 14 514 (0.80) 20 23 -3 ter Wetlands ______Subtropical Freshwater 295 (0.02) 6 14 -8 Wetlands 18 www.wetlands.za.net/gauteng/documents/gwf_wetlands_in_crisis.pdf . 19 http://www.ramsar.org Subtropical Salt Pans 9 (0.0005) 0 0 0 20 http://wetlands.sanbi.org 86 Biodiversity habitat is still being lost. More than half of these ecosys- tems are considered threatened by transformation due to activities such as mining (coal, clay, sand diamonds), water abstraction, infilling for development and pollution18.

Currently, South Africa has 20 wetlands19 of international importance, designated under the Ramsar Convention. As a permanently inundated wetland, the Blesbokspruit in Gauteng provides a permanent refuge and reliable food source to a diverse range of waterfowl and other animal groups in the broader East Rand region. The system is interlinked with many other small surrounding ephemeral wetlands, which together serve to filter polluted water from sewage works, mines and industries.

The Working for Wetlands Programme has been instrumen- tal in rehabilitating degraded wetlands in Gauteng. Currently, three main restoration projects are underway (Ekurhuleni, Klip Rivier and Tshwane/ Rietvlei), covering 7 wetland areas and providing employment and skills development for some 180 people20.

Responses in the form of policies, tools and legislation across all scales applicable to biodiversity are listed in the summary table.

Biodiversity 87 Summary Table Summary Table

International Responses United Nations Convention on Biodiversity Provincial Responses Transvaal Nature Conservation Ordinance 12, 1983 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Gauteng Open Space Project Fauna and Flora (CITES) Wetland Policy Guideline Bonn Convention – Convention on the Conservation of Draft Buffer Policy for Nature Reserves Migratory Species of Wild Animals Development Guidelines for Ridges RAMSAR Convention and the Amendment Protocol – Conven- tion on Wetlands of International Importance specifically as Red Data Plant Policy for Environmental Impact Evaluations waterfowl habitat Draft Policy for regulating the Export Indigenous Plant Species World Heritage Conservation Act (Act No. 49 of 1999) from the province of Gauteng to International Destinations National Responses National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act (Act Gauteng Biodiversity Gap Analysis Project No. 57 of 2003) Gauteng Biodiversity Stewardship Programme National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (Act No. Gauteng Protected Area Expansion Strategy 10 of 2004) River Health Programme Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (Act No.43 of 1983) Various Environmental Management Frameworks, Strategic Envi- National Policy on the Convention of Migrating Wild Animals ronmental Assessments, management plans and community National Parks Act (Act No.57 of 1976) based natural resource projects The White Paper on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Gauteng Conservancy Association South Africa’s Biodiversity (July, 1997) Gauteng Wetland Forum National Veld and Forest Fire Act (Act No. 101 of 1998) Local Responses Various Environmental Management Frameworks, Strategic Envi- The Criminal Procedures Act (Act No.51 of 1989) ronmental Assessments, management plans and community National Working for Water Programme based natural resource projects National Policy on the Rehabilitation of Wildlife Magaliesberg Advisory Committee National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment (2004) Conservation Groups National Biodiversity Strategy & Action Plan (2005) National Biodiversity Framework (2008) National Protected Area Expansion Strategy (2009) National Wetland Inventory Working for Wetlands Grasslands Programme

88 Biodiversity References

Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. (2006). Henning, G.A., Terblanche, R.F. & Ball, J.B. (eds). (2009). Rouget, M., Richardson D.M., Nel, J.L., Le Maitre, D.C., Egoh, South African Environmental Outlook: A report on the South African Red Data Book: Butterflies. SANBI Biodiver- B. and Mgidi, T. (2004). Mapping the potential ranges state of the environment. Pretoria: Department of sity Series 13. Pretoria: South African National Biodiver- of major plant invaders in South Africa, Lesotho and Environmental Affairs and Tourism. sity Institute. Swaziland using climatic suitability. Diversity and Distribu- Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. (2008). Holness, S. and Skowno A. (2011). Draft Bioregional Plan tions, 10, 475–484. National Protected Area Expansion Strategy for South for the City of Tshwane, April 2011. A report prepared Von Staden, L., Raimondo, D. and Foden, W. (2009). Introduc- Africa 2008: Priorities for expanding the protected area for the Grasslands Programme: South African National tion. In In Raimondo, D., Von Staden, L., Foden, W., Victor, network for ecological sustainability and climate change Biodiversity Institute. J.E., Helme, N.A., Turner, R.C., Kamundi, D.A. & Manyama, adaptation. Pretoria: Department of Environmental Le Roux, J. (2002). The Biodiversity of South Africa: Indica- P.A. (eds), Red List of South African plants 2009. Strelitzia, Affairs and Tourism. tors, Trends and Human Impacts. Cape Town: Struik 25. Pretoria: South African National Biodiversity Institute. Department of Environmental Affairs. (2009). Environmental Publishers. Williams, V.L. (2003). Hawkers of Health: An Investigation Of Sustainability Indicators, Technical Report 2009. Pretoria: Lovejoy, T.E. (2010). Climate Change. In Sodhi, N.S. and The Faraday Street Traditional Medicine Market In Johan- Department of Environmental Affairs. Erhlich, P.R. (eds). Conservation Biology for All. Oxford: nesburg, Gauteng. Plant Ecology Conservation Series Driver, M., Smith, T. and Maze, K. (2005). Specialist Review Oxford University Press, 153-162. No. 15. Report to the Gauteng Directorate of Nature Paper on Biodiversity for the National Strategy for Sus- Peres, C.A. (2010). Overexploitation. In Sodhi, N.S. and Conservation, Department of Agriculture, Conservation, tainable Development. Report compiled by the National Erhlich, P.R. (eds). Conservation Biology for All. Oxford: Environment and Land Affairs. Biodiversity Institute on behalf of the Department of Oxford University Press, 107-130. Williams, V.L., Witkowski, E.T.F. and Balkwill, K. (2007). Environmental Affairs and Tourism. Pretoria. Pfab, M.F. and Victor, J.E. (2002). Threatened plants of Volume and financial value of species traded in the Forsyth, G.G. O’Farrell, P.J. and Le Maitre, D. C. (2011). Gauteng, South Africa. South African Journal of Botany, medicinal plant markets of Gauteng, South Africa. Prioritising quaternary catchments for invasive alien 68, 374-379. International Journal of Sustainable Development and plant control within the Working for Water Gauteng Raimondo, D. and Von Staden, L. (2009). Patterns and trends World Ecology, 14, 584-603. Region. CSIR Report prepared for the Working for Water in the Red List of South African plants. In Raimondo, D., Programme. Report No. CSIR/NRE/ECO/ER/2011/0029/B. Von Staden, L., Foden, W., Victor, J.E., Helme, N.A., Turner, Gaston, K.J. (2010). Biodiversity. In Sodhi, N.S. and Erhlich, R.C., Kamundi, D.A. & Manyama, P.A. (eds), Red List of P.R. (eds). Conservation Biology for All. Oxford: Oxford South African plants 2009. Strelitzia, 25. Pretoria: South University Press, 27-44. African National Biodiversity Institute. Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. Rouget, M., Reyers, B., Jonas, Z., Desmet, P., Driver, A., Maze, (2011a). Gauteng Protected Area Expansion Strategy. K., Egoh, B. and Cowling, R.M. (2004). South African Gauteng Provincial Government. National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment 2004: Technical Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. Report. Volume 1: Terrestrial Component. Pretoria: South (2011b). Gauteng Conservation Plan Version 3 (C-Plan 3), African National Biodiversity Institute. compiled by Pieta Compaan. Technical report.

Biodiversity 89

Waste 9

concern due to its toxicity when inappropriately disposed of. Introduction Illegal dumping and littering is a problem in most areas and Pressures and requires active interventions through proper planning and Gauteng produces more waste than any of the larger South management. It is important to manage waste streams challenges African provinces. It is estimated that Gauteng generates appropriately to prevent harm to people and the environ- approximately 42% of the total waste produced, or nearly ment. Waste Management in the province is beset by numerous half of all waste in South Africa (Gauteng Department of problems including those mentioned in the 2004 State of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2011). Understandably, Waste is defined in the National Environmental Manage- Environment Report: waste is a major concern in Gauteng and a problem that is ment: Waste Act, NEMWA (Act No. 59 of 2008) as growing daily. • economic constraints; “...any substance, whether or not that substance can be • limited refuse removal services in poor areas; Waste is categorised as either general or hazardous waste, reduced, re-used, recycled and recovered - that is surplus, • inadequate enforcement of the national, provincial and or according to its source (for example, domestic waste). unwanted, rejected, discarded, abandoned or disposed of; municipal laws and regulations; Hazardous waste, such as electronic waste, is a serious which the generator has no further use of for the purposes • ineffective waste legislation; of production; that must be treated or disposed of; or that is • lack of encouragement for waste minimisation and identified as a waste by the Minister by notice in the Gazette, recycling within the general public; and includes waste generated by the mining, medical or • uncontrolled scavenging; • poor monitoring and maintenance at landfill sites; Gauteng produces more waste than any of the other sector, but - a by-product is not considered waste; and • littering in residential areas (streets, taxi ranks, stations, larger South African provinces. It is estimated any portion of waste, once re-used, recycled and recovered, etc.); and, that Gauteng generates approximately 42% of ceases to be waste;” • remnants of a historical culture of non-payment for waste the total waste produced, or nearly half of all services in some instances (Gauteng Department of waste in South Africa (GDARD, 2011). Under- To manage waste effectively it is necessary to focus on Agriculture, Conservation and Environment, 2004a). standably, waste is a major concern in Gauteng individual aspects of waste management, as well as integrat- and a problem that is growing daily. Waste ing all the components, with a view to ensuring negative management can lead to savings in airspace at impacts on the environment are mitigated. Furthermore, it landfill sites, job creation and stimulation of the requires improved waste services delivery with a focus on recycling economy. achieving equitable basic services.

By ensuring that more sustainable practices, such as waste minimisation and recycling are implemented, waste manage- ment can lead to savings in airspace at landfill sites, job creation and stimulation of the recycling economy. Waste 91 State General waste

The National Environmental Management: Waste Act (NEM: waste is dumped illegally in Gauteng (Gauteng Department Recyclable Material (Paper, Plastic Glass, Tins and Tyres) WA, Act 59 of 2008) defines general waste as “...waste that of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2009). A shortage are deposited at landfills, and promotion of recycling and does not pose an immediate hazard or threat to health or to of accurate data means that no combined figures can buyback centres is on the provincial programme of action the environment”. General waste includes domestic waste, be provided for Gauteng for 2009 to 2011. Information (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, building and demolition waste, business waste and inert is, however, in the process of being centralised on the 2009). This indicates that large amounts of waste are going waste. Gauteng Waste Information System (GWIS). to landfills and should actually be recycled.

Monthly figures of general waste treated, land-filled and recycled for the larger municipalities within Gauteng from An analysis of Waste Types indicates that, in 2006, the bulk 2006 to 2011 are provided in Table 9.1. In addition, it is of the general waste stream comprised non-recyclable estimated that every year approximately 2 million tons of material. It is estimated by GDARD that 25% of Mainline

Table 9.1: General waste volumes generated in Gauteng 20 Non-recyclable Waste Generated (t/annum) 40 Organics Municipality 2004 (SOER) 2006 Estimated 2007* Estimated 2008*

Tshwane 2,401,840 2,401,600 2,411,303 25 Main Line Recyclables (PPGTT) Johannesburg 1,492,000 1,491,851 1,497,878 Ekurhuleni 1,368,000 1,367,863 1,373,390 15 Builders Rubble Sedibeng 373,071 373,034 374,541 West Rand 60,949 60,943 61,189 Metsweding 33,660 33,657 33,793 Figure 9.1: Percentage contribution of the total volumes of Total General Waste >6,200,000 5,729,520* 5,728,947 5,752,094 waste per stream for Gauteng (Gauteng Department * where estimates provided by relevant local authorities of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2009) 92 Waste Landfill space and lifespan Hazardous and health care risk waste

Many countries have moved away from “disposal-to-landfill” on the remaining available airspace and lifespan of some Hazardous waste is “...waste that contains organic or inorganic as the primary means of solid waste management, but in landfills in Gauteng is provided in Table 9.2. elements or compounds that may, owing to the inherent Gauteng the bulk of solid waste is still disposed of in landfill physical, chemical or toxicological characteristics of that waste, sites spread across the province. The cost of operating these Finding suitable land for new landfill sites is increasingly have a detrimental impact on health and the environment” sites is increasing rapidly (Gauteng Department of Agricul- difficult as competition for land is high in Gauteng. It (NEM:WA, 2008). ture and Rural Development, 2010). is therefore important to find ways of extending the life spans of existing landfill sites. The simplest way of The GWIS makes provision for specific reporting on the Landfill sites are mostly operated by the local authority in extending the lifespan of landfill sites is to divert waste volumes of hazardous waste processed in municipalities. whose jurisdiction the site is located, or by private service away from the landfill, and for Gauteng, particularly to Currently, only the City of Johannesburg and Ekurhuleni have providers. It is concerning that most landfill sites in Gauteng increase the amount of waste that is recycled and reused. data on treated, landfilled or recycled hazardous waste on are nearing capacity. Many of the existing landfills will reach GWIS, and problematically, the data is not representative. The their capacity within the next 10 years, except for those in GWIS is potentially a valuable tool to record waste volumes Ekurhuleni that have slightly longer life spans. Available data generated in the various municipalities in Gauteng as part

Table 9.2: Estimate lifespans for Gauteng landfill sites for 2007 (Source: Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2009)

Average Estimated Local Authority Sites Estimated Lifespan Lifespan (2007)

Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Public 5 (Weltevreden, Rietfontein, Rooikraal, Simmer & Jack, Platkop) 36 20-60 years Municipality Private 1 (Chloorkop) 5 City of Johannesburg Public 4 (Ennerdale, Goudkoppies, Marie-Louis, Robinson Deep) 10 0-20 years Private 1 (FG dumpsite) 10 Pubic 9 (Kwaggarand, Onderstepoort, Garstkloof, Hartherley, Soshanguve, 11 3-40 years City of Tshwane Metsweding Derdepoort, Valhalla, Ga-Rankuwa, Bronkhorstspruit) Private 4 (Bon Accord, Mooiplaats, Rosslyn, Ekandustria) 10 10-12 years Public 8 (Devon, Palm Springs, Boitshepi, Waldrift, Randvaal, Walkerville, 8 1-15 years Sedibeng District Municipality Henley-on-Klip, Vaal Marina) Public 4 (Luipaardsvlei, Magaliesburg, Carltonville/Rooipoortjie, Westonaria) 7 5-10 years West Rand District Municipality Private 1 (Driefontein Consolidated Ltd) 5 Waste 93 of an overall waste management strategy. At present the originating from health care undertaken in the home, for estimated at approximately 14 400 tonnes per annum system is not effectively used by municipalities, which makes example dialysis and insulin injections”. (Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and it difficult to determine hazardous waste volumes. Environment, 2004a). It was estimated that about 600 major Health care waste can further be classified as either (i) non HCRW generators produced approximately 89% of the total The First Generation Integrated Hazardous Waste Manage- hazardous and is called Health Care General Waste or (ii) HCRW stream, with 9 700 minor generators making up the ment Plan for Gauteng found that during 2007/2008 Hazardous and is called Health Care Risk Waste (HCRW) balance (Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation the total production of hazardous waste in the province (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2004). and Environment, 2004b). In 2004, it was expected that (excluding health care risk waste) was 446 200 tons per The health hazards from health care waste are summarised HCRW generation rates will increase by approximately annum, treatment was 48 000 tons per annum and disposal in the World Health Organisation (WHO) guide “Safe 1.7% per annum, although improved HCW segregation can was 385 000 tons per annum (Gauteng Department of management of wastes from health care activities” (2009) reduce this rate by as much as 30% (Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment, 2008). When and include: Agriculture, Conservation and Environment, 2004b). compared to the 2004 GSoER report, it shows that genera- tion of hazardous waste in Gauteng is increasing. • Infections During a subsequent January 2006 survey of quantities of • Intoxication, i.e. poisoning due to chemicals and drugs HCRW generated and treated by service providers, com- Health care waste is a subsector of the hazardous waste • Cancer, i.e. from carcinogenic substances mercial service providers in Gauteng were found to have class, and is defined as a South African national standard • Radioactive poisoning processed 9 812 tonnes of HCRW per annum. No figures on rather than in the NEM:WA, 2008. The SANS 2004 standard • Burns and explosions treatment volumes were available for public and non-public indicates that it constitutes “...waste which includes all waste hospitals. A further commercial processing capacity for generated in health care facilities and health care research The total amount of HCRW generated in Gauteng by both treatment of 4825 tonnes per annum was available (Depart- facilities and health care test laboratories as well as waste public and private health care facilities during 2000 was ment of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2006).

Table 9.4: Gauteng commercial treatment capacity and throughput Table 9.3: Summary of Gauteng survey data for generated and treated HCRW quantities for all HCRW quantities (tonnes per annum) (Department (tonnes per annum) (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2006) of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2006)

Generated HCRW t/a Treated HCRW t/a Service provider Capacity Throughput Excess

Public Non-public Commercial service Aidsafe 3 544 2 556 988 Provider reported CWM 3 772 1 000 2 772 Hospitals Clinics Hospitals Clinics Total Total EnviroServe 4 801 4 246 555 3 216 179 4 022 119 7 535 99 812 99 812 Pikitup 1 689 1 170 510 Thermopower 840 840 Total 14 637 9 812 4 825

94 Waste There may have been a reduction in the amount of HCRW extend across the gold-bearing reefs of the Witwatersrand, resources such as infrastructure (for example weighbridges), generated in Gauteng, but this can only be confirmed once are a legacy of mines that either no longer exist, or have equipment, such as reliable trucks, as well as human more complete and accurate figures from non-commercial changed names under new ownership. Mining residue resources at local government. The barriers are recognised processing facilities are available. Commercial processing deposits and stockpiles are typically disposed of on the at national level and initiatives such as the Waste Khoro capacity in the province does appear to be sufficient to keep immediate site of the mine or processing facility. There are and the Waste Fora encourage information sharing across up with waste projections. currently initiatives to consolidate mining residue deposits provinces. At the Waste Fora, information is shared between and stockpiles where old discard material is reworked. municipalities, industry and government departments. Mining residue deposits and stockpiles Gauteng has developed, launched and implemented waste Consolidation of tailings occurs at a limited number of minimisation strategies. The Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act, locations. A good example is the Ergo Operation, a process- 2002 (Act No. 28 of 2002) (MPRDA) refers to a residue ing plant initiated by Anglo American and since taken over by deposit as “any residue stockpile remaining at the termina- DRDGold (Godfrey, L. et al 2007). The facility reclaims gold by Local government recovery initiatives tion, cancellation or expiry of a prospecting right, mining recovering and retreating material from surface slimes dams right, mining permit, exploration right or production right;” situated across the East Rand. It addresses the environmen- Waste recovery initiatives in the province fall in the following and residue stockpile refers to “any debris, discard, tailing, tal pollution caused by the old tailings as the tailings end general waste recovery systems categories (Gauteng Depart- slimes, screening, slurry, waste rock, foundry sand, beneficia- up in engineered tailings storage facilities that are managed ment of Agriculture, Conservation and Environment, 2008): tion plant waste, ash or any other product derived from or according to current best practice standards. incidental to a mining operation and which is stockpiled, • Recycling and garden waste drop off centres established stored or accumulated for potential re-use, or which is in the cities and large towns. Here, waste is delivered disposed of, by the holder of a mining right, mining permit or by members of the public to drop off centres already production right”. The two categories specifically refer to the Responses separated into glass, paper, cans, scrap metal, plastics, type of waste generated by mines and are recognised as a garden waste and other waste. potential future resource rather than waste. Waste minimisation • Collection banks are used on a small scale for glass and paper. There exists a lack of reliable information on mining wastes. GDARD developed a General Waste Minimisation Plan • Recyclable waste buy-back centres have been successfully For this chapter, mineral waste or mineral residue is defined (GWMP) in July 2009. The goal of the GWMP is to stabilise implemented in some lower income group communities. Service provider Capacity Throughput Excess to include residue deposits and stockpiles and this would waste generation by 2014 by reducing waste disposal by a • A number of capital-intensive recycling plants have been generally exclude waste generated by quarries. margin of 1% per annum over 5 years, from 2009 to 2014 launched but have been mostly unsuccessful. Examples Aidsafe 3 544 2 556 988 (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, include, Robinson’s Deep Waste Flow plant in Johannes- CWM 3 772 1 000 2 772 Gold mining residue deposits and stockpiles in the form of 2009). Achievement of the goal implies that Gauteng must burg, Resource Recycling Plant in Randburg and Tshwane tailings, slimes, waste rock, and foundry sand have accumu- promote various waste minimisation initiatives and engage Recycling Co-operative. EnviroServe 4 801 4 246 555 lated at different locations on the Witwatersrand, occupying with different stakeholders. The GWMP was approved in • Biogas projects at the City of Johannesburg and Ekurhu- Pikitup 1 689 1 170 510 and disturbing valuable land and causing environmental 2010 and launched in 2011. leni have been implemented. Thermopower 840 840 pollution, and are often not rehabilitated by prospectors and • Various Waste to Energy initiatives has been implemented. Total 14 637 9 812 4 825 mining companies. Many of the mine waste dumps, which Barriers for the minimisation of waste are a lack of municipal For example, Ekurhuleni uses landfill gas for fuel in taxis. Waste 95 Several initiatives occur in the City of Johannesburg: garden waste. The compost is utilised for rehabilitation of because the material collected at a depot may come from the landfill site. Mondi Recycling has introduced a kerbside a number of different provinces where the volumes are • Composting: Waste management in the City of Johannes- recycling programme in the Boksburg and Germiston areas. unknown. A transporter of recyclables may collect material burg is undertaken by Pikitup. General waste minimisa- The project has thus far been very successful and Mondi is from a number of provinces (e.g. North West, Gauteng and tion activities in the city include; composting garden in the process of expanding it to the rest of the Metropolitan Mpumalanga) and then drop it off at a recycling facility in waste, kerb side collection of recyclables and waste area. another province. material recovery. Pikitup composts approximately 50 000 tons per annum of garden waste from various garden Key waste minimisation activities in Sedibeng District Industry recovery initiatives in Gauteng include the recovery depots around Johannesburg at their site in Panorama on Municipality include drop-off centres and waste exchanges. of paper, tins, glass, plastics, e-waste, and so on, by indi- the West Rand and sells the compost in bags and bulk to ‘Waste exchange’ refers to a model that facilitates avoidance, viduals and private companies like Sappi, Mondi, Nampak, the domestic, municipal and agricultural markets. substitution, recovery, reuse and recycling of waste between Collect-a-Can, and Reclamation Group. • Material recovery facility in Alexandra: A Material different industries and organisations. Recovery Facility (MRF) was established by Mama-She A recent incentive for waste minimisation is to increase the Waste Recyclers after the closure of the Linbropark The West Rand District Municipality produces refuse bags cost of disposal and introduce measures such as ‘pay-as-you- landfill site. It handles around 1 200 tons of waste from plastic recyclables collected at the landfills in the throw’. It is perceived that this will ensure more waste being per annum and recovers 70% of the waste stream for district. The Westonaria Local Authority recovers all the diverted and result in savings in airspace. The main drivers recycling. recyclables from its 12 transfer stations and these are taken are the focus on a waste hierarchy, as enforced through • Kerbside recycling: Pikitup in partnership with Mama-She for baling to a buyback centre in Bekkersdal. The municipal- NEM:WA, as well as the limited airspace at current landfill Waste Recyclers are involved in a kerbside recycling ity has received funding from the Municipal Infrastructure sites and cost of establishing new landfill sites. project in several waste collection regions within the City. Grant (MIG) to develop a MRF (Material Recovery Facility) at The project requires residents placing recyclable material the Lebanon landfill. There is a vast body of international laws, national legisla- such as plastic, glass and cans into specially branded bags tion, policies and guidelines dealing, not only with waste, but or bins which are then collected in a manner similar to waste management. It is important to consider all of these general waste. At the same time paper and cardboard Industry recovery initiatives in order to determine the current status of waste in Gauteng. is collected through Mondi’s ‘Ronnie Bags’, which are available to limited areas of the City of Tshwane as well. The overall picture in Gauteng shows a slight improvement, Responses in the form of policies, tools and legislation across • E-waste recycling: Pikitup allows residents of Johan- when compared to the 2004 SoER, although this may be, all scales applicable to waste management are listed in the nesburg to dispose of broken and unwanted computers, in part, a consequence of the lack of information and data summary table. cellphones, microwaves and other electronic equipment inconsistency. To date most municipalities have been slow to at 25 Pikitup garden sites across the city. These sites are stimulate the waste minimisation process. This was perhaps utilised as drop-off centres for all household e-waste. partly due to the perceived low cost of landfill disposal in the past. In Ekurhuleni, a policy was adopted that does not allow any garden waste to be sent to landfills. This is achieved by The formal recycling industry cannot accurately quantify requiring contractors managing landfills to chip and compost volumes of material recovered for recycling in Gauteng

96 Waste Summary Table Summary Table

International Responses Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement Provincial Responses “Bontle ke Botho” Ward and School competitions of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, 1989 Industrial Buffer Zones project Fourth ACP-EEC Convention, 1989 Development of a Health Care Risk Waste Information System Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import and Control of Development of the Gauteng Waste Information System Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes within Africa Gauteng General Waste Minimisation Plan National Responses National Constitution 1996 Gauteng Hazardous Waste Management plan National Environmental Management: Waste Act (2008) Gauteng General Waste Collection Standards Environment Conservation Act (73 of 1989) Gauteng Health Care Risk Waste Management Strategy National Water Act (36 of 1998) Provincial Developmental Green Economy Strategy Hazardous Substances Act (15 of 1973) Support of Recycling Initiatives at a municipal level Fertilizers, Farm Feeds and Agricultural Remedies (36 of 1947) Landfill Evaluation Information Management System National Waste Management Strategy Review of IDPs and EIPs regarding Waste Planning Minimum Requirements for Waste Disposal by Landfill 1998 Closure of non compliant HCRW facilities by 2004 (current) Polokwane Declaration 2001 Recycling Initiatives Gauteng Clean and Green Programme Municipal Waste management - good practices Gauteng General Waste Minimisation Plan Waste Classification Regulations Vol. 553, No. 34417 Gauteng Hazardous Waste Management Plan Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act, (28 of Local Authority Responses Extension of service delivery 2002) Development of Integrated Waste Management Plan (IWMPs) National Waste Collection Standards strategies for Integrated Development Plans (IDPs) Local recycling centres & initiatives Biogas projects Separation at Source initiatives Local garden refuse centres, mainly in Johannesburg Implementation of penalties for illegal waste disposal Landfill gas recovery project in Ekurhuleni Projects to license operational and closed waste sites in Tshwane Liaison with business for paper, glass, cans etc. segregation and recovery Waste 97 References

Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (2006). Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Envi- National Waste Management Strategy Implementation ronment. (2004b). Integrated Strategy and Action Plans South Africa: Projections for Health Care Risk Waste for Sustainable Health Care Risk Waste Management in Treatment. Report Number: 12/9/6. Department of Gauteng. Final Version. Gauteng Provincial Government. Environmental Affairs and Tourism. Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and Envi- Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. (2004). ronment. (2008). First Generation Integrated Hazardous National Waste Management Strategy Implementation Waste Management Plan for Gauteng. G/DACE 07/2006. South Africa Inception Report. Report Number: 12/9/6. Draft Final Report, 8 October 2008. Gauteng Provincial Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. Government. Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation Environ- (2009). General Waste Minimisation Plan for Gauteng, ment and Land Affairs. (2008). Development of General July 2009. Gauteng Provincial Government. Waste minimisation Plan for Gauteng: Status Quo and Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. Waste Minimisation Options report. Draft Final report, (2011). Statement on Waste Minimisation Awareness. Version 3.1. Gauteng Provincial Government. Retrieved 19 September 2011 from http://www.gdard. Godfrey, L., Oelofse, S., Phiri, A., Nahman, A. and Hall, gpg.gov.za/. J. (2007). Mineral waste the required governance Gauteng Department of Agriculture, Conservation and environment to enable reuse. Report CSIR/NRE/PW/ Environment. (2004a). Gauteng State of Environment IR/2007/0080/C. Pretoria: CSIR. Report. Gauteng Provincial Government.

98 Waste Waste 99

Governance 10

Introduction

Government has an established system of co-operative established at provincial level to engagement on Provincial tional institutions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), governance structures, across, and within, the three spheres Growth and Development Strategies and municipal Local public benefit organisations (PBOs) and community-based of government; local, provincial and national. Co-operation Economic Development. Numerous other inter-govern- organisations (CBOs). across spheres is achieved through a variety of inter-gov- mental forums exist within various sectors and are aimed ernmental forums such as MINMECs, MINTECH and those at co-ordinating and aligning across the various spheres of The ability of local government to implement environmental structures established in terms of the Inter-governmental government. management strategies and programmes, as well as capital Relations Framework Act. These structures focus mainly on projects, is important in the assessment of the state of envi- strategic and policy setting matters. Governance is the activity of governing and government ronment. The preparation of Integrated Development Plans is not the only structure able to influence and affect how (IDPs) by local authorities is required to include environment Mechanisms to facilitate and promote engagement and natural resources are utilised or conserved. Effective considerations and the ability to implement development interaction between government and its social partners also governance requires many sectors of society to participate, ideals without compromising the underlying natural resource exist. Examples include various multi-stakeholder forums including government departments, private sector, educa- base.

This chapter assesses inter-governmental relations between spheres of government, across different departments and the efficacy of co-operative governance in managing Government is responsible for ensuring What is good governance? Good environmental governance the environment in Gauteng. It addresses the capacity of good environmental governance, through should reflect our best understand- government to reflect the interests of stakeholders and fulfil policies, laws, and strategies. The role of The DEA defines good governance as: ing of the structure, function, a constitutional mandate to ensure an environment that is government includes providing institu- processes, and variability that not harmful. tions and infrastructure that enable “Environmental governance refers typify natural systems. Without the economy and society to operate. to the processes of decision-making this understanding, it is possible The role of NGOs, PBOs and CBOs is important as a Its ability to carry out these functions involved in controlling and managing for inappropriate decisions to be ‘watchdog’ over the activities and performance of the State, has a profound impact on peoples’ lives the environment and natural made (even with the best possible and these organisations are increasingly recognised as and livelihoods. An effective govern- resources. Principles such as inclusiv- intentions) that carry disastrous important role-players in the formulation and application of ment intervenes on behalf of the poor, ity, representivity, accountability, environmental consequences.” policy and strategy. These organisations play a critical role in voiceless and the marginalised. The poor efficiency, and effectiveness, as well developing local knowledge and for participatory develop- are most reliant on government and have as social equity and justice, are the (http://soer.deat.gov.za/27.html) ment. the most to lose when it fails to deliver. foundations of good governance. Governance 101 The 1997 White Paper on Environmental Management Policy planning and provincial roads. Local government deals are common, widespread and often violent” (Department of provides guidance on what constitutes good environmental with issues such as noise pollution, municipal roads, Development Planning and Local Government, 2009). governance: water supply and sanitation, storm water management, refuse and solid waste disposal. Figure 1 reflects the spate of public protests during 2009 • Governance should be responsible and accountable; which according to the State of Local Government in South • Regulations should be enforced; The objects of Developmental Local Government Africa report could be symptomatic of the alienation of • Integrating mechanisms and structures that facilitate (Constitution) are to: citizens from local government. Gauteng had the highest participation should be established; number of protests, or 30% of total protests across all • Inter-ministerial and interdepartmental co-ordination are • Provide democratic and accountable government for provinces. The likelihood and location of community protests needed; local communities is difficult to predict as protests do not necessarily take place • The institutional responsibilities for regulating environ- • Ensure provision of services to communities in a in the poorest municipalities or where there is the worst mental impacts and promoting resource exploitation sustainable manner service delivery record. Population growth and urbanisation should be separate; • Promote social and economic development are key determinants of unrest, and issues of housing admin- • People should have access to information; and • Promote a safe and healthy environment istration and management, as well as the cost of services are • Institutional and community capacity-building are • Encourage the involvement of communities and contributing factors (Allan and Heese, 2009). needed. community organisations in the matters of local government Co-operative governance is required for co-ordination and alignment between different spheres, in both the formula- National government has exclusive legislative competence tion of policy, as well as the implementation of services and in respect of matters not listed in Schedules 4 and 5. 12 5 Eastern Cape infrastructure. These matters include energy, mining and water (other Free State than sanitation and potable water systems) (Department 2 15 The “environment” is included in Schedule 4 of the Con- of Environmental Affairs, 2011). Gauteng stitution of South Africa as a functional area of concurrent KwaZulu-Natal national and provincial legislative competence. This means 17 that both national and provincial government have the State Limpopo power to draft legislation that affects the environment. Mpumalanga Other functional areas in Schedule 4 include agriculture, The metropolitan authorities “are struggling to manage North West soil conservation, nature conservation, administration the huge social and economic implications of urbanisation 8 30 of indigenous forests, housing, public transport, regional and apartheid spatial planning – growing populations, Northern Cape planning and development, urban and rural development, extremely high levels of poverty, unemployment and 3 8 Western Cape and pollution control. inequality; large informal settlements on the urban fringe; inadequate public transport and a shortage of land for Schedule 5 of the Constitution contains matters of exclusive development. This convergence of pressures has created Figure 10.1: Service delivery protests (Department of Development provincial legislative competence. These include provincial dangerous conditions for social instability. Public protests Planning and Local Government, 2009)

102 Governance Levels of service provision Access to electricity services Providing electricity for cooking and heating results in significant improvement for environment functioning. An Data for service delivery is analyzed for 2001 to 2007 to On average all regions provided between 60-80% of energy source is fossil fuels, and these have a direct impact show the growth in infrastructure development and capacity households with electricity during 2007, due to infrastruc- on air pollution where people live. The impact is exacerbated throughout Gauteng. The indicators of access to internet and ture development. An overall increase of 40% of households by the density of populations in areas where there is no computers are indicated for 2007 only, as this information received access to electricity in the West Rand, and 28% of electricity for cooking and heating. Overall, Sedibeng and the was not captured in previous censuses. households in Sedibeng between 2001 and 2007. Only the City of Tshwane provide the highest number of households City of Tshwane recorded a decline in access to electricity, with access to electricity for all purposes, well over 80% in The provision of free basic services for indigent people is however this could be attributed to population growth and 2007. included as it is a critical component in the provision of basic migration, or errors in the census data. services to all people and is fundamental for social well- being and economic growth. Failure to provide electricity, waste removal, and water and sanitation has a negative

100 impact on the environment and results in air, land and water pollution, illegal dumping and waste, and pressure on the natural resources to function properly. This in turn also results in poor human health and well-being. Sedibeng District Access to municipal services across Gauteng is high, with Municipality

75 Eastern Cape the majority of the population receiving access to all Metsweding District

services. This could be attributed to relatively sound financial Municipality Free State situations in the metropolitan areas, which is constantly West Rand District

50 Gauteng stimulating infrastructure development. However, Sedibeng Municipality KwaZulu-Natal and the former Metsweding District Municipalities, and to a Ekurhuleni Metro- degree the West Rand, struggle more than the other regions politan Limpopo (%) Percentage to provide basic services. City of Johannes- Mpumalanga burg City of Tshwane North West 25

Northern Cape

Western Cape 0 2001 2007 2001 2007 2001 2007 Electricity for cooking Electricity for heating Electricity for lighting

Figure 10.2: Changes in the access to electricity services from 2001-2007 (Statistics South Africa, 2001 and 2007) Governance 103 Access to waste management services Despite the decline in access to waste services by 2007, Access to water and sanitation Johannesburg still provided the greatest percentage of services From 2001 to 2007, Sedibeng and West Rand displayed the households with regular waste removal (92%), closely largest growth in access to waste removal services. Sedibeng followed by Ekurhuleni (89%), Tshwane (85%), Sedibeng Census data for toilet facilities are only available for facilities and West Rand District Municipalities increased service (85%) and the West Rand (82%). Nevertheless, emphasis that flush and are connected to the municipal sewerage delivery by 32.5% and 17.5% respectively, and over 80% should be placed on the shortfall as this is where the system. Many households have access to toilets connected of households now have access to this service. The other negative impact on the environment is felt most significantly. to septic tank(s), chemical toilets, pit latrines (with and metros and districts recorded a decline in the percentage By implication, in 2007 there are still households without without ventilation) and bucket latrines. Only small percent- of households with access to this service by 2007, which is regular waste removal: 8% of Johannesburg, 11% of ages of the population were recorded to have no access most likely attributable to marked population growth (both Ekurhuleni, 15% of Tshwane, 15% of Sedibeng, and 18% of to toilets (Sedibeng 2.7%, Metsweding 10.9%, West Rand natural population growth and in-migration). the West Rand. 3.6%, Joburg 3% and Tshwane 2.9%). There has been little

Sedibeng District Sedibeng District

100 Municipality 100 Municipality

Metsweding District Metsweding District Municipality Municipality

75

75 West Rand District West Rand District Municipality Municipality Ekurhuleni Metropolitan

50

Percentage (%) Percentage Ekurhuleni Metropolitan 50

Percentage (%) Percentage City of Johannesburg City of Johannesburg

25 25 City of Tshwane City of Tshwane

0

0 2001 2007 2001 2007 2001 2007 Waste removal* Toilets** Piped water ***

Figure 10.3: Access to waste removal from 2001-2007 (data from Figure 10.4: Access to sanitation services for Gauteng from 2001-2007 (data from Statistics South Statistics South Africa, 2001 and 2007) Africa, 2001 and 2007) *once a week and less often **inside dwelling, inside yard or access point outside yard ***flush toilets connected to the sewerage system only 104 Governance development between 2001 and 2007. The most noticeable environmental matters. It is important to understand what environmental and health threats. The number of house- increase is within West Rand where approximately 12% the impacts are where these services do not exist, or are holds recorded to not have any access to sanitation facilities more of households have toilets connected to the municipal inadequate, as it is these ecosystems and natural resources has reduced between 2001 and 2007, to less than 5% for all sewerage system. that are under stress. For example, where limited solid waste areas. In 2007, the use of dry toilet facilities (also known as collection takes place the negative effect (pollution, contami- urine diversion toilets) was also recorded (Figure 5), which Access to piped water, whether within dwellings, inside the nation, degradation) on the environment is significant. is endorsed by DWA because of it does not require water, yard, or as access points outside of yards, has improved and can be used as a source of fuel and fertilizer. However, remarkably across Gauteng. In 2007 it was recorded that all There appears to be a decline in the use of chemical toilets the use of dry toilets is still marginal (<5% of households) regions apart from Metsweding provided almost 100% of to other forms, with the majority of households making use because of a negative perception amongst communities. households with piped water. While the former Metswed- of pit toilets without ventilation. Chemical toilets are not These statistics should be read in conjunction with the ing district shows a decline in access by approximately 2% recommended by the DWA as they are temporary and costly number of households that have access to toilets that are of households. The West Rand, on the other hand, has to operate, and can cause environmental pollution. However, linked to the municipal sewerage system, keeping in mind demonstrated a significant increase of 25% of households. the use of unventilated pit latrines also poses a number of population growth and migration.

Inadequate sanitation services, along with energy, water and waste management, has a negative impact on both social and

Sedibeng District Municipality Metsweding District Municipality West Rand District Municipality Ekurhuleni Metro- politan

Percentage (%) Percentage City of Johannes- burg

10 15 20 25 30 City of Tshwane

0 5

Flush toilet Dry toilet Pit toilet Pit toilet Chemical Bucket None (with septic facility with without toilet toilet tank) ventilation ventilation system (VIP) Figure 10.5: Alternative sanitation facilities for Gauteng in 2007 (data from Statistics South Africa 2007) Governance 105 Access to Information and Communi- Spatial depiction of multiple depriva- Orange Farm, Evaton, Thokoza, Katlehong, Sokhulumi) cation Technology (ICT) services tion in Gauteng (Figure 10.7). As a result, municipalities can focus their support programmes and infrastructure investment (spatial Access to internet and computers (recorded for 2007 only) In a study of multiple deprivation, five areas were identified targeting) in the areas of significant deprivation. is low throughout Gauteng when compared globally, below that could be constructed using the 2001 census data to 20% for internet access and 15% to 30% for computer form an index of multiple deprivation for the province. access. It is likely that this only includes access within These are: Income and Material Deprivation, Employment dwellings and does not take into account the numerous Deprivation, Health Deprivation, Education Deprivation, and public access points such as internet cafes, libraries, places Living Environment Deprivation. The largest concentrations of employment, and so on. The City of Tshwane reflects the of deprivation occur on the West Rand (Randfontein, Carle- highest access to these ICT facilities. It will be interesting tonville) and the far East Rand (Springs, Nigel) with pockets to note the growth in access to these facilities in the next in the north (Winterveldt) and townships on the periphery census. of the urban core (such as Daveyton, Lenasia, Sebokeng,

West Rand District Municipality

Metsweding District Municipality

Sedibeng District Municipality

Ekurhuleni Metropolitan

Percentage (%) Percentage City of Johannesburg

10 15 20 25 30 City of Tshwane

0 5

2007 2007 Internet Computer/s

Figure 10.6: Access to ICT services for Gauteng from 2001-2007 Figure 10.7: The indices of multiple deprivation in Gauteng (data from Statistics South Africa, 2001 and 2007) (Noble et al., 2006)

106 Governance Budgetary allocation to environmen- tal management Table 1 indicates the provincial expenditure on environmen- The introduction of new legislation brings with it additional tal management, although it is acknowledged that there is functions that may be the responsibility of local and The constitutional responsibility for environmental manage- inconsistency and gaps in the data. The budgetary allocation provincial government to implement. This increased role ment is shared across all spheres of government, which has two implications. First, it gives an indication of political and responsibilities of government are particularly evident should therefore all have a budgetary allocation for envi- will and commitment to environmental management, and in the waste management and air quality legislation, for ronmental management. Information on the expenditure second, it reflects the ability of government structures to example the development and implementation of Air Quality by local government, in particular, is difficult to determine implement programmes and strategies for environmental Management Plans. The need for local and provincial gov- as it cuts across a number of departments and divisions, management needs. Limited funding reinforces a lack of ernment to allocate the required funding for environmental including human settlements, infrastructure, environmental awareness of environmental issues and can demonstrate management is underscored. management, social development, economic development successful implementation of strategies and programmes. and so on. The Department of Environmental Affairs commented as follows on the data: “The total provincial expenditure on environmental management has increased by overall 32% Table 10.1: Provincial expenditure on environmental management (Source: National Treasury provincial database) between 2001-2002 and 2004-2005, from R656 million to R955 million. The rate of increase varies among provinces, with some provinces (such as Limpopo and the Northern Province 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006 2006-2007 2007-2008 Cape) starting off at a very low base. KwaZulu-Natal Pre- Medium- accounts for 29% of environmental expenditure, just over Outcome liminary term double that of Mpumalanga, which has the next largest Outcome estimates expenditure of R139 million, and an average share of 14.5% of provincial expenditure in 2004–2005. Overall, environ- R 000’s mental management functions receive less than one half of Eastern Cape 80 619 95 576 109 338 107 443 116 312 124 496 135 813 a percent of provincial budgets.” [own emphasis] Free State 33 643 57 522 77 484 72 181 62 900 66 050 69 400 Generally, salaries and transfers constitute the bulk of Gauteng 37 449 120 679 63 334 69 654 82 299 87 204 92 542 expenditure in the environmental sector, where com- KwaZulu-Natal 226 937 232 953 256 632 279 019 362 296 405 088 444 387 pensation of employees is the largest component. If the Limpopo 3 400 39 690 46 233 53 548 46 641 55 520 70 371 medium-term estimates were correct, the amount allocated Mpumalanga 121 743 136 982 134 344 139 200 135 074 130 575 168 436 to environmental management at a provincial level increased from R1 052 302 in 2005-2006 to R1 237 859 in 2007-2008. Northern Cape 9 311 12 029 14 411 17 736 22 546 25 653 28 565 This indicates a steady increase in the allocation, although it North West 60 859 72 124 96 614 98 116 84 097 81 237 85 574 is insufficient to address the functions and mandates associ- Western Cape 82 157 103 929 105 010 118 377 140 137 143 969 142 771 ated with new legislation. TOTAL 656 118 871 484 903 400 955 274 1 052 302 1 119 792 1 237 859 Governance 107 Responses Municipality Capacity for this. This could take the form of strategic environmental embedded” and there is a need for piloting new approaches Environmental Management plans such as Environmental Management Frameworks or to participation. Currently participation is predominantly Strategic Environmental Assessments, policy documents about “legitimating state decisions reflected in IDPs, and The ability of local government to implement environmental and implementation plans, and increased human capacity. rather we need to shift to a situation where those decisions management strategies and programmes, as well as capital are taken by citizens themselves”. projects, is important to the assessment of the state of While NEMA is highlighted as the overarching environmen- environment. The inclusion of environmental management tal legislation, generally limited mention is made of other All municipalities in Gauteng have part of their budget considerations in the preparation of Integrated Development sectoral legislation such as air quality, biodiversity and allocated to environment management functions. Of concern Plans (IDPs) at local government level indicates not only the waste management. It is important that the link between is the declining proportional budget allocated to environ- commitment and awareness of environmental issues, but NEMA and sectoral legislation is made to ensure proactive mental management experienced in some municipalities. the ability to implement sound environmental management. planning and better environmental practice across all This is further exacerbated by the diminishing capacity in environmental aspects. local government to implement environmental management A high-level assessment of municipalities in relation to mandates which is mostly reflected in large numbers of environmental management and governance capacity as In a report on “The Depth and Quality of Public Participa- unfilled positions in environmental management depart- depicted in the IDPs indicates that it is difficult to make a tion in the Integrated Development Planning process in ments (as well as related functions such as environmental direct comparison due to the various formats, structure and Gauteng” (Marais et al., 2007), a small sample of wards health, parks and horticultural services, and waste manage- manner in which information has been assimilated into the and municipalities were investigated to “better understand ment). IDPs. In many areas the IDP only provides a brief overview the dynamics that facilitate or hinder participation; and of the information available, and therefore it is difficult to then trace the impact (if any) of that participation on The Provincial Growth and Development Strategy (PGDS) assess the depth of capacity and understanding of environ- the IDP as it makes its way through the bureaucracy”. provides for comparative assessment at a provincial level. mental matters. Overall, there appears to be understanding The study notes “participation, in the RDP (which in turn Of concern is the absence of reference to any environmental of the environmental constraints and opportunities in informed the White Paper on Local Government and management issues in the PGDS. If a sustainable growth Gauteng, as well as appreciation and incorporation of other legislation including Municipal Systems Act and path is to be achieved in the province, environmental environmental considerations in the IDP documents. Municipal Structures Act) is not about getting a local stamp considerations have to be clearly understood and integral to of approval for decisions taken ‘on high’. Nor is it merely the strategy. This was however addressed in the subsequent The IDPs highlight the need for good governance in order about generating a wish-list of local needs, despite the fact Provincial Spatial Development Perspective and Provincial to achieve sustainable practice and efficiency of manage- that the RDP itself adopted a basic needs approach to the Spatial Development Framework. It is important that there ment, not only in the environmental sector but all sectors post-apartheid development project. Participation is about is alignment between the various spatial and developmental in Gauteng. Although the IDPs do not elaborate on the empowerment”. In conclusion any attempt to “understand plans of different spheres of government. Improved structures and strategies that need to be developed in both public participation and its relationship with the alignment and closer integration between development order to achieve this, they note these need to be developed Integrated Development Plan process must be sensitive to planning and environmental management would provide a further and in some cases budget has been allocated for very different processes and discourses in which they are clear intent which would result in greater clarity for business

108 Governance References Integrated Development Plans which would reduce the costs on, for example, environmen- Allan, K. and Heese, K. (2009). Municipal IQ Municipal City of Joburg Metropolitan Municipality (CoJ). (2011). tal impact assessments. Hotspots Monitor. Johannesburg: Municipal IQ. Integrated Development Plan, 2010/2011. Johan- Department of Development Planning and Local Govern- nesburg. Co-operative governance can be challenging and govern- ment (2009). State of Local Government in South Africa: City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality (CoT). ment spheres and sectors have not worked together well Overview Report. Pretoria: Department of Development (2011). Integrated Development Plan, 2010/2011. in all circumstances. There has been insufficient flexibility Planning and Local Government. Pretoria. and creativity in policies towards state-owned land, housing Department of Environment Affairs. (2011). Environmental Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality (EMM). (2011). and infrastructure. Environmental management has tended Impact Assessment and Management Strategy (EIAMS). Integrated Development Plan 2010/2011. Germiston. to focus on the regulatory environment and increasingly Theme: Governance and Administration, Sub-theme Metsweding District Municipality (MDM). (2011). more effort has to be seen in monitoring and enforcement 1; Procedures and Organisational Structures, Enact Integrated Development Plan Review, 2010/2011. in order for governance to be responsible and accountable. International. Department of Environment Affairs. Ekangala. Global environmental challenges of climate change, energy, Marais, H., Everatt, D. and Dube, N. (2007). The Depth and Sedibeng District Municipality (SDM). (2011). Integrated water and food security will be core to ensuring sustainable Quality of Public Participation in the Integrated Develop- Development Plan, 2010/2011. Vanderbijlpark. development and as a result the focus of policy and strategy ment Planning process in Gauteng, Researched and West Rand District Municipality (WRDM). (2011). Inte- development. Integrating mechanisms and structures that written for the Gauteng Provincial Department of Local grated Development Plan, 2010/2011. Randfontein. facilitate participation should be further strengthened and Government. Johannesburg. there is still much work to do in institutional and community Noble, M., Babita, M., Barnes, H., Dibben, C., Magasela, W., capacity-building. Noble, S., Ntshongwana, P., Phillips, H., Rama, S., Roberts, B., Wright, G. and Zungu, S. (2006). The Provincial Indices Recently, government has agreed on 12 outcomes as a key of Multiple Deprivation for South Africa 2001. Oxford: focus of government priorities between 2010 and 2014. University of Oxford, UK. These outcomes are discussed in detail in Chapter 11. Statistics South Africa. (2001). South African Census, 2001. Combined, these agreements reflect government’s delivery Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. and implementation plans for its foremost priorities. Regular Statistics South Africa. (2007). Community Survey 2007. reporting against these outcomes will promote more Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. accountable and transparent governance.

Governance 109

Conclusion 11

Introduction

Gauteng is faced with a number of challenges to achieve ment is important in a fast developing and highly urbanized commercial water consumption, coupled with poor manage- environmental sustainability. Economic development in the province. Rapidly increasing levels of unemployment, the ment of water quality and degradation of river and wetland province is the engine that helps drive both the national prevalence of HIV/AIDS, the widening gap between the rich ecosystems. In addition, acid mine drainage (AMD) associ- and African economies, but the high levels of development, and poor, and the increasing levels of poverty in the province ated with mining activities is the greatest current concern industrial and mining activities, population growth and all have a detrimental impact on the biophysical environ- relating to groundwater resources. As with the 2004 Gauteng urbanisation create both challenges and opportunities for ment. This has implications for the provision of infrastructure SoER, water remains a major issue for Gauteng both now the province to manage and use its natural resource base. and services and the sustainable use of natural resources. and into the long term. To be sustainable, Gauteng must respond to climate change It has been demonstrated that people become more reliant challenges, establish viable communities and create people- on the natural environment as poverty levels increase, but Poor air quality remains a serious issue for Gauteng. friendly urban settings. their vulnerability and lack of resilience to environmental Household fossil fuel or biomass burning, vehicle emissions degradation and pollution also increases. and industrial processes cause high concentrations of air The relationship between people and the natural environ- pollutants. In response to the promulgation of the Air Quality Continued urban development encroaching onto important Act during 2004, there have been numerous developments conservation and agricultural areas along with unsustainable by government in response to air quality challenges. Air agricultural practices, poor soil management and water Quality Management Plans have been developed for various management has resulted in land degradation, the loss of municipalities and monitoring provides the necessary sound A SoER report provides a basis of information on productive agricultural land and less effective provision of scientific basis for decision making, compliance assessment trends and conditions in the Gauteng environment ecosystem services. The challenge is therefore to set clear against targets and enforcement actions. The control of which can be used to enable decision and policy and realistic targets for land use preferences in fast develop- vehicle emissions has included the phasing out of lead makers, resource users, politicians and planners to ing urban areas, coupled to real and enforceable protection based additives to petrol, a reduction in the maximum make more informed decisions on environmental and management strategies. Decisions regarding the optimal sulphur content of diesel, benzene content of petrol and impacts. Responsible decisions that respond to allocation and use of land need to be taken in consideration the introduction of Euro vehicle emissions regulations for environmental limitations and opportunities will of the various pressures and conflicts related to land use in petrol-driven vehicles. In addition, comprehensive vehicle be vital to ensure a sustainable future. Gauteng. emissions monitoring has been undertaken by the City of Joburg and the City of Tshwane. Air quality is an extremely Many of the water resources within the province are clearly important issue for Gauteng to deal with as it directly under stress from an increased demand for human and impacts on human health and acidic precipitation.

Conclusion 111 A ‘hot’ issue is climate change, possibly one of the greatest continued increasing need for provision of basic services ensure environmental quality. The challenge going forward is environmental challenges facing society today. Industrialisa- (like waste removal, housing and sanitation). Inadequate to monitor and implement these tools to ensure continued tion, urbanisation and an increase of motor transport, access to basic services can result in poor human health and environmental improvement. while having social and economic benefits, have resulted increasing vulnerability to poor environmental conditions, in an increase in greenhouse gas emissions, intensifying particularly in marginalised communities. Furthermore, Government has agreed on 12 outcomes as a key focus of the natural greenhouse effect. The potential socio-political inadequate access to services has an impact on the environ- government priorities between 2010 and 2014. Combined, impacts of the resultant accelerated climate change include ment and may lead to problems like increased solid waste these agreements reflect government’s delivery and imple- public health impacts on poorer communities, particularly volumes or dumping, ground water contamination, high mentation plans for its foremost priorities. Each outcome has on women, children and the vulnerable, as they lack the e-coli counts and cholera. a limited number of measurable outputs with targets. Each resources for coping or adapting to shocks. output is linked to a set of activities that will help achieve Over the last five years Gauteng has made positive progress the targets and contribute to the outcome. The 12 outcomes Numerous opportunities are available to respond to these on a number of environmental indicators. Most notably are coupled to a delivery agreement with measurable targets challenges, one of which is the transitioning to a low-carbon here is the dramatic reduction in lead concentrations from and are listed in Table 1 or green economy. The Gauteng Province in conjunction with vehicle emissions due to tighter fuel regulation. Another the GCRO has put in place a Green Strategic Programme in noticeable improvement is that municipal drinking water The indicators in the State of Environment Report are response to ever-increasing resource utilisation, population quality management has significantly improved and Gauteng relevant to a number of outcomes and Table 1 shows the growth, global climate change and unsustainable develop- is currently the top performing province in terms of its relationship between the outcome focus areas and the ment. Blue Drop rating. Environmental awareness is improving Gauteng province. The most important Outcome for sustain- and environmental considerations are an integral part of able environmental management is Outcome 10, namely Overburdening and inadequate maintenance of existing many development projects. Progress has been made in all “environmental assets and natural resources that are well infrastructure can have serious impacts on the environment. environmental areas on developing tools, plans and policies protected and continually enhanced”. High urbanisation rates and population growth means a to enable implementation of legislative requirements to

112 Conclusion Table 11.1: Outcome focus areas and Gauteng Province

Outcome Outputs Notes for Gauteng Province

1 Improved quality of basic 1. Improve the quality of teaching and learning Gauteng has higher education levels than those of the country in general. 2. Undertake regular assessment to track progress Increased focus should be placed on environmental education and awareness of education 3. Improve early childhood development learners; encouraging graduates in the natural sciences and environmental man- 4. Ensure a credible outcomes-focused planning and accountability system agement fields; and continued professional development and skills development. 2 A long and healthy life for all 1. Increasing Life Expectancy The health and wellbeing of people in Gauteng is related to the protection of 2. Decreasing Maternal and Child mortality functioning ecosystems that provide ecological goods and services and improve South Africans 3. Combating HIV and AIDS and decreasing the burden of disease from Tubercu- resilience. This is particularly true for indigent individuals and families that rely losis on ‘free’ natural resources, but also applies to socio-economic systems that need 4. Strengthening Health System Effectiveness protection against environmental risks. 3 All people in South Africa are and 1. Address overall levels of crime and reduce the levels of contact and trio crimes Over the past decade there has been increased focus on enforcing compliance 2. Improve effectiveness and ensure integration of the Criminal Justice System (CJS) with environmental regulations. Capacity and resources of institutions to affect feel safe 3. Combat corruption within the Justice, Crime Prevention and Security Cluster to this remains a concern, but progress is being made in building up the capacity and enhance its effectiveness and its ability to serve as a deterrent against crime experience of Environmental Management Inspectors. 4. Manage perceptions of crime among the population 5. Ensure security at the border environment Public open spaces must be made safe through active policing, proper mainte- 6. Secure the identity and status of citizens nance and through public awareness campaigns. 7. Integrate ICT systems and combat cyber crime 8. Corruption 4 Decent employment through 1. Faster and sustainable inclusive growth Gauteng is critical in ensuring growth that is sustained and inclusive within South 2. More labour absorbing growth Africa. In particular, the decline in mining and manufacturing must be offset with inclusive economic growth 3. Multi-pronged strategy to reduce youth unemployment opportunities in the green economy. Green business presents opportunities for 4. Increased competitiveness, to raise net exports, grow trade as a share of world labour absorption (especially for the youth), and through small businesses and trade and improve its composition co-operatives. It is also imperative that the indirect economic impacts of climate 5. Improved cost structure in the economy change be anticipated and mitigated through pro-active adaptation of the macro- 6. Improved support to small business and co-operatives economic strategies. 7. Implementation of the expanded public works programme The environmental sector implementation of the expanded public works programme in Gauteng is important for decent employment and inclusive economic growth. 5 A skilled and capable workforce to 1. Establish a credible institutional mechanism for skills planning Gauteng will play a pivotal role in leveraging opportunities in the green economy 2. Increase access to programmes leading to intermediate and high level learning as part of the growth path. Research and development, and technological innova- support an inclusive growth path 3. Increase access to occupationally-directed programmes in needed areas and tion in the green economy could significantly contribute to skills development and thereby expand the availability of intermediate level skills (with special focus an inclusive growth path. Leveraging skills and knowledge from Gauteng-based on artisan skills) institutions and organisations should coexist with investment in new ‘green’ 4. Research, development and innovation in human capital for a growing growth areas. knowledge economy 6 An efficient, competitive and 1. Improving Competition and Regulation Gauteng’s advanced economic infrastructure network is important in the 2. Ensure reliable generation, distribution and transmission of electricity country’s growth and development strategy. Nevertheless, issues of capacity responsive economic infrastruc- 3. To ensure the maintenance and strategic expansion of our road and rail network, and quality of service, as well as road congestion, could hamper this. Key ‘step ture network and the operational efficiency, capacity and competitiveness of our sea ports. changes’ will be large scale roll-out of formal public transport, renewable energy 4. Maintenance and supply availability of our bulk water infrastructure systems and water recycling. 5. Communication and Information technology 6. Develop a set of operational indicators for each segment Conclusion 113 Table 11.1: Outcome focus areas and Gauteng Province (continued)

Outcome Outputs Notes for Gauteng Province

7 Vibrant, equitable and sustainable 1. Improved access to affordable and diverse food Gauteng is a highly urbanised province and therefore requires active land management 2. Sustainable agrarian reform to counter urban sprawl and unsustainable land use, as well as specific strategies to rural communities with food 3. Improved access to affordable and diverse food ensure sustainable rural development and resilient communities (secure livelihoods and security for all 4. Rural services and sustainable livelihoods food). 5. Rural job creation linked to skills training and promoting economic livelihoods 6. Enabling institutional environment for sustainable and inclusive growth 8 Sustainable human settle- 1. Upgrading 400 000 units of accommodation within informal settlements Gauteng is the most urbanised and densely populated province which potentially 2. Improving access to basic services threatens ecosystem functioning and sustainable human settlements. Growth should ments and improved quality of 3. Facilitate the provision of 600 000 accommodation units within the gap embrace the value and long-term cost-savings that environmentally responsive designs household life market for people earning between R3 500 and R12 800 and ecosystem services have to offer. 4. Mobilisation of well-located public land for low-income and affordable housing with increased densities on this land and in general 9 Responsive, accountable, effective 1. Implement a differentiated approach to municipal financing, planning Co-operative governance is required for coordination and alignment between different and support spheres of government in both the formulation of policy as well as the implementation and efficient local government 2. Improving access to basic services of services and infrastructure in Gauteng. Pro-active mainstreaming of environmentally system 3. Implementation of the Community Work Programme responsible thinking, budgeting and innovation into non-environmental government 4. Actions supportive of the human settlement outcome departments is required. 5. Deepen democracy through a refined Ward Committee model 6. Administrative and financial capability The provision of basic services in an effective and efficient manner is the priority in 7. Single window of coordination Gauteng where stark disparities exist.

11 Creating a better South Africa and 1. Enhanced African agenda and Sustainable Development Strategies on sustainable development are advanced in Gauteng and continued effort in 2. Enhanced regional integration terms of implementation is important. Transitioning to the green economy will enhance contributing to a better and safer 3. Reformed global governance institutions regional and global trade and investment opportunities by optimising the use of local Africa in a better world 4. Enhanced trade and investment and regional environmental assets. 12 An efficient, effective and 1. Service delivery quality and access Equitable and efficient service delivery remains key in Gauteng where the level of social 2. Human resource management and development protest is the highest in the country. development oriented public 3. Business processes, systems, decision rights and accountability manage- service and an empowered, fair ment Global environmental challenges of climate change, energy, water and food security 4. Tackling corruption in the public service will be core to ensuring sustainable development and as a result the focus of policy and and inclusive citizenship strategy development both in Gauteng and South Africa. Integrating mechanisms and structures that facilitate participation should be further strengthened and there is still much work to do in institutional and community capacity- building.

114 Conclusion Table 11.2: Outcome 10 focus areas and Gauteng Province

Outcome Outputs Notes for Gauteng Province

10 Environmental assets and natural 1. Enhanced quality and quantity • Water demand Concern over AMD can be seen as both a threat and an opportunity – unmitigated, it of water resources • Water resource protection represents severe pollution, but mitigated could serve as significant water resource. resources that are well protected • Regulation of water quality More efficient use of water and increased recycling of water are unavoidable. and continually enhanced As a basic human right, the access to clean water will be a challenge for a populous province such as Gauteng. Optimisation of natural water conservation functions (wetlands etc.) is the most cost- effective way of saving water.

10 Environmental assets and natural 2. Reduced greenhouse gas • Reduction of emission of CO2 The mitigation of climate change and economic development are intrinsically linked emissions, climate change and • Reduction of atmospheric pollutants – South Africa’s mitigation commitments will impose change on the energy and resources that are well protected improved air/atmospheric • Renewable energy deployment emissions profiles of industry and business in Gauteng. and continually enhanced quality • Adapting to the impacts of climate change The benefits of climate change should be welcomed – such as investment in renewable • Energy efficiency energy, the improvement of public health and appropriate technological development.

10 Environmental assets and natural 3. Sustainable environmental • Restoration and rehabilitation of Demands for developable land and quality living environments mean that new space management degraded systems for avoidable land-intensive practices will not be available, and the re-use of contami- resources that are well protected • Deforestation and forest manage- nated land becomes increasingly viable. and continually enhanced ment • Less and better managed waste Sustainable development requires that livelihoods and food security be ensured • Management of environmental – which in a highly urbanised province requires active land management to counter impacts from mining and related urban sprawl and unsustainable land use. activities • Sustainable land use management 10 Environmental assets and natural 4. Protected biodiversity • Expansion of the conservation ‘Nature’ isn’t a nice-to-have in Gauteng anymore; rather, it becomes an integral part of estate the urban system through the delivery of sustainable ecosystem services. resources that are well protected • Reduced climate change impacts on and continually enhanced biodiversity A natural system that is perfectly adapted to the Highveld climate - i.e. grasslands – is • Valuing of ecosystem services the most efficient way of maintaining resilience, ecosystem services and environmental • Protection of agricultural lands quality. A well-designed, protected and managed network of conserved spaces will form the basis of a Gauteng that is conducive to healthy and happy living.

Conclusion 115 Table 11.3: Trends per chapter

Chapter Indicator Trend Status

Continued increasing population growth Trends in population growth Increasing Large investments in provision of infrastructure and services for growth population

Population density Increasing Most densely populated province in South Africa

Population structure Constant Bulk of the population remains young

Housing types and households Improving Overall there has been major improvement

Although still pockets of multiple deprivation exist and there are thousands of Household income Improving people in informal settlements and this is where environmental degradation and pollution is most keenly experienced

Sectoral employment for the economically Improving Social active population Unemployment levels have dropped in all areas, but 3 million people have low skill levels and more than 1.5 million people are unemployed (as of 2007) Unemployment Improving

HIV/AIDS Improving Gradual reduction in infection rates

Infant mortality Improving Ahead of the national average, but below the Millennium Development Goal

Poverty (Minimum Living Level) New indicator

Human development index (HDI) New indicator Marginal improvement. Gauteng far higher than the national average

Gini Coefficient Marginal improvement High levels of inequality remain

Education Improving Education levels are increasing

Adult literacy Improving Levels are increasing

116 Conclusion Table 11.3: Trends per chapter (continued)

Chapter Indicator Trend Status

Land transformation Declining Land transformation has continued, especially transformation of natural space Land reclaimed for recreation or land fills in some areas Land unsuitable for human use (mining residue, Constant dolomitic land & radiation) Some land can not be rehabilitated due to contamination High potential agricultural soils have been lost through urban growth Land Agricultural potential Declining Demand for land and other developmental pressures renders agricultural land uses uncompetitive Percentage lost high potential agricultural land Declining High potential agricultural soils have been lost through urban growth Soil loss experienced on degraded lands Soil Loss Constant Localised problems but not a general threat Ambient sulphur dioxide concentrations Constant No noticeable changes in the sulphur dioxide levels Ambient particulate concentrations Increasing Exceedance of standards experienced in Gauteng Ambient nitrogen dioxide concentrations Increasing Areas of traffic congestion are a major concern Still use of multiple domestic sources in Gauteng where electricity is used Atmosphere Trends in household energy use per energy type Continued use of an energy mix mostly for lighting Ambient Air Quality (Ozone Concentrations) Major concern in areas that experience traffic congestion Sectoral sources of greenhouse and criterion trace gas emissions Slight increase Landfill sites are of concern as well as vehicle emissions Annual temperature deviation Slight increase Small increase in annual temperatures has been detected

Conclusion 117 Table 11.3: Trends per chapter (continued)

Chapter Indicator Trend Status

Surface water nutrients Varies depending on location Exceeding standards in some river systems due to urban development and agriculture Faecal contamination Varies depending on location Exceeding standards at certain monitoring points only No changes visible from data available. AMD may have further impact on groundwater Ground water nutrients Constant quality Surface water toxicity Varies depending on location Exceeding standards in some river systems due to urban development, AMD and agriculture Demands for water use remain high, and interbasin transfers are necessary to balance Water Surface water use per sector Constant water demands with availability. Increased water stress is likely in the future Ecological state of rivers Declining River health poor in most major rivers Data shows consistently high risks for eutrophication in the major dams measured with Trophic status of dams Declining associated health risks Green drop scores are higher than national averages, but challenges to maintaining Green drop status Improvement infrastructure remains Blue drop status Improvement Blue drop status has had significant improvements and is the best in South Africa Threatened and extinct species per Fewer taxa reported on, increased numbers of near-threatened plant species, more taxonomic group Decline threatened birds and mammals Endemic species per taxonomic group Constant Distribution of invasive alien species New indicator Good clearance of IAPS by Working for Water, but a greater number of problem species noted Officially promulgated reserves lower than project area targets. Dinokeng Game Reserve Biodiversity Extent of conserved areas Constant is being expanded Habitat transformation Declining Land use transformation from 40% (2001) to 60% transformed in 2009 Wetland rehabilitation Improving Increasing programmes and investment in wetland rehabilitation Percentage irreplaceable/CBAs (C-Plan) Constant New and refined C-plan 3 available to assist with decision making on critical areas Protected area expansion targets New indicator

118 Conclusion Table 11. 3: Trends per chapter (continued)

Chapter Indicator Trend Status

Available landfill lifespan Constant Focus on waste minimisation Landfill space Constant Focus on waste minimisation Per capita generation of waste / per household Inaccurate data from which it is difficult to draw trends. Focus has shifted to or municipal generation of waste Uncertain recycling and reuse

Hazardous waste Uncertain Baseline information has been captured, but a trend cannot yet be generated. Waste Information management is a challenge at the local government level Mining waste Improving Many tailings dams have been recycled, AMD remains a challenge Increased number of households have access to waste removal services, but Domestic waste removal Improving possibly not keeping pace with population growth Appears to be a reduction in waste generated, however there have been Health care risk waste Uncertain reports of increased health care risk waste dumping and illegal operation. Lack of waste information remains a challenge Access to services Improving Higher number of households have access to all basic services IDP Commitment to the environment Improving Increasing evidence of IDP commitment to the environment Governance Seems to be a downward trend in the budget allocated to environmental Budget allocation Uncertain functions at a local government level Capacity constraints being experienced at a local government level

Conclusion 119

Acknowledgements 12

Publication of this report would not have been possible without the support and information supplied by many Chapter 5: Land and Chapter 8: Biodiversity people from a number of different organisations. We would like to acknowledge and thank the following people for Agriculture Erich Van Wyk and Lize von Staden, SANBI for access to their support and for providing information and access to Endemic plant data; Lorraine Mills, GDARD: Red/Orange resources. Motlatjo G Makaepea, Gauteng Department of Agriculture plant species list; Leon Lotter, GDARD: Mammal data; Gavin and Rural Development; Jay le Roux, ARC; and Karin Masterson, GDARD: Amphibians and Reptile data; Ian Kleinbooi, Programme for Land and Agrarian Studies (PLAAS) Engelbrecht, GDARD: Invertebrate data; Ian Kotze, Agri- Chapter 4: Social cultural Research Council (ARC): Invasive Alien Plant data; Budu Manaka, GDARD: Provision of reports; Ernita Van Wyk, Tladi Monyane, Aubrey Kekana, Aveshni Ponnusamy , Neels Chapter 6: Atmosphere SANBI: Species list of Gauteng Invader Plants Du Toit and Johan van der Merwe from Gauteng Department For initiating data collection, promoting data exchange and of Economic Development; Tumi Sebusi, Gauteng Depart- Harold J. Annergan, Department of Geography, Environ- providing valuable contacts: ment of Finance mental Management and Energy Studies, University of Tandiwe Nonki, Prof Neil Crouch and Michelle Pfab from Johannesburg; Rina Taviv and Teboho Leku from Gauteng SANBI; Roseline Mathibela, Pieta Compaan, Eleanor Agriculture and Rural Development (GDARD); Xolile Ncipha, McGregor, Lihle Dumalisle and Craig Whittington-Jones from South African Weather Services (SAWS); Vumile Senene, City GDARD; Marc de Fontaine, Randwater: web administrator of Joburg; Juan Mostert, City of Tshwane; Jacob Legadima, for Wetland Portal of SA Is’haaq Akoon and Elsabeth van der Merwe from Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality; Henry Mlotsa, Department of Transport; Musa Zwane, West Rand District Municipality Chapter 9: Waste

Susan Oelofse, CSIR; Mamosa Africa, DEA; Zingisa Smale, Chapter 7: Water GDARD; Virginia Marobe, StatsSA; Teresa John, PIKITUP; Dr Shauna, DEA; Carol Mathonsi, Solid Waste Technologies SA Donald Molapo, Council of Geoscience; Marica Erasmus, (Pty) Ltd Michael Silberbauer and Shouneez Chaka from DWA: Resource Quality Services; Prof Terence McCarthy, School of Geosciences, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg

Acknowledgements 121

Annexures

Annex A: Atmosphere Annex B: Water Annex C: Biodiversity

Figure A: Main types of MRA in Gauteng 124 Surface and Groundwater Quality Guidelines 129 List of priority alien invasive plant species Figure B: Radioactive, non-radioactive and undetermined identified for the Grassland and Savanna MRAs in Gauteng 124 biomes of Gauteng 130

Figure C: Average monthly monitored PM10 concentra- tions at City of Tshwane, DEA Vaal Triangle and Ekurhuleni Metro Municipality 125

Figure D: Average monthly monitored SO2 concentra- tions at City of Tshwane, DEA Vaal Triangle and Ekurhuleni Metro Municipality 126

Figure E: Average monthly monitored NO2 concentrations

at City of Tshwane, DEA Vaal Triangle and NOx at Ekurhuleni Metro Municipality 127

Figure F: Average monthly monitored O3 concentrations at City of Tshwane and Ekurhuleni Metro Municipality 128

Annex Contents 123 Annex A: Atmosphere

Gold Coal Quarries Crusher Badlands Other

Figure A: Main types of MRA in Gauteng (Gauteng Depart- Figure B: Radioactive (red), non-radioactive (green) and undeter- ment of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2011) mined (blue-very few) MRAs in Gauteng, on sun-shaded SRTM topography with the main drainages (blue streams), dams/lakes (blue) and catchment divides (brown). The concentration of radioactive MRAs in the Witwatersrand headwater areas of the Vaal catchment is evident, with some overlap into the Limpopo (Crocodile West) headwaters near Krugersdorp (Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2011)

124 Annex A: Atmosphere City of Tshwane DEA Vaal Triangle 200 180

180 160 160 140 140 120 120 Booysens 100 Diepkloof 3 100 Mamelodi 3 Zamdela Olivienhoutbosch 80 Kliprivier 80 Pretoria West Sebokeng µg/m Rosslyn µg/m 60 Sharpeville 10 60 10 Three Rivers

PM 40 PM 40 20 20

0 0

2008/01/01 2008/03/01 2008/05/01 2008/07/01 2008/09/01 2008/11/01 2009/01/01 2009/03/01 2009/05/01 2009/07/01 2009/09/01 2009/11/01 2010/01/01 2010/03/01 2010/05/01 2010/07/01 2010/09/01 2010/11/01 2011/01/01 2011/03/01 2011/05/01 2011/07/01

2007/03/01 2007/05/01 2007/07/01 2007/09/01 2007/11/01 2008/01/01 2008/03/01 2008/05/01 2008/07/01 2008/09/01 2008/11/01 2009/01/01 2009/03/01 2009/05/01 2009/07/01 2009/09/01 2009/11/01 2010/01/01 2010/03/01 2010/05/01 2010/07/01 2010/09/01 2010/11/01

Ekurhuleni

80

70

60

50

3 Thokoza 40 Germiston Tembisa µg/m 30 Wattville

10 20

PM

10

0

2011/01/01

2011/02/01

2011/03/01

2011/04/01

2011/05/01

2011/06/01

2011/07/01

2011/08/01

Figure C: Average monthly monitored PM10 concentrations at City of Tshwane, DEA Vaal Triangle and Ekurhuleni Metro Municipality (SAAQIS, 2011) Annex A: Atmosphere 125 City of Tshwane DEA Vaal Triangle 80 18

70 16 60 14 Diepkloof 50 Zamdela Booysens 12 Kliprivier 40 Mamelodi Sebokeng

ppb Olivienhoutbosch Sharpeville 2 10 Three Rivers 30 Pretoria West

SO Rosslyn 8 20

ppb 2 6

10 SO 4 0 2

2008/01/01 2008/03/01 2008/05/01 2008/07/01 2008/09/01 2008/11/01 2009/01/01 2009/03/01 2009/05/01 2009/07/01 2009/09/01 2009/11/01 2010/01/01 2010/03/01 2010/05/01 2010/07/01 2010/09/01 2010/11/01 2011/01/01 2011/03/01 2011/05/01 2011/07/01 0

2007/03/01 2007/05/01 2007/07/01 2007/09/01 2007/11/01 2008/01/01 2008/03/01 2008/05/01 2008/07/01 2008/09/01 2008/11/01 2009/01/01 2009/03/01 2009/05/01 2009/07/01 2009/09/01 2009/11/01 2010/01/01 2010/03/01 2010/05/01 2010/07/01 2010/09/01 2010/11/01 Ekurhuleni 80

70

60

50 Bedfordview 40 Germiston Tembisa 30 Wattville

ppb

2

SO 20

10

0

2011/01/01

2011/02/01

2011/03/01

2011/04/01

2011/05/01

2011/06/01

2011/07/01

2011/08/01

Figure D: Average monthly monitored SO2 concentrations at City of Tshwane, DEA Vaal Triangle and Ekurhuleni Metro Municipality (SAAQIS, 2011) 126 Annex A: Atmosphere City of Tshwane DEA Vaal Triangle 80 45

70 40 35 60 30 50 Booysens Diepkloof Mamelodi 25 Zamdela 40 Olivienhoutbosch Kliprivier

ppb

ppb 20

2 Pretoria West 2 Sebokeng 30 Rosslyn Sharpeville

NO

NO 15 Three Rivers 20 10

10 5

0 0

2008/01/01 2008/03/01 2008/05/01 2008/07/01 2008/09/01 2008/11/01 2009/01/01 2009/03/01 2009/05/01 2009/07/01 2009/09/01 2009/11/01 2010/01/01 2010/03/01 2010/05/01 2010/07/01 2010/09/01 2010/11/01 2011/01/01 2011/03/01 2011/05/01 2011/07/01

2007/03/01 2007/05/01 2007/07/01 2007/09/01 2007/11/01 2008/01/01 2008/03/01 2008/05/01 2008/07/01 2008/09/01 2008/11/01 2009/01/01 2009/03/01 2009/05/01 2009/07/01 2009/09/01 2009/11/01 2010/01/01 2010/03/01 2010/05/01 2010/07/01 2010/09/01 2010/11/01

Ekurhuleni

70

60

50

40 Thokoza Germiston 30 Tembisa Wattville

ppb x 20

NO 10

0

2011/01/01

2011/02/01

2011/03/01

2011/04/01

2011/05/01

2011/06/01

2011/07/01

2011/08/01

Figure E: Average monthly monitored NO2 concentrations at City of Tshwane, DEA Vaal Triangle and NOx at Ekurhuleni Metro Municipality (SAAQIS, 2011) Annex A: Atmosphere 127 City of Tshwane Ekurhuleni

90 35

80 30 70 25 60

50 Booysens 20 Mamelodi Bedfordview

ppb Olivienhoutbosch 40 ppb 15

3 Pretoria West 3

O 30 Rosslyn O 10 20 5 10

0 0

2008/01/01 2008/03/01 2008/05/01 2008/07/01 2008/09/01 2008/11/01 2009/01/01 2009/03/01 2009/05/01 2009/07/01 2009/09/01 2009/11/01 2010/01/01 2010/03/01 2010/05/01 2010/07/01 2010/09/01 2010/11/01 2011/01/01 2011/03/01 2011/05/01 2011/07/01

2011/01/01

2011/02/01

2011/03/01

2011/04/01

2011/05/01

2011/06/01

2011/07/01

2011/08/01

Figure F: Average monthly monitored O3 concentrations at City of Tshwane and Ekurhuleni Metro Municipality (SAAQIS, 2011) 128 Annex A: Atmosphere Annex B: Water Surface and Groundwater Quality Guidelines

Surface Water Quality Guidelines

Very Good Good Fair Poor Not acceptable References

Sulphate (mg/ℓ) 0-200 200-400 400-600 600-1 000 >1 000 Statistics South Africa, 2005 TDS* (mg/ℓ) 0-450 450-1 000 1 000-2 400 2 400-3 400 >3 400 Statistics South Africa, 2005 Nitrate / Nitrite as N (mg/ℓ) 0-6.0 6.0-10.0 10.0-20.0 20.0-40.0 >40.0 Statistics South Africa, 2005 Phosphate (mg/ℓ) 0-5 5-25 25-150 150-250 >250 DWAF, 19962 Faecal Coliforms (counts/100 mℓ) 0 0-5 5-10 10-20 >20 DWAF, 19961 Electrical Conductivity (mS/m) 0-70 70-150 150-200 200-300 >300 DWAF, 19961

* TDS: Total Dissolved Solids projected as Dissolved Major Salts in this report

Groundwater Quality Guidelines

Very Good Good Fair Poor Not acceptable References

Sulphate (mg/ℓ) 0-200 200-400 400-600 600-1 000 >1 000 Statistics South Africa, 2005 TDS* (mg/ℓ) <2 000 2 000-3 000 >3 000 DEAT, 2008 Nitrate / Nitrite as N (mg/ℓ) 0-6.0 6.0-10.0 10.0-20.0 20.0-40.0 >40.0 Statistics South Africa, 2005

* TDS: Total Dissolved Solids projected as Dissolved Major Salts in this report

Annex B: Water 129 Annex C: Biodiversity List of priority alien invasive plant species identified for the Grassland and Savanna biomes of Gauteng (Forsyth, et al., 2011)

Grassland species Savanna species Acacia mearnsii (Black wattle) Acacia mearnsii (Black wattle) Acacia dealbata (Silver wattle) Arundo donax (Giant reed) Acacia decurrens (Green wattle) Caesalpinia decapetala (Mauritius thorn) Argemone mexicana (Mexican poppy) Campuloclinium macrocephalum (Pom-pom weed) Arundo donax (Giant reed) Cereus jamacaru (Queen of the night) Campuloclinium macrocephalum (Pom-pom weed) Cestrum laevigatum (Inkberry) Cardiospermum grandiflorum (Balloon vine) Chromolaena odorata (Triffid weed) Chromolaena odorata (Triffid weed) Eucalyptus camadulensis (Red river Gum) Cotoneaster franchetii (Orange cotoneasters) Eucalyptus grandis Cotoneaster pannosus (Silver-leaf cotoneaster) Jacaranda mimosifolia (Jacaranda) Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Red river gum) Lantana camara (Lantana) Eucalyptus cinerea (Florist gum) Melia azedarach (Persian lilac) Ipomoea indica (Morning glory) Parthenium hysterophorus (Parthenium) Macfadyena unguis-cati (Cat’s claw creeper) Pereskia aculeata (Barbados gooseberry) Pinus elliottii (Slash pine) Pinus spp. (Patula) Pinus patula (Patula pine) Populus x canescens (Grey poplar) Populus x canescens (Grey poplar) Populus alba (White poplar) Populus alba (White poplar) Psidium guajava (Guava) Pyracantha angustifolia (Yellow firethorn) Schinus terebinthifolius (Brazilian pepper tree) Ricinus communis (Castor-oil plant) Senna spp. (Peanut butter cassia and others) Robinia pseudoacacia (Black locust) Sesbania punicea (Red Sesbania) Rubus cuneifolius (American bramble) Solanum mauritianum (Bugweed) Salix babylonica (Weeping willow) Tecoma stans (Yellow bells) Salix fragilis (Crack willow) Sesbania punicea (Red Sesbania) Solanum mauritianum (Bugweed) Solanum seaforthianum (Potato creeper) Solanum sisymbriifolium (Wild tomato) Xanthium spinosum (Boetebos) 130 Annex C: Biodiversity

Department of Agriculture and Rural Development Diamond Corner 68 Eloff St. (cnr Market St.) P.O. Box 8769 Johannesburg 2000 Tel: 011 355 1900 Fax: 011 355 1000 Email: [email protected] Website: www.gdard.gpg.za