This guide, written by researchers engaged in the ESPON 2020 applied research project on Sustainable Urbanisation A GUIDE TO and land‑use Practices in European Regions (SUPER), shows why and how policymakers and decision-makers, at various levels across Europe, can proactively contribute S U S TA I N A B L E to a more equal, balanced, and sustainable territorial development. By way of inspiration, the guide provides URBANISATION ample examples of policies, strategies and projects that have been implemented throughout Europe and their AND LAND-USE effects. From these experiences, it identifies various success factors to bear in mind when crafting interventions. Finally, it explains that there is no ‘one size fits all’ solution to sustainable land use; each territory requires its own policy package with territorial sensitivities factored in.

This guide meets a clear and urgent need. As the COVID‑19 pandemic has brought to the surface, we only have one planet to live on and our direct environment matters. Making careful and prudent decisions on land use is not only a political and technocratic decision but also a societal one. Even though there is no ‘right instrument’ or ‘right target’ for all European regions, there are ‘right attitudes’ that can be adopted to promote sustainability. SUPER Sustainable Urbanisation and land‑use Practices in European Regions

EUROPEAN UNION ESPON SUPER – Sustainable Urbanisation and land-use Practices in European Regions.

A GUIDE TO SUSTAINABLE URBANISATION AND LAND-USE

ISBN: 978-29-197-9540-6 Joaquín Farinós-Dasí, Albert Llausàs, Carmen This guide has been developed within the Zornoza-Gallego (University of Valencia, Spain) framework of the ESPON 2020 Cooperation Dorota Celinska-Janowicz, Adam Ploszaj, Katarzyna Programme, partly financed by the European Wojnar, University of Warsaw, Centre for European Regional Development Fund. Regional and Local Studies (EUROREG, Poland) The ESPON EGTC is the Single Beneficiary of the Mailin Gaupp-Berghausen, Erich Dallhammer, ESPON 2020 Cooperation Programme. The Single Bernd Schuh, Ursula Mollay, Roland Gaugitsch, Operation within the programme is implemented Liudmila Slivinskaya (ÖIR GmbH – Austrian Institute by the ESPON EGTC and co-financed by the for Regional Studies, Austria) European Regional Development Fund, the EU Tristan Claus (University of Ghent, Belgium) Member States and the Partner States, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland. This delivery does not necessarily reflect the Advisory Group opinion of the members of the ESPON 2020 Project Support Team: Isabelle Loris, Flanders Monitoring Committee. The information contained Department of Environment (Belgium), Tamara herein does not commit the ESPON EGTC and Slobodova, Ministry of Transport and Construction the countries participating in the ESPON 2020 (Slovakia), Harald Noreik, Ministry of Local Cooperation Programme. Government and Modernisation, (Norway), Frederick-Christoph Richters, Ministry of Energy Authors and Spatial Planning (Luxembourg) Giancarlo Cotella (Politecnico di Torino, Italy), ESPON EGTC: Marjan van Herwijnen (project David Evers (PBL – Netherlands Environmental expert), György Alfoldy (financial expert) Assessment Agency, Netherlands), Umberto Janin Rivolin (Politecnico di Torino, Italy), Alys Solly, Layout and graphic design (Politecnico di Torino, Italy) and Erblin Berisha, Textcetera, The Hague (Netherlands) (Politecnico di Torino, Italy) Kersten Nabielek, PBL – Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (Netherlands) On the basis of contributions from David Evers, Maarten van Schie, Lia van den Broek, Information on ESPON and its projects can be found Kersten Nabielek, Jan Ritsema van Eck, Frank van on www.espon.eu. Rijn, Ries van der Wouden (PBL – Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, Netherlands) The web site provides the possibility to download Volker Schmidt-Seiwert, Anna Hellings, Regine and examine the most recent documents produced Binot, Lukas Kiel, supported by Jonathan Terschanski by finalised and ongoing ESPON projects. (BBSR – Federal Institute for Research on Building, © ESPON, 2020 Urban Affairs and Spatial Development, Germany) Giancarlo Cotella, Umberto Janin Rivolin, Printing, reproduction or quotation is authorised Alys Solly, Erblin Berisha, Donato Casavola provided the source is acknowledged and a copy is (Politecnico di Torino, Italy) forwarded to the ESPON EGTC in Luxembourg. Ivana Katurić, Mario Gregar, Sven Simov, Katarina Pavlek, Ranko Lipovac (URBANEX, Croatia) Contact: [email protected] Table of Contents

1 A guide to sustainable urbanisation and land use 1 1.1 Who is this guide for? 2 1.2 Why is this guide needed? 3 1.3 How can you use this guide? 6

2 Sustainable urbanisation and land use in a nutshell 9 2.1 Terminology, philosophy, and approach 10 2.2 Looking back: urbanisation and land‑use development in Europe 17 2.3 Looking forward: scenarios for 2050 23 2.4 Evaluating the sustainability of land‑use developments 25

3 How to promote sustainable urbanisation 33 3.1 Recommendations for regional and local stakeholders 36 3.2 Recommendations for the national level 65 3.3 Recommendations for EU institutions 78

4 Success factors of interventions 85 4.1 Governance factors 86 4.2 Inclusion factors 90 4.3 Design 91 4.4 Soft factors 92 4.5 Implementation 92 4.6 Market factors 92 4.7 Sustainability 93 5 Final message to the reader 95 6 Further readings and references at your fingertips 99 Icons

Policymakers

Decision-makers

Economic sustainability

Ecological sustainability

Social sustainability

Institutional sustainability

Temporal sustainability A guide to sustainable urbanisation 1 and land use

1 1

uides help you do things. You turn to public administrators and officials charged (e.g. urban containment and densification, the same size, it is just being used differently. them when you need to find out how with implementing territorial cohesion policy at polycentric transit-oriented development, or The same phenomenon would sound much G to solve a problem. They are a form of the European Union (EU) level (e.g. European low-density expansion). This guide provides different if one were to proclaim with equal knowledge transfer, written by experts in a way Commission officials) or at national and insight into the pros and cons of different veracity that, every year, a Berlin-sized area that is accessible and helpful to a wide audience. regional levels in the Member States. modes of urbanisation as regards sustainability. is increasing in value and being put to more This guide was written by the researchers Policymakers can become inspired about how It also includes insight into governance productive use. engaged in the ESPON 2020 applied research different land-use interventions (e.g. spatial preconditions for success as well as the different project on Sustainable Urbanisation and Land- plans, programmes, and projects) are drawn up political struggles related to drawing up Be that as it may, land remains a finite Use Practices in European Regions (SUPER).* around Europe and note their relative successes. interventions and how these can be overcome. resource and the way it is used is one of the It aims to help people and institutions engaged This guide provides insight into a wide variety principal drivers of environmental degradation. with land-use management at various levels of instruments that influence land use, some Finally, as spatial development and urbanisation Urbanisation usually involves soil sealing (the across Europe. of which are indirect and may come from are products of a process that extends beyond permanent covering of soil by impermeable surprising sources, like fiscal arrangements public institutions, the information presented in artificial material such as asphalt and concrete), or visions. this guide provides a useful reference for a wider which causes an irreversible loss of ecological 1.1 Who is this guide for? range of civil society stakeholders, private sector functions. As water can neither infiltrate nor This guide also addresses decision-makers, actors, and non-governmental bodies involved evaporate, water runoff increases, sometimes This guide is primarily targeted at two types of most of which are elected officials, such as in land-use development. leading to catastrophic floods. Cities are potential users, and strives to offer information members of municipal and regional councils, increasingly affected by heat waves, because of that can help them in their daily activities. national parliaments, or the EU Parliament. the lack of evaporation in summer. Landscapes However, they could also include represen­ 1.2 Why is this guide are fragmented and habitats become too small First and foremost, its addresses policymakers tatives of bodies with decision-making powers, needed? or too isolated to support certain species. in charge of land-use planning and develop­ such as community representatives in local and In addition, the food production potential of this ment at the local, regional, and national regional development partnerships. This guide An often-cited figure is that ‘land take’ in the EU land is lost forever. The effects of urbanisation administrative levels. It will also be useful for is particularly targeted at decision‑makers in is approximately 1,000 km2 annually, roughly the differ according to the value, quality, and ministerial or departmental positions related surface area of Berlin.1 Even though this may be function of the land. At the same time, the same to territorial development and land-use a conservative estimate, it conjures up an image phenomenon produces economic value and * For a comprehensive overview see: ESPON management. Given their democratic mandate of a European continent slowly disappearing as the quality of life of people by accommodating (2020) SUPER – Sustainable Urbanisation and or high-level appointment, they are in a position Berlin-sized pieces are removed every year, this their needs for housing, shopping, travel land-use Practices in European Regions. to decide in what direction to steer development obviously is not the case. The territory remains and recreation. As spatial planners are fully

3 INFOGRAPHIC 

About 1.17 million hectares of land were converted to urban use in the ESPON space in the How many football fields 2000-2018 period. This equals about 248 football fields per day. Of this, 35% became urban fabric (predominantly residential), 37% industrial (including business parks, shopping per day? Land use change from agriculture or nature to… centres and offices), 17% infrastructure (including airports) and 11% urban green.

Infrastructure 17% pbl.nl

Urban green 11%

Residential Standard football 35% field for UEFA 68 meters Industrial, offices and commercial 105 meters 37%

Source: PBL/ESPON SUPER aware, the use of land usually involves a and fragmented.* This guide seeks to address When using this guide, please bear in mind: trade‑off between various social, economic this by bundling together experiences and • Avoid ‘one size fits all’ solutions; each territory and environmental needs. analyses on sustainable urbanisation and land requires its own policy package with territorial use practices in European regions. sensitivities factored in. This means that each We can seriously question the efficiency and policy recommendation should be assessed sustainability of current practices: according to according to territorial specificities, such as the European Environment Agency, for example, 1.3 How can you use geography and traditions. the total surface area of cities in the EU has this guide? • Avoid stand-alone initiatives when addressing increased by 78% since the mid-1950s, whereas complex issues like sustainable land use. the population has grown by only 33.2 Given that This guide highlights key elements for making Multi‑dimensional, multi-sectoral and the conversion of land to urban use in Europe land-use practices and urbanisation processes multi‑stakeholder approaches are preferable. is the outcome of conscious decisions made by in Europe more sustainable. It begins by • Sustainable land use is a shared responsibility. human beings, it is also something that can be presenting the approach adopted by the SUPER It is not an exclusive administrative domain, affected by conscious human interventions: in project as well as some key findings regarding so the identified solutions should be carefully other words, policies and practices matter. past and future developments (Chapter 2). evaluated and shared with all relevant actors. The guide then draws on the project’s results to The challenge of designing policies to promote propose a set of good practices and warnings sustainable urbanisation and land-use is (Chapter 3). More specifically, these concern present at spatial levels and scales from the the type and instrumentation of interventions local level all the way up to the EU. Indeed, at various levels of scale. The guide then many EU sectoral policies have indirect effects reflects on the main factors for success in on urbanisation that may be adverse in terms the promotion of sustainable urbanisation of sustainability. The Roadmap to a Resource (Chapter 4) and finishes with some final Efficient Europe3 proposed that by 2020, EU thoughts (Chapter 5) and a list of further policies should take into account their impacts readings (Chapter 6). on land use in the EU and globally, with the aim to achieve ‘no net land take’ by 2050. However, As a final remark, the reader should be aware despite the publication of a Soil Thematic that all indications and suggestions of this Strategy4 on best practices to limit soil sealing, guide remain quite general out of necessity. no EU-level policies specifically focus on the As geographical and institutional contexts promotion of sustainable urbanisation and differ greatly across Europe, general principles land use. can be shared, but their application should be filtered in and adapted to each specific As such, (sub)national spatial planning and situation. Readers with a solid understanding of territorial governance can play an important the nature of the territory where they operate, role in achieving a more sustainable use of land its administrative structure as well as their by assessing the quality and characteristics of main responsibilities, can profit the most different locations with respect to competing from this guide. objectives and interests. This already occurs throughout Europe through a variety of interventions that, to varying degrees of success, steer, or attempt to steer, urbanisation and land-use. Given that these interventions take on various guises in different national contexts, serve different substantive goals and * For a comprehensive overview see: ESPON are implemented at various levels of scale, the (2018), ESPON COMPASS – Comparative Analysis of Territorial Governance and Spatial policy context remains highly heterogeneous Planning Systems in Europe. Final Report. ESPON EGTC: Luxembourg.

7 Sustainable urbanisation and land use 2 in a nutshell

9 ‘carrying capacity’ that tells us whether resource FIGURE 1 depletion exceeds the recovery rate.5 There Understanding sustainability as a thematic is a broad consensus that current levels of and temporal balance consumption, particularly in affluent nations, 2 exceed sustainable levels. One could argue INSTITUTIONAL BALANCE that land, as a finite resource, can never be sustainably ‘consumed’ by definition – something implicitly suggested by the term ‘land take’ – but we reject this view. We note that land does not disappear, but changes use, and this change can be assessed in terms of sustainability. Aside from de-urbanisation (reversion to natural use), some forms of PEOPLE urbanisation are surely more sustainable (equity) than others. Indeed, some urban uses PLANET (e.g. parks) may even be more sustainable than (ecology) he purpose of this section is to provide and assessed according to their sustainability. agriculture (e.g. intensive livestock farming). readers with a solid basis to fully This exercise reveals that there are a number of A final consideration with respect to temporal T understand the experiences, lessons trade-offs to consider, underlining the fact that sustainability is the durability of policies over and recommendations laid out later in this policy decisions on urbanisation and land use time (e.g. stability of funding, vulnerability to handbook. are inherently political rather than technical. political/economic cycles): in other words, to PROFIT effectively steer long-term processes such as (economy) The first part introduces the basic philosophy urbanisation, measures should themselves have and approach of the SUPER project. It contains 2.1 Terminology, a degree of longevity. our conceptualisation and operationalisation philosophy, and of the term sustainability and explains why we Another common conceptualisation of avoid using normative or pejorative language approach sustainability usually regards a thematic such as ‘land take’ and ‘urban sprawl’ when balance between three dimensions, commonly describing urban development. It also presents The title – Sustainable Urbanisation and Land- referred to as the ‘three Es’ (economy, ecology, TEMPORAL BALANCE the causal model for land-use change adopted use Practices in European Regions – reflects equity) or the ‘three Ps’ (people, planet, by the project. The second part presents state- both our philosophy and terminology. This will profit). Sustainable development, in this view, of-the-art evidence on pan-European land- be explained in more detail below. advances one or more of these dimensions use developments in the 2000-2018 period. without sacrificing the other.6 There is a Drawing on several data sources, relationships growing consensus that urban areas hold the FIVE DIMENSIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY between different land uses and key indicators Sustainability key to sustainability because cities are where like population will be illustrated and explained. major environmental, social and ecological Our analysis suggests that, in general, the Sustainability is an obviously contested and issues converge and where smart interventions Economic sustainability conversion of land to urban use has outstripped normative term. Rather than replacing it with can best be formulated to deal with them.7 need, indicating a decline in land-use efficiency. something more neutral, we have opted to Urban planning and design usually try to It also reveals important territorial variation. be clear about our interpretation. We define achieve advances in all three dimensions of Ecological sustainability The last section demonstrates the complexity sustainability by considering two components: sustainability simultaneously. of assessing the sustainability of urban form temporal and thematic balance (Figure 1). The Social sustainability and development by means of scenarios. most widespread definition of sustainability These explore three archetypical urbanisation regards the temporal balance, that is the Urbanisation trajectories – compact, polycentric, and diffuse ability for us to ‘sustain’ the quality of life Institutional sustainability – and present a final image of Europe in 2050 on our planet, which ties in with notions As stated, we emphatically employ the term using the land-use allocation model LUISETTA. of generational justice. Various measures ‘urbanisation’ above ‘land take’ or ‘sprawl’ These possible futures are then compared of temporal sustainability exist, such as of because we feel it to be a more neutral way Temporal sustainability

11 Urban form is usually the product of historical evolution, but it can also be the outcome INFOGRAPHIC  of policy. Compact urbanisation, for instance, is often the goal of containment policies which attempt to direct new development inwards, through regeneration, infill, or Three main types redevelopment. Polycentric urbanisation is often pursued by spatial planning policies such as garden cities or transit-oriented development. Diffuse urban form is often the result of policies stimulating private car use (e.g. road infrastructure provision) and of urbanisation homeownership. The three types of urbanisation perform differently in relation to sustainability both as a whole as well as with respect to individual dimensions.

Compact pbl.nl

Polycentric

Diffuse

Urbanisation New urbanisation

Source: PBL/ESPON SUPER to describe the phenomenon of conversion constraints of what they can afford and what FIGURE 2 of land to more urban uses.8 In our view, they can access. It is also the outcome of how The SUPER conceptual framework urbanisation does not merely denote the stakeholders such as developers anticipate and movement of population to cities or the react to these decisions. To understand this expansion of the built-up area, but all physical dynamic better, a conceptual framework was urban developments, be it homes, roads, designed that illustrates the main cause-effect construction sites, playgrounds, airports or relationships governing urbanisation and land- business parks. Many variations of urbanisation use change. See Figure 2. can be distinguished in Europe, but in general, we wish to distinguish between three main Regarding the left side of the figure, many Sustainability Urbanisation Practices and Outcomes in types: compact, polycentric, and diffuse studies, particularly quantitative data-driven Assessment of and land use European (see Infographic 2). Development within a research, attempt to explain urbanisation drivers Regions particular region can therefore be evaluated in patterns (usually using the term sprawl) on the the extent to which it adheres to these forms. basis of key drivers like demography, economic Given the diversity of Europe and the increased development and society/technology (especially importance of taking a place-based approach, car ownership).11 Other scholarship points we feel our conceptualisation of urbanisation is to countervailing forces that determine the more consistent with and amenable to territorial shape, intensity and direction of urbanisation DEMAND QUANTITATIVE governance and spatial planning traditions. and land‑use change. Physical barriers (e.g. mountains, water bodies) is an obvious Urban form is usually the product of historical structuring element. Policy is another: the evolution, but it can also be the outcome of designation of a site as a floodplain, natural policy.9 Compact urbanisation, for instance, is habitat or industrial zone powerfully affects the often the goal of containment policies which prospects for future development. LAND USE CHANGES attempt to direct new development inwards, INSTITUTIONAL / WITH IMPACT ON through regeneration, infill, or redevelopment. Regarding the middle of the figure, the crucial TERRITORIAL ECONOMY, SOCIETY CONTEXT Polycentric urbanisation is often pursued by decision to covert a site from a non-urban use AND ENVIRONMENT spatial planning policies such as garden cities to an urban use is governed by the payoffs and or transit-oriented development. Diffuse urban interests of the various actors involved, which form is often the result of policies stimulating over time, can be described as development private car use (e.g. road infrastructure practices. Various drivers at the macro level, provision) and homeownership. The three including institutional and policy drivers, urbanisation types perform differently in create (dis)incentives at the micro level to SUPPLY QUALITATIVE relation to sustainability both as a whole as create a ‘local regulatory regime’ or ‘rules of ‘BLACK BOX’ well as with respect to individual dimensions.10 the development game’.12 Key agents with OF LOCAL This will be illustrated at the end of this chapter decision‑making authority, those with legal PRACTICES when discussing the results of scenarios based rights or economic or political clout then on the three urbanisation types. interact to produce a decision on land use.

To the right, the physical outcome of land-use Conceptual framework decisions is readily measurable thanks to the availability of high-resolution data based on The goal of SUPER is not merely to measure satellite imagery. Using the Corine land cover urbanisation in Europe, but also explain it. dataset, we can ‘see’ the changing landscape of Urbanisation is the outcome of countless Europe over the past 18 years with a reasonable collective and individual decisions made level of accuracy. The next section turns to this, by humans every day about where and how presenting our findings on how land use in they want to live, work and play within the Europe has evolved.

15 FIGURE 3 2.2 Looking back: To what degree does this urbanisation meet Land converted to urban use in the 2000-2018 period urbanisation and a measurable demand? Ideally, to answer this question, we would consider population 2018 land‑use development development a suitable indicator for the Corine in Europe database’s indicator ‘urban fabric’ (mainly 2000 residential) and GDP or job growth for industrial Urban fabric: The SUPER project performed an analysis of land covers. However, considering that many 263.744 ha land-use change over the 2000-2018 period work areas exist within the urban fabric, this is based on the Corine Land Cover data and not possible. Therefore, population data was supplemented with other sources. This section measured in relation to all urban use areas, provides a short recap of a vast analysis which including commercial areas, infrastructure includes all ESPON countries. and parks. This analysis lends credence to the Arable land: allegation that the production of urban use 572.662 ha In the 2000-2018 period, a little under areas (land take) is exceeding the assumed 2.87 million hectares of land changed from need (population growth) in Europe in the one main land-use category to another, or 2000-2018 period (Figure 4). Areas experiencing about 0.6% of the surface area of ESPON depopulation still usually show increases space. Almost half of this (1.26 million ha or in urban use areas. Depending on one’s Construction: 44%) concerned a conversion to urban land. inclination, this can be taken as an indication 437.164 ha Figure 3 and Infographic 3 show the origin of ‘urban sprawl’ or unwarranted ‘land take’. and destination of this land-use conversion, According to this analysis, the main areas revealing that a significant portion is in a where population exceeded urbanisation were transitory state (construction sites). Most of this Switzerland, Romania, Bulgaria and Belgium. urbanisation came at the expense of agricultural land (78%); but a few regions in Austria and the Given that Corine can overlook small-scale UK (Scotland) saw most new urban land coming development, these cases will need to from natural areas. Only in Romania (-0.8%) be evaluated with more scrutiny in order Grassland and Bulgaria (-0.1%) did the share of urban to ascertain whether this is a result of and other land decrease as a whole, mostly in non-built compact high-density urban development agricultural areas: uses such as construction sites or dump sites. (e.g. re-urbanisation) or extremely scattered Industrial or 405.424 ha In total, 8.6 times more land was converted to development rendered invisible by the commercial units: urban/artificial use than vice versa. limitations of the dataset. This not insignificant 319.971 ha data issue is brought clearly into view in Figure 5 Urbanisation did not happen equally in all which shows the data for the city of Liège. In countries and periods. Far less land was this figure, the light red areas are ‘urban areas’ converted to a new use in the years following in the Corine database, whereas the buildings the financial and economic crisis, especially in (drawn from the Global Urban Footprint Spain and Ireland (where the crisis on urban dataset) are in black. The ribbon development Infrastructure Terrestrial nature: 96.840 ha development was acute). On the other hand, to the east of the city could easily continue 208.082 ha urbanisation in Poland almost tripled in the along the same roads in the future without years following EU accession. Between 2000 being noticed by Corine. When combined with and 2018 nearly 20% of all Europe’s urbanisation population data, this could easily result in an occurred in Spain, followed by France with 15%. erroneous finding that urbanisation is highly Urban green: Wetland and In the last period from 2012 to 2018, the UK efficient and sustainable because it makes use 82.808 ha Waterbodies: took the lead; over one fifth of all changes were of existing built-up areas. In fact, homes are 14.359 ha registered here, followed by France with again still being built, just not registered. Rather than Source: BBSR/ESPON SUPER 15% and Poland with approximately 13%. urban containment, diffusion is occurring

17 This graphic shows the land use change in the 2000-2018 period for selected INFOGRAPHIC  countries. The charts on the left hand side show the size and distribution of new functions of the urbanised areas. The charts on the right hand side show the Change to urban uses per country former functions of the areas that have been urbanised.

Change from non urban use to: Change to urban use from:

2000 -2006 2006 -2012 2012 -2018 Total 2000 -2006 2006 -2012 2012 -2018 3060 ha 3090 ha 3100 ha 9450 ha

Belgium Belgium

48960 ha 30670 ha 22140 ha 101770 ha

Germany Germany

126960 ha 94760 ha 10500 ha 232240 ha

Spain Spain

,

75760 ha 77990 ha 40460 ha 194210 ha

France France

18570 ha 2200 ha 2320 ha 23080 ha

Ireland Ireland

35460 ha 22400 ha 7730 ha 65590 ha

Netherlands Netherlands

14250 ha 38390 ha 34830 ha 87470 ha

Poland Poland

Change to Urban use from 17870 ha 14800 ha 53720 ha 86400 ha Change from non urban use to: Terrestrial nature Urban fabric Arable land Urban - Industrial Permanent crops, pastures and United Construction sites United other agricultural areas Kingdom Urban infrastructure Kingdom Wetland and water bodies Urban green Mineral extraction and dumpsites

Source: BBSR/ESPON SUPER TABLE 1 Sustainability of different types of urbanisation Compact Polycentric Diffuse Economic sustainability GDP, wealth +/–* ++ + Public finance + + + – Jobs + + ++ +/ – Accessibility +/– ++ +/– Business areas ++ ++ +/– Housing demand / new construction – + + Transportation costs +/– + – – Energy consumption + + – – Ecological sustainability Reducing mobility (by car) + + + + – – Reducing pollution, including CO2 + + + – – Green urban areas – + –/+ Biodiversity +/– +/– –– Land consumption + + – – Natural hazards – risk and vulnerability – + +/– Climate change adaptation/mitigation +/– + +/– Consumption of resources +/– + – Space for future renewable energy +/– +/– +/– Space for future water retention + + + Space for future circular economy + + – Social sustainability Health +/– +/– +/– Affordable housing +/– +/– + + Equity/inclusion +/– + – – Public and recreational space +/– + +/– Variety (high–rise, suburban, etc) + + + Mixed–use areas + ++ – Satisfaction with home environment +/– + +

* For the sake of readability, findings are presented in a synthetic way, omitting the references and averaging out the weights for each indicator (+/– usually means conflicting findings between studies).

21 FIGURE 4 FIGURE 5 Development of urban use areas in relation to population development 2000–2018 Urbanisation versus buildings in Liège and environs in 2012

Legend Global Urban Footprint (2012)

Corine Land Cover 2012 Malta Liechtenstein Urban - Urban fabric Ratio of percentage change Urban - Industrial/commercial of urban use area and population Urban - Infrastructure

change 2000–2018 Canarias (ES) Guadeloupe (FR) with increase of urban use area by declining population up to below –1.0 –1.0 up to below –0.5 Guyane (FR) Martinique (FR) –0.5 up to below 0.0

with increase of population higher

than increase o urban use area Mayotte (FR) Reunion (FR) 0.0 up to below 0.25 0.25 up to below 0.5 0.5 up to below 0.75 0.75 up to below 1.0 Acores (PT) Madeira (PT) with increase of urban use area higher than increase of population 1.0 up to below 1.25 1.25 up to below 1.5 1.5 up to below 1.75 1.75 and more

no data 2.3 Looking forward: scenarios for 2050

© ESPON, 2020 500 km The three main urban types identified in the The compact scenario posits that starting

Regional level: NUTS 3 (2016) SUPER project provided the inspiration for in 2020, a prudent policy of urban contain­ Source: ESPON SUPER, 2020 Origin of data: Corine Landcover 2019 the development of scenarios. These were ment is promoted to avoid the wasteful, UMS RIATE for administrative boundaries visualised using the LUISETTA land-use haphazard urbanisation which had resulted allocation 13model designed by the EU’s Joint in the destruction of natural resources and Research Centre. In each scenario, one urban undermined of the vitality of cities. To achieve type is taken as a model for development this, a selection was made from policies in the 2020‑2050 period. Assuming that that had proved successful in the past plus environmental factors remain constant some innovations. The result was that new across scenarios (e.g. demographic and construction occurred near large cities and 30% macroeconomic development, technology of the new living and working space was created and climate change), it is societal attitudes within the existing urban fabric. By 2050, all new that account for the particular trajectory of urbanisation was in the form of redevelopment, urbanisation. regeneration or infill.

23 By 2050, the decades of sustained policy living in these clusters close proximity to the area has become even more amorphous and the dimensions of sustainability, which was further decisions on urbanisation and land-use could surrounding rural area, while at the same time Randstad exhibits ribbon development, which is elaborated using a number of salient indicators. be read in the physical landscape. Green providing access to urban amenities via the rail uncharacteristic for the Netherlands. Not only For each indicator, the evidence was assessed areas near large cities were sacrificed for line. In the case of Brussels-Antwerp and of agricultural land is consumed: in the Bologna on a five-point scale as to whether this showed a urban development, while those further afield the Randstad region, it accentuated the already and Ravenna region as well as in Stockholm, positive or negative relationship. In some cases, remained untouched. Some large polycentric polycentric urban structure but sometimes hills and protected natural areas progressively it was found that the literature was inconclusive, regions such as the Randstad and Ruhrgebiet resulted in towns growing into each other. become endangered by development pressures contradictory or – perhaps more interesting – coalesced, whereas the scattered suburban Similar tendencies were apparent in the case (see Infographic 6). revealed internal tensions. For example, development around cities like Milan and of the Bologna-Ravenna region, the Constantia compact development may reduce pollution Warsaw had filled in. In the area between region in Romania and to some extent, overall, but increase the exposure of humans to Bologna and Ravenna in Italy, development only Stockholm (which already had polycentricity as a 2.4 Evaluating the this pollution. Another complication is territorial occurred around a few large cities. The same long-term planning strategy) (see Infographic 5). sustainability of diversity: the results of certain studies could is true for Stockholm, where the main centre be the outcome of local characteristics. Given attracted most urbanisation. This tendency was The diffuse scenario posits that, starting land‑use developments this variation and divergence, we have not less evident in Constantia (Romania) due to the in 2020, a bold policy of urban diffusion scored the scenarios on their ‘net’ sustainability. low development pressure overall. Within cities, is embarked upon to allow and encourage The outcome of our analysis is presented unbuilt spaces became scarcer and population Europeans to enjoy the pleasures of countryside The three scenarios are not intended as in Table 1. The SUPER project contains an densities higher as buildings increased in height living. It was felt that citizens should have more predictions nor as a scientifically valid ex-ante elaborated version of this table including and as apartments were divided into smaller control over where and how they wanted to assessment of policy choices. Instead, they specific references. units (see Infographic 4). live. Why should they be forced by government offer a simple way to reflect on the complexity bureaucrats to live in crowded cities when and diversity of Europe and on the various In conclusion, the scenarios and the assessment The polycentric scenario posits that, starting there was ample space outside? To achieve this trade-offs inherent in land-use decisions. They framework provide a way for decision-makers in 2020, a policy of urban clustering is libertarian ideal, planning bureaucracies were are also intended to drive home the fact that and policymakers to talk about urbanisation and promoted throughout Europe to avoid both dismantled and land-use decisions simplified. the direction urbanisation takes is the result land-use decisions. Which form of urbanisation the disadvantages of haphazard urbanisation, Self-empowerment was further stimulated by of collective action, and therefore can be seems most advantageous with respect to which had resulted in the destruction of natural generous fiscal arrangements for homebuilding, influenced by concerted efforts. In short, the existing policy objectives in our area? Which resources and undermined of the vitality of private transport and energy independence. scenarios do not need to be likely or realistic, indicators do we feel are most important? cities, and urban containment which would The result was that mostly new construction but plausible enough to create a dialogue on the Which trade-offs are politically acceptable? Only create big-city problems. A careful selection occurred along existing roadways in low advantages and disadvantages of policy choices. once these matters have been brought into the was made from sustainable urban development densities – much of the development being open and agreement reached about a course policies that had proved successful in the detached family homes or second homes. The sustainability outcomes of the scenarios of action can we turn to the next question: how past plus some innovations. The result was By 2050, low-density urban functions had were not based on fantasy alone. They do we move forward? That is the subject of the that about 20% of new construction occurred displaced agriculture in high-growth regions. were derived from an extensive review of remainder of this guide. in the existing urban fabric and/or near rail academic sources on North America and stations. By 2050, public transportation and Up to 2050, urbanisation largely occurred Europe, the majority drawn from planning and urban development were increasingly built in piecemeal: first areas near existing urban areas environmental disciplines.* More specifically, conjunction, resulting in more incentives to were built up, and gradually development sources that matched the three urbanisation increase densities. radiated outwards into more rural and natural forms were cross-tabulated with the three areas. By 2050, these areas had absorbed a By 2050, the decades of sustained policy significant portion of the urban population, decisions on urbanisation and land-use could resulting in an absolute decline within cities, * Although urban form differs between the two be read in the physical landscape. Some green heralding the beginning of a post-urban era. continents, the richness of the literature on urban areas near large cities had been sacrificed for Meanwhile, the countryside surrounding containment and transit-oriented development urban development if they were in the vicinity urban areas assumed first exurban, and then in North America proved helpful in assessing of rail transit, but others remained largely increasingly suburban characteristics, until they the different aspects of sustainability. Moreover, most findings were generic enough to hold in intact. Cities started to radiate out in a linear met the next town. This is visible throughout both contexts (e.g. walkability affecting obesity or pattern like a string of beads. This allowed those the European territory. The Brussels-Antwerp containment home prices).

25 Economic INFOGRAPHIC  Real-estate values increased and urban economies flourished from the opportunities provided by brownfield redevelopment. The proximity afforded by high densities allowed companies to decrease transport costs, facilitate communication, and Compact scenario achieve high energy efficiency. It also made high-quality transport connections viable, but also concentrated traffic flows, increasing overall congestion. The compact scenario posits that starting in 2020, a prudent policy of urban containment is promoted to avoid the wasteful, haphazard urbanisation which Ecological had resulted in the destruction of natural resources and undermined of the Sparing non-built space gave flexibility with respect to ecological planning outside of vitality of cities. To achieve this, a selection was made from policies that had cities. Urban green areas were sacrificed however, contributing to urban heat island proved successful in the past plus some innovations. The result was that new effects. It also proved increasingly difficult to find space for renewable energy in the construction occurred near large cities and 30% of the new living and working city. Air pollution decreased as a whole, but concentrations were higher as well as space was created within the existing urban fabric. By 2050, all new urbanisation natural hazard vulnerability. was in the form of redevelopment, regeneration or infill. Social Compact development produced rising housing costs and possible pricing-out of lower-income households, but also increased noise and environmental pollution as well as diminished access to green spaces. Health improved due to more walking and cycling. In addition, there was lower social segregation and improved access to local services, jobs and recreational spaces. pbl.nl

Bruxelles-Antwerp region, Belgium Bologna-Ravenna region, Italy Randstad region, Netherlands Constanța region, Romania Stockholm region, Sweden

Sample of the compact development scenario in five regions

Source: PBL/ESPON SUPER INFOGRAPHIC  Economic Subcentres contributed to growth of metropolitan regions and relieved pressure Polycentric scenario from core cities. It did not restrict economic growth and provided open space. There was less walkability and cycling than the compact scenario, offset by good The polycentric scenario posits that, starting in 2020, a policy of urban clustering transit opportunities. is promoted throughout Europe to avoid both the disadvantages of haphazard urbanisation, which had resulted in the destruction of natural resources and Ecological undermined of the vitality of cities, and urban containment which would create Reduced car mobility and associated reduction in air pollution. Less land big-city problems. A careful selection was made from sustainable urban consumption than no policy, but more than compact. Polycentric structure development policies that had proved successful in the past plus some improved resilience to natural hazards. innovations. The result was that about 20% of new construction occurred in the existing urban fabric and/or near rail stations. By 2050, public transportation and Social urban development were increasingly built in conjunction, resulting in more Transport justice increased as did affordable housing stock since these matters incentives to increase densities. were incorporated into spatial planning policies. Without this, housing prices would rise, undermining affordability. Problems of noise pollution if homes are too close to transport infrastructure. pbl.nl

Bruxelles-Antwerp region, Belgium Bologna-Ravenna region, Italy Randstad region, Netherlands Constanța region, Romania Stockholm region, Sweden

Sample of the polycentric development scenario in five regions

Source: PBL/ESPON SUPER Economic INFOGRAPHIC  Market efficiency results in greatest overall wealth creation, especially in the development sector since building on greenfields is usually much cheaper than Diffuse scenario regeneration. Relaxing planning restrictions meant more construction activities, creating job growth in the construction sector, for example. Job availability in diffuse areas was usually low and hard to access. Accordingly, transportation costs are The diffuse scenario posits that, starting in 2020, a bold policy of urban higher and energy efficiency lower than in compact cities. diffusion is embarked upon to allow and encourage Europeans to enjoy the pleasures of countryside living. It was felt that citizens should have more Ecological control over where and how they wanted to live. Why should they be forced by Higher overall air, noise and light pollution. Extensive loss of agricultural land and government bureaucrats to live in crowded cities when there was ample space open space and a negative impact on biodiversity. Larger resource consumption rates outside? To achieve this libertarian ideal, planning bureaucracies were compared to compact cities, but less heat island effect. Also more space for dismantled and land-use decisions simplified. Self-empowerment was further self-supporting communities, and good change adaptation opportunities in hot and stimulated by generous fiscal arrangements for homebuilding, private humid climates due to enhanced ventilation. transport and energy independence. The result was that mostly new construction occurred along existing roadways in low densities – much of the Social development being detached family homes or second homes. By 2050, Low housing prices with respect to value-for-money. Privacy, larger gardens and living low-density urban functions had displaced agriculture in high-growth regions. close to nature reduces stress. Social segregation is more prominent, but diffuse areas can include both low-income and high-income neighbourhoods. Car transport is comfortable and convenient. pbl.nl

Bruxelles-Antwerp region, Belgium Bologna-Ravenna region, Italy Randstad region, Netherlands Constanța region, Romania Stockholm region, Sweden

Sample of the diffuse development scenario in five regions

Source: PBL/ESPON SUPER How to promote sustainable 3 urbanisation

33 3

FIGURE 6 SUPER intervention database

Malta Liechtenstein Type of intervention 1 - Densification 2 - Containment his section constitutes the operative core Canarias (ES) Guadeloupe (FR) of the handbook. It provides guidance 3 - Regeneration T for stakeholders interested in fostering 4 - Governance the sustainable urbanisation of their territories. 5 - Sectoral policies Guyane (FR) Martinique (FR) Building on the SUPER intervention database 6 - Others (see Figure 6), section 3.1 delivers practical advice to stakeholders responsible for territorial Type of instrument development at the regional and local levels. 1 - Legal device (stick) Mayotte (FR) Reunion (FR) The proposed recommendations focus on the 2 - Land use regulation (zone) choices to make in relation to the objectives 3 - Strategy (sermon) to be pursued (e.g. urban containment, Recommendations that concerns more 4 - Programme (carrot) densification, regeneration, governance and directly the activity of decision-makers or Acores (PT) Madeira (PT) sectoral policies) as well as on the actual policymakers are flagged on the side of 5 - Project instruments through which these objectives the page using the following icons: should be more easily pursued (e.g. through ESPON SUPER strategies and vision, rules and regulations, case study country programmes and incentives, projects). Section 3.2 provides guidance to stakeholders active at the national level in Europe. In particular, Recommendations deriving from it explores the potential trade-offs occurring interventions specifically focusing on between different dimensions of sustainable one or more dimension of sustainability urbanisation, and presents examples of (i.e. economic, social, environmental, various instrument types. Finally, section 3.3 institutional and/or temporal) are focuses on recommendations targeting actors flagged on the side of the page using © ESPON, 2020 500 km involved in decision and policymaking at the the following icons: Regional level: divers EU level. It reflects upon the effectiveness and Source: ESPON SUPER, 2019 Origin of data: Intervention database role of various European legislations, funding UMS RIATE for administrative boundaries instruments and strategic documents.

35 3.1 Recommendations of land use and building areas in order to a best practice. In fact, the adoption of legally intervention tries to assess the municipal for regional and local limit urban growth and land consumption. binding instruments and strategies often repercussions on where and how new The maximum surface area of building areas seems to improve the success of these types of inhabitants are settled, the effectiveness of stakeholders in each municipality was derived from the interventions. the intervention seems to vary according to its projected population of the municipality and implementation. Its mixed success is mostly This subsection shows that a wide range of the minimum density of the inhabitants of the Increased coordination and cooperation ascribed to its voluntary nature. possibilities are available for local and regional urban area. However, the intervention also had between stakeholders also seems to improve decision-makers and policymakers to promote negative effects since, in an attempt to plan the effectiveness of densification interventions. In the case of the Romanian Black Sea Littoral sustainable land-use and urbanisation. More more surface area for settlements, planners In particular, the inclusion of private partners case study, instead, historical, cultural and specifically, it acknowledges that the success drove non-residential facilities (for example throughout the various phases of the intervention political contingencies have stimulated of policy objectives and instruments is not sports and recreational areas, business seems to improve the overall efficacy. In Sweden, somehow pro-development approaches homogeneous in relation to the different areas etc.) further away, which undermined for example, the Royal Seaport eco-district project instead of activating sustainable land use types of territories. It then moves to provide integration in land uses. Thus, when trying to is considered a very positive intervention, mechanisms (see Box 1). guidance and practical recommendations for reach long-term sustainable development it which promotes densification processes in actions. Firstly, it addresses regional and local is important that local administrations adopt Stockholm. The project addresses this objective Overall, what emerges is that there is no ‘one- decision-makers, responsible for defining policy tangible short-term measures; otherwise, this because the city has limited space for greenfield size-fits-all-solution’. A factor that might have a objectives, in relation to what direction could could lead to unsustainable development. development and must promote densification positive effect in one region or city, might lead be better pursued in relation to different types measures to be able to accommodate population to negative consequences in another. From of territories. Secondly, it targets policymakers The analysis of the SUPER interventions growth.16 Although not yet completed, the new the analysis of the interventions that support responsible for drafting the instruments to be database shows that densification strategies neighbourhood presents high standards in terms densification it seems that the adoption used to pursue these directions. also encourage diverse typologies of urban of energy efficiency17 and is expected to promote of certain factors generally improves the development (e.g. compact, polycentric), which efficient environmental solutions. The success effectiveness of these types of interventions: might produce positive effects in one case and of the intervention is attributed to the constant • the adoption of a long-term perspective 3.1.1 Which intervention type negative effects in another. For example, the dialogue and negotiation (throughout the (e.g. up-zoning and measures for infill should be used? high urban density expansion15 in Amsterdam different phases of the project) between public development); aims to retain open areas and promote and private actors. • the inclusion and cooperation with private Five main types of interventions have been compact yet attractive urban areas. The five partners, as well as a good balance between identified, on the basis of their aim and scope strategies used to steer densification, can be Knowledge, data and technical capacity is public and private interests; of initiative: densification, regeneration, categorised into two main groups: i) adding another important factor in sustainable urban • the adoption of legally binding instruments containment, governance and sectoral building volumes (the strategies ‘create’, ‘fill’ development. The availability of information and often improves the success of such policies (see Infographic 7). and ‘top-up’); ii) transforming the current urban data should support both decision making and interventions. structure or buildings (the strategy ‘re-uses’ public participation. However, the success of and ‘re-structures’). On the other hand, the many interventions seems to be strongly linked However, certain unsuccessful characteristics Densification general development plan of the City of Stara to discretionary factors during implementation. seem to lead to unsustainable development: Zagora and its adjacent territories (Bulgaria) is an A good example is the Infrastructural cost • if the interventions are not implemented Densification processes aim at increasing intervention, which aims to create a framework calculator, a strategy set up in 2012 by the federal correctly, they might lead to a discrepancy the density of people living in built up areas. for an optimum use of space and a good balance planning authority of Lower Austria to provide between the desired objectives and the The interventions included in this category between public and private interests. The general more informed decisions to their municipalities. actual outcomes; mostly concern up-zoning and measures for development plan adopted a new polycentric This is a free online strategic planning tool that • unstable political will and scarcity of infill development. They usually achieve a high urban model for the future development of the provides support to the municipalities in pre- economic resources; degree of success and are characterised by a city and its surroundings: a macro-structural assessing the financial costs of rezoning and • lack of territorial awareness often due long-term sustainable development perspective. articulation of the territory, with new secondary urban expansion (e.g. municipal infrastructural to a shortage of knowledge, data and For example, the Croatian Spatial Plan of the urban centres, is expected to bring housing and costs and tax revenues), that would come with a technical capability; Primorje-Gorski Kotar County14 sets criteria public services closer to the inhabitants. The certain increase in the population.18 Given that • this might also be due to social norms for determining the size of building areas of targets and functions of the plan, including the diffuse development generally requires more and societal behaviour (in some settlements, effectively regulating population upper limits of the development indicators are infrastructural public investment per capita than contexts citizens show scarce interest density. The plan is viewed as successful since obligatory: the failure to comply with them is compact development, this tool could potentially and engagement in sustainable it promotes a more effective management illegal. For the interviewee it can be considered affect local decision making.19 Although the development issues).

37 INFOGRAPHIC € A scarce multilevel coordination leads Characteristics of to ineffective outcomes. successful interventions Governance

Private actors Stakeholders Binding instruments Long-term vision Multidimensionality Political will

The inclusion and An increased coordina- The adoption of legally The adoption of a Addressing environ- The presence of and involvement of tion and cooperation binding instruments long-term vision mental, economic and support from a strong private actors. between the interested often improves the (e.g. up-zoning and social issues at the same political will. stakeholders seems to success of such measures for infill time. improve the effective- interventions. development). ness of densification Densification interventions.

Knowledge transfer Beyond boundaries Integrated approach Long-term perspective Multidimensionality Limitation of market Political will mechanisms The engagement with a Cooperation and The adoption of a The adoption of a Addressing environ- The presence of and heterogeneous group of coordination that goes holistic and integrated long-term perspective mental, economic and The limitation of market support from a strong experts (transfer of beyond municipal approach also seems to (e.g. green belts, urban social issues at the same mechanisms through political will. ‘expert knowledge’). boundaries seems to improve the successful- growth boundaries). time. the adoption of policies pbl.nl improve the effective- ness of these interven- helps the promotion of a ness of containment tions. more rational land use. Containment interventions.

Private actors Integrated approach Stakeholders Multidimensionality Long-term vision Political will

The inclusion and Successful interventions Cooperation and Addressing environ- The adoption of a The presence of and involvement of private that support regenera- coordination between mental, economic and long-term vision (e.g. support from a strong actors. tion are those that the interested stake- social issues at the enhance the economic, political will. promote a long-term holders also seems to same time. environmental and sustainable develop- improve the effective- social quality of the area ment perspective and ness of these types of and of the local integrated approach. interventions. community). Regeneration

If the interventions are not implemented correctly, they might lead to a discrepancy between the desired objectives and the ...this might also be due to a lack of actual outcomes... political will, technical capability and scarcity of economic resources. Sectoral policies

Source: PBL/ESPON SUPER BOX 1 Regeneration public and private services, housing, leisure, culture and conservation initiatives). Similarly, Densification along the Regeneration processes have the ambition the remediation of the Solec Kujawski brownfield24 to improve unused and problematic sites (Poland), focusing on the areas of a former Black Sea Littoral Area (RO) (sometimes contaminated), for example wood preservation plant close to the city centre, brownfield areas. The aim is to enhance the introduced a successful operation model economic, environmental and social quality of based on a ‘softer approach to reuse’. In fact, Name of the intervention, location and country: the area and of the local community, promoting the adoption of a soft reuse of brownfield Densification in Constanta County Coastal Area long-term sustainable development. Successful sites (e.g. biomass production) can improve (Romania) interventions that support regeneration are the quality of soils and provide services that generally those that envisage the concept enhance a regeneration. In contrast Istanbul’s Territorial level: of ‘reuse’ and of ‘long-term sustainable housing renewal projects25 were criticised for NUTS3; Year: 2014 (since the 1990s) development’. In Austria, for example, the doing quite the opposite, namely creating high- 20 Website link: ‘Gründachstadt Linz’ (roof greening of the City rise housing in peripheral areas without social http://www.primaria-constanta.ro/primarie/ of Linz) is considered a successful intervention infrastructure and transport facilities. It was urbanism/lista-dezbateri-urbanism because it contributed to the transformation further noted that the majority of these kinds of of the city into a post-industrial, green and projects were driven by speculation. sustainable city. In 1984, the city introduced incentives to increase greening in built-up Improved multilevel cooperation between areas to reduce air pollution. The intervention stakeholders seems to strengthen the effective­ was an answer to the dramatic loss of green ness of these types of interventions. In Italy, spaces and decline in quality of life related to the community-led regeneration process in the economic boom of the 1960s and 1970s Casoria (2013-2018) produced very positive and the associated environmental degradation. results for the rehabilitation of abandoned areas Overview of Constanta Seacoast – Romania The policy was based on sound research and and the enhancement of public participation. Source: Federation of Associations for Tourism Promotion of Romania introduced through legally binding development The project was socially oriented in that it plans, financial support, and information implemented a series of small interventions and advertising21. In France, the Reinventing in line with the broader urban strategy. Territorial characteristics of the area: Paris (Réinventer Paris) urban regeneration From the offset, for example, owners of The city of Constanta is a regional centre that contains most of the Romanian population along the project aims to transform underutilised areas key brownfield sites were asked to provide Black Sea coast. Urban development has predominantly occurred along major transport infrastructure of the city, in order to guarantee long-term temporary public paths on their land to connect in the urban periphery. sustainable development. Since the project was future regeneration sites directly with the city launched in 2017, it is still too early to evaluate centre. Another interesting intervention is the Intervention goal and main features the impacts; however, preliminary results are regeneration of parts of the Taht-el-Kale Quarter Intense urban diffusion has taken place which greatly exceeds demographic trends. Land development is considered a symbol of socioeconomic progress rather than a socio-environmental threat. The Spatial promising. In Ireland, the Dublin Docklands in Cyprus, which aimed at the rehabilitation Plan of the Constanta County, as well as other planning instruments and the new Vision of the project is another successful intervention and regeneration of parts of the centre of the Constanta Metropolitan area, are trying to address the negative impacts of uncontrolled urbanisation. promoting sustainable development through City of Nicosia. The initiative worked in synergy the regeneration of brownfield areas22. In with a number of social and cultural projects Main lessons and policy recommendations: Germany, the transformation of vacant areas already implemented in the area, as part of a • Delegating planning tasks does not streamline the process enough nor does it constitute a quick in Berlin was deemed successful since it has wider sustainable integrated urban regeneration reply to challenges and opportunities. promoted the regeneration of areas within strategy. Nevertheless, even though the • Coordination is a prerequisite: between neighbouring territories, sectoral departments and spatial the city that had laid vacant for decades. In initiative aimed to improve the quality of life for planning. Luxembourg, to promote the renewal of a the local population and stimulate economic • If land is understood only as an economic resource, sustainable land use is unlikely. former industrial site, the city launched the activity, the low level of public participation was • When land development is not demand-oriented but based on supply side factors, densification is unlikely to occur by itself. It should be triggered from central administrations. brownfield redevelopment of the Belval and lamented. Another interesting initiative is shown 23 • Culture and tradition matter. For example, if detached family housing and homeownership is a former Esch-Schifflange steelwork site aimed by the vision for the regeneration of a former status symbol, this can drive urban diffusion. at a sustainable integration of existing and sulphur mine in Manziana (the Solfatara), • EU involvement can help promote new spatial planning practices. planned land-uses (e.g. economic activities, located in the outskirts of town. This was carried

41 out in the context of common landownership generally encourage the redevelopment and the countryside to the demolition of an equal cannot be changed’ (art. 9). The GDUP itself, and management through collaborative and densification of urban neighbourhoods. amount of construction elsewhere, essentially however, seems to have had lower success, as inclusive stakeholder participation. For example, green belts and sustainable a transfer of development rights scheme. it promotes a polycentric urban structure that development strategies have been carried out In Austria, the ‘Vision Rheintal’ (Vorarlberg) aims allows for low-density expansion. The plan also The adoption of legally binding instruments and in Germany (e.g. the Grüner Ring in Leipzig), to protect natural resources, promoting a more controls the physical enlargement of the city, strategies often seems to improve the success in Italy (e.g. Corona Verde), in Ireland (e.g. the long-term effective land use management in regulating land use and the occupation of new of regeneration interventions. This is the case Metropolitan Cork Green Belt) and in Sweden the region (e.g. adopting green corridors). Its land. However, substantial inconsistencies of the 2007 zero-growth plan of the municipality (e.g. Stockholm Urban Containment Strategy), in success is partly due to cooperation that goes seem to exist between the plan’s overall goals of Cassinetta di Lugagnano which forbids urban order to reduce and control urban growth. Many beyond municipal boundaries, engagement and some of its measures and implementation expansion in order to keep agricultural land have proved successful. For example, the Corona with a heterogeneous group of experts (thus, tools29 and, overall, the GUDP does not as intact as possible. It does so by facilitating Verde (‘Green Crown’) envisages an ecological promoting the transfer of expert knowledge) seem effective in encouraging sustainable the repurposing of existing buildings and ‘crown’ for the metropolitan area of Torino. The and a holistic approach. Similarly, in Lower forms of growth (e.g. in relation to the loss regenerating industrial areas. It also seems that strategy brings together intersectoral policies Austria, an initiative of 20 communities of green edges). Thus, certain interventions, the most successful interventions are the ones to improve the green spaces in the rural-urban around Mödling together adopted the if not implemented correctly, might lead to a that promote an integrated approach. In Spain, interface, with the mitigation and renaturation Regionaler Leitplan – Bezirk Mödling (Regional discrepancy between the desired objectives and the 22@Barcelona regeneration programme of infrastructural barriers, as well as the Master Plan). The plan was prepared in the actual outcomes. is perceived as a very successful intervention. conservation of the rural heritage26. The Corona collaboration with experts and representatives The respondent to the SUPER questionnaire Verde is considered a positive intervention of local communities and was based on three Another interesting example is the Finger Plan indicated it was consistent and well-integrated since it contributes to reducing urban land straightforward principles: growth yes, but of the City of Copenhagen, whose original with the process of the physical and functional consumption and to increase the quality of the controlled and steered (for urban development), version dates back to the late 1940s. This aims restructuring of the metropolitan area and with rural-urban environment.. On the other hand, protect, use, connect, design (for green and to control unregulated development, reduce the overall framework of urban policies. the Stockholm Urban Containment Strategy open space), and modal split in favour of urban sprawl, and protect the countryside.30 adopted a long term-approach that guarantees sustainable transport modes (for mobility). There are mixed feelings among experts about Certain successful characteristics seem to policy continuity for sustainable urbanisation. One of the factors of the intervention’s success its 2019 revision. One respondent from the promote regeneration types of interventions, It is considered interesting because it included is its coordinative function allowing to act SUPER online survey argued that it is likely to such as: private actors in the public sphere by facilitating across administrative borders 27. reduce the amount of green space in the Greater • the adoption of a long-term vision and promoting stakeholder activism within Copenhagen area. The 2007 local plan of the (e.g. enhance the economic, environmental public policies (see Box 2). The adoption of legally binding instruments City of Santiago de Compostela (Spain) seems and social quality of the area and of the often seems to improve the success of to have produced mixed results as well. The local community); The support of strong political will, as well as containment interventions. The 2014 Tuscany plan aimed to reach a better balance between • the assumption of the concept of reuse and the adoption of long-term visions and strategies, Regional Law on soil consumption (n. 65/2014) the old and new urban development. According of integrated sustainable development; seems to support the implementation requires municipalities to delimit the borders to the interviewee, the plan can be considered • addressing environmental, economic and of containment strategies. Among the of their more densely urbanised areas and successful in terms of managing urban growth, social issues at the same time; containment interventions, the 2014 ‘contour to promote the urbanisation of empty but less so in promoting overall patterns of policy’ strategy applied in the province of Zuid- plots through simplified regulations and sustainable land use. On the contrary, the 2007 On the contrary, a scarcity of stakeholder Holland (Netherlands), for instance, produced incentives. During the five years following the Coastal Director Plan of Catalonia is considered involvement, as well a lack of financial positive outcomes. The strategy introduced entry into force of the Law, non-residential an effective containment intervention that fights mechanisms seems to lead to unsuccessful three categories of protection for rural areas transformations outside urbanised areas the uncontrolled development along the coast, outcomes. and specified three kinds of development that involve new land use are only allowed if under the principles of the Integrated Coastal that may affect them: i) areas of exceptional they receive a favourable opinion from the Zone Management (ICZM).31 Thus, the initiative quality; ii) areas with specific values; iii) rural co-planning conference. Similarly, the 2009 addressed coastal development pressures, Containment areas. This is backed by a general provincial Law for the City of Sofia28, which works together promoting environmental protection to improve urban containment policy, which is not a luxury with the city General Urban Development the overall state of the coast. Containment policies and initiatives aim to considering the pressure on green areas in Plan (GUDP), is considered to have produced limit land development beyond a certain area, Zuid-Holland. One containment measure, called positive outcomes, in particular by stating Other interventions led to more mixed in order to reduce urban sprawl and promote ‘red for green’ is also implemented in various that ‘the designation of existing green plots outcomes, such as the 2013 masterplan a more rational land use (e.g. green belts, forms by other provinces in the Netherlands. or parts thereof in the urbanised territories, ‘Cooperative spatial concept for the core region of urban growth boundaries). These interventions It links planning permission for new building in created according to the development plans Salzburg’ (Austria), that provides a vision of the

43 key development measures for the entire region • the support of strong, stable and effective BOX 2 until 2030 in the areas of housing, economy, political will is needed since the spatial effect transport, landscape (for example, it tries to of containment initiatives usually takes time Stockholm Urban implement measures to stop the consumption to be seen; of land, manage housing development, as well • the engagement with a heterogeneous group Containment Strategy (SE) as environmental pollution). On the other hand, of experts (transfer of ‘expert knowledge’), the land take in small municipalities around the as well as the integration of social needs and capital city Bratislava (Slovakia) seems to have priorities is important. In fact, these kind of Name of the intervention, location and country: led to negative consequences. Even though policies drastically impact the social behaviour Stockholm Urban Containment Strategy (Sweden) local spatial plans should ensure environmental and quality of life of the local population protection and sustainable development, (see the example of Corona Verde); Territorial level: they have led to an uncontrolled development • the establishment of an effective and an LAU2; Year: 2017 (since the 1980s). process (e.g. intensive large-scale and second- efficient normative apparatus (e.g. legally Website link: home development) in the urban fringe of binding instruments) guarantees a certain https://vaxer.stockholm/globalassets/ 32 Bratislava. According to the collected data, this level of success. tema/oversiktplan-ny_light/ development has had negative impacts on the • the limitation of market speculative mech‑ english_stockholm_city_plan.pdf environment, since it is a very sprawl-oriented anisms (i.e. increased land price, expulsion development, which impacts on agriculture and of certain social categories, concentration natural areas. of development benefits, etc.) through the ­adoption of policies helps the promotion of a Therefore, certain containment initiatives may more rational and sustainable land use. turn out to be counterproductive for sustainable land-use. This seems to be the case of the Cork Area Strategic Plan, that provides a vision Governance and strategy for the development of the Cork Public Spaces in new Housing Quarters – Stockholm, Sweden City-Region up to 2020. Despite aiming for Governance related interventions aim at environmental balance, reducing urbanisation improving the ways and mechanisms through of the countryside, landscape protection which governmental stakeholders decide to and stopping the degradation of the Green manage urban areas, for example through cross- Territorial characteristics of the area: Belt around the city, the plan is considered sectoral integration policies, as well as urban Stockholm is seen as a leader in brownfield development and in terms of environmental sustainability. Its scarcely successful. A respondent noted that and regional plans. Despite the relevance of the eco-districts (e.g. dense functional neighbourhoods) are considered a best practice. overexploitation of natural resources still topic, governance interventions seem to have Intervention goal and main features occurred and that the strategy is mainly based produced results that are varied. The urban containment policy in Stockholm is a result of both Swedish planning culture as well as the on a pro-growth approach. Thus, it seems that faithful implementation of regional and local plans and strategies. long-term containment strategies need short- Interventions that promote a long-term term tangible results in order to be effectively sustainable development perspective and Main lessons and policy recommendations: implemented. adopt an integrated approach are generally • Territorial integration contributes to economic and social competitiveness while preserving natural and more effective. In Stockholm, the urban agricultural ecosystems. Overall, certain successful characteristics seem transformations and modalities of integrated • Long term approach and continuity is achieved by making periodic operational adjustments without making major changes at the strategic level. Continuous evaluation helps enable this. to promote containment types of interventions: planning are considered successful cases of • Comprehensive local plans, which adopt a multi-level perspective are a fine example of themunicipality’s • cooperation and coordination matters integrated land use, housing, and transport interpretation of sustainability and how it should be achieved. if it goes beyond municipal boundaries planning. Nevertheless, multi-level collaboration • Coordination and collaboration networks and public-private partnerships can be strengthened by and adopts a functional perspective; in Stockholm’s urban transformations have had introducing legal provisions and mechanisms aiming at reaching consensus between many different in fact, containment interventions to face challenges, as the intervention of the stakeholders. clear legal provisions in this regard help. often involve various municipalities central government, while aiming at favouring • Good participation focuses on implementation. This involves operationalising the plan into tangible and (e.g. metropolitan areas); the integration of local actors, after a decade realistic goals and giving these goals priority in municipal budgets and investment strategies. • A risk of spatial segregation exists when public control is lacking. • Planning tradition (acquis) and its maintenance are key factors for success. It is not only a responsibility for leaders but also teams (of trained civil servants) to find alternatives andsolutions to recurring crises.

45 BOX 3 of success ended up with a disintegration of Certain successful characteristics seem to the established partnership that persists until promote governance types of interventions, Integrated spatial planning now33. In Helsinki, the agreements on land use, such as: housing, and transport (MAL) for the 2016–2019 • long-term sustainable development in the city of Ghent (BE) period are also widely perceived as successful. perspective and integrated approach; there In fact, the intervention promotes a more is a need of integrating public priorities with effective land use management and future private (corporate or individual) interests; Name of the intervention, location and country: sustainable development, as well as cooperation • adaptive multilevel collaboration and Spatial Structure Plan Flanders (Ruimtelijk between the municipalities. governance models: each context is different, Structuurplan Vlaanderen – RSV) (Belgium) as well as the contingencies where the As regards the adoption and implementation of political choices are taken; Territorial level: urban plans, governance interventions seem to • the adoption of cross-sectoral integration LAU1; Year: 1997 have had different impacts in a city or another. policies, as well as urban and regional plans Website link: In particular, multilevel collaboration seems should be accompanied and supported by https://www.vlaanderen.be/publicaties/ to improve the effectiveness of these types of cooperative governance mechanisms capable ruimtelijk-structuurplan-vlaanderen- interventions. In Poland, the 2016 planning law to include different scales and sectoral needs. 2020-2050-samenvatting-visienota- and housing policy of the Warsaw metropolitan ruimtegebruik-en-ruimtebeslag-2020-2050 area is a positive intervention, which has contributed to improving the spatial structure Sectoral policies of both the city and its surrounding area, in the light of long-term sustainable development Sectoral policies refer to transport (e.g., green corridors, protecting green (e.g. transport on demand, cycle paths), areas, reducing sprawl). Similarly, the Tri‑City environment (e.g. air, soil, and water quality), metropolitan area planning (Poland) aims to and rural development (e.g. agriculture, promote a harmonious development of the landscape) policies, and are here taken functional costal area of Gdansk-Gdynia-Sopot, into account in relation to the impact they Residential district – Ghent, Belgium enhancing public transport. The intervention potentially produce on sustainable land- is generally perceived as successful due to use and urbanisation. Overall, a number of Territorial characteristics of the area: the integrated governance structure it set up; interventions show that the adoption of a In Flanders, suburbanisation trends were leading to take up 12 ha of open space every day for housing, however, despite its good potential, some more integrated policy approach leads to a industry, commerce, transport infrastructure, recreation, etc. This was considered unsustainable for the region. time is still needed to fully assess its success. more sustainable development. The Urban In contrast, in the functional area of Poznań Mobility Plan of Barcelona, for instance, aims Intervention goal and main features (Poland) the attempt to promote bottom-up, to reduce motorised transport and promote Flanders’ structure plan sought to break the trend of suburbanisation in the next 20 years. It provides legal integrated metropolitan planning led to the active mobility, introducing ‘the superblock’34, binding framework for provincial and municipal structure plans. approval of the Poznań metropolitan area an intervention that is considered to be very Main lessons and policy recommendations: planning law that, despite identifying the areas successful since it reduced air pollution and • Soft should become hard: Despite a well-defined set of basic principles, planning efforts only became that are important for environmental protection road injuries. In the United Kingdom, the Mini- tangible during the implementation stage. and cultural landscape, providing indications for Holland in Waltham Forest (London) is another • Leadership without coordination and stakeholder collaboration impedes long term implementation. degraded areas that require urgent revitalisation successful intervention that supports urban • When conflicts arise, they produce setbacks, impeding updates on planning instruments and leading, activities, failed to achieve the expected results mobility. Over the last five years, more than 20 in turn, to new legislation changes. in terms of municipal coordination. km of segregated cycle lanes35 have been built • Changing rules and responsibilities too frequently or too radically undermines long-term planning efforts. on the model of Dutch-style infrastructure. • Cooperation between sectors is crucial for both good design and implementation. If each department In a slightly different context, the city of According to the interviewee, the intervention pushes their own agenda without regard for others, this would make the structure plan a cluttered pile of Ghent’s integrated spatial plan shows that has raised public awareness and promoted individual programmes lacking coherence. • Compensation schemes may deserve consideration but are not always applicable as some values cannot while flexibilisation and de-regulation are eco-friendly transport solutions. The results be replaced or relocated. positively related with political decentralisation of the Slovenian Sustainable Urban Mobility • Flexibilisation and deregulation are similar to political decentralisation processes and can hinder mechanisms, this can hinder coordination and Plans36 (SUMP) are more mixed. The country coordination and institutional leadership. institutional public leadership (see Box 3). decided to adopt the ‘EU Sustainable mobility

47 for a prosperous future’ strategy in order planning ordinance for wind energy utilisation40, BOX 4 to manage urban mobility more effectively. which sets up a framework to manage wind- However, only one third of the municipalities park development until 2030. It identifies Protected Coastal Area adopted them and their poor acceptance wind energy zones where wind turbines are by local political leaders remains one of the allowed (referred to as ‘positive zoning’) as in Croatia (HR) main challenges. Since SUMPs are not an well as areas where development is severely obligatory instrument under the Slovenian law, restricted. From a social and environmental providing financial support appeared to be perspective, the intervention has succeeded in Name of the intervention, location and country: the best way to encourage their development safeguarding valued nature and wildlife assets Protected Coastal Area within the Physical Planning and implementation. Another questionable yet has neglected other goals of sustainable Act in Croatia (Croatia) intervention is the City of Sofia’s underground land-use. One main social/environmental cost metro, that appears unable to integrate is that it steers wind turbines into green areas. Territorial level: its mobility aims with achieving a more Development in these areas, especially in NUTS0; Year: 2004 (last reform in 2013) integrated land use approach. The Lyon-Torino forestry areas, is highly controversial in Austria. 37 Website link: high-speed railway and tunnel project (a cross- The main shortcoming is that it excludes land- https://mgipu.gov.hr/access-to-information/ border intervention) also represents a less use combinations that might be more desirable regulations-126/regulations-in-the-field-of- successful story due to the continuous delays from a sustainability point of view, e.g. the physical‑planning-8641/8641 and contrasts it has generated through time. combination with industry and infrastructure. This project aims to connect the TEN-T branch The flood management system along the Tisza between France and Italy with a high-speed River in Hungary41, aiming to reduce risk flow railway, which would also reduce transport in the region through mitigation procedures, pollution. Nevertheless, the project has been is considered unsuccessful due to a lack of contested by environmental associations for coordination between authorities and financial its potential impacts on the environment mechanisms. In fact, the interviewee points (e.g. consumption of land, exploitation of out that even though the plan was financed natural resources). by EU Cohesion Policy, there has been ‘no coordination with domestic incentives or Preservation of traditional agriculture on the Croatian coast In Germany, the BOKS – Soil Protection subsidy policies’. Concept38 is a successful example of sectoral intervention, which promotes a higher level It is also worth mentioning the 2007–2013 of environmental quality and aims to reduce cross-border project Green cross-border area- Territorial characteristics of the area: soil consumption. To do this it promotes two Investment in nature, in the cross-border The Croatian coastal area has seen a great increase in (often illegally built) secondary housing since the end of the 1970s. This has caused a decrease in traditional agricultural production. Today, the most main approaches: i) ‘inner urban development’, region of Kyustendil–Surdulica (between significant pressures on the coastal environment are caused by urbanisation, tourism and traffic. which focuses on brownfield redevelopment; Bulgaria and Serbia). The latter is perceived as ii) ‘degressive rationing’ which aims at a a positive intervention, since its introduction Intervention goal and main features yearly minimisation of soil consumption has progressively enhanced sustainable cross- The Physical Planning Act defines a Protected Coastal Area which is subject to restriction on building and until all planning activities are inner urban border development, environmental awareness, other spatial interventions. development. On the contrary, in Austria, the as well as an increasing mutual understanding Soil Enhancement Plan39 seeks to retain high- and exchange of knowledge and good practices. Main lessons and policy recommendations: • binding into the official legislation are needed. quality soil, and therefore has the potential to Finally, the introduction of the Protected Coastal To contain urban growth regulations • Prescriptive and binding instruments have an impact. Land take/soil sealing can be advanced by support sustainable urbanisation and land-use, Area in Croatia has been welcomed by the prescribing clear regulations on construction. but is rarely applied. majority of the stakeholders. These feel that • Measures to limit land take can support sustainable tourism and agriculture, ensuring multiple it is contributing to limit land take/soil sealing economic benefits based on the traditional Mediterranean agricultural landscape and cultural identity. An interesting intersection of sustainable impacts in the coastal zone by prescribing • Territorial cooperation is essential. Harmonising spatial plans and control mechanisms can land use and sustainable energy production clear regulations on the construction activity accelerate the delivery of sustainable land use. can be found in the Lower Austrian spatial (see Box 4). • Place-based approach. Identification of specific local needs should be taken into account when making regulations as this strengthens a bottom-up approach. • The implementation of controls on construction could be better regulated by introducing additional specific local indicators.

49 Various successful characteristics promote incoherent or unrealistic, this can erode Programme Werdenberg-Liechtenstein high court which overruled four out of seven sectoral policies types of interventions, such as: credibility and commitment. Examples of a (coordinating transport and urban development city-boulevards proposed in the Helsinki City • the adoption of an integrated approach strategy introducing an ambitious target that across borders). When such strategic initiatives Plan on the basis of their negative impacts on and long-term sustainable perspective, influenced the use of land include the Vision use inclusive approaches, they can broaden their the fluency of regional and national transport, taking into consideration a multiplicity of Rheintal of Vorarlberg in Austria (see Box 5) base of support, which can enhance the chances bringing to the surface a latent intermunicipal sectoral interests and diversity of sustainable and the Tri-City metropolitan area planning of effective implementation. conflict45. The Sustainable metropolitan Plan dimensions; in Poland. Both initiatives promote a more of Rome Capital City 2003 can also serve as • stronger collaboration between the various integrated approach to urban containment Although not a containment strategy per se, the a warning: despite its intent to protect and stakeholders seems to be fundamental by facilitating investment on e-mobility Alpine Network of Protected Areas (ALPARC), enhance the environmental, historical and when sectoral initiatives that require a good transportation, encouraging densification along founded in 1994, is interesting because it brings archaeological resources of the metropolitan level of integration and coordination are public transport routes and improving intercity together hundreds of protected areas of all area, the lack of institutional capacity, political implemented; connections within the region (mainly for the kinds in the Alps, from France to Slovenia. The will and clear vision hampered its potentials to • support of soft initiatives that have direct Polish case). The success of these kinds of ALPARC association promotes the exchange of the extent that the strategy was never applied.46 and immediate impacts: long-term projects intervention is facilitated, but not guaranteed, expertise, techniques and methods among the usually require more time to show their by the combination of long-term thinking and managers of Alpine protected areas. Moreover, In conclusion, the adoption of visions and advantages. short-term implementation measures43. it initiates and facilitates common projects strategies clearly does not guarantee successful and helps to pool resources. So far, ALPARC is intervention. However, these instruments can An interesting example is Corona Verde in the considered a success story both in terms of its allow an intervention to be viewed as integral 3.1.2 Which instrument should Metropolitan Region of Turin (Italy), where 81 own goals and sustainability. part of a wider strategy where decisions are not be used? municipalities banded together to promote made on the basis of opportunism, expedience a new and alternative vision of the territory The adoption and implementation of visions or jurisdictional politics, but are made with Sustainable urbanisation and land use could based on the quality of the environment and and strategies face various challenges. the intent of optimising land uses towards a be achieved through the implementation of a quality of life. The success of this strategy Political will and technical capability are better future (temporal sustainability). Condition variety of instruments. These are not mutually is demonstrated by its capacity to mobilise often undermined by social, economic and sine qua non for having effective visions and exclusive and can be easily combined to produce substantial funds for implementing short-term institutional contingencies (i.e. the time strategies are: synergy and improve effectiveness. The SUPER projects, which all fit within a wider long-term isn’t ripe) or vice versa (i.e. an opportunity • provide support to common territorial project identified five types of instruments: strategy. can’t be seized). This proved the case for a perspectives for territories that share the visions and strategies, rules and legal devices, number of plans for European cities, which same needs and challenges; land use regulations, programmes and projects Mobilising funds can be considered a litmus were challenged by sustainability trade- • any decisions taken should be based on (see Infographic 8). test for the ability of visions/strategies to effect offs, implementation difficulties and lacking cooperative mechanisms; otherwise, visions change: the more visions and strategies can institutional will and capability. For example, the and strategies could remain on paper without amass, allocate and administer funds, the Finger Plan of Copenhagen (2019) to promote a any chance of being effectively implemented; Visions and strategies more likely their initiatives will be effective. more efficient transport network paved the way • long-term visions should be supported by Another success factor is cooperation, which for sacrificing valuable green areas. Similarly, short-term projects, and vice versa; Visions (i.e. goals and targets) and Strategies can be achieved in a variety of ways. For the Cork Area Strategic Plan 2001‑2020 aimed • visions and strategies should be (i.e. set of actions to achieve the vision) are example, the Kooperationsplattform Stadtregion to reduce the loss of agricultural land, but accompanied by economic feasibility non-mandatory instruments that set the main of Salzburg and 10 surrounding communities what in fact happened was increasing rural programmes in order to guarantee a certain directions for development. It is difficult to are implementing a regional green belt using land consumption and overexploitation of level of effectiveness; otherwise, they might evaluate the success of such documents as development compensation measures to natural resources. While the Athens Master fail or never be implemented; they are generally long-term and vague and guarantee equal benefits for participants. Plan introduced innovative concepts, it failed • supported by strong, stable and future- work indirectly by influencing other actors to By effectively tacking interjurisdictional to combine its attention to environmental oriented political will which makes the introduce more tangible measures42. Based on problems, this platform also strengthened cause to public consultation processes44. Its difference to what concerns its effectiveness; the evidence within the SUPER interventions cooperation between the municipalities and privileging of top-down mechanisms has been • technical capability, as well as a good database, indeed, one of the characteristics of enhanced governance capacity. This can also criticised and often resulted in legal challenges. integration with the existing institutional successful visions and strategies is establishing occur in a transnational and cross-border Similarly, the plan to redevelop roads into architecture, are needed since often visions ambitious, future-oriented but, even more setting, as witnessed by the ALPARC strategic green and pedestrian boulevards in the City of and strategies are too vague (with a serious importantly, identifying realistic objectives. plan (concerted effort to preserve valuable Helsinki’s master plan was struck down by the risk of never being implemented). Conversely, if strategies are underfunded, natural areas) and the Agglomerations

51 INFOGRAPHIC  Sustainable urbanisation and land use can be achieved through the implementation of a variety of instruments. These are not mutually exclusive and can be easily combined Toolbox of instruments to produce synergy and improve effectiveness. The SUPER project identified five types of instruments: visions and strategies, rules and legal devices, land use regulations, for sustainable programmes and projects. urbanisation

Success factors: • support of strong political will and coordination Success factors: of interventions; • combining long-term strategy objectives with • support of economic incentives, norms and short-term needs and priorities; monitoring measures; • promoting innovative solutions in reducing both • national long-term targets need to be linked to the land use and sealing share per capita. local geographical, social and economic context. • Incorporation of economic priorities, environmental needs and social aspects. Projects Rules and

legal Success factors: devices • properly designed to avoid or limit side-effects and trade-offs; Programmes • focused on few well defined specific objectives; • activated as instruments for supporting public or Land use private initiative to achieve strategic objectives. regulations Success factors: • objectives, mechanisms of implementation and instruments activated are coherent; • laws have clear objectives (limit land consumption, protect valuable natural areas, compensations measures etc.); Visions • are normatively strict and binding. Sustainable strategiesand Success factors: • support of strong political will; • effective multilevel cooperation process: each regional and local authority is expected urbanisation to follow the national guidelines; • technical capability and financial incentives. • effective horizontal cooperation and coordination pbl.nl

Source: PBL/ESPON SUPER BOX 5 The lack of one of these pre-conditions as Venezia Giulia give particular attention of the well as the mismatch between ambitions and environmental dimension of sustainability. Vision Rheintal (AT) feasibility will increase the chance of visions and While the former aims at enhancing territorial strategies to fail or never implemented. and landscape heritage and sustainable regional development, the latter seeks at reinforcing the containment of land consumption, also Name of the intervention, location and country: Rules and legal devices favouring the recovery of the existing building Vision Rheintal (Vorarlberg, Austria) heritage or the reuse of the same through Territorial level: Sustainable land use can be addressed by conversion to different uses. Despite their LAU1; Year: 2004 (updated in 2017) implementing specific legal devices (i.e. laws, initial objectives, however, the effectiveness bylaws, regulations etc.) that compose the of these laws has been relatively divergent. Website link: specific normative framework of a given Indeed, while the law of Tuscany has been http://www.vision-rheintal.at/ institutional context. Decision and policy pro-active of reducing the share of land use makers can, indeed, activated a plethora of (with an increment of only 0.14% in period different legal devices that can be mandatory 2017-2018), in the case of Friuli Venezia Giulia, – hence oblige administrative authorities instead the urbanisation process has never to adopt them – or not mandatory – hence slowdown (in 2018 its net soil consumption allowing authorities of a certain level of was plus 0.34%)48. This show that, the same flexibility. Sustainable use of land can be approach does not necessary guarantee the promoted by introducing ad hoc laws and norms same outcome, pointing out the importance of (towards land use or environmental protection, the (institutional) context as one of the drivers for instance) as well as promoting set of of development. Overview of Rheintal Region – Austria disincentives measures (fees, ad hoc taxes etc.). Indirect initiatives can also affect sustainable A sustainable land use can also be achieved by land use too, like rent control measures introducing successful economic disincentives Territorial characteristics of the area: In Vorarlberg, high demographic growth has led to increasing demand for homes and businesses, activated by the municipality of Barcelona to or compensations as already did in Austria higher prices, unaffordable housing, scattered low-density urbanisation patterns and increased traffic. assuage the impact of mass tourism. (Development and Maintenance Fee applied in the region of Upper Austria), in Italy (doubles Intervention goal and main features Legal devices are not always successful. urbanisation fees in Emilia Romagna) and Over time, 29 municipalities have coalesced into a single urban area. The spatial strategy Vision Rheintal Contradictions emerge, for instance, in the in Germany (soil compensation account was developed and implemented by the federal government through a highly participatory process between case of the Poznan Metropolitan Area Planning introduced in Dresden). More in detail, in the stakeholders and all political-administrative levels. It comprises the reference framework for municipal Law, which on the one hand has the merit to Austrian case the initiative establishes the plans and other spatial plans. introduce concepts like ‘compact city’ and the infrastructure fee is in charge of the owner in Main lessons and policy recommendations: ‘energy-efficient spatial structure’, on the other order to limit urban expansion while the Emilia • Clear-cut objectives focusing on concrete themes which are useful for the long term were positive hand, does not offer enough legal clarity to Romagna region decided (by the resolution factors to agree sustainable spatial visions. enforce them. The Vorarlberg Land Transfer Law No. 186/2018), on the one hand, to double • Similarly, long experience and continued incremental actions to face a common well-defined threathave in Austria also gives a land use perspective. urbanisation fees (oneri di urbanizzazione) for been crucial to achieve successful results in this concern. The law aims at controlling the acquisition of projects that convert agricultural land into built • Focus on implementation and the way in which each stakeholder can contribute to achieve the goal is agricultural land by guaranteeing ‘functional up area and, on the other hand, to decrease another important factor allowing to agree sustainable spatial visions continuity’ of the land. Despite aiming to these by at least 35% (local administrations are • Appropriate, timely and understandable information are key ingredients for success as well as counteract the ‘hoarding’ of building land, allowed to reduce it to 100% if necessary) for transparent and fair participation. the law has been discriminatory in so far as it projects that rehabilitate abandoned areas. An • Commitment and political will, with the support of all planning and political levels and civil society is a imposes restrictions on the acquisition of land additional example of economic (dis)incentives strong combination for successful decisions on sustainable land use, for which incremental actions in by foreigners.47 is the soil compensation account introduced in mid-term perspective help. 2002 in Dresden (Germany). If on the one side, • Good relations between administrations and participants facilitates ownership and empowerment. Raising awareness about the benefit of intermunicipalcooperation (e.g. financial compensation) can Sustainable land use can also be promoted the soil compensation account aims to confine contribute to this. by regional initiatives. Regional laws on soil built-up land for settlements and traffic to 40 % • Demonstration effect helps to generalise sustainable land use practices: good results in strategic consumption in case of Tuscany and Friuli of the total urban land, however, its approach planning (soft) comprised the basis for modifications in land-use regulations (hard), transforming the planning and territorial culture. 55 is considered too limitative for investors, which Serbian law on Belgrade Waterfront may be In this respect, there are different categories of the referendum was to curb urban sprawl are forced to carry out compensation measures used to facilitate of real-estate development plans acting. Plans may promote policies aiming and promote internal development forcing by themselves or to pay a compensation fee. mechanisms instead of preventing the at reducing land exploitation or increasing its municipalities to limit urban expansion. In fact, These opportunities shows that, even they exploitation of natural resources. optimal use (e.g. Municipal Operative Plans of additional land can only be zoned if there is a have different targets, applying disincentives Reggio Emilia and Bassa Romagna, Italy). In real need for it (see Box 7). measures can pays-off (or fail) in the extent of As shown, throughout Europe there are number both cases, they decided to reduce the surface their mechanism are clear and not perceived of legal devices to take inspiration from or (building plots) about almost 30% and 50% Other land use plans instead, may focus as additional taxes losing so social credibility conversely, learn from their failure. Overall, respectively in order to optimise the use of mainly on protecting and improving existing (and acceptability). according to data gathered, legal devices have land by subtracting of the market availability agricultural land (Territorial Action Plan of the the chance to succeed if their objectives and free buildable areas and preserver landowners Huerta de Valencia and Rural Park South in The regulation of renting apartments to mechanisms of implementation are: of paying additional taxes on land. These Milan) or limiting urban expansion (Physical tourists in Barcelona in 2015 was, on the other • clear in their final objective (limit land initiatives – not so common in the past – have Environment Special Plan Protection of hand, focused on the social and economic consumption, protect valuable natural areas, been successful since there was a convergence Andalucia Region). In the first two case, dimensions. The aim was to control and control housing rental market, for example); between landowners’ needs (to avoid additional these plans aim at reducing or limiting the manage the mass touristic apartment rental in • normatively strict (adapted to their different taxis), administrative volunteer (to cut-off pressure on the metropolitan area of Valencia the city. The need for better regulation renting institutional contexts); buildable volumes) and market conditions and Milan – two cities characterised by out housing units for short-stay visitors is • technically feasible (coherent set of norms (scarcity of private investments). unprecedented urban development. Already in widely shared in the main European countries, and regulations that may guarantee 1980, the Andalusia region in Spain introduced particularly in major tourist destinations. interventions’ applicability); In particular, in the city of Reggio Emilia, the quantitative urbanisation caps for medium and With the emerging of web platforms where • socially acceptable (sustained by social municipal operative plan was employed to large municipalities (40% of the previously demand and supply meet, the housing rental legitimacy). reduce the number of areas, which had been existing urban land or 30% of the previously market is becoming a very sensitive issue for zoned for urban uses, but remained unbuilt. existing population within eight years), as well both public administrations and society at Conversely, if these pre-conditions are not Since landowners pay taxes based on the value as the coordination of management systems large. In order to provide a just and equitable respected, the risk of failure is high and real. of the zoned land, stripping development rights for protected natural areas. It was singled out regulatory frame, the Barcelona administration In additions, interventions have high risk to also yields a financial benefit. The cooperation as a European best practice to limit, mitigate or introduced a registry of tourist apartments, abort when: between municipalities and landowners compensate soil sealing (see Box 8).50 as well as a neighbourhood map, assessing • there are not institutional capabilities to succeeded in downzoning over 135ha of the maximum allowed allocation of tourist translate them in effective measures; potential urban land to rural functions since The Berlin Biotope Area Factor (BAF) introduced rentals. Additionally, owners and managers of • legal devices are not strict but foresees some 2015. A second phase has so far removed an in 1994 sets a benchmark for improving unlicensed apartments have been prosecuted. windows of flexibility (not mandatory); additional 70ha from potential urbanisation. ecosystem services and developing biotopes The tool was relatively successful, especially • legal devices do not consider sustainability This intervention is regarded as a success and biodiversity in the inner-city areas. Plans in the social dimension related to the housing in a holistic perspective privileging one of its by all parties and is also seen as a boon for for the development of new buildings fall under supply. Since the number of short-stay rentals dimensions to the expense of the rest them. sustainability (see Box 6). a regulation requiring a proportion of the area in Barcelona has dropped, properties could be to be left as green space. The intervention offered for long-term rental, moderating the Similarly, the Province of Utrecht (the Nether­ contributes to several urban environment quality rise of rental prices and allowing low-income Land use regulations lands) is experimenting the de-zoning of urban goals, as well as providing clear but flexible and middle-income households to rent a flat functions back to agricultural via the imposed guidelines for developers. The tool also takes in the city. Since this relieved pressure for Land use regulations establish binding principle, land-use plan, primarily unbuilt office space. a qualitative approach, assuming that different suburban housing, the intervention addressed usually through zoning, that define how land can Even not so common throughout Europe, those types of green spaces should be weighted also the environmental aspect. This has been or cannot be transformed. Historically, spatial examples show the possibility to reorient land differently according to ‘ecological value’. effective thanks to the involvement of citizens plans’ final goal consists “in the act of physical use policies in order to reconvert buildable areas The success of this intervention might have in identifying illegal rentals and creating development or, in some cases, the decision in agricultural one, which only few years before been limited, since BAF is compulsory only in collaborative mechanisms including website not to develop, but to leave the land as it is”.49 would never been possible. areas where legally binding Landscape Plans are where citizens can easy report violations. Based on the ESPON SUPER dataset, plans present (16% of Berlin); outside these areas the have proven to can act in different directions Since 2014, Swiss municipalities are readapting BAF is voluntary. However, due to its simplicity Finally, in some cases, legal devices can also according to their final objective – swinging their local planning documents according property owners and designers tend to use the work against sustainable land use. The use between pro land use development to land to the referendum on land use. The aim of BAF even if it is not obligatory. of ‘special’ legal devices, as the case of the protection and conservation approach.

57 BOX 6 Finally, the more pro-environmental oriented initial intent, indeed, while the former aiming Municipal Structural Plan of plans seem to be those plans that aiming at at promoting polycentric development as well reducing land use according to the European as preserve green edges, the latter focuses the Union of Municipalities zero land take objective. In this respect, the on the reuse of industrial areas as residential/ zero-growth plan of the municipality of Cassinetta multifunctional areas. In both cases however, of Bassa Romagna (IT) di Lugagnano, Italy, adopted in 2007 sets a they have been exposed to market speculation series of economic incentives to promote logics (i.e. the need for more volume and industrial (re)conversation and recovering more economically attractive functions) losing Name of the intervention, location and country: of city centre instead of increasing land take in part their initial objectives. Plans can also Municipal Structural Plan of the Union by preserving agricultural land. This was promote, indirectly, the explosion of informal of Municipalities of Bassa Romagna, possible thanks to the will to promote citizen development due to its rigidity or lack of clear Emilia Romagna (Italy) engagement already in the initial phases. implementation mechanism. It is this the case of the series of Urban Development Plans Territorial level: Land use regulation tools seems to be especially of Prishtina (Kosovo) which, despite of their LAU1; Year: 2009 appropriate for sustainable land-use intervention primarily intentions, pushed urbanisation Website link: addressed for special areas, such as coastal processes to occur outside formal rules.53 http://www.labassaromagna.it/ zones. A successful example could be building Similarly, also the Outside Development Zones Guida-ai-Servizi/Urbanistica/ restrictions adopted in 1997 in Riga, according in Malta, even if their aim is to safeguard the Piano-Strutturale-Comunale-PSC to which building activities in rural areas are integrity of certain areas located generally in prohibited or limited within the first 300 m rural areas, they have been accused to justify from the sea and in settlement areas within the some speculative initiatives as construction first 150 m. Along river beds and around lakes, limits are easy to be overcome. zones vary depending on the length and size of water bodies (from 10 m to 500 m).51 In Spain, Despite their objectives and mechanism of the Coastal Director Plan of Catalonia from implementation, land use regulations have the Urban Green Park, Sant’Agata Sul Santerno – Italy 2007 has been prepared within the framework chance to succeed if: of Spanish Strategy for Coastal Sustainability • land use plans find an optimum between Territorial characteristics of the area: to deal with the particular development the need of development and the need The Union of Bassa Romagna consists of nine municipalities that share common territorial and economic pressures and environmental sensitivities along of achieving sustainable land use. Often challenges. It is an area characterised by intense development pressures and rampant urbanisation. the coast. It adopted principles of Integrated the former is privileged on the expense of Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) and made it the latter, especially in those contexts that Intervention goal and main features possible to combat uncontrolled development are overexposed to market (speculative) The Union’s Municipal Structural Plan is a strategic instrument aiming at improving spatial planning by along the coast that is especially attractive for mechanisms; promoting future-oriented, integrated, sustainable and effective spatial planning activities. For more than developers.52 • land use plans can act directly e quickly 10 years, this plan has defined the main spatial trajectory and territorial development perspectives of the to reorient planning decisions in order Union of Bassa Romagna. However, the application of land use regulations to promote sustainable land use by Main lessons and policy recommendations: cannot guarantee per se the achievement of reconfiguring (reconverting) buildable areas • Territorial integration matters. Limiting territorial fragmentation means reducing existing economic and sustainable land use objectives. Plans indeed, in agriculture one. This is possible if policy social competition, preserving natural and agricultural ecosystems; can be used as instruments to increase and decisions makers think qualitatively • Territorial scale matters. Local units should think about their territorial and economic dimensions and land transformation in order to respond to instead of quantitatively; beyond administrative borders; market mechanisms – hence becoming pro- • land use plans are used as instruments of • Cooperative-based approach matters. Intensive cooperation among different institutional actors development oriented as for the cases of Sofia’s land protection instead of land exploitation. enhanced the Plan’s performance; General Urban Development Plan (GUDP) in These can be implemented by promoting • Holistic sustainability approach matters. The Plan made significant strides in addressing sustainability. Bulgaria and Spatial Plan of Zone Chalupkova in measures of urbanisation containment and A competitive sustainable land-use development should be able to set measures and mechanisms that Bratislava, Slovakia. Both are interesting in their protection of agriculture/natural land. can be easily adapted to territorial challenges (e.g. climate change); • Institutional dimension matters. The introduction of specific institutional arrangements may contribute to enhance the effectiveness of spatial planning instruments in promoting sustainable urbanisation. For instance, the introduction of the Union of Municipalities contributed to limit the potential negative impact of the divergent interests, through the introduction of a system of compensation between them across municipalities. 59 BOX 7 Conversely, if not opportunely designed, plans the Enjoy Waltham Forest programme, in Revision of the spatial can be driver of inequalities. One the majority United Kingdom), as well as examples that of risk of plans are: promotes cross-cutting initiatives (i.e. BENE – planning law in • to not fully address the all dimension of Berlin Program on Sustainable Development sustainability privileging in some case one in Germany). More in detail, the Special aspect to the expense of the others. Indeed, Infrastructural Plan that has financed the Canton Aargau (CH) there are examples of examples where the 22@‌Barcelona has promoted the rehabilitation environmental dimension is much more of two hundred hectares of industrial land of Name of the intervention, location and country: prominent than economic dimension and Poblenou into an innovative district offering Revision of the Spatial Planning Law, Canton of even more respect the social one. modern spaces for the strategic concentration Aargau (Switzerland) • to directly legitimate speculative phenomena of intensive commercial and knowledge- when it comes to facilitate private based activities. From a more environmental Territorial level: investments and real estate; perspective, an interesting and successful NUTS3; Year: 2014 • to indirectly facilitate illegal initiatives when example is the Re-creation of Lake Karla in Website Link: plans are not easy to implement making Thessaly in Greece (since 1999) which was https://www.uvek.admin.ch/uvek/de/ easier out-plans initiatives. seen an opportunity to enhancement of the home/uvek/abstimmungen/abstimmung‌ - water supply, restoration of the ecosystem raumplanungsgesetz.html Finally, decisions and policy makers should and the improvement of soil quality as was https://www.ag.ch/de/bvu/ support or be active for: heavily endangered by the overexploitation of raumentwicklung/raumentwicklung.jsp‌ • a cultural shift from soil consumption its natural resources. Environmentally oriented towards soil production by promoting is also the case of the Enjoy Waltham Forest de-sealing initiatives when possible; programme which has delivered a series of Revision of the spatial planning law in Switzerland • abandonment of competitive individualistic micro-interventions like 22km of segregated (focus on Canton Aargau) decision-making in land development in cycle lanes; improved 100 junctions; planted Source: Schweizer Luftwaffe (2011) favour of cooperative actions (i.e. involving more than 700 trees; installed almost 300 public administrations, institutional bikehangars etc., having the merit that more Territorial characteristics of the area: stakeholders and private interest groups people are choosing to cycle and walk more Since the 1960s, the living space per person in Switzerland has doubled to around 50 m². Before the as well as citizens); often brings huge benefits, from increased intervention, there were calls for a coordinated federal response to limit urbanisation. life expectancy and better air quality, to Intervention goal and main features: encouraging people to shop locally. A more The Case concerns the revision of the Swiss Spatial Planning Law and the implications of this for the Canton Programmes focused sustainable programme is the Berlin of Aargau. Its aim is to control urbanisation by promoting compact settlement development. It mandates Program on Sustainable Development (BENE), that building zones that are too large should be reduced in size and that existing reserves should be used Programmes are policy packages aiming which is an ERDF co-financed program on more efficiently. In a referendum on 3 March 2013, the revision was approved with 63% of the votes. at a particular objective. They can be used climate and environmental protection. Having a to create economic conditions (financial cross-cutting approach, the BENE has financed Main lessons and policy recommendations: schemes, direct investments, allocation of a variety of projects dealing with energy renewal • The revision elaborated the original law by providing specific measures and tools to enforce sustainable land use at the regional level. It contributed to a better regional-federal coordination in spatial planning developing funds etc.) for sustainable land and efficiency, sustainable mobility and bike and clarified procedures and requirements. use. Throughout the Europe, a number infrastructure, (re)naturalisation of areas etc. • An important success factor was a willingness to compromise with respect to a more extreme landscape of interesting economic programmes are Its success is evidence by the amount of funds protection initiative. In the referendum, the public voted clearly in favour of the revision and the outcome identifiable, that have been used directly or allocated (234 mil. EUR), the number of projects was widely accepted. indirectly to promote fair, equal and balanced (165 part of the have been already put in place) • Clear communication of pro/con arguments is important: transparent information activities allowed land use practices. These initiatives have been and the integration of existing development stakeholders to become aware of the gravity of the situation and the need for intervention. mainly concentrated to create the economic programmes. • A new fiscal compensation tool helps regional authorities promote sustainable land use: if de-zoning condition for the rehabilitation of industrial involves expropriation, it is now mandatory to demand value-added tax from owners of newly designated areas (i.e. 22@Barcelona, Spain), the protection Overall, as shown economic programmes can buildable land in order to compensate those whose land has been deprived of development rights. of environmental quality (i.e Re-creation certainly have positive impacts if there are some • A long-term perspective helps to achieve positive outcomes: this helps raise awareness in the spatial of Lake Karla in Thessaly in Greece and pre-conditions facilitating their implementation. planning community as well as among the public. • Spatial Planning regulations can help fight land speculation: where it is foreseeable that the population will grow and companies will settle, new building zones can be designated. Conversely, cantons where existing zoned building land exceeds future demand will have to implement de-zoning activities.

61 BOX 8 Incentives and economic programmes have the project of the Dublin Docklands (started in chance to succeed if: 1997) can be seen as a densification policy Territorial Action Plan of • they are well integrated with existing based on reusing urban resources, resulting instruments and spatial planning tools and from the shifting dynamics of port facilities, the Huerta de Valencia (ES) policies; de-industrialisation, and the subsequent • they are operative-oriented by indifferently emergence of the services-based economy.54 promoting mega-projects or small-size It succeeds because of its responsiveness to Name of the intervention, location and country: initiatives; readapt its masterplans in order to adjust its Huerta of Valencia Spatial Plan (Spain) • their design integrates the all thematic development trajectory. Despite initial criticism sustainability dimensions without sacrificing for being self-segregated experience, it has Territorial level: one to support the rest. had the merit to including (in its different LAU1; Year: 2018 implementation phases) sustainable urban Conversely, programme can be exposed to solutions with strong attention of social Website link: failure if: and urban spaces.55 The South Harbour in http://politicaterritorial.gva.es/es/web/ planificacion-territorial-e-infraestructura-verde/ • there is a gap between ambition and effective Copenhagen has contributed to reconvert pat‑horta-de-valencia achievement possibilities (overestimation of hectares of industrial areas in more liveable economic capabilities); public spaces. It is positively assessed because • they are too much development-oriented its ability of attentioning both spatial-physical instead of environmental protection; issues (the need to reconvert) with more • they are not well institutionally and socially-oriented solutions (the need to socially economically coordinated with the rest of regenerate). While, the Royal Seaport in the programmes. Stockholm is the largest urban development area in Sweden with at least 12,000 new homes and 35,000 workplaces. By reconverting hectares Projects of existing industrial area and promoting urban density solutions, this project has contributed Overview of Urbanisation – Valencia, Spain Projects are individual ad hoc initiatives with to increase the availability of houses stocks a given timeframe. They can be used for the (part dedicated social housing) by reducing at Territorial characteristics of the area: implementation of permanent or temporary of minimum of using additional land. The same The Huerta is a fertile agricultural area around the city of Valencia. Over time, highly productive soil transformations of sites with the aim to foster has been done in other part of the Europe like has been lost and fragmented by permissive regulatory frameworks and speculative land development. sustainability. Throughout the Europe, projects Vila d’Este (Portugal), Industrial Park Borská are used to translate in practice the series of Pole in City of Plzeň (Czech Republic) and Intervention goal and main features recommendations, policies and incentives Miasteczko Wilanów (Poland). Even diverse in The spatial plan is established by the Law of the Huerta to prevent land consumption. This is part of aiming at responding to economic, social and some aspects, all projects have dealing with a conservation strategy using a smart specialisation approach based on ecological services. It also involved collaboration as 40 municipalities agreed to enact legally binding land-use regulations. environmental needs. Projects are extremely recovering, eco-designing and promoting heterogeneous in terms of nature, objectives healthy life-style. In the early 1990s, for example, Main lessons and policy recommendations: (densification, regeneration etc.), design (both the City of Plzeň embarked on regenerating an • Territorial awareness is important. The burst of the real-estate bubble and a new political cycle in terms of organisational/operational design industrial area in the city (and consequently the facilitated the emergence of wide public agreement on the need to protect farmland and natural and innovative land use and spatial solution), region), Industrial Park Borská Pole. New plans areas. This enabled political will and leadership. and differ as well for what concern their level of were drawn up and new institutional structures • Expanded understanding of the Green Infrastructure concept. Planning can maximise its impact success. (e.g. City Planning and Development Office and by involving public but also private space for common use, and by introducing new links and Pilsen Holding, JSC) established to carry this functional urban-rural connections. A variety of examples show how projects can out. The strategy was informal at the beginning • Compensation mechanisms as success factor to mitigate negative impacts of protective contribute to regenerate abandoned areas (tacit strategy) but was soon transformed into dispositions when land owners lose development rights. • Develop land according to real demand. This helps foster economic alternatives to real-estate like the Dublin Docklands (Ireland), the South official city policies, programme and planning development such as agro-food, tourism, smart specialisation strategies. Harbour in Copenhagen (Denmark) and the documents (statutory local plan). The outcome • Economic sustainability is important. Ensuring sufficient funding andresources is an important Royal Seaport in Stockholm (Sweden). The was deemed successful as its objectives were pillar of the strategy. transformation of the large-scale rehabilitation fully achieved: the industrial zone became a • Implementation matters. Forbid illegal developments and enable binding rules to restore pristine conditions. 63 location for more than 40 companies creating temporary solutions avoiding any additional development pressures and environmental partly be explained by the institutional design between 11-15 thousand jobs and became a urbanisation initiatives. The ParckFarm project sensitivities along the coast, which was deemed and market-led approach. A similar problem, flagship of economic recovery. It also can be implemented in 2014 in Belgium was also successful. One evaluation concludes that the which was aggravated by land speculation, considered ecologically successful in that no community oriented. Former rail paths were SCS was instrumental for the construction appeared in the Housing renewal project in greenfield land was used for this. Efforts in transformed into a sustainable public park with of a base of knowledge to improve coastal Istanbul (2000), while the market-dominated reducing the human footprint has been made community activities that created a new type of management practices, but that the success Skopje 2014 project shows that rehabilitation in the case of the Eco-Viikki project in Helsinki public space combining the park with local micro of its implementation was undermined by the projects can also serve political purposes. (Finland) which even if has consumed new farming. The aim was to sensitise the citizen to complex distributions of competences.60 land, it demonstrates how new living standards agricultural practices in the city. It also promotes From the evidence collected, it appears that can be successfully combined with minimal public meetings with neighbours, farmers, However, projects also can fail or create successful projects are those that: impact on the environment. The average ‘sealed designers and politicians. Thus, the project has unexpected or unwanted effects. Regeneration • are part of a long-term territorial vision surface per capita’ is much lower compared the merit to enhance community involvement as initiatives can easily produce gentrification, without, however, loosing short-term to standard single-family houses, likewise the part of its holistic sustainable approach. such as like the Urban Development Project of objectives; average energy consumption per household is Hyllie (Finland) that ended up with an image • incorporate simultaneously economic extremely low.56 Indeed, Eco-Viikki (1999-2020) In Rotterdam, houses in deprived of housing ‘wealthy white westerners’.61 The priorities (being cost-efficient), environmental is a reference project in Europe. neighbourhoods were simply bought up by the drive to create safe neighbourhoods can pave needs (promoting pro-environmental municipality and given away for free to anyone the way to self-segregation of settlements, solutions) and social aspects (supporting Also successful was Caserne de Bonne in willing to invest a certain amount in renovation exacerbating social disparities both in terms citizens’ involvement, social housing, quality Grenoble, the first eco-district in France and promising to live there for at least 5 years57. of services as well as quality of life. If not well- of space etc.). (2003‑2009). The development addressed This state-led gentrification was seen as a designed, regeneration projects may channel a several problems of urban living and growing success in economic and ecological terms, as it pro-market authoritarian approach as the cases One the other hand, projects risk failure when: cities, such as solar heating systems fulfilling brought in residents who might otherwise have of Skopje 2014 (Macedonia) and the Belgrade • regeneration (and densification) sites are hot water needs or solar panels providing opted for suburban housing, and in some ways, Waterfront (Serbia) demonstrate. While both viewed as a tabula rasa for facilitating electricity for the commercial and residential was seen as improving the social sustainability pursue rehabilitation of strategic urban areas, real‑estate and speculative initiatives; buildings. From the sustainable land-use of the area as well, given the improved liveability local community interests to a back seat to the • projects are used for achieving political perspective the crucial factor is that the shapes and services. Also Berlin sought to regenerate market. Finally, some projects explicitly provide legitimacy or exercising political power of the buildings were compact to reduce problematic sites in the core city. To do this, for overexploitation of natural resources like the without due consideration for sustainable land consumption and urban sprawl. Despite a state-owned company Grün Berlin GmbH, Nessebar and Sunny beach seaside development land use land consumption related with realisation is responsible for the reconversion of areas in Bulgaria, the resort Ranca in Romania and • projects produce side-effects like increasing of such projects, the main focus was on the in attractive parks and vibrant public spaces the third Istanbul Bosphorus Bridge Canal Project inequalities, gentrification, segregation etc. environment, however, without neglecting other and was successful in transforming several in Istanbul in Turkey. These projects, as many Often these kind of projects are rejected aspects of sustainable development. abandoned areas in the city.58,59 others throughout Europe, have no explicit by local communities instead of being sustainable land use objectives, but still can implemented; In the last years, community involvement A European policy which can deployed as have significant impacts on land use.62 • projects explicitly promote the and participation processes have been a containment intervention is Life+ which overexploitation of natural resources since supported by public administration. Successful provides funding for nature-related projects. Harbour transformation was the aim of the they follow mere pro-growth market logics. examples are the transformation of Vacant In 2012, Bologna (Italy) created its Bologna Copenhagen project Sydhavn (started in 1995). Urban Areas in Berlin, that contributed to the Local Urban Environment Adaptation Plan for This project transformed a former industrial development of attractive parks, vibrant public a Resilient City (BLUE AP) to provide the city harbour area into a modern urban neighbour­ 3.2 Recommendations for spaces like Parks auf dem Gleisdreieck’, the with a climate change adaptation plan, which hood with offices and new housing. This was the national level Schöneberger Südgelände and Tempelhofer includes flood protection measures. Another seen as a way to attract new residents to the Feld. The combination of public long-term recent example of European influence is how rapidly ageing city. The main rationale behind This section looks at potential ways to foster strategy and strong political will to reconvert EU Integrated Coastal Zone Management the project may have been economic but it also sustainable land-use and urbanisation processes some strategic areas and the will and activism (ICZM) requirements is taking effect in Spain. included social aspects (i.e. attractive housing at the national level, aiming at providing of social groups, experts and associations can Catalonia prepared a coastal plan in 2007 for the middle class but also social housing) guidance for decision and policymakers at this certainly enhance the possibility of a project to under the umbrella of the Spanish Strategy and to a lesser extent, environmental concerns. level. To do so, it focuses on four main issues: succeed. This example shows how sustainable for Coastal Sustainability (SCS) enacted a One drawback is that the area lacks cultural Trade-offs, strategies and visions, legal devices, land use can also be conveyed by long-term or couple years earlier. The aim was to deal with institutions and recreational spaces, which can programmes and subsidies.

65 3.2.1 Trade-offs and densification under the banner of an BOX 9 ‘urban renaissance’.64 Since 1998, the country Trade-offs concerns in particular the compro­ has been applying brownfield targets. The German Land Take mises that are often made when focusing national government set a target for at least on one of the dimensions of sustainable 60% of new housing to be built on brownfield Reduction Target (DE) urbanisation (e.g. economic, social and land by 2008.65 This was implemented as a legal ecological), in relation to the others. Over requirement and has been widely successful. the past decades, national instruments that The success of this strategy is confirmed by its Name of the intervention, location and country: endorse sustainable urbanisation and land use capacity of promoting long-term sustainable Less than 30 ha/day for settlements and have been implemented all over Europe. These development (mainly addressing environmental transports (Germany) come in various guises (e.g. strategies, legal issues). The outcomes have exceeded the devices and programmes) and pursue different goals (approximately 80%), although regional Territorial level: objectives: some are very environmentally differences exist. In fact, the extent of NUTS0; Year: 2002 oriented, while others have more economic and brownfield land reuse for housing development Website link: social objectives. The level of success of these differs greatly between the regions. https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-en/issues/ instruments is also varied. The regeneration can be seen as ecologically sustainability/germany-s-national-sustainable- and economically sustainable as it revitalised development-strategy-354566 existing urban areas instead of building outside Environmental sustainability them. However, the social sustainability was questioned as much of the improvement in Many national interventions prioritise the socio-economic position of residents was environmental sustainability. One thing these largely due to gentrification rather than upward interventions tell us is that existence and mobility, which had negative effects on housing support of strong commitment to long‑term affordability.66 sustainable development is a key to success. For example, the German government set the ambitious goal of reducing annual land Economic and social sustainability Overview on Düsseldorf Urban Structure – Germany consumption to 30 hectares per day nationwide by 2020. To reach the so-called 30 hectares Other national interventions promote economic Territorial characteristics of the area: target, two additional instruments were and social objectives, rather than environmental The target to reduce land take to less than 30 ha per day has been implemented throughout Germany. launched: the land take reduction action ones. In Lithuania, for example, the central The objective is taken up at various administrative levels: Federal level, State (Länder) and local authorities. plan and the land certificate trading scheme government supports young families finding Intervention goal and main features (see Box 9). Even though many agree that the housing outside of metropolitan areas.67 The The target to reduce land take to less than 30 ha per day of land for settlements and transport infrastructure target is not realistic, its existence is helping law (on Assistance to Families) gives financial by 2030 is part of the German sustainability strategy from 2002, as an indicator to measure and evaluate to promote long-term containment measures incentives to young families when purchasing land take. The scope is “inward looking”; from national target down to local level. and, consequently, reduced soil consumption. their first house outside large metropolitan The regional levels have to implement the areas. The objective is to improve both the Main lessons and policy recommendations: national strategic targets; in particular, urban demographic and economic balance in the • If zoned as building land, soil sealing can damage natural functions, possibility resulting in development can be limited by regional country (reducing the emigration rate), unsustainable land use. Regeneration, densification and green space maintenance can help, planning approaches, which allow a more triggering the economic and social development provided a legal framework supports this. effective management of growth and prevent of more rural areas. The intervention is • If real demand exists, limiting development on new land can make real-estate prices increase. • should be made it from leading to unsustainable land use63. considered scarcely successful: even though Economic and political context matters. A clear distinction between land prices motivated by a real need versus speculation in order to provide appropriate measures for new Thus, it is considered a successful intervention. it has an economic and social long-term development (prohibitions, compensation mechanisms, development right trading with land Nevertheless, the interviewee highlights that perspective, it does not seem to promote long- certificates, sharing/distributed taxes). the instrument ‘requires a coordination of term sustainable development. In fact, the • Radical changes in planning practice do not work in this case, as the traditional countercurrent binding interventions (e.g. economic incentives, norms interviewee points out that ‘the majority of principle (implying coherence and coordination) results weakened. and monitoring measures)’. In the 1990s, the families purchased housing near the bigger • Lack of coordination and leadership can result in contradictory laws, impeding sustainability. United Kingdom also focused on regeneration cities (in metropolitan areas), so actually • The main focus should be on implementation. Without booking tangible results, political enthusiasm decreases over time (planning fatigue).

67 BOX 10 intensifying suburbanisation’. Other socio- capacity, and concrete proposals about cost- economic instruments are perceived to have effective adaptation measures and priorities. Ladder for sustainable mixed levels of success. For example, in the As regards land use, the strategy addresses United Kingdom, the central government issues of soil protection and hydrogeological urbanisation (NL) implemented quantitative housing targets68 that instability (e.g. landslides, floods and coastal have to be taken into consideration by the local erosion) as well as soil degradation and authorities when making planning decisions. desertification connected to climate change. Name of the intervention, location and country: The interviewee observes that even though It is considered a successful instrument that Ladder for sustainable urbanisation the instrument has been strongly criticised, promotes long-term sustainable development (The Netherlands) ‘nothing has changed’. Critics point out that in the country. In addition to supporting these long-term targets are not linked to local sustainable land-use and climate adaptation, Territorial level: geographical, social and economic contexts, the strategy has strengthened collaboration NUTS0; Year: 2012 nor to transport policies. The top‑down between scientists, stakeholders, and decision- Website link: housing targets also seem to stimulate market makers.. In Norway, the National Policy https://www.government.nl/topics/ speculation and subsequent inflation of Guidelines for coordinated land use and transport spatial-planning-and-infrastructure agricultural land values, which undermines the planning are also considered successful. These feasibility of the targets. Given that the number guidelines put pressure on municipalities to of households is projected to rise, this is socially steer development towards existing urban areas unsustainable. Another case is the Ladder for instead of urban expansion. Each local authority sustainable urbanisation in the Netherlands. is expected to follow the national guidelines On one hand, stakeholders support its focus on as part of the multi-level cooperation process preventing oversupply of urban land-uses and within the country’s planning hierarchy. Article encouragement of infill development, but on the 4 of these guidelines states that ‘municipalities, Compact suburban development – Leiden, The Netherlands other hand were quite critical about the side- county municipalities and the representatives of effects of enforcing the policy via the courts the national authorities in the counties should Territorial characteristics of the area: (see Box 10). organise the planning to ensure coordination In the Netherlands, people living in urban areas have risen since 2010. Developers generally seek out unbuilt of land use and the transport system in line or derelict locations inside or at the edges of urban areas, and it is not uncommon that land changes hands with these guidelines’.70 In contrast, the Climate several times before it is rezoned and built. 3.2.2 Strategies and visions Adaptation Programme from Portugal shows that the success of this type of intervention Intervention goal and main features In Europe, many strategies and visions have can be undermined by a lack of political will The 2012 national strategy on infrastructure and spatial planning abolished all existing national policies on 71 urban development. As compensation, it introduced a single rule: the ‘ladder’ for sustainable urbanisation. been implemented by national governments at the local level . In conclusion, long-term This three-step procedure requires zoning plans to argue that (1) there is sufficient demand, (2) why a in order to promote long-term sustainable visions should therefore seek to rally political greenfield site was chosen (if applicable) and (3) whether the site is multi-modally accessible. It allowed development. These national instruments set support, provide technical capability and citizens to challenge this argumentation in court. out guidelines which usually have to be taken financial incentives and strengthen multilevel into consideration at regional and local levels. coordination and cooperation. Main lessons and policy recommendations: • Procedural rules can have a real impact. The ladder strives for a compact urban form via a procedural One clearly successful strategy is the zero- rule. If there is no demonstrable need or demand, the plan risks getting stuck down in court. The harder Success stories growth goal for car traffic applied in Norway it is to prove need, the riskier the plan is to adopt for municipalities. since 2018. The strategy aims to have all growth • Enforcement through the courts has side effects: the ladder became a common weapon wielded by Many national strategies seem to be successful. in transport over the next decades in public opponents, and this contributed to the judicialization of planning: policy was de facto determined by judges through case law. In Italy, for example, the 2015 National Strategy transit and non-motorised modes. The goal 69 • Restrictive policy can produce a backlash: once the impact of the ladder became perceptible, development for Climate change adaptation sets out a policy is supported by the National Transport Plans, interests rallied to abolish or weaken it. As a result, it was reformed (streamlined) after 5 years. framework that addresses climate change which implies that the strategy is part of a wider • Internalization takes time. In the years following the introduction, compliance was very low. Overt time, adaptation issues for both natural systems and transport policy. The target of zero-growth for however, this has improved to almost full compliance. In addition, stakeholders report that its most socio-economic sectors. It provides a national cars should be achieved by promoting public important impact is that it forces one to reflect on the merits of a plan, something which is now part of strategy to address climate change adaptation, transport, cycling and walking in cities, which the planning culture. actions and guidelines to build adaptive should reduce land consumption for transport • Socioeconomic factors matter: the impact of the ladder is difficult to measure given the more important impacts of the economic crisis. The Dutch land-banking model made municipalities very susceptible to economic volatility. 69 infrastructure as well as air pollution. Over the adopted in 2014. This seeks to identify suitable adopted in France, which seeks to limit found in Croatia. The Physical Planning Act long term, reduction in car travel should also lots and to make landowners aware of how their the consumption of forest, natural, and designates Protected Coastal Area zones, which lessen urban sprawl. lots could contribute to satisfying the demand agricultural spaces, and implement goal of comprises the area of coastal self-governing for housing.73,74 In total, about 995 hectares zero net artificialisation by 2030. This long- units, covering 1000 m wide continental belt of vacant building land (as identified in 2013) term perspective is accompanied by short-term (both on terrestrial part and islands) and 300 Mixed results were found to be unused (94% of these plots activities, such as returning 5,500 hectares m wide sea belt measured from coastal line. are privately owned). There are however no to nature per year). To this end, it mobilises Building restrictions are imposed in this area Other national strategies seem to have led to financial incentives or legal requirements to both regulatory and fiscal tools. Regarding and additional limitations are determined for more mixed outcomes. In the Czech Republic, convert these, the instrument relies purely on the former, it imposes a minimum land-use building within 100 m from the coastal line. for example, the 2006 National Policy of spatial communication. Therefore, the effectiveness coefficient and floor rate for urban renewal Thus, the rule contains restrictions on building development is one of these. The national and impact on sustainability remains to be seen projects. Regarding the latter, it denies tax outside of settlement borders, regulates terms policy aims to coordinate the various sectoral and depends solely on the will of the private benefits to new built homes on non-artificialised and conditions of further spreading of the policies and promote an overall sustainable landowners. areas and adds an artificialisation levy to the settlements, protects sensitive areas.77 It is development of the territory. In this sense, development tax and uses these revenues to considered relatively successful in its aims, it is in line with the European Sustainable In Slovakia, the 1991 Territorial System of finance soil renaturation and densification which are generally aligned to sustainability. Development Strategy, the Economic Growth Ecological Stability75 provides national guidelines of existing built land. It also regulates the Strategy and Natura 2000. The regional and for green infrastructure in the country. It is difference in land prices between agricultural Various nations across Europe have local planning levels are expected to follow obligatory for all planning levels and projects land and urbanised land.76 implemented national policies to restrict these central government guidelines. It also related to spatial organisation and land use out-of-town retail development, such as addresses the way in which investments should management. More specifically, it proposes The Czech Republic has raised the bar on suburban shopping malls, retail parks and be used to guarantee sustainable development measures to improve nature conservation, greenfield building by requiring a proof-of-need. hypermarkets.78,79 One example is the central when developing urban plans and projects all landscape and sustainable spatial development When zoning for new urban development, the government planning policy guidance – PPG6 on over the country. Nevertheless, the interviewee (e.g. through the implementation of ‘bio- need for new land (and, formerly, the impossi­ town centres in the United Kingdom. This policy points out that even though the national policy centres’, ‘bio-corridors’, and ‘interaction bility of using currently zoned urban land) needs aimed to concentrate retail development in aims to foster sustainable development and elements’). Despite good intentions, it has been to be approved according to the Building Act. areas which were not car-dependent (generally improve environmental quality (e.g. reducing perceived as an unsuccessful instrument. More recently, it has been integrated into the existing town and city centres), providing urban sprawl, revitalising rural areas), the policy EIA process. This is seen as a mixed success; instructions to local planners to bear this in outcomes seem to have mixed levels of success. it is aligned to sustainability but has been mind when making decisions on planning In the Netherlands, the Red for green72 national 3.2.3 Legal devices criticised for burdening the planning process. permission (Department of the Environment, strategy also seems to have mixed outcomes. 1993). This was elaborated via the ‘sequential The policy aims to improve the quality of rural At the national level, various legal devices approach’ concept: preference should be given areas, such as landscape and recreational can be introduced or enacted to promote Regulating tourism and retail pressures to town centre sites, where suitable sites or areas (referred to as ‘green’) by using the sustainable land use, like laws (general and buildings suitable for conversion are available, revenues that derive from urban developments, sectoral), bylaws and norms, and binding Tourism can negatively impact sustainability, followed by edge of-centre sites, district and such as housing, commercial and industrial referendum initiatives. In addition, land use can so it is not surprising that various countries local centres and only then by out-of-centre development (referred to as ‘red’). The long- also be affected as a by-product of legislation, have adopted special legal instruments to deal sites in locations that are accessible by a choice term national strategy is in line with the which can be either positive or negative in terms with this. In Switzerland, the adoption of the of means of transport. In general, PPG6 was Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). of sustainability. Weber Law was extremely successful. This rule seen as relatively successful: it was effective in However, the interviewee points out that the puts strict limits on second homes (only 20% changing attitudes to retail development and implementation of the projects is not always housing can be second homes per municipality) keeping retailers in city centres. On the other successful. Thus, as seen in section 3.1.3, it is Limiting urban expansion and includes sanctions for non-compliance. hand, despite its plea for positive planning to important to adopt short-term implementation In practice, no new building permits have promote town centre development, it has largely measures in order to strengthen long-term Sometimes strict land use control mechanisms been granted in municipalities where limits been interpreted as a development control visions and strategies. are adopted like those introduced in France have been reached (including almost all Swiss tool.80 Since 1997, via an amendment to its (i.e. the Zero Net Artificialisation), Switzerland ski-resort communities). The tool addresses Planning Act, Denmark also placed restrictions Another initiative with mixed results is (the referendum to limit land take of 2013) and mostly environmental aspects of sustainable on the construction of large shops and shopping Luxemburg’s ambitious National Infill in England as the brownfield target. Particularly land-use at the expense of economic ones. centres on greenfield sites outside the largest Programme (Nationales Baulückenprogramm) interesting is the Zero Net Artificialisation Another similar national-level legal device is cities and promoted small retailers in small

71 and medium-sized towns. The Act stipulates (mostly 20% more) than the zoning plan provides more transparency and fairness; and with the law on compensation payments for that new shops should be located in town indicates, provided that the architecture, the (4) the procedures are easier for developers. agricultural land (2004). The law aims to centres and even limits the size of shops within urban development and the public interests On the other hand, there are however drawbacks regulate the conversation of farmland to urban these centres: “3500 m2 for general shops and on open spaces, public pathways or any as well, e.g. (1) compensation measures are use by imposing a fee, collected nationally, – usually – 2000 m2 for specialty shops, in town other benefit for the public can be realised. not focused on soil sealing and land take but which is and then used for soil protection and centres, centres of city districts and secondary It has been reported as being successful, but on impacts on nature in general; (2) there is soil quality monitoring. However, the act can be centres. In small local centres, the maximum there have been some complaints about the no limitation to soil sealing or land take (it is criticised for lacking a conceptual approach and shop size is 1000 m2”.81 This intervention sluggishness of the planning process and the just about extra costs); and (3) the costs of not taking into account contextual factors such was identified as a best practice82, but was possibility of complaints by neighbours. For this compensation measures seem to be very as land ownership and management. The Act not uncontroversial: it was supported by the reason, some communities do not use it often.85 moderate (between 1-5% of the direct costs of could have better engaged owners, tenants or association of small shopkeepers and consumer a development per m²).88,89 On the other hand, managers in the improvement of the agricultural organisations but opposed by municipalities Some legal devices are well-established. compensation measures are not focused on soil land protection.92 and big retail chains. In the end, “the minister The German mandatory land readjustment sealing or land take but on nature in general. had the power and the will to implement the rule has existed for over 100 years and is a There is no limit to land take: developers who very detailed top-down regulation of municipal standard instrument in planning. It allows for consume more simply pay larger amounts of Fiscal instruments retail planning”.83 All these cases have proven the assembly of land for the development of money which are comparatively low (1-5% of the that clear set of norms and regulations can towns and villages and ensures the rights of the direct costs of a development per m²). Given Another interesting option for policymakers and facilitate implementation. parties involved. A land readjustment procedure this, the positive impact of sustainable land-use decision makers is to use fiscal instruments. can result in prudent land use (thus minimising goals might be limited.90 Even if not directly oriented on reducing land consumption), while accommodating economic use, the example of the fiscal taxation in Italy Infill development and social needs.86 The same rule (Perequação) A slightly different approach was adopted in is interesting since these fiscal rules helped was introduced in Portugal in 1999 to allow for 2018 in Luxembourg where the digital Ökopunkte promote densification. The national law 147/2013 The brownfield target in England is a prime the same kinds of success as in Germany, and System differentiates the value of land according (and its amendments) establishes that buildable example of limiting urban expansion through with the intent to overcome land speculation. to its scarcity and restoration potential using a areas are subject to taxation measures (called in legal measures aimed at infill development. So far, experience has shown that it is an complex but clear and binding compensation Italian the TASI – tributo per i servizi indivisibili) It dictates that at least 60% of new housing effective instrument but not very efficient given measures assigned to each biotope, habitat or that can vary from one municipality to must be built on brownfield land by 2008. In the lengthy procedures as compared to the other land use. It also sets a monetary value another.93 Despite its objective of raising taxes, fact, the target was exceeded (around 80% of usual form of development. Overall, it can be for eco-points. A national register enables the this law has influenced spatial planning and new housing being built on brownfield sites). considered as an important tool for sustainable allocation of measures to respective projects consequently territorial development because Another interesting example of a national urbanisation, and one that has not been with compensation requirements as well it has caused landowners to ask to reconvert legal rule to promote densification is the 2018 sufficiently taken advantage of.87 as eco‑point trading. Even if too early to be their buildable areas to agriculture land in decision in Malta to allow the construction assessed properly, this instrument contains order to avoid paying the tax. This has allowed of additional floors at second and third floor innovations like the possibility of trading municipalities to the oversupply in zoned land levels, overriding local plan provisions. Although Compensation measures of ecopoints through a national register. (see the Bassa Romagna and Reggio Emilia case it is too recent to measure the outcome, the Compensation measures focus mostly on the study). Again in Italy, Paragraph 669 of Article expectation is that this will be a mixed success Sustainable land use can be improved by environmental aspect of sustainable land-use; 1 of Law 147/2013 (Legge di stabilità 2014) levies in terms of sustainability. While conceivably introducing sectoral (compensation) measure. however, due to their transparency they are less a real-estate tax on buildings or construction reducing demand for greenfield sites, it could For example, the National Nature Conservation burdensome to developers. areas, with the exception of agricultural overheat the urban property market and create Act in Germany introduces an eco-account land. This led to a reduction of development oversupply (negative economic sustainability), system, a compensation requirement for On the other hand, not all compensation pressure, as developers became more wary of and inconvenience residents and motorists developers. It was introduced in 2002 and mechanisms are so successful. The Dutch taking big risks (and allowing construction sites (social sustainability), as more areas are allows developers a relatively easy way to ecological compensation mechanism is a case to remain fallow) or constructing buildings that turned into building sites.84 Similarly, in 2009, acquire eco-points from compensation in point. In the Netherlands, only half of the would not be completely occupied. As farmers Liechtenstein enacted a Building Law, which agencies. The eco-account system has added land which was lined up to be compensated were exempt, there was less incentive for them contains a planning instrument supporting value because: (1) the quality of measures is was actually compensated, largely due to the to sell their land. There have however been densification. Specifically, it gives private and better controlled; (2) measures are pooled and lack of sanctions91. Problematic compensation some efforts to sidestep this rule by registering public landowners the right to build higher larger projects are facilitated; (3) the system measures have been also introduced in Slovakia construction areas as agricultural.94

73 More land use oriented, the Estonian Land Mixed and disappointing results in Italy in the last decades).* Even though both areas, brownfield recovering, compensation Value Tax (1993) seeks at a better redistribution aim at giving an answer to social problems like measures etc.); of property taxation system in order to govern Despite their intentions, there are a number of illegal constrictions, the way of which these • are normatively strict and binding (adapted to urban land-transformation.95 The country examples of interventions that exhibit limits or legalisation and amnesties instruments are their different institutional contexts); explicitly decided to foster densification using where achievements were minor or fell below applied do not pursue sustainable land use. • are technically feasible (coherent set fiscal rules. In particular, the Land Value Tax expectations. This is the case of the Law of On the contrary, they legitimate unsustainable of norms and regulations that may shifted the base of taxation from the value Solidarity and Urban Renewal introduced in practices and do not prevent additional guarantee interventions’ applicability and of buildings to the value of the land plot, France in 2000 and the Italian Environmental development of informal settlements. implementation); encouraging landowners to maximise the use Code of 2006. The 2000 French Law of Solidarity A negative impact on land development has of their land (within the scope of planning and Urban Renewal contains provisions, among been shown by the Act on large-scale retailing Conversely, if these pre-conditions are not regulations), such as building at higher densities over things, to counter urban diffusion by in Poland (2005). The law aimed to limit respected, they risk failing. In additions, or extra floors.96 While in the majority of coordinating public-transport infrastructure and development of large-scale retailing with the interventions have high risk to abort when: countries, property taxes are determined by promoting social housing (with a 20% minimum threshold of 400 m2, but the regulations left the • there are not institutional capabilities to value of buildings, in the case of Land Value target). It is seen as a mixed success regarding final decision up to local authorities, which were translate them in effective measures – some Tax, the object of the taxation is the land-plot containment.99,100 At the beginning of 2000s, not necessarily in favour of the policy. Moreover, initiatives may remain just on paper and by encouraging landowners to maximise the there was the need to reconsider the French implementing regulations were never prepared never implemented while others may be miss use of their land. After almost thirty years of spatial planning system according to new needs since the law became invalid in accordance with understood (lack of bylaws); implementation, however, the efficacy of this and economic circumstances having the merit the judgment of the Constitutional Tribunal • where legal devices are not strict but foresees initiative in limiting urban sprawl is low. Indeed, for the introduction of the plan d’aménagement of 8 July 2008. The lack of effectiveness some ‘windows of flexibility’ (not mandatory) suburbanisation has continued through time et de développement durable. One of the also characterises the Law on agricultural which may determine uncertainty; shows that adopting a taxes oriented approach, innovations of the law was the introduction land passed in Bosnia and Herzegovina in • legal devices do not consider sustainability not always pays off. Thus, the success seems of a social housing target of at least 20% for 2006. In principle, the Law regulates the in a holistic perspective privileging one of mixed: it did not seem to halt urban diffusion. new dwellings. To counter urban sprawl, the planning, protection, development, use and its dimensions to the expense of the rest However, the introduction and implementation law attempts to coordinate infrastructure and management of all land parcels defined and them – or indirectly promote unsustainable of a certain legal devices do not guarantee per public transport planning to reduce the use of classified as agricultural land. Specifically, the practices. se a high level of success. private transport101. Through the years, the law Law on agricultural land prohibits converting has had the merit to increase social housing agricultural land of 1/4 soil rating categories to Finally, what decisions and policy makers should A related type of instrument are reference stock but it has been considered less effective construction sites for housing and business. take care off, is: land values systems, such as practiced in in sustainable urbanisation goals. Attention to In practice, noncompliance is widespread. • avoiding side-effects since often the Sweden and in Germany. These tools have a the quality of environment is also paid by the territorial dimension of policies remains long history, dating back to 1960 in Germany Italian Environmental Code of 2006.102 This sets As shown, there is a variety of norms and laws neglected; and the 1980s in Sweden. They are focused on out the legislative framework applicable for all through which address sustainable land use. • carefully evaluating a series of policy options economic and social dimension of sustainable matters concerning environmental protection However, their level of effectiveness (success) in order to avoid ‘copy and paste’ solutions land-use but, indirectly, may also have a positive including soil protection, desertification is not obvious. Overall, according to data since often norms have not the same impact on the environment through reduction prevention and hydrogeological risk. Despite gathered, legal devices have the chance to outcome in different territories; of land speculation. In Germany, the system was its intent to create a comprehensive guide for succeed if: • avoiding ‘easy solutions’ like amnesties since established to support market transparency and environmental management, its implementation • objectives, mechanisms of implementation they often are unsustainable in terms of to avoid speculations with land. Reference land was more complicated. Specifically, the lack of and instruments activated are coherent; land use. values are available for each neighbourhood bylaws hampered its potential and by limiting • laws have clear their final objective (limit and are evaluated and published periodically97. the operability of the law. land consumption, protect valuable natural A slightly different approach has been adopted 3.2.4 Programmes and subsidies in Sweden where reference land values are Finally, some legal devices had disappointing determined by using the sales comparison or adverse results for sustainable land use. Programmes and subsidies can pro-actively approach. The values are related to the property This is the case of those initiatives aiming at * In the last three decades, Italy has adopted at contribute to sustainable land use by promoting taxation system but are used for a number legalising informal settlements (the case of the least three Law on Building Amnesty (47/1985, institutional coordination mechanisms, of purposes. Unlike Germany, the Swedish law of Bosnia and Herzegovina)103 that are not 724/1994 and 326/2003) through which remit financing spatial transformation (i.e. projects), and legalise hundreds of thousands of buildings system has no intention of influencing the accompanied by strict management procedures (i.e. primary and secondary houses, construction establishing behavioural incentives and/or land market98. (see the series of building amnesties passed extensions etc.). subsidising specific initiatives. Not all economic

75 programmes are success stories and many are initiatives – according the Commissioner for BOX 11 exposed to a number of implementation risks, Human Rights of the Council of Europe104 – to some of which can be avoided. provide housing solutions** to several categories Integrated Territorial of refugees and internally displaced persons, Two examples are the cases of the Swiss Impuls its achievements are inadequate considering Investment (PL) Innenentwicklung and Swiss Agglomeration the number of low-income families still unable Programmes. The former obliges communities to resolve their housing problems.*** Even the to shift their spatial development to dense internationally acclaimed clustered development Name of the intervention, location and country: urban areas and to coordinate any extension of programme in the Netherlands (Vinex) has Zintegrowane Inwestycje Terytorialne building zones beyond municipal boundaries. been criticised as many were developed on (Integrated Territorial Investments – ITI) (Poland) The latter seeks to optimise local initiatives greenfields with less public transportation using an agglomeration approach, enabling than initially expected. Moreover, the pressure Territorial level: municipal agglomerations to better harmonise to implement the policy resulted schemes NUTS0; Year: 2014 their transportation, urban development and or masterplans designed to attract potential Website link: land-use plans and to thereby avail themselves developers, rather than focussing on quality. https://www.funduszeeuropejskie.gov.pl/strony/ of federal programs for funding transportation- In addition, the Support for Young Families o-funduszach/zasady-dzialania-funduszy/ related infrastructure projects. Since 2011, for Housing Outside Metropolitan Cities zintegrowane-inwestycje-terytorialne/ around 40 agglomerations throughout programme lunched in Lithuania in 2017 is Switzerland are actively participating, demon­ having unforeseen effects. This economic strating the importance of the programme programme grants subsidies in the form and the need for better spatial integration of housing credit for new houses and has (and coordination). Economic programmes can intensified suburbanisation in metropolitan also be used for the rehabilitation of peripheral areas. Even if deemed effective since the areas of cities, as is expected from the Italian funds were spent, its impact in terms of land programmes piano periferie 1 e 2, running since consumption has been significant. Moniuszki Park – Lodz, Poland 2015. These aim to recover abandoned and deprived areas by investing in environmental EU programmes have also had influence on Territorial characteristics of the area: and social as well as economic sustainability. sustainable urbanisation and land use. For Polish cities, primarily the largest and most economically dynamic ones, are experiencing uncontrolled urban To date, the programme has the ambition to instance, the EU Integrated Coastal Zone development, which is usually scattered and diffuse in form. Intermunicipal competition is one factor in this. allocated 4 billion EUR (2 have been already Management (ICZM) policy obliged Malta to activated) to the improvement of the cities prepare a national ICZM strategy. In 2019, the Intervention goal and main features peripheries by prioritising urban requalification country opted to fulfil this requirement through ITI is an EU instrument that seeks to foster more effective implementation of operational programs in the and regeneration of abandoned areas. the land-use planning system. Following 2014-2020 period. ITI should designate functional urban areas as spaces to apply renewed spatial planning, This seems to be successful as several initiatives ICZM’s advice, it will fight land consumption ensuring that all sustainability dimensions are considered. have been financed and some of them are and uncontrolled development along the Main lessons and policy recommendations: already put in place while others are expected to coast.105 Latvia also sought to revitalise areas • Territorial challenges like urbanisation need consistent spatial planning embedded in a long-term be concluded in the next years. via its regional development programme using perspective. EU funds. The support prioritises projects • Political will is insufficient for ensuring efficient cooperation. Well-anchored mechanisms for Economic programmes have not always which aim at the promotion of revitalisation cooperation between departments and stakeholders (beyond ‘formal’ participation) are needed. succeeded and some have palpable side- of urban environment, renewal of brownfield • Deference of the core city to its hinterland is a pre-condition not only to reach agreement but to achieve effects. The Regional Housing Programme in effectiveness. Croatia* is an example that despite its laudable • Competitive zero-sum games between municipalities is an obstacle to long-term goals. In order to ** The ministry of territorial governance is overcome this economic diversification and complementarities should be implemented for the mid-term providing housing in empty apartments and and compensation mechanisms in the short term. houses for reduced rents and the possibility of • Following planning tasks, main attention should be paid to implementation, in order to achieve the goal * It is endorsed and supported by the European buying the housing unit after a certain period. by ensuring the continuity of the process. Implementation is key stage. Commission, the USA, the UNHCR and the *** Despite efforts made only 411 housing units have • Setting up formal Territorial Impact Assessment procedures helps improving spatial planning OSCE, and managed by the Council of Europe been concluded able to solve the problem for sustainability, both by paying attention to the spatial dimension as well as by checking real effects Development Bank only 1081 people regarding official indicator dashboard. • Strategic instruments need to be clearly defined, mainly where strategic planning culture is lacking.

77 sites and other degraded territories. Support Yet importantly, in designing economic 3.3.1 Sticks: European legislation FIGURE 7 is given to costs associated with construction/ programmes in order to incentive sustainable Stick, carrot and sermon renovation of buildings and equipment.106 This land use, decision and policy makers should The SUPER project found that EU directives has been deemed relatively successful in both also take care of: and regulations have both positive and its own aims (creation of jobs in these areas) • how they allocate public funds in order to find negative effects on urban development and as well as sustainability. Finally, the efficacy the best option; land use. This usually occurs unintentionally, of the Integrated Territorial Investment (ITI) • what kind of economic programme to be as these matters are not directly within the in Poland, is still a debated issue (see Box 11). activated (investments, subsidies etc.); scope of the impact assessment of European The ITI is supposed to encourage the • what kind of initiative they want to support Commission proposals.* Sometimes, territorially Stick develop­ment of functional urban areas by (institutional, behavioural, spatial etc.). differentiated impacts are a necessary EU promoting the cooperation of their constitutive policy design element. In both cases, this DIRECTIVES AND administrative units, the implementation of demonstrates the need for an awareness about REGULATIONS common inter-sectoral, integrated projects 3.3 Recommendations for the spatial distribution of impacts that goes that comprehensively meet the needs of EU institutions beyond the already existing Environmental the functional urban area. The success and Impact Assessment (EIA) and Strategic long-term effect of the implementation Even if the EU has no explicit competences Environmental Impact Assessment (SEA) of ITI strategies depend largely on local for spatial planning, it is by no means without directives.** factors, such as the determination of local influence with respect to urbanisation and land governments, effective management, creation use. The influence it does have is hard to identify A territorial impact assessment (TIA) can help Carrot of the conditions for the multiplier effects of because it usually comes as a by-product of to estimate the territorial impacts of future joint projects as well as social acceptance and unrelated activities such as sectoral policies, or existing policies. The ‘ESPON TIA Tool – FUNDING support for strategic programmes. legislation, incentives and funding as well as via TIA necessity check’ provides a step-by-step INSTRUMENTS overarching agendas (see Figure 7). Recently, a procedure to help officials identify whether such In conclusion, it can be said that programmes more direct role is being played by the EU Urban and subsidies can be instruments to deliver Agenda Partnership on Sustainable Land Use sustainable land use. However, in order to and Nature Based Solutions (SLU-NBS). The * Tool #33 of the Better Regulation Toolbox, succeed, programmes should be: SUPER project carried out a broad inventory of however recognises that the territorial impact of • properly designed to avoid or limit EU policies that can and do affect urbanisation an EU initiative could be relevant if the problem it side‑effects and trade-offs; and land-use, resulting in the production of addresses is unevenly distributed or if the policy Sermon • focused on a few well-defined objectives; 59 factsheets that discuss impact of individual itself its likely to act unevenly on the territory. STRATEGIES • activated as instruments to support public policies. See: European Commission (2017) Better AND regulation Toolbox. IN FORMAL or private initiatives to achieve strategic ** These directives sometimes can bring the AGREEMENTS objectives. Following (Evers & Tennekes, 2016) and spatial and territorial impacts of policies and others, the SUPER project made a general projects into view. The Environmental Impact Otherwise, programmes can be subject of distinction regarding the way EU policies affect Assessment (EIA) directive 2011/92/EU mandates Source: PBL/ ESPON SUPER failure if: spatial planning issues: (1) those that provide that developments which are likely to have significant direct and indirect impacts on the • objectives are too vague or broad to monitor incentives, for example subsidies, to encourage environment undergo an obligatory assessment, or control their effects; desired behaviour (carrots), (2) those that including the soil. It therefore indirectly promotes • are too ambitions compared to the allocated impose rules to sanction unwanted behaviour actions toward compensation of soil sealing funds (it can create unrealistic expectations); (sticks), and (3) those that attempt to persuade environmentally damaging land uses. However, • do not foresee a combination of long- by means of providing information, creating the list of EIA-obligatory projects is outdated and does not include, for instance, solar thermal term and short-term objectives which forums for discussion, and convincing power stations. The Strategic Environmental implementation will increase their credibility. argumentation (sermon). Where applicable, this Assessment (SEA) directive 2001/42/EC section will note whether a particular EU policy addresses the environmental impact of plans and works through carrots, sticks, sermons, or a programmes. This can also impact urbanisation combination of these. and land-use policies and practices. However, studies have found that the overall quality level of SEA reports is still fairly low and exhibit strong variation in quality.

79 When considering sermon-based instruments, we propose the following recommendations: • Reach an agreement on pan-European goals • Break down the goal to the member state FIGURE 8 an assessment is necessary. If so, the following level and the regional level. This facilitates Impression of the ESPON SUPER TIA workshop on the diffuse scenario methods may be appropriate: Rhomolo107 and linking the EU goals to land use policies. LUISA (or the open source version LUISETTA)108 • Monitor developments and issue developed by the Joint Research Center and EU-level reports. the ESPON TIA Quick Check tool.109 The latter two were combined to evaluate the potential territorial impacts of the SUPER project’s ‘diffuse scenario’ (see Chapter 2). Figure 8 provides an impression of the workshop.

Various directives, mostly within the area of environment, affect urbanisation and land use. These primarily use the ‘stick’ approach. For and decontamination of brownfield sites. instance, the Natura 2000 Directive (92/43/ The European Agricultural Fund for Rural EEC) led to the designation of protected areas Development (EAFRD) can affect land-use for fauna and flora, and makes it difficult, if decision-making by, for example, supporting not impossible, to develop these for urban balanced territorial development of rural use. Italian and Dutch experiences reported economies and communities and fostering problems related to implementation.110 the competitiveness of agriculture. Finally, More specifically, it was found that, as local the current URBACT III programme aims authorities were given new responsibilities for to promote sustainable integrated urban the management of Natura 2000 sites, they development in cities across Europe. It explicitly should be also provided with the institutional calls for coordinated policies for urban renewal capacity to carry out this responsibility. and control of urban sprawl. Various projects Similarly, the Floods Directive (2007/60/EC) implemented under its funding are expected calls for the introduction of flood risk concerns to contribute to sustainable urbanisation. into planning and land use policies, which can By setting up local support groups, URBACT discourage urbanisation in or near river basins, projects have created a positive process.112 for example. Some countries are struggling with implementation, due to its complexity It should also be pointed out that not all and need for time-consuming intersectoral European funds impact positively on sustainable negotiations.111 Other ‘stick-like’ directives affect urbanisation and land use. For instance, road urbanisation and land use as well, such as infrastructure can stimulate urban diffusion due Public Procurement, Air Quality and Seveso. to better car accessibility, the example of the TEN-T policy in Poland being a case in point.113

3.3.2 Carrots: funding instruments 3.3.3 Sermons: strategies and (in)‌formal agreements The ‘carrot’ approach can also affect urbani­ sation and land-use decisions. For example, Urban development can be influenced through projects using European Structural Investment the power of persuasion by setting agendas and Funds (ESI Funds) aim at preserving and framing discourse. Non-binding documents protecting the environment and promoting to this end can be initiated by institutions on resource efficiency. Similarly, the Cohesion the EU level or at the initiative of member Fund (CF) as well as the European Regional states. Sometimes these provide information Development Funds (ERDF) are sometimes or monitoring, while other times they seek to used to support the revitalisation of cities provide a common framework for subsequent

81 The SLU_NBS Partnership drew up the following recommendations in its Action Plan: • EU level: (i) issues of land take and land use decision-making. Regarding the latter, this An example is the Alpine conventions, where management should be more outlined in EU-level can take the form of a target: the Europe 2020 member states agree to common development policies in order to strengthen sustainable land strategy, for example, set the 20/20/20 goal goals and their implementation in national use across Europe; (ii) need for more incentive for reducing greenhouse gas emissions: 20% planning systems. More specifically, the Spatial on EU level for FUA cooperation and coordinated lower than 1990 levels, 20% of energy coming Planning and Sustainable Development Protocol spatial planning; (iii) more cooperation and from renewables, and 20% increase in energy was first agreed by the member states of the integration on various level of governance efficiency. More pertinently, the 2011 Roadmap Alpine Convention and then transposed into • Member States and regional level: National to a Resource Efficient Europe set the target the national law through their own national governments should promote FUA cooperation of ‘zero net land take by 2050’. Even though legislative authority. In the absence of EU by providing regulatory and financial frameworks it is debatable whether this target is a useful competencies, this is one way to deal with and mechanisms (e.g. by providing financial way to address urbanisation and land use cross-border planning issues. incentives, promoting the benefits of FUA issues at the pan-European level, it can help cooperation, providing adequate regulations and support the development of national and local Arguably the best relevant example of sermon- the necessary support for such cooperation) policies. For example, inspired by this target, based policy is the Partnership on Sustainable • City level: Nature-based solutions need to be the government of Flanders (BE) seeks to ban Use of Land and Nature-based Solutions better recognised as an adequate tool to deal with all new greenfield development by 2040.114 (SLU_NBS) being carried out under the numerous challenges and to improve life in the cities umbrella of the Urban Agenda for the EU (UA). The above can be readily applied to urbanisation One of the missions of this partnership is to and land-use issues. If a common picture of identify and understand phenomena, including future urban and rural development exists at legal frameworks and the territorial culture of the EU level, this can impact the discourse on regions/countries/cities, which generate and planning goals and instruments at national, fuel suburbanisation processes. In particular, regional, and local levels. The Leipzig Charter the Partnership’s Action Plan sets the is a good example: this document was signed promotion of the ‘compact and liveable city’ by national ministers responsible for urban as a model for urbanisation and calls for: development and contains common principles • measuring ‘net land-take’ to help cities and strategies for urban development policies. setting effective land use policies Other examples include the European Spatial • including land take in the SEA at EU, Development Perspective (ESDP), the Territorial national and local levels Agenda of the European Union 2020 (TA2020), • mapping and developing underused and the Urban Agenda (UA), the Soil Thematic brownfield land Strategy, the Toledo and Basque declarations • better coordination of spatial planning and the Aalborg charter. In particular, the across jurisdictions TA2020 inspired the Spatial Development Strategy of the Republic of Croatia, which Whilst not seeking to challenge the principle includes measures and actions to develop of subsidiarity, the Partnership does see a certain areas and shapes the development rationale for EU-level intervention in terms of local and regional spatial plans.115 As such, of coordination, facilitation, provision of it serves as a strategic framework for spatial information, funding and streamlining planning at all levels. regulatory provisions. Addressing land-use issues in EU regulations, at least in some After agreeing on common principals, dimensions, would help to prioritise sustainable a next step is to draw up and sign a binding land use at the national and subnational levels. agreement. An advantage of such a document Finally, the SLU_NBS Partnership advises is that compliance can be safeguarded mainstreaming these issues in EU instruments through administrative and judicial processes. and policies.

83 Success factors of 4 interventions

85 FIGURE 9 Factors for (un)successful interventions

One-dimensionality

Multidimensionality

Reusing resources Sustainability 4 Long-term perspective Liberalisation

Limitations on the market mechanisms

Market factors Market orientation

Monitoring

Leadership

Testing

Soft factors Vision s stated, the SUPER project did not find factor in different types of interventions, legal a guaranteed recipe for success with and cultural contexts, or in different types of Rising awareness A respect to types of interventions or the territories might have completely impact or instruments used to implement them. Green may work in a different way. The indications Conditioning belts were highly effective in some contexts, that follow should thus not be treated as but failed in others, binding regulations were straightforward recommendations or recipes Special areas faithfully complied with in some contexts, for successful interventions, but rather as an Design Legally binding but ignored in others. In order to still draw inspiration.* general conclusions with respect to success, Financial tools the project examined all 235 interventions and the explanations given as to why they 4.1 Governance factors Expert knowledge were successful or not. These factors are very different in nature, since the pool of identified Several factors influencing the success of the Local and community orientation experiences is extremely heterogeneous in analysed interventions relates to governance. terms of implementation levels, interested These are described in more detail below. Private partners Inclusion types of territory, focus of the intervention, and Collaboration type of instrument. The analysis resulted in the Centralisation: A common solution to collective production of over 40 salient factors divided action problems is centralise decision-making, Centralisation into seven categories. Figure 9 presents the particularly in spatial planning. Centralisation findings of this analysis. Multilevel

The sections to follow discuss each group * As it will be presented here more in detail, Decentralisation of factors in turn (see Infographic 9). When different factors have a tendency to occur Governance reading this, an important caveat is in order: more often in interventions with specific Coordination despite the identified recurrence in number characteristics. Moreover, it should be stressed that in most of the cases numerous factors 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 of mentions, it is important to stress the contribute to the success of an intervention relative nature of the factors’ impact: the same simultaneously. n.a. Unsuccessful Scarcely successful Mixed success Almost successful Successful

87 INFOGRAPHIC  The SUPER project has examined 235 interventions related to sustainable Success factors urbanisation and identified over 40 factors divided into seven main categories. These factors are very different in nature, since the pool of identified experiences is extremely heterogeneous in terms of implementation levels, interested types of of interventions territory, focus of the intervention, and type of instrument.

Inclusion Soft factors Market • Private partnerships • Local community • Raising awareness • Market orientation • Expert knowledge • Vision • Liberalisation • Collaboration

Governance Design Implementation Sustainability

• Multilevel integration • Financial tools • Monitoring • Long-term perspective • Decentralisation • Legally binding • Leadership pbl.nl • Multidimensionality • Centralisation • Special areas • Testing • Reusing resources • Flexibility • Timing

Source: PBL/ESPON SUPER also prevents a diversification of sustainable 4.2 Inclusion factors Local community orientation: This approach 4.3 Design land-use principles according to awareness, is usually visible when local communities are wealth, and political goals of particular The inclusion of multiple actors and involved in the design and implementation of a Several factors concern the design of the regions or municipalities. Centralisation stakeholders in the development process is also project or intervention; it is in line with ‘tailor- interventions, particularly their flexibility, can have adverse effects, however, if local a crucial element of success. Various factors fall made’ and ‘place-based’ approaches. Local identification of special areas as well as to the needs and circumstances are neglected into this category. community orientation can foster a sense of characteristics of financial and legal tools. by central authorities. In some cases, responsibility for the local environment and especially in countries with less experience Collaboration: Collaboration relates to the allow local needs to be incorporated into the Flexibility: Since sustainable land-use goals are with implementing sustainable land-use positive interaction of different types of actors: project/policy design. It is suitable for pilot long-term by their very nature, it is important interventions, centralised approaches often between private and public organisations interventions because the local community to keep them feasible and acceptable for reflect a market orientation that prioritises and institutions, between public authorities can help identify weaknesses and areas for decades rather than years. One way is to economic development over social and at various spatial and administrative levels improvement. Excessive centralisation may make interventions flexible enough to so that environmental aspects. (multilevel approach), between public create a situation when local circumstances their goals can be linked to individual goals organisations and citizens (public participation) are neglected, which is considered a factor for of individual companies, organisations, and Decentralisation: this approach allows local as well as with experts. In general, collaboration implementation failure. This situation was more citizens in various territories. contexts, circumstances and needs to be taken provides: (1) a broader base of support for common in the new EU member states, which into consideration and increases local sense specific actions and strategies, (2) an enhanced have less experience and probably capacity to Special areas: sustainable land-use interventions of responsibility for achieving sustainable sense of responsibility for sustainable land- implement sustainable land-use interventions are sometimes addressed to specific areas land-use goals. On the other hand, it can also use goals among actors (commensurate as well as in and mountain areas where ski- or types of territories. This focus can make result in unintended policy relaxation in cases to their involvement and commitment), resort developers neglect local needs. Low the interventions more sensitive to the where sustainable land-use goals do not enjoy (3) easier coordination of cross-border community orientation was also negatively requirements and resources of territories. political support among local authorities activities. An important factor is appropriate associated with temporal sustainability, A drawback is that sustainable land-use goals or have not been sufficiently internalised. and professional process management to effectiveness, efficiency, and relevance. may find fertile ground only in some areas. Sometimes mandatory measures are needed for ensure that no one feels excluded or neglected Lack of spatial continuity might also be a implementation. and that roles and scheduling of activities is Private partnerships: Inclusion of private problem in this case. clear. Collaboration is especially valuable for parties into projects is a form of multi-sectoral Multilevel integration: The tensions between defining visions/goals, and less so during the collaboration. This often takes the form of a Financial tools: Financial tools take two main centralisation and decentralisation can to some implementation phase when narrower and more partnership where the public partner ensures forms: (1) charges and fees to discourage or extent overcome by multilevel integration. This task-oriented cooperation is more effective. This compliance with sustainable land-use goals limit specific activities (this can also take the is when authorities on different tiers (national, factor was less common among interventions while the private partner is responsible for form of compensation), and (2) incentives regional, and local) collaborate and coordinate using strict legal tools (were legally binding and the implementation/operational aspect of the and subsidies for, for example, a specific their actions. The higher level usually provides mandatory), which may suggest that rigid legal project. This is a relatively popular model for environmental programme to increase the a more strategic approach, while lower levels instrumentation does not create a favourable revitalisation projects. Other examples include purchasing power of vulnerable households on are more operational and community oriented. environment for collaboration (or that such the protection or restoration of agriculture as the housing market. This approach has proven very successful for collaboration is deemed superfluous). a form of economic activity that economic, interventions implemented in complex urban environmental, and social goals to be combined. Legally binding: Although strictness and rigidity settings involving different tiers of government. Expert knowledge: Experts are often involved Inclusion of private partners can build support can impede an intervention’s success, in some in designing policies and interventions, such and commitment for the intervention’s aims cases a legally binding status is necessary. This Coordination: Coordination of actions on as those in the area of planning, environmental among private parties. On the other hand, is especially the case when there is insufficient sustainable land-use goals is in many cases protection, engineering and flood prevention. their inclusion may divert attention from appreciation of the importance of sustainable indispensable since spatial phenomena do not Expert knowledge can take the form of data non‑economic aspects of the intervention. land-use goals at the implementation level. respect administrative boundaries. Coordination used in the intervention design phase. Lack of Inclusion of private partners was positively Or when environmental and economic goals is usually introduced between local authorities, adequate data or improper usage may result in associated with urban and regeneration conflict: for many actors, the natural choice is to for example, to limit land consumption. Policy ineffective and inconsistent interventions. interventions and was less common among sacrifice the environment. coordination is also considered a success factor mandatory and statutory interventions which in cases when various policies are harmonised are usually addressed to public authorities. to support sustainable land-use goals.

91 4.4 Soft factors its implementation needs to be considered. Market orientation: A market orientation, Multidimensionality: Thematic multidimensio­ Constant monitoring can facilitate these especially liberalisation, is usually associated nality is a key aspect of sustainability. An Raising awareness and developing joint visions decisions. with failure in terms of the sustainable land- exemplary sustainable intervention should were also considered success factors. use goals. Exclusive reliance on the market address environmental, economic and social Leadership: Leadership can take shape both often leads to excessive land consumption issues simultaneously. This is difficult to Raising awareness: Although the effectiveness institutionally and informally. The former and environmental damage and a neglect of achieve since the three areas are often in of soft urbanisation and land-use interventions is usually more effective, but the latter may the local context. On the other hand, limited conflict. It is thus crucial that the intervention may seem limited from a short-term be valuable when a low level of trust exists and careful introduction of market-oriented explicitly address all three aspects and limit perspective, when broadly accepted, these towards public authorities. Leaders should tools and mechanisms tends to increase the possibility of ‘trade-offs’ – when one may bring about significant change in attitudes have appropriate personality traits, be effective the chances of success because they do not dimension is being sacrificed on behalf of the and behaviours. Raising awareness about and conciliatory and possess authority and clash with powerful market forces (e.g. real- other dimension(s). In general, the economic sustainable development goals among public trust among other stakeholders. On the other estate development). This factor was usually aspect of the sustainable land-use takes care authorities and officials can sometimes be hand, as shown in the Italian case study, strong associated with profit-oriented interventions, so of itself and does not need extra protection. achieved through ‘harder’ factors such as leadership can be perceived as top-down, which it is not surprising that it was more frequently Environment is the most obvious focal guidelines or legal requirements. can undermine involvement and support of identified with interventions classified as point of interventions aimed at sustainable stakeholders. environmentally, socially, temporally and development. Multidimensionality is thus most Vision: A clear vision developed in a wide institutionally unsustainable as well as often related with these two factors. Much less participatory and collaborative process enables Testing: Sustainable land-use interventions can those assessed as inefficient, ineffective common are interventions addressing social stakeholder to stay on the right track during be very innovative and employ completely new and irrelevant. Surprisingly, this factor was aspects. The opposite of multidimensionality implementation and increases their involvement tools or new configurations of existing tools. even associated with interventions deemed is one-dimensionality, usually the economy. and sense of responsibility. It is also a way It can be very difficult to assess these solutions’ unsustainable from an economic point of view. This may be by design or by one-sided to obtain broad political support for the effectiveness, drawbacks or possible side effects implementation. The latter may result from intervention’s aim, even if the specific tools to beforehand. Testing (e.g. a local pilot study) Liberalisation: Liberalisation was usually intentional actions or as a side-effect. This achieve this may change over time. can provide valuable insights and be used to identified as a driver of uncontrolled factor is more frequently associated with signal possible negative consequences before development and excessive land consumption. interventions operating through side-effects. a new intervention is rolled out on a larger In some cases, it also had negative social 4.5 Implementation (e.g. national) scale. consequences when new development is not Long-term perspective: A long-term accompanied by appropriate infrastructure perspective, as one of the aspects of When it comes to the implementation phase, Timing: Timing is always crucial, but in the and transport facilities. When conditions on sustainable develop­ment, is, by definition, relevant factors include monitoring and strong case of land-use interventions it is especially development are loosened, the desire for profit positively associated with sustainability. leadership as well as having the right attitude to important to halt unsustainable processes usually wins over social and environmental Secondly, in most cases, the results of the test new solutions and a feel for timing. before they do too much damage. Many goals. Moreover, liberalisation is negatively interventions can only be fully visible in the alterations to the natural environment are associated with temporal and institutional long-term – both the negative and positive Monitoring: Monitoring is part of the evidence- irreparable, so proactive rather than reactive sustainability, success according to sustainable consequences. based approach in designing and implementing approaches are needed. Timely implementation land-use goals as well as effectiveness and interventions. This factor is especially important is even more important because it is much efficiency. Interventions based on liberalisation Reusing resources: This approach is closely for sustainable land-use interventions because more difficult to change people’s behaviour were more frequently implemented via legal aligned with sustainable land-use goals and they usually address different policy areas once it has become routine. instruments. usually related to densification, regeneration (ideally environment, society, and economy) and revitalisation initiatives, often involving in a long-time perspective. It is too easy to private partners. It addresses especially the focus on the progress in only one area and 4.6 Market factors 4.7 Sustainability environmental aspect of sustainable land-use neglect the others, especially when effects only by reducing land consumption. This factor was appear over time. The incredible dynamism As urbanisation and land use are strongly Finally, some factors relate to sustainability positively associated to interventions deemed and unpredictability of the contemporary world market dependent, both market-orientated and directly. This regarded multidimensionality, successful. Legally binding interventions means that the possibility or even necessity liberalisation strategies may strongly influence adoption of a long-term perspective, and a (i.e. mandatory and statutory), were less often of making changes to the intervention or the success of interventions. focus on the reuse of resources. associated with this factor.

93 Final message to 5 the reader

95 5

he maps, figures and projections of shortcomings, impact the various dimensions a distant region facing similar challenges land use change and urbanisation of sustainability: economic, ecological, social, or addressing a particular dimension of Whether it is to manage land T patterns presented in Chapter 2 institutional and temporal. In line with these sustainability in an exemplary way. Whether better to mitigate climate change, of this Guide illustrate the great diversity principles, ESPON SUPER interviewed over it is to manage land better to mitigate improve accessibility, enhance of settings, transformative processes and a hundred people involved with urbanisation climate change, improve accessibility, competitiveness, restore degraded change rates in European territories. This policy and practice throughout Europe to learn enhance competitiveness, restore degraded ecosystem services or promote social diversity is a reflection of different biophysical first-hand about the achievements, innovations ecosystem services or promote social cohesion, experiences of others are a characteristics, but above all it is a reflection of and challenges when implementing local cohesion, experiences of others are a source source of inspiration and call to action. the historical trajectories, cultural preferences interventions. of inspiration and call to action. True to the To this end, this Guide offers and customs, economic specialisations and the spirit of the ESPON, the ultimate aim should information, ideas and perspectives institutional composition of each region. Given In contrast to the great territorial and cultural not be to standardise policies and regulation, to help decision‑makers and the complexity of managing this rich mosaic, diversity reflected in the maps of urbanisation, but to harness the potential of each territory policymakers to proactively contribute it would be ill-advised to prescribe overarching the direct contact with local communities to contribute to European sustainability using to a more equal, balanced, and reforms or suggest supposedly infallible revealed a common, virtually homogeneous the most appropriate tools at hand. sustainable territorial development. solutions based on individual ‘best practices’ substrate, from Scandinavia to the Mediter­ to promote sustainable urbanisation and land ranean and from the Icelandic islands to To this end, this Guide offers information, use in all situations and scenarios. Achieving the Carpathians. In urban spaces and rural ideas and perspectives to help decision- sustainability may be a chimera. But creating a environments, in consolidated as well as in makers and policymakers to proactively more sustainable way to develop and manage developing economies, in booming coastal contribute to a more equal, balanced, and land certainly is not. areas driven by mass tourism to struggling sustainable territorial development. The agricultural areas, we found a common resolve decision to convert land to a different use The work on which this guide is grounded stems to make a better use of the land. This ambition influences our quality of life and that of future from the recognition that, prior to prescribing connects political representatives in state or generations, and, as this Guide shows, a large solutions, it is just as necessary to have a international institutions, academics, regional or toolbox of interventions exists that can help thorough understanding of the processes of municipal planning officers, and activists of all alter prevailing land-use practices. Choosing change experienced by the different territories sorts in cities, towns and villages. among them is a tough decision, and in Europe as well as the motivations and implementation may require strong political conditioning factors that shape everyday In our discussions with stakeholders, we noticed commitment and bold leadership. We hope decision-making. Ultimately, these decisions are a need for a broader perspective. To understand that this Guide provides the inspiration to the ones that, with all their achievements and the situation in the neighbouring country or accept this challenge.

97 Further readings and references 6 at your fingertips

99 European Commission. (2012). Guidelines Wandl, A. (2019). Territories -in- between: on best practice to limit, mitigate or A Cross-case Comparison of Dispersed compensate soil sealing. Commission Staff Urban Development in Europe. (14th ed.). Working Document. TU Delft. 6 European Commission, & Joint Commission Resources, I. (2019). The future of cities: Journal articles Opportunities, challenges and the way forward. Publications Office of the European Allen, A. (2009). Sustainable Cities or Union. Sustainable Urbanisation? Palette. UCL’s Journal of Sustainable Cities. Habitat, U. N. (2016). World Cities Report 2016. Urbanisation and Development – Emerging Dembski, S., Sykes, O., Couch, C., Desjardins, Futures. United Nations Human Settlements X., Evers, D., Osterhage, F., Siedentop, S., Programme. & Zimmermann, K. (2019). Reurbanisation and suburbia in Northwest Europe: A OECD. (2018). Rethinking Urban Sprawl: Moving comparative perspective on spatial trends Towards Sustainable Cities. OECD. and policy approaches. Progress in Planning.

Jabareen, Y. R. (2006). Sustainable urban forms: Books Their typologies, models, and concepts. he authors invite all readers that Governance and Spatial Planning in Europe, Journal of Planning Education and Research, are interested in the promotion of Final Report. ESPON EGTC. Angel, S. (2016). Atlas of Urban Expansion: The 26(1), 38–52. T sustainable urbanisation and land-use, 2016 Edition, Volume 1: Areas and Densities. to also consult the following references: ESPON and Tecnalia (2019). GRETA – Green NYU Urban Expansion Program at New York Oueslati, W., Alvanides, S., & Garrod, G. (2015). infrastructure: Enhancing biodiversity University, UN-Habitat, and the Lincoln Determinants of urban sprawl in European and ecosystem services for territorial Institute of Land Policy. cities. Urban Studies, 52(9), 1594–1614. ESPON reports and guides development, Final Report. ESPON EGTC. Bruegmann, R. (2006). Sprawl: A Compact Siedentop, & Fina. (2012). Who Sprawls Most? ESPON and Nordregio (2013). TANGO – ESPON and PBL (forthcoming). SUPER – History. University of Chicago Press. Exploring the Patterns of Urban Growth Territorial Approaches for New Governance, Sustainable Urbanisation and Land-use across 26 European Countries. Environment Final Report. ESPON EGTC. Practices in European Regions, Final Report. Couch, C., Petschel-Held, G., & Leontidou, L. and Planning A: Economy and Space, 44(11, ESPON EGTC. (2008). Urban Sprawl in Europe: Landscape, 2765–2784. ESPON and Politecnico di Torino (2014). Land-Use Change and Policy. John Wiley & Towards better territorial governance in Sons. Solly A., Berisha E., Cotella, G., Janin Rivolin, Europe. A guide for practitioners, policy and International organisations’ reports U. (2020) How Sustainable Are Land decision makers based on contributions Gehl, J. (2013). Cities for people. Island press. Use Tools? A Europe-Wide Typological from the ESPON TANGO project. Dige, G., Zamparutti, T., Markowska, A., Investigation. Sustainability, 12(3), 1257. ESPON EGTC. Hernandez, G., Planes, S., European Gerber, J.-D., Hartmann, T., & Hengstermann, Environment Agency, & Milieu Ltd. (2016). A. (Eds.). (2018). Instruments of Land Policy: Wolff, M., Haase, D., & Haase, A. (2018). ESPON and Labein-Tecnalia (2013) EU-LUPA – The direct and indirect impacts of EU Dealing with Scarcity of Land (1st ed.). Compact or spread? A quantitative spatial European Land-Use Patterns, Final Report. policies on land. Publications Office. Routledge. (doi.org/10.4324/9781315511658). model of urban areas in Europe since 1990. ESPON EGTC. PLOS ONE, 13(2). EEA, & FOEN. (2016). Urban sprawl in Europe. Montgomery, C. (2013). Happy City: ESPON and TU Delft (2018). COMPASS European Environment Agency and Swiss Transforming our lives through urban design. – Comparative Analysis of Territorial Federal Office for the Environment. Penguin Books.

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105 List of Infographics

Infographic 1 – How many football fields per day? 4 Infographic 2 – Three main types of urbanisation 12 Infographic 3 – Land use change per country 18 Infographic 4 – Compact scenario 26 Infographic 5 – Polycentric scenario 28 Infographic 6 – Diffuse scenario 30 Infographic 7 – Characteristics of successful interventions 38 Infographic 8 – Toolbox of instruments for sustainable urbanisation 52 Infographic 9 – Success factors of interventions 88

List of Figures

Figure 1 – Understanding sustainability as a thematic balance 11 Figure 2 – The SUPER conceptual framework 15 Figure 3 – Land converted to urban use in the 2000-2018 period 16 Figure 4 – Development of urban use areas in relation to population development 2000–2018 22 Figure 5 – Urbanisation versus buildings in Liège and environs in 2012 23 Figure 6 – SUPER intervention database 35 Figure 7 – Stick, carrot and sermon 79 Figure 8 – Impression of the ESPON SUPER TIA workshop on the diffuse scenario 80 Figure 9 – Factors for (un)successful interventions 87

List of Case Study Boxes

Box 1 – Densification along the Black Sea Littoral Area (RO) 40 Box 2 – Stockholm Urban Containment Strategy (SE) 45 Box 3 – Integrated spatial planning in the city of Ghent (BE) 46 Box 4 – Protected Coastal Area in Croatia (HR) 49 Box 5 – Vision Rheintal (AT) 54 Box 6 – Municipal Structural Plan of the Union of Municipalities of Bassa Romagna (IT) 58 Box 7 – Revision of the spatial planning law in Switzerland (CH) 61 Box 8 – Territorial Action Plan of the Huerta de Valencia (ES) 62 Box 9 – German Land Take Reduction Target (DE) 67 Box 10 – Ladder for sustainable urbanisation (NL) 68 Box 11 – Integrated Territorial Investment (PL) 77

List of photos

Cover – Berlare, Belgium, by Dimitri Houtteman, Unsplash Chapter 1 – Valencia, Spain, by David Evers 1 Chapter 2 – Drenthe, The Netherlands, by Ivo Francken 9 Chapter 3 – Medugorje, Bosnia and Herzegovina, by Jeswin Thomas, Unsplash 33 Chapter 4 – Miasteczno Wilanow, Poland, by Wistula / CC BY-SA 85 Chapter 5 – Kamperland, The Netherlands, by Kersten Nabielek 95 Chapter 6 – Malmö, by Pontus Ohlsson, Unsplash 99

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