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Q. WANG the Semi-Structured Online Public Sphere in China

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Q. WANG the Semi-Structured Online Public Sphere in China The Semi-Structured Online Public Sphere in China: Institutional Criteria and Political Functions By Qingning Wang The Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Submitted to University of East Anglia School of Politics, Philosophy, Language and Communication Studies April 2017 This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that use of any information derived there from must be in accordance with current UK Copyright Law. In addition, any quotation or extract must include full attribution. Word Count: 95629 1 Abstract This research analyses online political communication in China by applying Habermas’ public sphere theory as a normative framework. The three institutional criteria ( equality, problematization of unquestioned areas, and principally inclusive ) and two political functions ( expressional function and corresponding function ) stemming from the public sphere theory act as analytic lenses to analyse the power relations, expressions, languages, and interactions in the communications. By using three events as case studies, this research applies a combination of content and discourse analysis to study them. It argues that there is a semi-structured public sphere in China, in the sense that it is a sphere that shows both promise and limitations in terms of facilitating equal, inclusive, liberal and critical political communications in China. It can act as a normative space for Chinese net-users to communicate about their concerns, but is not powerful enough to put real pressure on government to achieve sustained changes at policy level. Equal and inclusive debates are facilitated as net-users are given equal rights to express their opinions, and these opinions are inclusively available online; but they are also limited since pre-existing status has not been dis-regarded. Opinions generated by social and political elites and media organisations are constructed with pre-determined significance, and as a result, opinions are unequally accessed and valued. Through the online public sphere, Chinese net-users have debated different political issues. Through expressions and linguistic choices that are both critical and creative, they have challenged the government’s decisions and roles, and resisted censorship. The government still censors online debates, but has begun to recognise the significance of the online public sphere, and in a limited way, has engaged in communications with net-users, although they treat these communications as ways to promote and reinforce their interests, rather than truly seeking out opinions from the public. 2 Contents List of Tables .................................................................................................. 6 Acknowledgement.......................................................................................... 8 Introduction .................................................................................................. 10 Research Background ......................................................................................... 10 Academic Debates around the Online Public Sphere in China ........................... 12 Research Question .............................................................................................. 18 Research Framework .......................................................................................... 20 Contributions of the Research ............................................................................. 26 Methodology and Organisations of this Thesis ................................................... 29 Chapter 1. Literature Review: Public Sphere and the Online Public Sphere ........................................................................................................... 36 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 36 1.1 The Public Sphere Theory: Concepts and Debates ....................................... 36 1.1.1 Public Sphere Theory: Institutional Criteria and Political Functions .... 38 1.1.2 Criticism and Debate of the Public Sphere Theory ................................ 41 1.1.2.1 Debates about Multiple Public Spheres .......................................... 42 1.1.2.2 Debates about Equality and Inclusiveness ...................................... 46 1.1.2.3 Debate about Consensus-seeking Rational Discourses ................... 49 1.2 Online Public Spheres: Promises and Limitations ........................................ 56 1.2.1 Public Sphere and the Mass Media ........................................................ 57 1.2.2 The Public Sphere and the Internet ........................................................ 59 1.2.2.1 Online Public Sphere, Deliberative Political Debates and Empowerment of Marginalised Groups ...................................................... 64 1.2.2.2 Digital Divide and ‘Political as Usual’ as Critical Interpretations toward the Online Public Sphere ................................................................ 68 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................... 73 Chapter 2. Literature Review: Internet Censorship and Online Political Communication in China ............................................................................. 75 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 75 2.1 The Media System and Censorship in China ................................................ 75 2.1.1 Mass Media ............................................................................................ 77 2.1.2 New Media ............................................................................................. 82 3 2.2 Online Political Communication, Three Types of Contentious Debates, and Linguistic Violence ............................................................................................. 87 2.2.1 The Contentious Characteristics of Online Communications in China . 87 2.2.2.1 Contentious Debates as Government-Public Struggle .................... 89 2.2.2.2 Online Nationalism with Multidimensional Contentions ................ 93 2.2.2.3 Contentious Debates among Different Agendas ............................. 96 2.2.2.4 Linguistic Violence in China’s Online Political Communications 101 2.3 Debates of the Online Public Sphere in China ............................................ 104 2.3.1 Application of the Public Sphere Theory in China .............................. 104 2.3.2 Limitations of Current Debates ............................................................ 111 2.4 Research Framework .................................................................................. 114 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................. 117 Chapter 3. Methodology............................................................................. 118 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 118 3.1 Selection of Case Studies ............................................................................ 119 3.1.1 Three Cases .......................................................................................... 120 3.1.1.1 Kunming’s Oil Refining Industrial Plant Case .............................. 121 3.1.1.2 Debates around Diaoyu/Senkaku Islands in Tianya BBS Case ..... 126 3.1.1.3 Writer A’s Sina Microblog Case .................................................... 129 3.1.2 Sources from Government and Party Media ........................................ 131 3.2 Methodology Framework ............................................................................ 134 3.2.1. The Analytic Lens of Equality and Principally Inclusiveness Institutional Criteria ...................................................................................... 134 3.2.1.1 Regulation ..................................................................................... 136 3.2.1.2 Cases ............................................................................................. 138 3.2.2 The Analytic Lens of Problematization of Unquestioned Areas Institutional Criterion and Expressional Political Function .......................... 140 3.2.2.1 Examination of Whether or Not Individuals Can Problematize the Chinese Government ................................................................................. 141 3.2.2.2 Language Usage ............................................................................ 143 3.2.3 The Analytic Lens of Corresponding Political Function ...................... 145 3.2.3.1 Regulations ................................................................................... 145 3.2.3.2 Kunming’s Case ............................................................................ 146 4 3.2.3.3 CAC Website and 2015 People’s Daily Survey Report of Vulgar Using of Language on the Internet ............................................................ 148 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................. 149 Chapter 4. The Structure of Equality and Principally Inclusive Institutional Criteria in China’s Online Public Sphere ................................................... 150 Introduction ......................................................................................................
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