Yadav et al., J Biodivers Manage Forestry 2012, 1:1 http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2327-4417.1000102 Journal of Biodiversity Management & Forestry
Research Article a SciTechnol journal
in runoff and local climate [3]. A recent study in Northern Thailand Impact of Slash-And-Burn which aimed to assess the ecological foot print of a traditional shifting cultivation community found that shifting cultivation farms, Agriculture on Forest Ecosystem including active and rehabilitating fields aged 1 to 10 years, have due
to burning emitted 1745.33 tons of CO2 [4]. It is generally believed in Garo Hills Landscape of that about half of the deforestation in the tropics is the result of expansion of traditional agriculture, above all shifting cultivation Meghalaya, North-East India [5]. Some studies suggest that slash-and-burn farming may also be P. K. Yadav1,2*, Mohnish Kapoor2 and Kiranmay Sarma2 associated with poor crop yields and rapid soil degradation [6,7]. Tropical forest felling and burning has significant local impacts on nutrient cycles and soil organisms, which can have long-term effects Abstract on quality and recovery of forest site [8]. Slash-and-burn (jhum) is one of the primary causes of deforestation in tropics. In North-East India, increasing human The history of land use and agriculture in the forest landscapes of population density has resulted in the practice of unsustainable the greater Indian subcontinent and south Asia is strikingly diverse. form of slash-and-burn that includes shortening of the fallow Over the centuries, multiple overlapping cultures have occupied and period as well as permanent conversion of forest to permanent tilled the forests of sal (Shorea robusta), teak (Tectona grandis), and agricultural expansions. This unsustainable form of slash- hundreds of other evergreen, semi-evergreen, and deciduous tree and-burn leads to soil degradation, soil erosion, loss of forest vegetation and threatens the survival of wild flora and fauna. species. In North-East India, the dense tropical forests were viewed Garo Hills has the richest reservoir of plant diversity of India as a major obstacle for agricultural expansion. Most of the arable land and is one of the biodiversity hotspots of the world. There is being used either for settled permanent agriculture or jhumming, are numerous sacred forest patches in the Garo Hills. The and other forest resource uses such as firewood extraction [9]. prominent pressure to native forest biodiversity in the Garo Today, however, it is human population density and its toll on soils Hills is the increasing anthropogenic conversion of mature and and native forests of the region that have become an impediment to primary forest to jhum land. The decreasing fallow period has a deep impact on the life sustainability in Garo Hills and has prosperity. These anthropogenic pressures are negatively affecting reduced the quality of soil and thereby reducing the possibility the native forest viability in North-East India. Increasing rates of of vegetative restoration at the locality. There was a tremendous shifting cultivation have led to increased fragmentation of intact, increase in slash-and-burn land, i.e. 5.15 percentage in the year native forests and the implications of such changes in forest landscape 2010 when compared to only 0.83 percentage in the year 1991. patterns on native biota, including mammals like Asian elephants The overall reduction in the forest, mainly due to jhumming (Elephas maximus) and Hoolock Gibbons (Hoolock hoolock). can severely affect a viable forest habitat of the endangered fauna like the Asian elephant and Hoolock Gibbon. The need to The main difference between shifting cultivation of current understand the effect of slash-and-burn cycle and to differentiate practices is that when compared to the past, there is an increase in between the ecological sound traditional methods of jhum from the current unsustainable forms is most important. the scale and shortening of fallow period. The practice of shifting cultivation is reported to account for 60 % forest losses worldwide Keywords: Slash-And-Burn; Garo hills; Soil degradation; Deforestation; Asian elephant; Hoolock gibbon each year [10]. About 0.45 millions families in North-East India annually cultivate 10,000 km2 of forest, whereas total area affected by jhumming is held to 44,000 km2 [11]. With a phenomenal increase in Introduction the human population, jhum cycle has decreased from 20-30 years to about 5-8 years [12]. Short jhum cycle makes the land unsuitable Slash-and-burn agriculture is regarded as one of the traditional for agriculture and leads to considerable loss of soil nutrients through methods for cultivation in hilly areas of tropical regions in which runoff and leaching 13[ ,14]. forest vegetation is cut and burned on site (Figure 1A and 1B). The site is cultivated for food crops and when the final crop is harvested; Methodology the site becomes fallow and is allowed to regain its natural forest cover The present study “Impact of slash-and-burn agriculture on forest [1]. World Resource Institute in 1996 [2] regarded slash-and-burn ecosystem in Garo Hills landscape of Meghalaya, north-east India” of (also known as shifting cultivation, jhum agriculture and swidden agriculture) as one of the primary causes for deforestation in tropics. Deforestation by contrast and slash-burn normally causes large losses of CO2 and GHGs from soil and vegetation; leads to a change
*Corresponding author: P. K. Yadav, University School of Environment Management, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Dwarka 16C, New Delhi - 110075, India, E-Mail: [email protected]
Received: September 17, 2012 Accepted: November 26, 2012 Published: Figure 1: (A) Burning of Forest land for Jhum and 1 (B) Burned forest land. November 28, 2012
All articles published in Journal of Biodiversity Management & Forestry are the property of SciTechnol, and is protected by International Publisher of Science, copyright laws. Copyright © 2012, SciTechnol, All Rights Reserved. Technology and Medicine Citation: Yadav PK, Kapoor M, Sarma K (2012) Impact of Slash-And-Burn Agriculture on Forest Ecosystem in Garo Hills Landscape of Meghalaya, North- East India. J Biodivers Manage Forestry 1:1.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2327-4417.1000102
North-East India is conducted as preliminary survey in Garo Hills landscape. The relevant information and data for study were collected mainly from secondary sources available in publications and reports of various government departments and academic institutions. However, some information pertaining to Impact of slash-and-burn agriculture on soil, forest and wildlife, and their impact on forest ecosystem was also collected by conducting primary sample survey at village level. The details of data collection and compilation are given below: Figure 3: Survey for soil degradation and run-off in cultivated Jhum land in Collection of data from Secondary sources Nokrek Biosphere Reserve of west Garo Hills. An extensive review of the available literatures on soil runoff, forest and wildlife was carried out by visiting different government departments, academic institutions and various libraries. Published and unpublished data pertaining to land and forest resources, and their various goods and services were collected from journals, theses and technical reports. Generation of primary data Garo Hills one of the biodiversity rich landscape of Meghalaya. Native Garo community is practicing Shifting cultivationJhum ( ) for their livelihood from ancient time. There previous studies not documented the impact of shifting cultivation on the local biodiversity of landscape. However no more information is available on Impact of slash-and-burn agriculture on forest ecosystem. During present study primary survey was conducted to the find out the impact of slash- and-burn agriculture on soil degradation, runoff and wildlife habitat (Figure 2 and 3). Some information was also collected by interviewing of the endemic Garo community. Study area The study area is located between 90°07–91°E and 25°02-25°32N and with elevation ranges from 100 to1500 m. The Garo Hills of Figure 4: Location map of study area. Meghalaya have three district, viz., East Garo Hills, West Garo Hills and South Garo Hills. The total area of Garo Hills is 8,167 km2, which is 36.4% of the total area of Meghalaya. The highest point of Garo 3128 species of flowering plants including 1236 endemic species [16]. Hills is the Nokrek peak with an altitude of above 1412 m. The Garo Sacred forest are rich in biodiversity with about 1886 plant species landscape contain four protected areas (PAs) and four reserved forests documented from the forest of Meghalaya [17]. Many endangered (RFs), which collectively comprise 15% of the total area and offering species of the state are confined to Garo Hills only and 111 species excellent prospect for conservation of native forest and the associated were reported from Garo hills, out of which 51 species were endemic biodiversity of the region. The PAs include Balpakram National Park [18]. Garo Hills has richest reservoir of plant diversity of India and (200 km2), Nokrek National Park (47.48 km2), Siju Wildlife Sanctuary is one of the biodiversity hotspots of the world. There are numerous (5.18 km2) and Baghmara Pitcher Plant Sanctuary (2.7 km2). The four sacred forest patches along the districts of Garo hills. Bamboo Reserved forest are Baghamara Reserved Forest (44.29 km2), Rewak reserves dedicated to deities are also reported from Garo Hills. The Reserved Forest (6.48 km2), Emangiri Reserved Forest (8.29 km2 ) and Garo people traditionally perform ancestral worship in forest patches Angratoli Reserved Forest (30.11 km2 ) [15] (Figure 4). on ancient monoliths. Meghalaya is a small state in North-East India, is reported to have Results and Discussion The most North East Indian forests are under the tremendous pressure of exploitation due to unplanned traditional forestry practices especially the widespread use of slash and burn shifting cultivation, in which native people clear and burn the old forest growth over a piece of land to get fertile land for raising agricultural crops for one or two years and then move on to clear fresh forest land. Yet its reputation as a causal factor for deforestation, land degradation and smog has remained alive; and for valid reasons. Indeed, the system might have been sustainable at one stage. But the Figure 2: Sample survey in burned forest ecosystem due to uncontrolled rapidly increasing population pressure, migration, changing market Slash-and burn in south Garo Hills. dynamics, industrial development, and other significant changes
Volume 1 • Issue 1 • 1000102 • Page 2 of 2 • Citation: Yadav PK, Kapoor M, Sarma K (2012) Impact of Slash-And-Burn Agriculture on Forest Ecosystem in Garo Hills Landscape of Meghalaya, North- East India. J Biodivers Manage Forestry 1:1.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2327-4417.1000102 in the policy environment in the region, have increasingly caused transformation of one or other components of the shifting cultivation system in such manner as to destabilise the whole system at most places. Impacts on soil Burning forests is identified as one of the soil degrading practice that results in soil structural dilapidation. Although, shifting cultivation practices cause tremendous loss of nutrients [19] and Figure 6: (I) Degraded forest cover due to sedimentation runoff on high degradation of natural vegetation [20]. The benefits of slash- slope 6(II) Current jhum on high slope 6(III) Fallow land after jhumming. and-burning in improving soil fertility by immediate release of concluded minerals nutrients for crop use seems to be short-lived due to its degenerate effective soil physical properties. In the farmer’s Forest loss perception, this practice has clear benefits like: it consumes slash Meghalaya, including Garo Hills is one of the richest botanical vegetation, increases field accessibility, provides a fertilizing layer regions of India [26] and one of the most diverse luxuriant tropical of ash, improves soil structure and reduce weed tree composition vegetation condition of the world [15]. Extensive cutting and burning as well as occurrence of pests and diseases [21]. After the cropping activities during jhumming is the major biotic interferences in the year farmers leave the crop land as fallow land and before the natural Nokrek Biosphere Reserve [27]. This burning activity has directly plants grow to cover the ground surface, the soil is exposed (Figure 5A and circuitously affected rich plant diversity and caused forest land and 5B) to climatic element of rainfall. Afterwards, soil aggregates are degradation, habitat destruction and solely depleted the biodiversity dispersed; pores are closed with particles and further result in much of the Reserve [28]. Land use cover is an important component to higher rates of runoff 22[ ]. The level of soil alteration may be huge understand global land status; it shows present as well as past status if the magnitude of trash is large and the resident time of burning is of the earth surface [29]. Status of land use changes of Garo hills is long or thin, dry litter is completely incinerated. mentioned in Table 1 which shows dynamic degradation of forest Meghalaya is the most wet place of the world and the average cover. The study was conducted by Yadav in 2012 [30], as “Landscape rain fall in Garo Hills is about 3000 mm. Slope and elevation are an Dynamics in Garo Hills of Meghalaya, North East India using important factors that affect soil erosion and Garo Hills have a high Geospatial Technology” for master thesis (M.Sc. Biodiversity and degree of variable slope and elevation characteristics. Forest reduced Conservation) and submitted to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha water caused erosion by intercepting rainfall, increasing water University, New Delhi, India. infiltration on associated “soil fertility” island, intercepting runoff It was found that in entire time period, a large area under open at surface level and stabilizing soil with root [23]. Vegetation is one forest has been converted into non-forest area. The area of slash-and- of the major factors controlling soil erosion, while most soil erosion burn land increased in whole time period continuously. Yadav in occurrences are due to removal of vegetation and topsoil exposure to 2012 reported Jhum as one of the drivers of deforestation in Garo the air. Soil run-off and sedimentation processes at field and landscape Hills which increased tremendously (Table 1) during 1991 to 2010. scale can cause a net soil loss and can also affect spatial variability The area of dense forest decreased in between 1991 to 2001 but of soil fertility within a field and landscape 24[ ]. Soil run-off mostly increased in 2001 to 2010 period. This may be due to the effort put by serve on sloping lands and occur mainly in the first year after burning, Government and other organizations who are working for restoration particularly if slash-and-burn followed by heavy rainfall [25]. Heavy of forest in Garo Hills. rainfall in such areas (Figure 5A and 5B) may lead to sedimentation runoff from higher elevation and steep slopes (Figure 6). In future, The prominent pressure to native forest biodiversity in the Garo this can lead to a severe soil erosion problem in those areas. The soil Hills is the increasing anthropogenic conversion of mature and erosion may significantly affect any future revival of the vegetation. primary forest to jhum land. From 1980 to 1990, more than 6% of Jhum cultivation plays a very big role in degradation of soil, forest worldwide tropical forests and 10% of Asian tropical forests were and biodiversity fragmentation in that region. Survey of study sites converted to shifting cultivation2 [ ] (WRI, 1996). As per the 1979 (Figure 3, 5A and 5B) are presently upheld as an evidence of how the report of the North Eastern Council in the Indian state of Meghalaya, 2 indigenous people have blindly destroyed their environment. a total of 4116 km land was practiced for jhumming, of which 760 km2 was used at one point of time every year by 68000 jhummias, i.e. families involved in jhumming [31].Vegetation and land characteristics of Garo hills are heavily influenced by jhum activities which have greatly amplified in recent decades with increase in human population, resulting in several fragmentation of previously undamaged forest tracts. Reduction of native forest cover is a major impact of slash-and-burn. During 2000, a total of 7900 families (39,500 people) used 68 km2 of land for Jhumming at annual increase of 3.67% in South Garo Hills [32]. In Garo hills, native tribal communities have same permanent Figure 5: (A) Slope pattern in current jhum. (B) Sedimentation runoff after rainfall population continues to depend on shifting cultivation for their agricultural land, especially in western, southern and eastern parts livelihood. bordering Bangladesh and Assam. Because of the hilly landscape,
Volume 1 • Issue 1 • 1000102 • Page 3 of 2 • Citation: Yadav PK, Kapoor M, Sarma K (2012) Impact of Slash-And-Burn Agriculture on Forest Ecosystem in Garo Hills Landscape of Meghalaya, North- East India. J Biodivers Manage Forestry 1:1.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2327-4417.1000102
Table 1: Area under different land use land cover classes in Garo Hills.
Land use/cover Year 1991 Year 2001 Year 2010 ) (Classes Area in km2 Area in % Area in km2 Area in % Area in km2 Area in %
Dense Forest 836 10.24 375 4.58 593 7.26
Open Forest 6649 81.41 6365 77.94 4307 52.74
Slash-and-burn Land 68 0.83 172 2.11 421 5.15
Non Forest 614 7.52 1255 15.37 2846 34.85
Total 8167 100 8167 100 8167 100 settled cultivation is practiced only in small portion of the total impact on physical environment including land use, land cover, cultivated land, mostly confined to the valleys. High labour cost and biodiversity, and climate change and forest ecosystem. They also have energy input involved in trace cultivation, and absence of other viable negative impact for human health and on socio-economic system alternatives implies that the majority of population continues to of affected region. The large-scale destruction and transformation depend on shifting cultivation for their livelihood. of forest into degraded formations through logging and forest fragmentation and existing biotic pressure on forest in the form of Impact on wildlife logging, grazing and collection of non-timber forest products have Large, wide-ranging mammals, especially herbivores such as rendered forest vulnerable to forest fire [44]. Increasing intensity of Asian elephant, can act as useful indicators of overall landscape shifting of cultivation practices leads to low rainfall due to destruction biodiversity because they use large, often heterogeneous landscape of habitat which finally reduces biological diversity and causes areas to find resources [33,34]. Elephants also provide vital ecological extinction of previously undiscovered indigenous species too [45]. functions such as: creation and maintenance of forest paths and pools used in turn by many other species including ungulates; dispersal of Conclusion fruits and seeds through dung deposition; alteration of vegetation Like other forms of agriculture, slash-and-burn can be composition and structure through browsing and trampling; and mismanaged and lead to severe environment degradation [46]. other functions [35-37]. Conserving elephants would also serve to Continuously increasing human population and their demand conserve many other wildlife species; thus, elephants appropriately for food, fodder and transportation leads to natural land cover serve as an “umbrella species” [38]. degradation, resulting into habitat degradation, biodiversity loss, In India, Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are present in their and ecological instability [47]. However, carefully designed and well highest densities and numbers in Garo Hills of Meghalaya [39]. Little managed slash-and-burn can serve as a sustainable food production quantitative work has been done on elephant-habitat relationships system and provide benefits in the form of fuel, building materials in this region where the species’ distribution is known to be highly and other income source. Historically, Slash-and-burn agriculture fragmented [40]. If elephants and their habitat are to be conserved, has been among the few truly ecologically sustainable agro ecosystems particularly in Garo Hills, and elephant-human conflicts are to be in the world because crop yields can be maintained without the use reduced, the initial steps are to understand their spatial and temporal of non-renewable fossil energy resources for fertilizers, pesticides and distributions, determine habitat conditions associated with elephant irrigation [48] but shortening of the jhum cycle primarily to meet the densities, identify key population stressors, and suggest conditions demands of the ever growing human population has taken its toll on conducive to elephant population persistence. Much of the native the environment. forest cover used by elephants in Garo Hills has been greatly altered The threats of soil degradation and soil erosion due to jhumming over recent decades, largely through accelerated short-cycle jhum can affect the vitality of native vegetation due to loss of necessary activity. Such intensive land use has been previously concerned in the nutrients and soil features needed for their natural survival. decline of elephant populations of the region [41]. There were total Ramakrishnan in 1992 [49] described a positive correlation between 1841, 1297, 1104 and 1285 elephant reported in the 1993, 1998, 2002 crop yields and length of the fallow period owing the role of the and 2008 censuses respectively and it was concluded that numbers of fallow in controlling soil erosion. This relationship between food elephant and crude densities varied across census periods, showing productivity and soil conditions provide a means of assessing the constant decline from 1993 to 2002 but rebound from 2002 to 2008 cost to humans of degrading the soil resource, but it also provides when GH-XXII (Part of Khasi Hills) was included [42]. Garo Hills landscape has large patches of natural forest cover. Several forest patches in the Protected Area and the Reserve Forest were the best known for supporting large numbers of the endangered western hoolock gibbon (Hoolock hoolock), which have gradually decreased in past two decades and have locally extinct from these area mainly due to human disturbances ( which may include jhum) in their habitats [43]. Because of this anthropogenic activity the natural forest ecosystem has been modified, resulting man-made and natural landscape with poor species composition. Figure 7: Burned forest cover (wildlife habitat) due to uncontrolled Slash- Forest fire, controlled or uncontrolled Figure( 7) have reflective and burn in Garo Hills.
Volume 1 • Issue 1 • 1000102 • Page 4 of 2 • Citation: Yadav PK, Kapoor M, Sarma K (2012) Impact of Slash-And-Burn Agriculture on Forest Ecosystem in Garo Hills Landscape of Meghalaya, North- East India. J Biodivers Manage Forestry 1:1.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2327-4417.1000102 a means to assess the natural production potential of the soil. Garo references to North Eastern Hill Regions, in, Indian Sci Cong Assoc (3rd hills landscape, being a wildlife hub is being negatively affected Annul Session, Waltair). by unsustainable jhumming. The overall reduction in the forest, 14. Singh A, Singh MD (1990) Soil fertility management in NEH region, ICAR Res mainly due to jhumming can severely affect the habitat several of Bull NEH Region. the endangered fauna like the Asian elephant and hoolock gibbon. 15. Kumar A, Gupta AK, Marcot BG, Saxena A, Sing SP, et al. (2002) Proper strategy and management of jhum in the Garo Hills is an Management of forests in India for biological diversity and forest productivity, a new perspective. Volume IV: Garo Hills Conservation Area (GCA). Wildlife immediate need to safeguard pristine habitats of wild flora and fauna Institute of India – USDA Forest Service collaborative project report, Wildlife in the area and also for sustainable food production for humans. Institute of India, Dehradun p. 206.
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Author Affiliations Top 1G. B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Kosi- Katarmal, Almora-263643, Uttarakhand, India 2University School of Environment Management, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University Dwarka 16C, New Delhi - 110075, India
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