2021 by camillejayneesquivel powering responsibly energy geothermal with philippine

* Graduate SchoolofArchitecture, Planning and Master ofScienceinUrbanPlanning ‘21 islands Preservation, ColumbiaUniversity Master ofArchitecture‘21 the 1 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL

* for the land for land the care still and cared Bicol(andia) who to my ancestors in 3 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL key research questions

What and who is at risk in geothermal energy infrastructure development?

Should geothermal energy be managed as infrastructure or a natural resource?

Has geothermal energy development been an example of “sustainable” development?

How do we rethink these projects in today’s context of addressing climate change through planning and architecture? contents . RCMEDTOS 59 4.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 4.2 4.1 CH 4 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.1 CH 3 2.6 . (RE)BUILD 3.3 3.2 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 CH LEARNING 2 1.9 1.6 1.5 . PAYING 1.8 1.7 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 CH 1 CH 0

BIBLIOGRAPHY SUMMARY TABLE CONCLUSION + NEXT STEPS USING INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE FOR CLIMATE ADAPTATION SHIFTING POWER DYNAMICS: VICTIMS TOEXPERTS THE LAND GRAB OFINFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT +LAWS AROUND NATURAL RESOURCES “DEFINING” THE INDIGENOUS FILIPINX CENTERING INDIGENOUS PEOPLES INGEOTHERMAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENT DIFINING THE “VALUE” OF LAND MOVING BEYOND THE NARRATIVE OF RESILIENCE CONTESTED LANDS AND SOCIAL ACCEPTABILITY TIWI, ON THE GROUND DEVELOPMENT INTHE TIWI GEOTHERMAL AREA HISTORY OFDISASTER EVENTS AND CLIMATE ADAPTATION EFFORTS PRIORITIZING THE SETTING THE SCENE: BICOL ASACASE AREA OFSTUDY COMPETING DEVELOPMENT DRIVERS THE WOUNDS LEFT BYTHE MARCOS REGIME ENERGY POLICY +EXTERNAL AID DURING THE MARCOS REGIME POWERING THE “LITTLE BROWN BROTHER” UNDERSTANDING THE POTENTIAL OFGEOTHERMAL ENERGY THE GLOBAL ENERGY CRISIS AND CLIMATE CHANGE BACKGROUND GEOPOLITICAL IMPLICATIONS OFENERGY SYSTEMS INTHE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS THE FROM (RE)BUILD PRICE: 4 70 68 ITR 20 HISTORY 1 CONSEQUENCES (RE)BUILD: 32 58 42 23 14 THE OTMRO 19 POST-MARCOS 47 DISASTER

DEBT

RP 50 TRAP

56 54 52 45 40 48 28 26 25 13 12 16 8 7 3 5 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL acknowledgements

POBLACION, NORZAGARAY, BULACAN have longlastingharmfulimplications. (for decades)andcontinuetoflag wheredamagebyshortsighteddecisionscould development, thisthesisadvocates andaimstoamplifythevoicesthathavebeen have cometotheaidofcountry’s ambitiousandaggressiveinfrastructure foreign investors,privatecompanies, andothercountrygovernments)that As thePhilippinescontinuestomanage externalagents(developmentagencies, experiences andfostermeaningfulprojectsinbothdisciplines. spatial practitioners(plannersandarchitects)howwecanprivilege lived borrowed fromtheBlackspaceManifesto,whichhasthoughtfullyarticulated for for thenon-minority,privilegedwhitebody.Movingatspeed of trustis island nations)whostillexperiencedisplacementforthesakeof makingroom community intheUSandlargerAfricandiaspora(especiallythose fromother acknowledge andactonjusticetoreconcilewithpastharms, the Black communities inCanadawhereIhaveseenhowinstitutionscanmeaningfully provided byotheroppressedpeoplesofcolour:particularlytheIndigenous speed ofthepeople’strust.Iamgratefulforsolidarityand allyship serving architecturalgood,thatcentersthemostvulnerableand moves atthe practice ofplanningtoonethatexploresbuildinginfrastructure, apublic- around naturalresourcemanagementtoreckonwiththecapitalist market-driven touted foritsscientificandtechnologicalinnovation,againstthe discourse This workusesthecaseofgeothermalenergy,arenewableenergysourceoften greater publicgood. protected areas,andsitesofthecountry’snaturalresources———orfor for utilizinglandthatoverlapsinpotentialinfrastructuredevelopment, the state,“well-meaning”NGOsandlocalpeoplewhennegotiatingterms countrysides andprovincesadjacenttourbancentrescausingthetensionbetween United States,privilegesdevelopmentandinfrastructureexpansioninthe of theland.Today,Philippines,apostcolonialnationSpainand forced migration,adaptationtovolatileweathereventsandlongtermoccupancy cultures andcaretakingoftheenvironment———informedcompoundedbyyears to protecttheintegrityandlivelihoodsassociatedwithsustainablefarming worldwide, whocontinuetofight,sometimesatthecostoftheirownlives, group ofindigenouspeoplesandenvironmentaldefendersinthecountry “resiliency.” TheBicolano/Bikolanopeoplearepartofthelargerthreatened reckoning withwhatdefinesthosetermsinrelationto“value,”“power,”and made intheBicolregionvainof“sustainability”and“progress,”while This workinterrogatesthedevelopment,particularlyingeothermalenergy, Linda TuhiwaiSmithandherbook,DecolonizingMethodologies. the FilipinxidentitywhichIimplorethroughpracticesandteachingsof experience ofthequeerFilipinxbodyandsignalstowardsdecolonization Kevin Nadal.“Filipinx/a/o,”modeledafterthe“Latinx”movementcenters the world,andowesucharticulationtoFilipinx-AmericanscholarslikeDr. in thewhite-centricplacesthatFilipinxpeoplehaveemigratedtoaround gender identitiesthathavebeenhistoricallyexcludedanddisenfranchised semantic useof“Filipinx”isdeliberateinthisworktocreatespaceforall Asian-Canadian-Pacific Islander,andmorespecifically:aFilipinxfemme.The the nuancedgenealogical,culturalandpoliticalexperiencesattachedtobeing high levelpolicyanalysis)———butpositionmyselfasaresearcherclaiming the limitationsofscopethisstudyasahistoricliteraturereviewand acknowledge theoutsidervoicethatIbringtothisdiscourse(especiallywith Region, specificallyBalatanandNabuaintheprovinceofCamarinesSur,I since theearly16thcentury.ThoughIhaveamaternalconnectiontoBicol islands thathaveenduredtheviolentdisplacementofitsindigenousinhabitants study iscenteredinthePhilippinearchipelagomadeupofoverseventhousand this thesis.Asasecond-generationFilipinx-Canadian,thegeographicareaof Nations, whereIhaveoccupiedthelandsofthroughoutyearwriting (Musqueam), S ancestral territoriesoftheMunseeLenape,Wappinger,Canarsie,x The researchandcollectionofthisworktookplaceonthetraditional,unceded, ḵwx ̱wú7mesh (Squamish),ands əl̓ilw əta Ɂɬ t əmxʷ (Tsleil-Waututh)First ʷməθkʷəy̓ə 1 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL

geopolitical implications of energy systems in the philippines chapter 1 3 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL BACKGROUND

On September 19th, 2020, the Metronome (a 62-foot-wide 15-digit electric clock art As of 4:00 PM EST on Sunday, March 14th, display) across Union Square on 14th Street in 2021, the Climate Clock read that we have Manhattan, was revealed to show “the Earth (is) approximately 6 years, 292 days, 14 hours, and on a deadline.” Though our race to reduce our 59 minutes left to achieve zero emissions——— carbon dioxide emissions to save the planet or else. from irreversible damage has been understood globally for some time now, the Metronome surprised many (including myself) that we may have less time than we thought.

6 2 9 2 1 4 5 9 0

New York City, US 0 0 Carbon dioxide (CO2)emissions from the burning of fossil fuels for energy and cement production. Land use change is notPER CAPITA CO included. , Philippines OurWorldInData.org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions/ Note: CO Source: OWID basedonCDIAC; GlobalCarbonProject;Gapminder&UN change isnotincluded. Carbon dioxide(CO )emissionsfrom of fossilfuelsforenergy theburning andcementproduction. Landuse Per capitaCO₂emissions 10 t 15 t 20 t 5 t 0 t 1946 emissionsaremeasuredonaproduction basis, goods. for meaningtheydonotcorrect emissionsembeddedintraded 2 EMISSIONS 1960 1970 1980 • CC BY 1990 2000 2010 2018 PHILIPPINES UNITED STATES 5 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL In terms of actors, the United States and production since its lowest point in the mid other global superpowers hold the most 1980s (just after the first wave of geothermal responsibility for emissions with per capita energy development in the country). A closer rates consistently above 15 metric tons of look and review of the country’s steps CO2 per capita since the early 1960s (Figure towards energy generation and environmental 1). But the paradox for many countries in the conservation reveals meaningful insights into Global South is that they experience the most how climate adaptation policies have been pervasive events of climate change———natural disseminated, violent injustices prevailed, disasters———despite their relative global and ultimately the failure of most state and contribution. As of 2018, the Philippines has NGO-led development projects to improve the contributed approximately 0.2% to the global socioeconomic status and welfare of Filipinx cumulative of carbon dioxide emissions. With a people. per capita emission rate at 0.88 metric tons in 2010 (the United States emitted 18.45 tons that As of 2013, 21 million Filipinxs still do same year), the country experiences at least not have access to reliable energy services twenty (20) extreme weather events annually (Uy, 2016), and 90.4% of households are still (PAGASA, 2016). categorized as “energy poor” (a term used to define a lack of physical access to modern With the government’s ambitious goals of energy infrastructure) (Mendoza et al, 2019). increasing its renewable energy capacity However, a look at energy prices reveals to 15,304 MW by 2030 in response to its an even more inequitably felt cost at an worsening energy crisis———aging infrastructure, individual level. exponentially increasing population and subsequent demand, and persistent brownouts Today, energy prices remain one of the most (unintentional drop in voltage of an electrical expensive compared to its Asian neighbours: power supply system)———it would be assumed that Manila (the country’s central urban capital progress is well underway for this tropical and metropolitan city) has the third highest country that is abundant in potential for generation cost, highest grid cost, third high solar yield, hydroelectric, wind and highest value added tax imposed on energy, and especially geothermal energy capture. Yet, second highest overall residential electricity Figure 2 (below) shows regular spikes and tariff (the first being Tokyo) (Uy, 2016). a recent upward trend of increased carbon Currently, 15% of residential electric bills dioxide emissions associated with energy are for miscellaneous subsidies including

CARBON INTENSITY OF ENERGY PRODUCTION Carbon intensity of energy production is measured as the quantity of carbon dioxide emitted per unit of energy production. This is measured in kilograms of CO per kilowatt-hour. Carbon intensity2 of energy production Carbon intensity of energy production is measured as the quantity of carbon dioxide emitted per unit of energy production. This is measured in kilograms of CO per kilowatt-hour.

0.3 kg/kWh

0.25 kg/kWh PHILIPPINES

0.2 kg/kWh UNITED STATES

0.15 kg/kWh

0.1 kg/kWh

0.05 kg/kWh

0 kg/kWh 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2016

Source: Calculated by Our World in Data based on Global Carbon Project; BP; IEA via the World Bank to substantialimprovementsforlocalpeople. of thesehaveandcontinuetoactasbarriers development, andseekstounderstandhowsome muddle managementoflandinthename government jurisdictionsandpoliciesthat research attemptstooutlinetheoverlapping economic growth”(Mendozaetal,2019).This enhancing competitiveness,andpromoting reducing poverty,increasingproductivity, services hasbeenanecessarycomponentin affordable andreliableenergysources sustainable developmentas“accessto serves asameaningfullensforunderstanding the country’sfirstgeothermalenergyprojects administration, andsociallandscapeduring Therefore, ananalysisofpolicies, the government(Uy,2016). development andthecostofdebtincurredby funding theincentivesforrenewableenergy AND CLIMATE CHANGE THE GLOBAL ENERGY CRISIS the PhilippinesanditsSoutheastAsian Arab oilproducers,forcedcountrieslike OPEC, andsubsequentproductioncutbacksby Arab oilembargo,grossincreaseby Global NorthandSouth.Atfacevalue,the pitfalls ofoilinterdependencebetweenthe the globalenergynetwork,andrevealed In 1973,thefirstworldoilcrisisshook geothermal energyforelectricityproduction. on Volcanology(COMVOL)beganexploring and in1962,thencalledPhilippineCommission at 20%ofelectrificationacrossthecountry in 2001.Bythe1950s,Philippineswasonly country’s energyindustryuntilreformsbegan dominant playerholdingamonopolyoverthe for theproductionofelectricity’andwas ‘construct, operateandmaintainfacilities Power Corporation(NPC)wasestablishedto (La Viñaetal,2011).In1936,theNational even beforetheWorldOilCrisesof1970s volatile shiftsintheglobalenergyeconomy has unavoidablybeenunderthemercyof the WesternPacificRegion,isacountrythat The Philippines,a7,107-islandarchipelagoin 1974). Royal/Dutch Shellleadingtheway(IchordJr, to exploreforoil,withUScompaniesandthe became theplaygroundforglobalsuperpowers “export-oriented refineries,”SoutheastAsia industry’s previousresistancetodeveloping operations intheoilindustry.Despite established theregion’sroleindownstream domestic refineriestoaddressrisingcostsand Laos) beganestablishingtheircapacityfor countries inSoutheastAsia(exceptVietnamand the sametime(IchordJr,1974).Inturn, and theUnitedStatesforpremiumcostsat while exportinglow-sulphuroiltoJapan Middle Easttosupportitsdomesticneeds, Asia, MalaysiaandIndonesia,reliedonthe Even keyoilproducingnationsinSoutheast and BritishPetroleum(BP)foritsenergy. East, principallyExxon,Shell,Caltex,Mobil international oilcompaniesfromtheMiddle the regionwashighlydependentonmajor (Ichord Jr,1974).Duringtheworldoilcrisis, on foreignimportsforenergygeneration counterparts, torethinktheirheavyreliance 7 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL UNDERSTANDING THE POTENTIAL OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

In the landscape of renewable energy, The country’s hilly topography and island geothermal energy is an underutilized but topography are a direct product of its location increasingly important resource in the in this volcanic region, but also the cause Southeast Asia region and the larger 25,000 for the country’s regular misfortune and crisis mile Pacific (Figure 3) it sits from annual extreme weather events over the in. Geothermal energy (the Earth’s heat) is a years. Not only is the Philippines located thermal energy dominant in countries located in this Ring of Fire, but it also sits in along plate boundaries where volcanoes and a typhoon belt, which makes the country far earthquakes dominate, meaning countries that too familiar to devastating typhoons and the border the Pacific Ocean (both the Global debts associated with rebuilding from such North and South), share an abundant resource catastrophic events. of renewable energy just below their surfaces. Today, geothermal energy infrastructure exists Through a review of policy, financing for primarily at two scales: residential (for those energy projects, and the country’s social who can afford it) and large-scale industrial. history since the 1970s, this thesis highlights The ten (10) largest capturing sites are the failures of the state and NGO-intervention located across the globe in the western coasts to improve the socioeconomic status and overall of North America (US and Mexico), Southeast welfare of the Filipinx people. Despite an Asia, Iceland and Italy. Eight (8) of these ten exacerbation of risks and conditions caused (10) plants are located in the Ring of Fire, by climate change, competing drivers of and three (3) of the ten (10) are located in development have led to an environmental the Philippines. “stewardship stalemate” at the local level.

WORLD GEOTHERMAL ELECTRICITY (Bertami, 2012)

20,000 80,000

60,000

10,000 40,000 INSTALLED CAPACITY (MW) PRODUCED ELECTRICITY (GWh)

20,000

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

YEARS

Installed capacity from 1950 up to 2015 (left, MW) and produced electricity (right, GWh) % MINDANAO VISAYAS + 14KMEVACUATIONRADIUS % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % BREAKDOWN BYREGION ENERGY FUEL 4 5 9 2 % % 6 % % 3 4 % 1 54.8 MILLIONMWH 11.1 MILLIONMWH 0 9.3 MILLIONMWH % MINDANAO VISAYAS LUZON 3 2 % 1 % % 7 % 8 % 1 7 % 4 2 4 2 2 7 % % % 744,000 MWH 8% GEOTHERMALENERGY 5.44 MILLIONMWH 49% GEOTHERMALENERGY 3.28 MILLIONMWH 6% GEOTHERMALENERGY OTHER HYDRO OIL NATURAL GAS COAL GEOTHERMAL 9 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL

11 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL 10 HIGHEST PRODUCING GEOTHERMAL PLANTS IN THE WORLD 3 of which are in the Philippines (highlighted)

WAYANG WINDU 227 MW

MALITBOG 232.5 MW

DARAJAT 259 MW

TIWI 289 MW

CALENERGY 340 MW

HELLISHEIDI 400 MW

MAKBAN 458 MW

CERRO PRIETO 720 MW

LARDERELLO 769 MW

THE GEYSERS 900 MW

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

POWERING THE “LITTLE BROWN BROTHER”

Despite present-day independence, US Newell and Phillips (2016) offer insight into imperialism continues to pervade the economy the nature of Global South countries in their and livelihoods of Filipinx people to this low carbon energy transitions, primarily that day. Though American rule and the Philippines’ they are strongly influenced by the process official designation as a US territory ended of neoliberalisation. They argue that the in 1946, it should be made clear that US “structural and disciplinary power of capital exceptionalism remains the root of established and global institutions set the terms of policies and institutions still present in the said transitions.” Though their study in 2016 country. Even after independence, Filipinx focuses on Kenya as a case study, Kenya’s leaders continued to welcome American influence transition to a more equitable and sustainable “as the blessing of a benevolent patron” energy future while dealing with issues of (Karnow, 1989). power and political economy, give us insight into the nature of Philippines’ development and During American colonization, two competing competing policy objectives involved. I argue criteria for post-colonial legitimation drove that the Philippines’ tumultuous political development as the Philippines strove to prove leadership, particularly the Martial Law its functionality (completing American-started era during then President Ferdinand Marcos’ infrastructural projects) and its civilization regime, may be why national implementation has (developing from their perceived “savage” continued to suffer. status) to its big brother America (Martinez, 2017). Policies like ‘Filipinization’ during The Martial Law era marks the rise and fall American Governor General Harrisburg’s reign of the elite technocrats in the Philippines, and its associated pensionado program that and established Marcos’ authoritarian rule brought Filipinx elites to the United States over the nation. Teresa S. Encarnacion Tadem to be educated of the “American” way (so as (2013) of the University of the Philippines to eventually bring customs and institutions Diliman outlines how the views and development learned back to their own country), only vision during this time was shared by the strengthened the seemingly “incurably romantic” country’s major donors, the International concern around Americans that still exists Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank; today (Adlaon, 1986). establishing the technocratic power base. She with agrossviolationofhumanrights legacy oftheMartialLawregimeisassociated painful timeinthePhilippineswhere consolidation ofpowermarksatroublingand dissent byhispoliticaladversaries.This Movement (MIM),andultimatelyanyall the Philippines(CPP),MindanaoIndependence “communist threat”bytheCommunistPartyof that Marcosjustifiedtocurbtheincreasing control undermilitarypurview,atactic of agovernmentbycivillawandplacesdirect Revolution). MartialLaw,suspendsthefunction demonstrations oftheEDSAPeoplePower ultimately endingin1986withthepeaceful the next14years———withtheirdictatorship placing thePhilippinesunderMartialLawfor Ferdinand MarcossignedProclamationNo.1081 On September21st,1972,thenpresident THE WOUNDS LEFT BYTHE MARCOS ERA 2013). global economicrecessionof1981(Tadem, political instability,whichpeakedatthe turn deterioratedthecountry’seconomicand bargaining leverage”(Tadem,2013).Thisin country, theleadershipgaveitsubstantive access theneededIMF/WorldBankloansfor writes, “foraslongthetechnocracycould any discussionintheSenateorCongress. pen thankstoPDandEOprivileges,overriding bridges, roadsandmorewiththestrokeofa Ferdinand andImeldabuiltschools,hospitals, aggressive infrastructureprojects.Both prospered duetotheMarcosadministration’s Martial Laweraasatimewherethenation to fuelthePeoplePowerRevolutiontout realities ofMartialLawwhichwouldgoon Yet, thosewhoturnablindeyetothedark and 3,240werekilledduringMartialLaw. people wereimprisoned,34,000tortured According toAmnestyInternational,70,000 anyone againsttheMarcosadministration. opponents, intellectuals,farmers,workers; that targetedstudentactivists,political circulate upon the declaration of Martial Law Express. The Daily Express was the only newspaper allowedExpress, to which was the Sunday edition of Philippines Daily the headline of the September 24,1972 issue of the Sunday “FM DECLARES MARTIAL LAW ”— (Figure 4,left) 13 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL COMPETING DEVELOPMENT DRIVERS

In communications theory, the cognitive process Their framework in their 1993 case study of the of selectivity prescribes that every person Geothermal Plant identities five (5) is a cultural bearer: therefore, “no one can primary points of view that conflict in these categorically claim that (their) experience is energy development projects: more accurate than another’s in the absolute sense” (Flor & Librero, 1999). This frames two (1) the Environmentalist Point of View, conflicts in this discussion: between state- partnered NGOs and local communities (micro), (2) the Lumad (indigenous peoples) Point and the biodiversity conservation regime and of View, the indigenous peoples’ regime (macro). When addressing climate change, who knows what’s (3) the Resource Utilization Point of best? View,

Alexander G. Flor, Professor and Dean of the (4) the Crisis Governance Point of View, University of the Philippines Faculty of and Information and Communication Studies (FICS), offers a variety of research in this regard, (5) the Economic Point of View. through their many studies on environmental communication and knowledge management These views are not mutually exclusive, and systems in rural communities, especially with offer a starting point for understanding indigenous peoples. From understanding the consensus building and public perception of on-the-ground implications of eAgriculture to renewable energy and climate adaptation policy. site-specific studies on projects like the In summary, the Economic, Resource Utilization geothermal plant at Mount Apo———an “ecosystem and Crisis Governance points of view (POV) under stress” as they describe (1993), Flor are primarily held by the state, the NGOs and provides insight into the nuances experienced development agencies (IMF/World Bank) which by indigenous peoples and historical accounts were aggressively active during the Marcos’ of these sites of public contestation. regime. energy projects: the TiwiandMak-Ban the creationofcountry’sfirst geothermal assessment process),thisdidnot existduring public engagementintheenvironmental impact Order of1992thatreinforcedthe importanceof and regulationsoftheDENRAdministrative formally adoptedintotheimplementing rules place now(in1996,socialacceptability was indigenous peoples.Thoughpoliciesarein beliefs andself-determinationofthecountry’s posing adevastatingthreattothelivelihood, these otherdevelopmentdrivers,ultimately between theLumad(indigenouspeoples)POVand “stewardship stalemate”liesattheconflict and thecountry’srichforestedareas.But development oftensituatedinnationalparks local peoplewithsitesofgeothermalenergy Resources (DENR,anationalagency),and NGOs, theDepartmentofEnergyandNational the environmentalistPOVissharedbyboth market-driven developmentideology.Arguably, and theNGOsfundingsuchprojects;provinga points ofview)arewhatconnectthestate demand (crisisgovernanceandeconomicviews power crisisandneedtoaddressthecountry’s energy (resourceutilizationPOV),whereasthe Mount Apo,thecheapestandcleanestsourceof established in1973,considerssiteslike The PhilippineNationalOilCompany(PNOC), LOW LEVEL OF PRIORITY HIGH shift power to them? of indigenous peoples and How can we amplify the needs ENVIRONMENTALIST POINT OFVIEW POINT OFVIEW INDIGENOUS PEOPLES POINT OFVIEW UTILIZATION RESOURCE

defined as, Order (DAO)1996-37,‘socialacceptability’is and NaturalResources(DENR)Administrative According totheDepartmentofEnvironment in theworld,locatedPhilippines). these are2ofthe3largestgeothermalplants geothermal powerplantprojects(recallthat population werereinforced andduplicated of “savagery”onaperceived“less civilized” in thePhilippinesasithighlights howviews I emphasizethestruggleofindigenous peoples and seemingly‘weak’populations. general public,muchlessitsmost vulnerable the nationaccountabletoneeds ofthe and lackedanysortofduediligencetokeep exploration ranfreeforoutsidestakeholders But withPresidentFerdinandMarcos, Certificate (ECC).” the issuance of an Environmental Compliance denying for or process granting decision-making are fully considered and/or resolved inthe of stakeholders, including affected communities, to ensure that the valid and relevant concerns the DENR, key stakeholders and the proponent “the result of a process mutually agreed upon by POINT OFVIEW GOVERNANCE CRISIS POINT OFVIEW ECONOMIC 15 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL domestically in the nation, and highlight and thorough study that centers and uplifts the need for justice for this underserved indigenous perspectives in the ICCA Bill group. Just as the Spanish and then Americans negotiations provides a shift from valorization colonized the country, the Philippines’ has and demystification of indigenous relationships stifled and marginalized indigenous peoples with nature, and focuses on critique as a with respect to its progress and development. meaningful mode of indigenous participation in policy-making. This shift to seeing indigenous Padmapani L. Perez and the BUKLURAN-The peoples and host communities as experts may be Philippine ICCA Consortium (2018) offer an key to future implementation. indigenous critique of Philippine environmental policy. As the details of the Indigenous Communities’ Conserved Areas and Territories (ICCA) bill are being negotiated today in ENERGY POLICY AND EXTERNAL AID Congress, Perez reviews the consultations, DURING THE MARCOS REGIME policy dialogues, roundtable discussions and documents related to the ICCA Bill and Because the foundation of energy policy began centers the voice of indigenous participants during the Marcos regime, I argue that this may to challenge state-managed biodiversity be why today, large infrastructure projects conservation. Through this study, Perez (2018) promoted by current administrations have a underscores the experience of indigenous deeply rooted negative connotation. leaders with state-managed biodiversity conservation under the National Integrated The Martial Law era marked a dark time in Protected Areas Systems of 1992 (NIPAS, or Philippine history, alongside the prominence of RA 7586) and their frustrations with the free-market technocracy that had a stronghold implementation of the Indigenous Peoples over economic decision-making (Tadem, 2013). Rights Act of 1997 (IPRA, or RA 8371), Though scholars argue that Marcos’ economic sharing stories of how market-driven land policies would have likely passed during conversion to commercial farming is blamed on this time, it was their view that subjecting deforestation caused by indigenous people in his policies to time-consuming debates in protected areas. The latter being rightfully Philippine Congress and thus, martial law challenged by indigenous leaders, asserting giving him power to implement immediately was the fact that “they themselves are the reason problematic and in direct contradiction of the the forest is still there” (Perez & with democratic processes learned from America. BUKLURAN-The Philippine ICCA Consortium, Martial law allows the executive, legislative, 2018). Other experiences show how enclosure and judicial powers to be under full control of and regulation under the conservation regime the President, and more problematically removes also limit information flows, creating the the right for any form of protest; furthering environment where there is little awareness their view that this “facade of political that the problem may be systematic, or shared stability” would attract multinational worldwide (Perez & with BUKLURAN-The Philippine corporate investment (Tadem, 2013). ICCA Consortium, 2018). Their thoughtful established that, A follow-uppresidentialdecree,PD1442 and reservelandstosupportsuchreservations. state, andenabledthegovernmenttosetaside geothermal energyresourcesbelongtothe the firststipulationthatnaturalgasesand should be.Butdetailsoftheactmarkitas notion ofwherepowerinenergyproduction by Filipinxcitizens,aseeminglypositive Philippines withatleast60%ofsharesowned citizens andassociationsincorporatedinthe in suchactivitieswaslimitedtoFilipinx crisis. RA5092outlinedthattheparticipation oil hadalreadybegunbeforethe1973world and effortstodecreasedependencyonforeign This isofnoteasithighlightsexploration to, Gas, andMethaneLaw(RANo.5092),wasenacted into leadership,theGeothermalEnergy,Natural Marcos (10thPresidentofthePhilippines)came Two years,afterthenPresidentFerdinand years (andwasextendableforupto15),had but thewinnerofacontractthatlastedfor25 This meantthatthestatemaintainedownership, operations required inthe service contract.’ and financially capable of undertaking the or foreign contractor who must be technically concluded through negotiation, with adomestic contracts awarded through public bidding or indirectly undertake the same under service and develop geothermal resources. It may also ‘The Government may directly explore for, exploit indigenous energy sources. ’ development, exploitation, and utilization of ‘promote and regulate the exploration, distribution. Asmentioned,thetwo(2)main and anationalizingofoilrefining reducing itsdependenceonimportedfuel (PNOC), adirectinstitutionalresponsein established thePhilippineNationalOilCompany The WorldOilCrisisin1943-1974thus in SouthernNegros(1976). steam fieldsforTongonan(1972)andPilipinon drilling withsitesthatwouldthenbecomethe Zealand governmentallowingforexploratory energy cooperationagreementwiththeNew the sector.Soonafter,NPCenteredabilateral nationalising andassertingNPC’smonopolyin of theelectricpowerindustry,effectively same year,PD40establishedthebasicpolicies country officiallyundermartiallaw.That signed ProclamationNo.1081placingthe It wasinSeptember1972thatPresidentMarcos from thestudy. Tiwi geothermalreservationbasedonfindings established 17,661hectaresofinAlbayasthe of California.Subsequently,thePD739 was asubsidiaryoftheUnionOilCompany Power Plant.ItshouldbenotedthatthePGI would-be futuresiteoftheTiwiGeothermal study inTiwi,AlbaytheBicolRegion; (PGI) tobeginafeasibilityandviability agreement withthePhilippineGeothermalInc energy productioninthecountry)enteredan that thisisthedominantplayermanaging In 1970,theNationalPowerCompany(recall investments resultedfromthispolicy. and subsequentlynoprivateinternational on privateinvestors(Campen&Rai,2015), this policywasitsheavytaxationburden respectively. However,themaincritiqueof of 60-40forthegovernmentandcontractor the poweroutlinedabovewithasharebreakdown 17 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL geothermal energy projects during the Marcos people due to their complex relationship regime still boast the largest capturing sites with the military (beyond America’s longtime across the world but exploration for resource military occupation and use for the country viability during this time was beyond the as a base, or colonization, the islands were capacity of the nation. In 1976, the PNOC seen as a paradise for soldiers exploiting established its subsidiary company the PNOC- its people and culture for many years) Energy Development Corporation which was the (Gonzalez, 2013). However more interestingly agency that received intense technical training is the role that military powers had in the and financial assistance from other countries eventual escape of the Marcoses’ following and external stakeholders (read: the “experts,” the People Power Revolution in 1986, which like the New Zealand government and the World successfully ousted the Marcos dictatorship Bank). in peaceful protest and eventual coup. By the time hundreds of thousands of Filipinxs arrived At face value, the role of NGOs and foreign at Malacañang Palace (the official residence governments to provide technical assistance of the President), the Marcoses were granted is seemingly harmless, and are celebrated safe passage and escorted by four American from the humanitarian point of view; in other helicopters and taken to the US Air Force’s words, perceived as “the least” agencies of Clark Air Base eight-three miles north of the Global North could do for its “lesser” Manila (Gonzalez, 2013). From there, Ferdinand, Global South counterparts. Indeed, capacity wife Imelda Marcos and children were taken to building is key to development discourse, but and then Hawai’i, outlining the American scholars like Philippe Ryfman describe how the imperial circuit on smaller Pacific islands. structures of nongovernmental organizations in humanitarian and development aid are subject to Understanding the deployment of “American the pressures of the public institutions that Pacifism” to secure and provide safety on the fund them (Ryfman, 2017). The role of public ground, especially throughout more rural and subsidies for development and humanitarian aid isolated islands in the Philippines during is subject to criticism, with 30% of American American occupation served as the foundation agencies like USAID funding received from for still active militias and guerilla groups public aid (the latter 70% is acquired by that confiscate aid delivered by NGOs, using private funding) (Ryfman, 2017). USAID, which the money for their own agendas; a problem remains active in the country, is partnered still in play today, contributing to the with the Mercy Corps and the Peace Corps. mistrust and ultimately lack of surprise I argue that these “corps” organizations when development aid is not received by an stimulate negative feelings in countries intended community. This aspirational role like the Philippines due to their military- of nongovernmental organizations to “provide like deployment and intrusion in communities assistance to impoverished or endangered worldwide, and particularly so for the Filipinx populations that have a right to expect high-

(Figure 5)

The Marcos family infamously carrying, what would later be discovered as valuables in diaper boxes (Imelda’s jewelry) as they de-plane US Air Force C-141 at in Honolulu, Hawaii’s Hickam Air Force Base (Bakhtyar et al, 2013) PHILIPPINES TYPES IN SHARE OFENERGY (Figure 6) projects, withoutincreasingnationaldebt. construction andexpansionofgeothermalenergy companies toparticipateintheinvestment, energy development,finallyenticingprivate 6957) thusmarkedthesecondwaveofgeothermal contracts. TheestablishmentofBOTLaw(RA to enterbuild-operate-transfer(BOT) process byenablingindependentpowerproducers the NPCandestablishawiderprivatization 215 (whichamendedPDNo.40)todivestfrom Aquino, hergovernmentissuedExecutiveOrder country’s firstfemalePresidentCorazon of democraticruleandthewelcome (Mendoza etal,2019).Withtherestoration operate andexpandonitsexistingportfolio in debtduetoitsinabilityefficiently of 1986,theNPCmanagedtoaccruebillions By the1980sandPeoplePowerRevolution CONSEQUENCES PAYING THE PRICE: still uptodebate. leaving governanceofnongovernmentalculture from theinterestsofitsshareholdersthereby that NGOsareworkingincompleteisolation projects ontheground,itisoptimistictosay directors fromthepaidstaffthatexecute philanthropic traditionseparatesaboardof technocratic Marcos’state.ThoughAmerican argue makesNGOsarecomplicitactorsofthe capitalistic, market-drivendevelopmentthatI governance, therebycreatingahierarchical, the verticaltop-downnatureofcorporate The financingofNGOsRyfmanarguesmimics of [their]interventions”(Ryfman,2017). that NGOsmust“workonanyfaultyaspects the purposeof[their]activities,”criticizing [so thatit]doesnottaketheupperhandover [in] themanagementofsignificantresources France), writesthatNGOs“mustbevigilant president ofMédecinsSansFrontières(MDF- projects inthePhilippines.Jean-HervéBradol, and remainsunfulfilledformanydevelopment quality assistance”istherebythreatened POST-MARCOS HYDRO OIL NATURAL GAS COAL RENEWABLES

Mtoe 100 120 20 40 60 80 0 addressing itscrisis-worthyenergydemands. (fossil fuels)asthecountrygrappleswith show analarmingincreaseinoil,gasandcoal lies incurrenttrends(Figure6below)that vulnerable populations,perhapsthetrueirony widening incomegapbetweenitseliteandmost with growingsocioeconomicinequityanda the government(Uy,2016).Asacountryriddled energy development,andthedebtincurredby electrification, incentivesforrenewable elderly, marginalizedend-consumers,rural miscellaneous costsforsubsidiesthe tied toforeignoilimports,butalso of residentialelectricityisstill As previouslydiscussed,thehighcost infrastructure projectsproposedeversince. more skepticalandrisk-aversetomonumental but asmentioned,maybewhycitizenshavebeen renewable energyinfrastructuredevelopment difficult tofullyblameforthestagnationof Subsequent administrationspost-Marcosare (Ratio etal,2019). any newenergyinvestmentsforthecountry on thenation’sdebtandonceagain,deterred in Manila)andtheWorldBankforaid,building like theAsianDevelopmentBank(whosebaseis continues thecountry’srelianceonagencies with therelentlessnaturalcalamity,thereby installed capacity.Theseshortages,coupled plants thatwereoperatingat50-70%ofits NPC’s failuretoeffectivelymaintainexisting days atthetime,whichareattributedto interrupting livelihoodsforhoursandeven causing severe,nation-widepowershortages, Through the1990s,energydemandsbegan consumption (Bakhtyaretal,2013). populations, industrialization,andincreasing energy systemsduetotheirrapidlygrowing in Asia,butsharesimilarpressuresontheir centres ofenergyproductionandconsumption of SoutheastAsianNations),are and fellowmemberofASEAN(theAssociation The Philippines,alongwithitsneighbour 1980 2002 2010 2020 2030 19 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL As the livelihoods of the Filipinx people are interrupted with persistent blackouts and brownouts, the increase in fossil fuel consumption led by current President Rodrigo Duterte, highlights a short-sighted trap that may ultimately cost the country and its people even more disastrous climate events in its future.

LEARNING FROM HISTORY

Returning to Professor Flor’s framework of competing development perspectives when managing the environment and natural resources in the Philippines, we must therefore tread carefully and critically at what points of view are ultimately driving development in the context of climate adaptation policy, in this case for renewable energy. Though policies like the Renewable Energy Act of 2008 (RA 9153) exist today, providing relatively safer incentives for foreign capital to enter the country through feed-in tariffs (FiT), there is still a lack of accountability and meaningful precedent in how benefits can be equitably distributed at a community level. Indeed, the Renewable Energy Act now ensures that host communities and indigenous groups receive 80% of shares from royalty, and more layers of due diligence (environmental impact assessments tied to social acceptability) are in place to facilitate this. But it is difficult not to question whether justice and arguably, more attention needs to be placed on the welfare of Sociologist Barry Schwartz (1996) describes the communities who have grown to live around the power of social movements in its ability Marcos-era geothermal plants. Today, the Bicol to evoke a model of society, describing events region is one of the most disaster-prone in the of the past, and also a model for society, country (experiencing at least two to three of by providing guidelines for the present and the twenty annual typhoons), and the province future. By understanding our history, we can of , site of the Tiwi Geothermal Power activate them to inform society’s institutional Plant, was identified as the top province most and collective memory to provide meaningful vulnerable to climate and weather-related risks solutions for the present-day issues; thereby (Grefalda et al, 2017). As it sits “sa daan becoming a “culture-specific source of ng bagyo” (translates to “in the path of the legitimizing ideologies” (Liu & Gastardo- storm”), a phrase that many Filipinxs including Conaco, 2011). In close, I argue that balancing my parents often use to describe the region, and protecting the welfare of the country’s much of my mother’s family is still among the most vulnerable populations indisputably 45.1% of Bicolanos that are poor and earn well intertwines with energy policy and we must be below what is required to address their basic careful so as to not repeat past development needs. harms.

KEY TAKEAWAYS • Post-colonial legitimation drove infrastructure development • NGOs were complicit actors of the technocratic Marcos’ state • Geothermal energy was explored with the technical assistance and training from foreign (Figure 7) governments and agencies • Environmental impact assessments and social acceptability measures were not yet present Photo taken July 17, 2019 in Mandaluyong City, Manila, • Philippine electricity today is very expensive ($$$) Philippines (by author) 21 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL

prioritizing the prioritizing Bicol region Bicol chapter 2 23 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL

CATANDUANES

CAMARINES SUR

TIWI GEOTHERMAL COMPLEX *

ALBAY

SORSOGON

MASBATE

TYPHOON PATHS out oftheregion. transit, tourism,andexchangeofgoodsin and NagaCitywhicharethemajorhubsfor traveling betweenManilaandAcapulco,Mexico) that onceofferedreprieveforSpanishsailors city centersareLegaspi(thehistoricport (part oftheAlbayBiosphereReserve).Thetwo of) andanactivestratovolcanoMountMayon Tiwi GeothermalComplexislocatedatthebase Bicol isalsohometoMountMalinao(wherethe vulnerable toflooding,droughtandtyphoons. of theregion’sriceproduction)whichis Plain (alow-landareathatishometomuch comprises volcanichighlandsandtheBicol Joined byalongcoastline,thepeninsula Sur, ,CatanduanesandMasbate. provinces: Albay,CamarinesNorte, of six(6)millionpeoplespreadacross away), theregionhasanapproximatepopulation Manila———approximately 300kmor186miles the country’scapitalandcentralmetropolis, peninsula ofLuzonIsland(thesameisland (Guiriba, 2019).Locatedatthesoutheastern geographic locationandphysicalenvironment prone areasinthecountryduetoitsunique and definedasoneofthemostdisaster- has anunderstudiedindigenouspopulation, geothermal plantsaspreviouslydescribed), Tiwi GeothermalComplex(1ofthe3largest the primaryareaofstudyasitishometo For thisstudy,theBicolregionischosenas BICOL ASACASE AREA OFSTUDY SETTING THE SCENE: justice. Bicol isasiteoverdueforenvironmental approximately 20,000people),Iarguethat engulfed threevillagesin1968———displacing during acategory4eruptionin1814and historically causedmassmigrationfromBicol risk posedbystillactiveMountMayon(which (Grefalda etal,2017).Compoundedbythe increased rainfall,andwarmertemperatures climatic changessuchassealevelrise, drought. Theregionisalsoaffectedbyother pervades theuplandsandforestsduetoextreme to irrigationforfarmers,andsoilerosion events, theriverdriesup,limitingaccess rainfed (Grefaldaetal,2017).DuringElNiño corn arethemaincrops,whichprimarily dependent (farmingandfishing).Rice change becausetheseactivitiesareweather- sectors; highlightingtheimpactofclimate region’s totalworkforce),forestryandfishing agricultural (morethan42percentofthe of incomeintheregionarederivedfrom address theirbasicneeds.Themainsources people earnwellbelowwhatisrequiredto Bicolanos arepoor———meaningalmost3million regional developmentplan(2016),45.1%of Bank sincethe1970s.AccordingtoBicol from developmentagenciesliketheWorld during Spanishcolonizationandattention slow developmentdespiteitsuseasaport Historically, theregionhasseenarguably Bain Collection Grantham George the of part Congress, of Library and 1915. Retrieved from the taken between 1910 Bicol Carabao cart inAlbay, a farmer on a of Photo (Figure 9,right) created paths typhoon by author Map of Bicol with historic (Figure 8,left) 25 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL HISTORY OF DISASTER EVENTS AND CLIMATE ADAPTATION EFFORTS

Due to climate change, the region suffers from a prolonged rainy season (La Niña), prolonged drought (El Niño) and strong typhoons. Of the twenty (20) typhoons each year that the Philippines experiences, two to three of the most destructive ones directly impact Bicolanos (PAGASA, 2016). Historically, Typhoon Reming (), Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan), and (Nock-ten), which are categorized as the most damaging in the country, all passed through Bicol. Winds reach upward speeds of 180 to 320 kilometers per hour (km/hr), with 2006 Typhoon Reming (Durian) being the most devastating.

(Figure 10, right)

The center of 2020 Typhoon Rolly, just east of the shore of Bicol, impacted the island province of the region, Catanduanes, the hardest. The Philippines’ Department of Energy “targeted” Christmas (a month and a half after the event) as the date for the island to be restored 100% of its power.

TWENTY (20) MOST INTENSE TYPHOONS (Figure 11, below)

OF THE BICOL REGION (1960-2016) Typhoon Rolly occurred during the writing of this thesis, which is the strongest (Source: PAGASA) typhoon since 2013’s devastating Typhoon Yolanda and lasted for 11 days.

NO LOCAL NAME INTERNATIONAL PERIOD OF OCCURENCES LENGTH OF HIGHEST WIND HIGHEST WIND NAME EVENT SPEED (km/hr) SPEED (mph)

1 Reming Durian November 26 - December 1, 2006 6 DAYS 320 199

* Rolly Goni October 26 - November 6, 2020 11 DAYS 315 196

2 Yolanda Haiyan November 7-9, 2013 3 DAYS 315 196

3 Nina Nock-ten December 24-27, 2016 3 DAYS 290 180

4 Sening Joan October 11-15, 1970 5 DAYS 275 171

5 Rosing Angela October 30 - November 4, 1995 6 DAYS 260 162

6 Anding Irma November 21-27, 1981 7 DAYS 260 162

7 Glenda Rammasun July 13-17, 2016 5 DAYS 259 161

8 Loleng Babs October 15-24, 1998 10 DAYS 250 155

9 Yayang Vera November 4-7, 1979 4 DAYS 240 149

10 Sisang Roger November 23-27, 1987 5 DAYS 240 149

11 Herming Betty August 7-14, 1987 8 DAYS 240 149

12 Saling Dot October 15-20, 1985 6 DAYS 240 149

13 Unsang Ruby October 21-26, 1988 6 DAYS 215 134

14 Warling Tip November 17-27, 1983 11 DAYS 205 127

15 Welming Emma October 31 - November 8, 1967 9 DAYS 205 127

16 Yoling Patsy November 17-20, 1970 4 DAYS 200 124

17 Kading Rita October 25-27, 1978 3 DAYS 185 115

18 Huaning Haitang June 22 - July 2, 1976 10 DAYS 185 115

19 Dindo Nida May 13-19, 2004 7 DAYS 185 115

20 Milenyo Xangsane September 25-30, 2006 6 DAYS 180 112 redrawn by author for legibility. Original diagram from FAO, 2011, with its interlinked thematic pillars. Project (Figure 12) capacity developmentprojectshold: the dualityofambitionthatresiliencyand main objectivesprovideaperfectexampleof Region)” wasestablishedin1997.Theproject’s Selected ProvincesofthePhilippines(Bicol Risk ManagementandDisasterPreparednessin called “StrengtheningCapacitiesforClimate a technicalcooperationprogrammeproject as themosthighlyaffectedareas.Inturn, revealed Albay,CamarinesSurandSorsogon United Nationsconductedanassessmentthat and AgriculturalOrganization(FAO)ofthe After TyphoonRemingin2006,theFood crops, reducingtheregion’sfoodsecurity. most devastatinglythelossofharvestand and theregion’sinfrastructuremost, The typhoonsimpactBicolanoslivelihoods Preparedness for effective response and 2. 1. recovery across agricultural all sectors ’ s conceptual framework conceptual s of extreme climatic events. highly vulnerable to the frequent occurrence security of farmers and fisherfolk who are improve the livelihood resilience and food typhoons, floods and drought; and against recurrent natural hazards such level preparedness as local promote and risks institutions to better manage climate-related Administration (PAGASA) and local Services Astronomical and Geophysical Agriculture (DA), Philippine Atmospheric, capacities within the Department of enhance the institutional and technical 4 /PREPARETORESPOND livellihoods with risk reducing technologies, approachesand practices across all 1 /ENABLETHEENVIRONMENT Promotion and diversification of good governance for DRR inall 3 /APPLYPREVENTIONAND Institutional strengthening and MITIGATION MEASURES agricultural sectors agricultural agricultural sectors agricultural LIVELIHOOD TO RESILIENCE OF INCREASED SHOCKS Filipinx public. resource managementeducationtothegreater heritage inthedisseminationofnatural opportunity toexploretheroleofcultural annually” iscelebrated-offeringanother survive thetyphoonsthatstriketheirhomeland epics butalsothe“people’sdeterminationto Festival isheldinLegazpiCitywhereoldfolk people. Inaddition,everyOctober,theIbalong educational andculturalneedsoftheBicolano this maybeanopportunitytoadvancethe and withalackofimplementationbythestate, entitled toeducationintheirmothertongue 1997, indigenouspeopleinthePhilippinesare Under theIndigenousPeoplesRightsActof language andliteratureineducationalspaces. growing adoptionandformalizationofBicol the decisiontofocusonBicolisdue Addressing theregion’svulnerabilitiesaside, PHP 19.7billion(405.4millionUSD). annual damagecausedbydisastersamountsto (APSEMO, 2010).Itisreportedthattheaverage and damaging$71millionUSDworthofproperty thus far,affectingoveronemillionpeople Reming) wastheworstdisasterinregion al, 2010).2006TyphoonDurian(locallynamed destructive typhoonsduetoitslocation(Uyet has a16%frequencyprobabilityofexperiencing (Southeast), andtheSibuyanSea(Southwest), bound bythePacificOcean(East),SamarSea a 2005studybyManilaObservatory.Albay, change (Grefaldaetal,2018)accordingto risks suchastyphoonsandprojectedrainfall vulnerable toclimateandweather-related Albay wasidentifiedasthetopprovincemost systems on food and nutrition security Information and early warning 2 /WATCHTOSAFEGUARD and transboundary threats transboundary and 27 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL DEVELOPMENT IN THE TIWI GEOTHERMAL AREA

The Tiwi Geothermal Complex is located in Tiwi, Albay, Bicol on the northeast slope of potentially active Mount Malinao. The Tiwi field is the first geothermal area in the Philippines to be commercially developed on a large-scale basis (Camu & Santiago, 2000). This was also the first use of geothermal steam for power generation in the Philippines (Menzies et al, 2010).

In 1971, the National Power Corporation (NPC) and Chevron Geothermal Philippines Holdings (CGPHI) (a subsidiary of the Union Oil Company of California) joined forces to develop geothermal resources in Tiwi and explore the resource in the area. The first deep discovery well, Naglagbong-1, was drilled from March to June 1972 and eventually led to a 55 MW generation unit in January 1979 due to its successful demonstration of the resource’s commercial viability (Menzies et al, 2010). By May of that year, 45 wells were drilled and the NPC (the entity tasked to ‘construct, operate and maintain facilities for the production of electricity’ since 1936) assumed control of the entire Tiwi prospect area (approximately 17,661 hectares and outlined in Figure 11 above) for commercial electricity generation. The environmental and social impact of the Tiwi Geothermal Complex, like other geothermal projects, are primarily described as savings on oil imports and profit for the national economy.

MOUNT MALINAO

(Figure 13)

Source: Google Earth TIWI GEOTHERMAL COMPLEX LAGONOY GULF 2000 feet 29 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL The complex has a total installed capacity of 334 MW, and marks itself as one of the six large scale geothermal energy projects during this time. The operation provides an average 157 MW (almost half of its capacity) to support the Luzon grid (the country’s largest and most populous island, and home to the country’s metropolitan center Manila) and has offset 80.6 million barrels of oil imports since its opening in the first 30 years of its operation (Menzies et al, 2010).

Since 1979, the plant has experienced its share of challenges: Prior to extensive typhoon damage in 2016, the plant was underperforming due to a lack of steam (reportedly decreasing at a rate of 8-10% per year). In 2004- 2005, four of the units were rehabilitated and installed capacity was re-rated to 234 MW⸺retiring Unit 4 in 2000 and designating Unit 3 as a stand-by unit in 2005. The start of the Wholesale Electricity Spot Market (WESM), which changed units to be used as “load following” rather than “base load” plants also compromised performance. In 2008, two new production wells were installed improving the plant’s capacity but also revealed that additional reserves may exist in the region (south and southwest of the Kapipihan and Bariis fields (see Figure 13 above), providing a lifeline to extend the plant’s viability.

Ownership of the plant was privatized and awarded to winning bidder, Aboitiz Power Renewables, Inc (APRI) formally on May 25, 2009 and continues to collaborate with CGPHI.

(Figure 14)

Satellite view of the Tiwi Geothermal Complex of three (3) interconnected plants in Tiwi, Albay. Source: Google Earth 700 feet 31 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL TIWI, ON THE GROUND (Figure 16, right) Gated and secured entrance of the Tiwi Geothermal administrative buildings. The above and following Google street view images are shared to illustrate the spatial (Figure 17, right) conditions of the geothermal energy plant that One of three (3) plants on the northeast is not immediately apparent when analyzing the slope of Mount Malinao area from the limited planometric perspectives Source: of satellite imagery, field exploration maps, Google Maps Streetview and land use maps utilized in this study. Due to limitations of the study and travel restrictions still in place from the COVID-19 (Figure 15) pandemic, meaningful ethnographic and field research were not employed in this research and therefore, observations are made from Active volcanoes in the Bicol Region and number of historic eruptions (Sigurdsson historically informed speculation but also the et al, 2000): lived experience of the researcher’s family who have lived “sa provinsya,” translated as MOUNT IRIGA (), 2 “in the provinces” meaning the countryside or MOUNT (Albay), 45 MOUNT (Sorsogon), 12 rural, non-urban territories of the country. (Figure 18) 33 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL Initial observations reveal that residential (Figure 20-22, right) developments living immediately adjacent Geothermal plants running through to a commercial plant of this scale is residential areas of the Tiwi municipality relatively unique to the Philippines, Mexico Source: Google Maps Streetview and Indonesia, compared to its Global North counterparts of top geothermal energy producing countries. Plants like the Geysers Complex and CalEnergy Geothermal Plants in California, or the Larderello Geothermal Complex in Italy (recall Figure 3 in Chapter 1) are surrounded too by forest and parkland area, but residential settlements are further located from its immediate territory.

(Figure 19) 35 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL Roads run alongside the pipes (suitable for service vehicles and transport needs) hug both farmland and forest area, appearing mostly as a two-way but sometimes narrowing to only fit one (1) vehicle as you follow the system further upland on Mount Malinao.

(Figure 23-24)

Source: Google Maps Streerview for theregion. livelihoods andlivingconditionshistorically bringing questionsofitssubsequentimpactson and theindustryareaissupporting——— how publicspaceissharedbetweenresidents residents inTiwi,butofferawindowinto consulting thelivedexperiencesof These photosarenotnearlysufficientwithout 37 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL Clues from signage begin to reveal what Whereas signage of slope grade (at 16% in dangers the people of Tiwi, which comprises 25 the figure to the right), evade the present- barangays and is home to 53,120 people (only day government policy indicating land over 4% of Albay’s 1.3 million population) may have 18 degrees in slope with or without trees grown to be neighbours with: high pressure are “public forest land” and falls under the steam that could escape should the pipe get jurisdiction of the Forest Management Bureau damaged and tenuous roads with no street (FMB) of the DENR. This policy thereby marks lights or barriers; making the area vulnerable any upland inhabitants as “squatters” in the at times of flooding, landslides and heavy eyes of the law (Eder, 1994). rainfall during extreme weather events.

(Figure 25-26)

Source: Google Maps Streerview 39 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL CONTESTED LANDS AND SOCIAL ACCEPTABILITY

The transnational indigenous rights movement, At 30 years of the Tiwi Geothermal Field’s defined and supported by institutions like commercial operations, Chevron Geothermal the United Nations and the World Bank (among Philippine Holdings, Inc presented their report other NGOs), has led to laws that grant special at the 2010 proceedings of the World Geothermal recognition and rights to indigenous people in Congress that took place in April 2010 in settler-colonial societies (like Australia and Bali, Indonesia. The report only shares the Canada where the settler/aboriginal distinction limitations, challenges and actions made in is more clear) but also post-colonial nations managing the plant over its lifetime. 10 years like the Philippines (Theriault, 2011). These prior, the NPC presented at the same World vary depending on national and historical Geothermal Congress proceedings, this time in context but for the Philippines is a response Japan in June 2000 reporting, to post-authoritarian governments. “The Tiwi field is the first geothermal Only in the past few decades has conserving protected areas been seen as a vital strategy area in the Philippines to be for safeguarding biodiversity but has been commercially developed on a large- criticized due to the historic mismanagement scale basis. The project started in of local development needs (i.e. displacing homes and livelihoods) (Major et al., 2018). 1972, prior to the onset of regulatory This reiterates the need (and failure) of requirements on environmental and development in these areas to serve and support social aspects. Hence, due to the the livelihoods of people who occupy or live near them, while furthering conservation absence of such framework, the early efforts. years of geothermal exploration, development and operation were In 1978, Presidential Decree 1586 (PD 1586) which established the Philippines Environmental beset with problems. Community Impact Statement System (PEISS) and management rallies and rift with the regulating related measures to “attain and maintain a agencies and the local government rational and olderly balance between socio- economic growth and environmental protections.” haunted the National Power Within PEISS, a “social acceptability” Corporation (NPC) during its first component is formally defined, forcing projects 10 years of operation. Though NPC to address public sentiments and ensure the conduct of public consultations over resolution was government-owned and the of issues and conflicts. Failure to comply geothermal resource was a timely or inability to achieve social acceptability answer to the country’s oil crisis, the can cause an approval or denial of an Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC): the project lacked social acceptability.” documentation needed to proceed with geothermal (Camu & Santiago, 2000) energy development projects. By 1996, social acceptability was formally adopted into the Camu and Santiago (2000) of NPC continue that Implementing Rules and Regulations of the DENR benefits from such projects are, Administrative Order of 1996-37 of 1992. DAO 1996-37 defines ‘social acceptability’ as, “mostly discussed in terms of savings “the result of a process mutually agreed upon by on oil imports and profit to the the DENR, key stakeholders, and the proponent national economy… Technology helps to ensure that the valid and relevant concerns of mitigate and control environmental stakeholders, including affected communities, are impacts, yet, it is not sufficient to fully considered and/or resolved in the decision- appease people for the disturbance making process for granting or denying the issuance of an ECC.” created by the project. Investors and economists see geothermal Aimed to enhance public engagement in the development in terms of profit environmental impact assessment (EIA) process and asserts that EIS’ must be based on informed and progress. The locals see it as public participation and a result of meaningful exploitation of their environment and engagement. This process is thereby required to threat to their livelihood and peaceful encompass the full scope of the EIA project. (Figure 27)

A young child walking alongside a large commercial, above-ground geothermal pipe transferring high pressure steam to support the Luzon grid. Source: Google Maps Streerview 41

(Figure 28)

Architectural rendering of a road (location unknown) made by the ARUP group, one of the three entities selected for two of the three major packages under the Infrastructure Preparation and Innovation Facility (IPIF) Output 1 (9 projects) – Roads and Bridges and Output 3 (13 projects)– Transportation, boasting a total project cost of $174.7 billion USD life. Community acceptance is a DEFINING THE “VALUE” OF LAND major challenge to any geothermal project. Hence, Tiwi’s experience is “...rhetorics of sustainability are worth sharing to other areas and supported by late liberal and market countries with potential for, or ongoing embodiments that permit the geothermal resource development.” hierarchization of instances of human and nonhuman life, and normalize

The report is clear to outline that drilling the loss of some lives and ways of life activities began in Tiwi, “the same year that as intrinsic to the process of what we Martial Law was declared in the country… call ‘progress.’” [and] Mitsui and Co., Ltd. of Japan was NPC’s contractor for the electromechanical works — Ann M. Iwashita, Professor of Anthropology at the while F.F. Cruz of the Philippines provided the University of Hawaii in Hilo civil and architectural works for the power plants (Camu & Santiago, 2000).” They cite an earlier 1988 study, a thesis by N.B. Binalla Micropolitical ecology aspires to disentangle on The Effects of Geothermal Power Plant ‘resource conflicts within and between Project in Tiwi, Albay presented to Aquinas communities, and between communities and the University’s Graduate School in Legazpi City state, while analyzing these tensions within who reports, their broader historical, social and politico- economic context’ (Horowitz, 2008). Thereby “[T]he negative perceptions of the making micropolitical ecology a tool for residents to pollution and ecological revealing unacknowledged parallels between disturbance, NPC’s exercise of the resource conflicts in the global North and South (Theriault, 2011). I argue that the government’s power of eminent tension between development terminology like domain or acquisition of private lands preservation, conservation, progress and for public use, and the lack of benefits resilience highlight the competing developing drivers that (if not carefully managed) can to compensate for the disturbance result in “environmental stalemates” from created by the project. The an inability to find consensus for projects consumers’ electric bills were costly, pushing forward sustainable innovation.

though the geothermal resource In legal terms, two key laws show this generating the electric power was only condition: the NIPAS Act and IPRA Act. The within the area. The place also lost National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act seeks to “conserve biodiversity its hot springs and the Naglagbong through protected areas, but on the condition Park, a tourist attraction for its that indigenous peoples can continue to live boiling pools, that was damaged in a and extract resources within park boundaries, and participate in park management.” Whereas, hydrothermal eruption.” the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act (RA 8371) allows indigenous people to hold collective legal title to their territories, called This reveals the realities, and growing pains ‘ancestral domains’ and protects them from posed by geothermal energy development felt displacement by outside activities. This in the past by residents, but there has been contradiction and overlap with other state- no recent public studies since. One can only sanctioned activities———such as The Mayon speculate that with the continued disasters Volcano Ecotourism Project, established at the that destroy billions in crops and the beginning of the 21st century where ecotourism changing landscape for farmers across the development in relation to the Philippines country, concerns or even motivations to volcanoes and the national park system was migrate elsewhere may become more pressing. established (Erfurt-Cooper & Cooper, 2010)——— In the 2010 census, 1.4 million people in the muddle the process, privilege those strategic Philippines moved to a different province, with in leveraging the appropriate act to serve half of this number moving to either Calabarzon their development, and ultimately serve as yet (Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal, and ) another barrier for meaningful intervention or the National Capital Region (NCR). from opposition on the ground. By this I argue farmers. groups andthemajorityofBicolanoswhoare on thelandforsubsistence:bothindigenous to systematicallydisenfranchisethosewhorely land tenureshipandmanagementhavecontinued that theseWestern-modeledlegalframeworksof (Figure 29) KEY TAKEAWAYS • • • • • The scale of Tiwi is overbearing and out of scale to its adjacent neighborhood,Additional street infrastructure reserves inthe area privileges are industry being tapped over to extend people the plant’s viabilityTiwi was met with community opposition infirst 10 years of its operation The region’s agricultural lands are impacted by climate change and extremeBicol weather is asite overdue events for environmental justice 43 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL (Figure 30)

Source: native-land..ca development geothermal peoples in indigenous centering chapter 3 45 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL (Figure 31)

Source: native-land..ca fashion: groups, whichcanbegroupedinthefollowing belonging toover40distinctethnolinguistic of thetotalPhilippinepopulationand indigenous peoples,composingabout10percent that thereareapproximately6.5million Filipinos (ECTF),wherethe“ECTFestimates (1994) bytheEpiscopalCommissionforTribal to employthesamedefinitionasJamesEder For thepurposeofthisresearch,Iamcareful “DEFINING” THE INDIGENOUS FILIPINX andthe Pala’wan.” various Mangyan groups, the Tagbanua, groups (Dumagat, Agta, Batak, etc.), the and including the various “Negrito” theVisayas, Mindoro,and Palawan, and Southern Luzon, some islands in peoples of the hinterlands of Central various other, widely scattered tribal and Kankaney; Kalinga, Isneg, Ibaloy,Tinngguian, and such groups as the Ifugao, Bontoc, around 1million people and including rangeof Northern Luzon,numbering provinces of the Cordillera mountain indigenous inhabitants of the five the Peoples of the Cordillera, the B’laan; Subanun, the Tiruray, the Bagobo, and T’Boli, the Manobo, the Mandaya, the the as groups such including and numbering around 2.1million people virtually every province of Mindanao, non-Muslim tribal peoples found in the Lumadof Mindanao,various knowing. evaluation systems a.k.aindigenouswaysof forum isnotconducivetoallowing othertruth Western constructofthecourtshows thatthis “evidence” to“prove”one’slegitimacy inthe agencies. Butmoreover,theactof providing groups goingagainstgaslighting government frustrations anddebatethatsurely plagues demarcated languagebarriers,adding fuelto primarily heldinEnglishandsometimesTagalog complained byindigenousgroups.Proceedings formalized discourse,andlimitedinscopeas confusing jargon-filledlegalforumthatforced burdensome toindigenousgroupsnavigatingthe of AncestralDomainsClaim(CADC)was of AncestralLandClaims(CALC)orCertificate The historicprocessofacquiringaCertificate law (Eder,1994). inhabitants as“squatters”intheeyesof (FMB) oftheDENR,therebymarkinganyupland jurisdiction oftheForestManagementBureau are “publicforestland”andfallsunderthe over 18degreesinslopewithorwithouttrees Present governmentpolicyoutlinesthatland rebellion in1649. leading toarestlessnessandwidespread exploited underSpanishrule———ultimately rice productioncapability,itslowlandswere Bicol villagesandduetotheregion’sstrong Catholicism andchurchesbecamecentralin missionaries begantosettleintheregion, occupy mountainousanduplandareas.AsSpanish the Philippinesthatindigenouspeoplestendto correlates withthereligiousgeographiesof Spanish. Thisactofself-preservationthereby even furtheruplandsoastoresistthe sixteenth century,thesegroupsretreated and whenSpainintroducedChristianityinthe those whoresistedretreatedtouplandareas Islam wasintroducedinthefourteenthcentury, and pre-Hispanicsociety”(Holden,2013).When continuity withthearchipelago’spre-Islamic understood as“peopleshavingahistorical In thePhilippines,indigenouspeoplesare their colonizersneartheportsandlowlands. inhabitants totheuplandsmakespacefor settlements, anddisplacementoforiginal intermarriage duringearlySpanishcolonial language andtraditionalculture,historic distinct useandaimstopreservetheBicolano falls within———particularlywiththeregion’s last pointIcontendiswheretheBicolregion an “indigenousFilipino.”Thethirdgroupand specify unambiguouslywhoisandnot areas arefactorsconfoundingeffortsto least some“lowland”Filipinosinhinterland suggested above,thelengthofresidenceat Filipinos andlowlandand,as the country,intermarriagebetweenTribal According toEder(1994),“Insomepartsof 47 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL MOVING BEYOND THE NARRATIVE OF RESILIENCE

Resiliency is defined as the ability of groups Goni’s (locally known as Typhoon Rolly) center. or communities to adapt in the face of external The center, just east of the shore of Bicol, social, political, or environmental stresses impacted the island province of the region, and disturbances (Adger, 2000). By this Catanduanes, the hardest. definition, indigenous peoples are among the most resilient groups in the world withstanding According to the Red Cross, the super typhoon multiple and continued attempts at colonizing damaged 90% of buildings and civil defense their traditional beliefs. Their participation officials estimated 370,000 people displaced. as co-managers of protected areas in order to Goni is the most powerful storm to hit the conserve both cultural and biological diversity country since 2013’s which is seen as essential and applied in practice killed more than 6,000 people. A BBC report on globally (Major et al, 2018). But despite their the storm the day after the event lists “ten presence in movements related to logging, people, including a five-year-old” to have died mining, dam construction, and the more recent in Albay province… “Two drowned, another was negotiations regarding global climate change, swept away by volcanic mud and another killed indigenous peoples still absorb the brunt of by a falling tree.” so-called costs and benefits of development projects (Theriault, 2011). The storm severed all access to electricity, water, and cellular networks on the island——— But evidently, calls for external aid and the entire Bicol region remained without institutional improvements from Philippine electricity for at least 5 days after. Thereby nationals and the global Filipinx diaspora forcing hundreds of thousands of people to during this year’s typhoon season prove that evacuation centers amidst the ongoing COVID-19 claims of Filipinxs preserving as they have global pandemic. Due to storm damage, power always done each year, are just not enough distribution lines were destroyed and an anymore. Within the year of writing this estimated 500 linemen needed to be sent to thesis, the strongest storm of 2020 struck the the Bicol region to do so. The Department Philippines reaching sustained winds of up to of Energy “targeted” Christmas as the date 310 km (195 miles) per hour at Super Typhoon that Catanduanes Island would be restored

(Figure 32)

Sketches by landscape architect Paul Acazaren in 2011 after Typhoon Ondoy (Rappler, 2020) Sketches by landscape architect Paul Acazaren in2011 after Typhoon Ondoy (Rappler, 2020) (Figure 33) course: Filipinxs thattherewillbepartialpowerof Presidential SpokesmanHarryRoqueassured country arrive,therewouldbesuppliesready. workers migratingfromotherregionsofthe to purchaseequipmentfirstsothatwhen 100% ofitspower,delayscausedbytheneed walang kuryente.” walang ibig sabihin dalawang buwan kayong po ma-rerestore yan. Hindi naman huwag kayo mag-alala, partial naman “Magkakaroon naman ng partial, interim. petroleum anddieselsuppliesto satiate the plant inthearea,aswellbuying more operators ofadieselplantandhydropower be employedastheDOEisnowlookingfor that alternativesourcesofenergywouldalso DOE UndersecretaryWimpyFuentebellareiterated two monthswithoutelectricity.) don’t worry.Itdoesn’tmeanyouwillendure (Translation: Therewillbepartialpower, 49 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL (RE)BUILD (RE)BUILD (RE)BUILD: THE DISASTER DEBT TRAP

With the total cost of infrastructure damage In another post on November 12th, 2020, the For is estimated to be over $280 million and the Future team highlights the shared reality unmet calls on the government to reconfigure of many Filipinxs whose emigration story is the budget to help Filipinxs back on their rooted in escaping the dire conditions that feet from an already depleted disaster still plague the nation: fund, the Philippines falls into its cycle of relying on foreign aid (both formal and informal through remittances from emigrated “They were vulnerable before the Filipinx nationals) to fill the gap. The Bicol storms came. provincial government reports PHP 1.4 billion We deserve better than to be (approximately $29 million USD) in damage to agricultural lands, with its main crop abaca celebrated for going through the at 92% of these losses———impacting 20,000 worst. hectares of crops and thus 20,000 farmers. For the Future, a grassroots transnational organization of twelve (12) young Filipinos We deserve to prosper. Not just under 26 from Manila and New York, were among survive.” the several advocacy groups that called mass media to, “Change your headlines. It is not The above highlights the systemic ways that ‘Filipino resiliency’” (anymore). Their public the reactive nature of constantly rebuilding call to action for immediate direct money after disaster continues to act as a barrier transfer donations for typhoon relief posted on for meaningful improvements in the livelihoods Instagram on November 2nd, 2020 (the day after of the most poor in the Philippines, exposing the storm), quotes a TEDx talk by Issa Barte on opportunities for disaster capitalism to take Filipinx resiliency: hold. Disaster capitalism, where the fear of disaster is exploited to facilitate the entry of a capitalist project, perhaps being “No one can doubt the resiliency of reflected in current Duterte administration’s the Filipino. It’s been tried, tested ironfist approach on infrastructure development and worn down since anyone can through their “Build Build Build” (BBB) program that pushes for dispersing economic activities remember. in the countryside so as to address the skewed development and its associated congestion / But this beacon of misconstrued traffic issues from urban centres like . With a portfolio of 20,000 proposed hope that we can always rise again infrastructure projects that include roads, should not only tell you the story of highways, farm-to-market roads, airports, how we can withstand suffering, but of seaports, terminals, evacuation centres, lighthouses, hospitals, schools, government how we deserve more. These headlines centres and more, the program is a top priority of our smiling kababayans reaching of the Duterte administration and claims the out through floods or storms should highest budget allocation for infrastructure in all of Philippine history (Malindog-Uy, 2020). not only speak of their endurance, Despite challenges of lockdown and quarantine but of the things that put them in that measures from COVID-19, flagship infrastructure position in the first place. projects continue to be completed including 4,536 flood mitigation structures to expand protected flood-prone areas and 82 evacuation Our ability to withstand the worst centers (built by the Department of Public should not only be a beacon of Works and Highways, DPWH) in 52 provinces (with 55 more underway). But the rapid nature of BBB strength, but a narrative to question is understood through its improvements towards who’s putting us in this position to developing “land, air, sea, and inter-island have to be resilient in the first place. connectivity and mobility” with its 121 airport projects, 369 commercial, social, and tourism seaports, and 23,657 kilometres of roads, and People can’t focus on prospering 4,959 bridges built since 2017 (Malindog-Uy, when they’re focused on surviving.” 2020).

Renderings of Philippine infrastructure projects from the ARUP Group (Figures 34,35) 51 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL THE LAND GRAB OF INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT + LAWS AROUND NATURAL RESOURCES

According to the 1967 Geothermal Energy, private sector to more enticingly engage in BOT Natural Gas and Methane Law (RA 5092), natural contracts without increasing national debt. gases and geothermal energy resources belong In 1987 post successful outsing of the Marcos to the state and under this law, enables the regime and entry of the country’s first woman government to set aside or reserve lands as president marking a new more positive era in geothermal reservations upon the successful the Philippines, Article XII, Section 2 in the exploration that “indigenous” energy sources Constitution outlines that, are available for utilization. A succeeding Presidential Decree (PD 1442) that same year, ‘All lands of the public domain, waters, minerals, goes on to outline that, coal, petroleum, and other mineral oils, all forces of potential energy, fisheries, forest or timber, ‘the Government may directly explore for, exploit wildlife, flora and fauna, and other natural and develop geothermal resources. It may also resources are owned by the State’ indirectly undertake the same under service contracts awarded through public bidding or ‘The exploration, development, and utilisation of concluded through negotiation, with a domestic natural resources shall be under the full control or foreign contractor who must be technically and supervision of the State. The state may and financially capable of undertaking the directly undertake such activities, or it may enter operations required in the service contract.’ into co-production, joint venture or production sharing agreements with Filipino citizens, or Meaning, that the state maintains ownership corporations or associations at least sixty (60) but can award the contract to a developer per centum of whose capital is owned by such with a share breakdown of 60-40 for the state and contractor respectively - under contracts citizens. for 25 years, and extendable for another 15. Showing that despite a change in administration In 1978, another contract law (PD 1442), the and renewed commitment to the sanctity of Geothermal Service Contract Law, further democracy and well-being of the Filipinx outlines the terms for joint undertakings for people, the state still retains its control the government and private entities interested over the lands both developed by the Marcos in investing; but all failed to attract administration and those under ‘public’ private investments due to their unfavourable purview. incentives and heavy tax burdens on the private entity. By 1992, the National Integrated Protected Areas Systems (NIPAS) Act outlined that any In the case of the Tiwi Geothermal Field, the survey for energy resources in protected environmental policies that added layers of areas may be limited to exploration for due diligence for development projects came data gathering purposes only, and that any too late with systems like the Philippines exploitation or utilization of the resources Environmental Impact Statement System (PEISS) found in these zones need to be passed that rationalized the balance between socio- through Congress. Despite formal adoptions to economic growth and environmental protections integrate more public engagement prior to such established as construction was already nearing development, for the Tiwi Geothermal Plant, the completion and operations to soon begin of this damage or in this case development has already first geothermal plant in the Philippines. been done.

The aggressive exploration undertaken by the In 2001, RA 9136 or the Electric Power Industry Marcos regime was immediately stagnated with Reform Act (EPIRA) sought to liberalize the the entry of new administration, likely taking electricity market and restructure the sector, a conservative approach to development so as a direct response to the high electricity price to begin assessing the real impact of the late rates being experienced by the country due to dictator’s authoritarian rule. By the EDSA insufficient fuel reserves. This deregulation People Power Revolution, the NPC had already of the industry aimed to ensure affordable and accrued billions in debt, prompting actions reliable electric power through a “competitive, like the Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) Law efficient, and market-based regulatory that divested NPC of the monopoly to control framework”⸺reinforcing the capitalist, power generation in the country but also neoliberal narrative to push towards the established a wider privatization process. EO Western ideals of “modernity” in the name of 215, along with RA 7718 marked the second wave energy. of geothermal energy development allowing the 53 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL SHIFTING POWER DYNAMICS: VICTIMS TO EXPERTS

“There is a critical difference between under the Operation Land Transfer (OLT), a Marcos-era land reform program created under going through the empty ritual of PD 27, but was stifled by relevant government participation and having the real power agencies (the Department of Agrarian Reform, needed to affect the outcome of the DAR, and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources) who were under pressure process. [...] [w]ithout redistribution of from business interests. Development proceeded power [participation] is an empty and (incremental clearing of the disputed frustrating process for the powerless. It area) despite active court injunctions and restraining orders by the farmers (assisted allows the powerholders to claim all sides by local NGOs) and Aznar-St. Lucia group’s were considered, but makes it possible lack of legally-required permits from DAR and for only some [...] to benefit” (Minter et al, DENR. When two farmers were shot and murdered on June 7, 1993, it was widely believed to 2014) be a representation of how intimidation and violence escalated at the site———unfortunately not the only incidence when it comes to past Through the review of energy policy in the and ongoing land disputes in the country (Eder, country, critiques of acts like NIPAS are 1994). riddled with its lack of enforcement and muddled, overlapping jurisdictions that make The story of these farmers is mirrored by it difficult to navigate acquiring the right indigenous land claims to ancestral lands, both protections within the state-defined legal in past and present. framework (modeled after the US) for indigenous populations, subsistence farmers and long time Earlier studies into the limits of indigenous occupants of the land. The need to prove with participation, such as the Agta and the “evidence” their rights to the land can be a Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park——— barrier enough to stifle opposition against the Philippines’ largest protected area, any proposed development and even if proper demonstrate that “formalizing indigenous documentation was acquired, history proves participation in protected area management that plans may continue anyways, no matter the is not enough to break through existing monetary and human cost. power structures that inhibit marginalized stakeholders to defense of their interests In 1993, land disputes over a rocky 118-hectare in natural resources against those of more parcel on the hillside land outside of Cebu powerful actors” (Minter et al, 2014). City pitted 349 subsistence farmers that claimed to have occupied the land to grow corn The Lumad people, the indigenous groups of the since the late 1930s against Aznar Enterprises, Mindanao region in Southern People are among Inc and the Santa Lucia Realty Development the most vocal, thereby most reported and in Corporation who sought to develop the land turn, most threatened———at present, there are for upper-class residences and a golf course international humanitarian calls to “Free the (Eder, 1994). Eder reports that the farmers Lumad 26,” calling for the immediate release claimed to qualify to receive land titles of 26 Lumad students, volunteer teachers, They continue, livelihood &self-determination,”writes, rights defendersinthestruggleforland, advocacy networkforenvironmentalandhuman 2021. TheLiyangNetwork,a“localtoglobal Talamban CampusinCebuCityonFebruary15th, School attheUniversityofSanCarlos, and illegalarrestattheBakwit(Evacuation) elders andtriballeadersafteraviolentraid closure order in May 2020. Lumad School CTCSM received a the agents, state by families and intimidation and studentsthreats, of incidents, illegal entry by intelligence, “After surveillance drone numerous waters.” and forests protected for the plunder of Mindanao’s last the Duterte Regime’s neoliberal plans lands. Lumad schools pose athreat to their ancestral defend to and health, holistic and agriculture sustainable develop their economies through think critically and assert their rights, students to empower schools Lumad forcibly closed. Mindanao (178 out of 215have been in over 200 communities across schools that once could befound culturally-responsive, progressive international attention for their drawn have communities “Lumad when “aid”hascometosomeformofrescue. regulation”———highlighting theconflicteven internalize statecontrolthroughself- purpose: “persuadingindigenouspeopleto agendas ultimatelyshareacommonunderlying (NGOs) thatpromotebiodiversityconservation to arguethatnon-governmentalorganizations literature’s theoriesof‘governmentality’ Raymond L.Bryant(2002)drawsfromFoucaldian the talesofMarcossharedinChapter1. administration, worryinglyreminiscentof on anythreatofdissentthestanding only furtherprovethecontinuedattack frameworks feelrepetitivetodisclosebut acts ofviolenceandmanipulationlegal These storiesthatsharestate-sanctioned alternative learning systems.” and legally permitted to operate as by the Department of Education the fact that they are accredited attack the schools’ legitimacy despite kidnapping charges. The state tries to human trafficking, child abuse, and warriors,” charging teachers with schools as “training grounds for child Lumad about posters, public and media pages, press conferences, misinformation social through spreads Conflict], funded by tax dollars, to End Communist Local Armed Force Task National ELCAC [the Desperate to discredit this, the NTF- opposition of the marginalized. a symbol and amodel for the just Lumad schools have become both 55 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL USING INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE FOR CLIMATE ADAPTATION

In present-day academia, supported by the Trends in the assertion of indigenous rights widening global reckoning that indeed, through this lens show promise to inspire new maybe indigenous people knew and hold the forms of collaboration, but share the threat to key to climate adaptation solutions after “bind indigenous movements into straightjackets all, unfortunately seem to still centre the of eco-authenticity” (Theriault, 2011). practitioner or researcher who was “smart Theriault argues that both perspectives are enough” to point out that maybe this “low needed to simultaneously consider and address tech” was the simple innovation we were looking official objectives, strategies and outcomes, for in this costly need for the newest, most but also the personal histories, interpersonal technologically-advanced solutions. relationships and local struggles that animate [one’s] daily life. This tension is productive Academics have gone as far as defining “radical to think through a collective approach to indigenism,” a term originally theorized by accommodate differences whilst simultaneously Eva Marie Garroutte (a research associate contesting bases of structural subordination professor at Boston College and enrolled (Foster, 2002). citizen of the Cherokee Nation) and made popular by newer books like “Lo-TEK: Design by The institutionalization of ‘indigeneity’ by Radical Indigenism” by Julia Watson (2019). The NGO advocacy and state policies creates a power distinction of “radical” (derived from Latin imbalance, whether intentional or not, that radix, meaning “root”) as Garroutte describes, can impose conceptual frameworks, economic “illuminates differences in assumptions about interest, and (anti-)political agendas on the knowledge that are at the root of the dominant very people whose interests they aim to promote culture’s misunderstanding and subordination of (Theriault, 2011). And though alliances are indigenous knowledge... (Thereby arguing for typically welcomed, Theriault (2011) aptly the) reassertion and rebuilding of knowledge questions, “What then, do indigenous movements from those roots” (Garroutte, 2018). And risk when they use the ideological and though sensitivity has been promised in ways communicational infrastructure of globalization of representing the knowledge and stories of to assert their interests?” Washing over these highlighted indigenous groups, the extraction strategies as simply ‘counterglobalization’ of this knowledge and lack of long-term tactics flattens indigenous movements to a partnership or relationship established with binary simplification that pits the choices the groups reveal the privileges of the Global between the environment and development, which North to divert from any real ownership and I argue through the scope of a geothermal responsibility for the root of this problem. energy development projects, is insufficient and requires further nuanced understandings When speaking about the climate justice of the locally felt issues at hand. Stuart movement (CJM), a central issue raised is Kirsch (2007) highlights that indigeneity (as climate debt———the ecological debt defined by an ideological basis for collective action the unjust power relation between the Global against corporations) imposes an unrealistic North and South (Warlenius, 2018). This is binary between economic development and further articulated by Patrick Bond (2014), environmental protection———the ‘risks of reinforcing that “peasants, indigenous peoples, counterglobalization’———increasing the and women” are among the groups who have been likelihood that the community in question will disproportionately affected and hold the least be left with neither. responsibility for climate change: The intentions of indigenous movements is “Climate justice is the recognition often distorted to appear as an “all-or- nothing” position with respect to development, that the historical responsibility for as Noah Theriault describes when studying the the vast majority of greenhouse gas micropolitics of indigenous environmental emissions lies with the industrialized movements in the Philippines. They argue that “without attention to such local-level countries of the global North.” variation, we risk obscuring some of the most important motives and outcomes of indigenous In other words, the burden of mitigation and movements”———specifically, “overlook[ing] the adaptation costs is the responsibility of alternative visions of socio-environmental nations in the global North. justice that emerge from their day-to- day struggles for livelihood, dignity and empowerment” (Theriault, 2011). environment while respecting cultural secrecy and complyingPages with its from rules” NinaValerie Kolowratnik ’s book, The Language of Secret Proof showing drawings with acareful(Figure 36) notation system that “communicate[s] Native truths inaWestern legal 57 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL KEY TAKEAWAYS • Limitations for indigenous participation are embedded within the system and do not actually transfer any power to indigenous peoples • Providing “evidence” of ancestral land claims is limited in scope • The experience of subsistence farmers opposing development or land encroachment (historic and present day) mirror the indigenous experience • Projects push forward despite community opposition and public dissent, for the sake of “nation”

CONCLUSION + NEXT STEPS

It is difficult not to reflect on how the “growing pains” of accommodating the rapidly growing urban centres in the Philippines, feel reminiscent of the expansion of public works and highways here in the United States that violent displaced and removed Black and Brown communities to “clean” areas of “urban blight” for the sake of progress and modernity. Bringing justice to these past planning harms are undoubtedly still the most pressing call to action my planning generation shares.

In the case of geothermal energy development, I conclude that there is plenty of cause and evidence of the resource’s viability, but reckon the direct conflict with its overlap on ancestral lands and land holding the nation’s natural capital.

The facts uncovered by this thesis are that for the Philippines, post-colonial legitimation drives and perhaps still drives infrastructure development; development that privileges the national narrative of “resiliency” and “progress” while prioritizing urban centres. And while opposition persists against certain development projects, land tenure claims are challenging to win due to the Western formalities and constructs that are privileged in such legal battles. We learned that the process, shortened and stifled by the limits of political campaigns and inconsistent recollection of institutional knowledge, ultimately does not give any real power to indigenous peoples when coming to a consensus in geothermal energy projects. The contradicting policies and convoluted development process make participation difficult, begging the question if the scale we (Figure 37) undertake geothermal energy is appropriate and responsive to increasing need. Sketch underlay by Paul Alcazaren, annotations by author Sketch underlay by Paul Alcazaren, annotations by author (Figure 37) kababayan, orcomrade. needed attimesofcrisistohelptheirfellow the barangaysthemselvestodecidewhatis at thepowersandfundinghandsof been thoughtof———butjustlackexecution thoughtful designscanandhavealready years ago,showingthatideasofsimplebut by landscapearchitectPauloAlcazaren11 I thinkofthesketchespubliclyshared SCALE DIRECTLY INVESTING ATTHEBARANGAY RECOMMENDATION (1) ideas: attempted bythisthesisthroughthefollowing research thatcouldadvancetheconversation In close,Iofferstartingpointsoffurther 59 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL RECOMMENDATION (2) A COUNTERMAPPING EXERCISE TO DEFINE THE VALUE OF “NATURAL CAPITAL” ——— MOVING AWAY FROM WATSON’S APPROACH TO KOLOWARTNIK’S APPROACH

As we continue to look for solutions that integrate indigenous truths and knowledges for the collective, or use for the masses, questions of ethics and power dynamics must stay at the forefront of as practitioners in the built environment. I think of the CARE Principles for Indigenous Data Governance as a framework for the baseline of projects, recognizing the needed customization to respond to different communities’ data and privacy needs.

I also reflect on stories shared by Nina Valerie Kolowratnik in their book The Language of Secret Proof where she works with the Pueblo peoples to create a careful notation system so as to “communicate Native truths in a Western legal environment while respecting cultural secrecy and complying with its rules”——— thinking that this is a replicable process by the skills of an architect with the mindfulness of a planner to bring due diligence and perspective to centering a holistic approach to needs of said peoples. By decentering the technical expert and centering the authorship of indigenous peoples in their own knowledges, what would it look like to engage in a countermapping exercise to define natural capital from the perspective of indigenous peoples? the currentprocess. tool thatcouldde-cloud meetings andworkshops,a to facilitateandrecord recorders canbeengaged of waysthatgraphic Change asanexample based organizationDrawing I thinkofVancouver- indigenous participation. of nationallegalframeworks———barriersfor with theinsighttonavigatebureaucracy is convoluted,takenadvantageofbythose contradicting andthedevelopmentprocess As revealedinthisthesis,policiesare PRINCIPLES FOR DATA GOVERNANCE REPRESENTATION, CENTERING THE CARE EXPLORING RESPECTFUL WAYS OF IMPROVING FACILITATION TOOLS AND RECOMMENDATION (3) Source: Drawing Change graphic recording (Figure 38,below) 61 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL STAGES OF GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES APPROXIMATE COST FOR A 100 MW PROJECT

(Dolor, 2005) USD PHP ASSUMPTIONS

average well capacity = 5 MW PROJECT / well DEFINITION + 0.03 1.45 production wells: 21 RECONNAISSANCE reinjection wells = 7 million million roads = 10 km, exploratory; 20 EVALUATION km, development

DETAILED geological, geochemical 0.10 4.85 EXPLORATION + geophysical surveys million million

explo EIA, tree cutting permits $50,000 = EIA/Permits EXPLORATORY 9.07 439.8 $135,000 = per km road road construction, DRILLING AND $458,000 = drillpad DELINEATION drillsite preparation million million $2,100,000 = well well drilling (3 wells)

resource assessment + PROJECT $500,000 = feasibility development strategy 0.64 31 FEASIBILITY study million million $135,000 = EIA STAGE project EIA + EC

LOAN APPLICATION 0.10 4.85 + FINANCIAL million million CLOSING

production / reinjection well drilling $2,100,000 = well FIELD 115.66 5.61 $11,860,000 = roads + pads DEVELOPMENT million billion $30,000,000 = FCRS FCRS engineering design $15,000,000 = admin + overhead and construction

STEAM PRODUCTION power plant bidding 140.00 6.79 $1,400 = cost per kw AND RESOURCE EPC million billion MANAGEMENT

SHUTDOWN AND $265.60 ABANDONMENT MILLION USD for Bicolstudentsandresidents. Aboitz Power)shouldbemirroredinTiwi,Albay the MakBangeothermalsite(alsooperatedby the successfulCleanenergyCenter,locatedat training andpubliceducationalprogrammingof for theTiwiGeothermalComplex.Theservices, geothermal andrenewableenergy,particularly opportunity toimprovethepubliceducationof for projectstakeholders,thereisan Building ongraphicrecordingandfacilitation MORE ACCESSIBLE VISUALIZING THE PROCESS TOMAKE IT RECOMMENDATION (4) page Facebook Center Cleanenergy Source: (Figure 39-40) 63 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL STAGES OF BARRIERS TO INTRODUCING GEOTHERMAL GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS DEVELOPMENT IN IN THE PHILIPPINES THE PHILIPPINES

(Dolor, 2005) (Ratio et al, 2020)

PROJECT Highlighted are stages DEFINITION + that residents should be ECONOMICS + FINANCES RECONNAISSANCE engaged and included in EVALUATION (ECONOMIC INCENTIVES, process COST PERFORMANCE, ETC)

DETAILED EXPLORATION

LONG LEAD TIME STEAM DECAY EXPLORATORY DRILLING AND DELINEATION

PROJECT FEASIBILITY STAGE DEVELOPMENTAL OPERATIONAL RISK RISK

LOAN APPLICATION + FINANCIAL CLOSING

SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE OF STAKEHOLDERS

(LOCAL GOVERNMENT, HOST FIELD COMMUNITY, INDIGENOUS CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITIES, ETC)

STEAM PRODUCTION AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

POLICIES + REGULATIONS

(PERMITS, PERIODIC CONSULTATION WITH STAKEHOLDERS, ROYALTY SHUTDOWN AND DISTRIBUTION, ETC) ABANDONMENT (Revised by author, 2021) GEOTHERMAL PROJECTS SOCIAL ACCEPTABILITY OF AREAS OFFOCUS TOIMPROVE RECOMMENDATION risk development steam decay risk operational (5) acceptance of stakeholders economics + regulations PROJECT policies + BEFORE finances social long lead time labor. build capacitiesbeyondmanual renewable nergyindustry,or a workforceintheemerging identify opportunities to educate the needsofworkerscould program, betterunderstanding of Duterte’sBuild opportunities in the construction With thesurgeofemployment RECONSTRUCTION LABOUR DISPLACEMENT DISASTER + RELATED TOCLIMATE MIGRATION PATTERNS INTER BETTER UNDERSTANDING PROVINCE/ISLAND acceptance of stakeholders PROJECT maintenance management AFTER social

65 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL (Figure 41)

Source: John Tewell change hasachanceafterall. power dynamicsintheracetomitigateclimate geographies alongtheequator,perhapsglobal the transnationalFilipinxdiaspora,andisland subsistence farmersandindigenouspeoples), across environmentaldefenders(joining By exchangingstrategiesandsharinggrievances bombarded withhardshipyearinandout. plague countrieslikethePhilippineswhoare platforms toamplifycallsactionthat level, strategicalliancescouldcreatelarger many oftheissuesfeltaresharedonaglobal the Filipinxpeoplehasmostlyfailedandthat secondary goalofaddressingthewell-being Considering thatdevelopmentprojects’ education tothegreaterFilipinxpublic. dissemination ofnaturalresourcemanagement explore theroleofculturalheritagein is celebrated———offeringanotheropportunityto typhoons thatstriketheirhomelandannually” the “people’sdeterminationtosurvive in LegazpiCitywhereoldfolkepicsbutalso typhoon season),theIbalongFestivalisheld In addition,everyOctober(thestartof people. educational andculturalneedsoftheBicolano this maybeanopportunitytoadvancethe and withalackofimplementationbythestate, entitled toeducationintheirmothertongue 1997, indigenouspeopleinthePhilippinesare Under theIndigenousPeoplesRightsActof ENVIRONMENTAL ADVOCACY EFFORTS CULTURAL PRESERVATION AND EXISTING IDENTIFY STRATEGIC ALLIANCES IN RECOMMENDATION (6) 67 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL SUMMARY FINDINGS ACTION ITEMS

Infrastructure development privileges Investment in infrastructure at the scale the country’s national narrative of of the “barangay” “resiliency” and “progress” and prioritizes urban centers

Land tenure claims privilege Western A countermapping exercise to define the representations and constructs of knowledge value of “natural capital” ———moving away from Watson’s approach to Kolowartnik’s approach • decentering the “expert” • participatory planning • equal partner in development

Participation ≠ power for indigenous people Improving facilitation tools and exploring respectful ways of representation, centering the CARE Principles for Data Governance

Contradicting policies + convoluted Visualizing the process to make the process development process more accessible

Development projects’ secondary goal of Better understanding inter province/island addressing the well-being of the Filipinx migration patterns related to climate people has mostly failed displacement + disaster / reconstruction labour

Issues are systemic on a shared global Identify strategic alliances in cultural level • preservation and existing environmental advocacy efforts • Preservation of language • Subsistence farmers • Transnational Filipinx diaspora advocacy • Climate change and island geographies

(Figure 42-43, back cover)

Site-specific memorial created by artist Carolina Caycedo (on current display at El Museo del Barrio, New York) 69 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adger, W. N. (2000). Social and ecological Grefalda, L. B., Pulhin, J. M., & Santos, resilience: Are they related? Progress in E. P. (2017). Resilience to Weather-Related Human Geography, 24(3), 347–364. https://doi. Disasters of a CBFM Community in Ligao, Albay, org/10.1191/030913200701540465 Philippines. Environment and Natural Resources Research, 8(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.5539/ Adlaon, A. (1986). Filipino Moderate enrr.v8n1p1 Opposition’s Perception Of The United States Over A Twenty-Tear Period Of The Marcos Regime Guiriba, G. O. (2019). Documentation of [Master’s Thesis, University of Hawai’i at Indigenous Knowledge on Production and Post- Manoa]. http://ezproxy.cul.columbia.edu/ Harvest Management of Sweet Potato in the Bicol login?url=https://www-proquest-com.ezproxy. Region, Philippines. Journal of Asian Rural cul.columbia.edu/dissertations-theses/ Studies, 3(1), 93. https://doi.org/10.20956/ changing-image-filipino-moderate-oppositions/ jars.v3i1.1719 docview/2453793588/se-2?accountid=10226 Holden, W. N. (2013). The Least of My Aspinwall, N. (2020, November 6). Thousands Brethren: Mining, Indigenous Peoples, and the Still Without Power as Philippines Recovers Roman Catholic Church in the Philippines. From Super . The Diplomat. https:// Worldviews, 17(3), 205–238. https://doi. thediplomat.com/2020/11/thousands-still- org/10.1163/15685357-01700003 without-power-as-philippines-recovers-from- super-typhoon-goni/ Horowitz, L. S. (2008). “It’s up to the clan to protect”: Cultural heritage and the Campen, B. V., & Rai, K. (2015). Geothermal micropolitical ecology of conservation in Policy and Regulation—Cases from Chile, New Caledonia. The Social Science Journal, Kenya, New Zealand and the Philippines 45(2), 258–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. (peer-reviewed). https://doi.org/10.13140/ soscij.2008.03.005 RG.2.1.2827.8488 Ichord Jr, R. F. (1974). Southeast Asia and Camu, M., & Santiago, R. (2000). Social the World Oil Crisis: 1973. Southeast Asian Development in the Philippines’ Tiwi Geothermal Affairs, 27–56. Area. 6. Karnow, S. (1989, March 19). Reagan and the Eder, J. F. (1994, June). Indigenous Peoples, Philippines: Setting Marcos Adrift. The New Ancestral Lands and Human Rights in the York Times Magazine. https://www.nytimes. Philippines. Cultural Survival Quarterly com/1989/03/19/magazine/reagan-and-the- Magazine. philippines-setting-marcos-adrift.html

Erfurt-Cooper, P., & Cooper, M. (Eds.). (2010). La Viña, A. G. M., Dulce, J. C., & Saño, Volcano and Geothermal Tourism: Sustainable N. (2011). National and Global Energy Geo-resources for Leisure and Recreation. Governance: Issues, Linkages and Challenges Earthscan. in the Philippines: Energy Governance in the Philippines. Global Policy, 2, 80–93. https:// Flor, A. G., & Librero, F. (1999). Perceptions doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-5899.2011.00134.x on Common Property in Ecosystems Under Stress: The Case of the Mt. Apo Geothermal Liu, J. H., & Gastardo-Conaco, C. (2011). Plant. Journal of Environmental Science and Theory and Methods of a Representational Management, 8. Approach to Understanding Social Movements: The Role of the EDSA Revolution in a National Foster, J. B. (2002). II. Capitalism and Psychology of Protest for the Philippines. Ecology: The Nature of the Contradiction. Social Justice Research, 24(2), 168–190. Monthly Review, 54(4). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-011-0131-x

Garroutte, E. M. (2018). Defining “Radical Major, K., Smith, D., & Migliano, A. B. (2018). Indigenism” and Creating an American Indian Co-Managers or Co-Residents? Indigenous Scholarship. In Culture, power, and history: Peoples’ Participation in the Management of Studies in critical sociology (pp. 169–198). Protected Areas: a Case Study of the Agta in the Philippines. Human Ecology, 46(4), 485–495. Gonzalez, V. V. (2013). Introduction: Military- https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-018-0007-x Tourism Partnerships in Hawai’i and the Philippines. In Securing Paradise: Tourism and Malindog-Uy, A. (2020, September 13). “Build Militarism in Hawai’i and the Philippines (pp. Build Build” Program Amid a Pandemic. The ASEAN 1–20). Duke University Press. https://doi-org. Post. https://theaseanpost.com/article/build- ezproxy.cul.columbia.edu/10.1215/9780822395942- build-build-program-amid-pandemic 001 [Master’s Thesis].ColumbiaUniversity. Philippines anditsEffectonEconomic Growth Uy, F.I.(2016).EnergyPricing in the j.1467-7660.2011.01735.x 42(6), 1417–1440.https://doi.org/10.1111/ in thePhilippines.DevelopmentandChange, Philippines: IndigenousEnvironmentalMovements Indigenous EnvironmentalMovementsinthe Theriault, N.(2011).TheMicropoliticsof 25. Philippine JournalofSocietyandChange,9(2), during theMartialLawPeriod(1972-1986). and thePoliticsofEconomicDecisionMaking Tadem, T.S.E.(2013).PhilippineTechnocracy Books. Nongovernmental Politics(pp.285–297).Zone in NongovernmentalOrganizations.In Ryfman, P.(2017).GovernanceandPolicies 78286-7_14 Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319- 67, pp.217–238).SpringerInternational (Eds.), GeothermalEnergyandSociety(Vol. A. Manzella,Allansdottir,&Pellizzone Experience inGeothermalEnergyDevelopment.In Hillebrecht, A.L.(2019).ThePhilippine Ratio, M.A.,Gabo-Ratio,J.&Tabios- org/10.1177/0725513618763840 Thesis Eleven,145(1),58–76.https://doi. critique ofPhilippineenvironmentalpolicy. problem ofnationalparks:Indigenous ICCA Consortium.(2018).Livingwiththe Perez, P.L.&withBUKLURAN-ThePhilippine https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-014-9673-5 Philippines. HumanEcology,42(5),769–778. and theNorthernSierraMadreNaturalPark, Limits toIndigenousParticipation:TheAgta M., Sunderland,T.,&Persoon,G.A.(2014). Minter, T.,vanderPloeg,J.,Pedrablanca, 30 yearsofCommercialOperation.6. G. (2010).TiwiGeothermalField,Philippines: Menzies, A.J.,Villaseñor,L.B.,&Sunio,E. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.110886 Philippines. EnergyPolicy,133,110886. multidimensional energypovertyinthe S., &Manaligod,L.R.A.(2019).Understanding Mendoza, C.B.,Cayonte,D.D.,Leabres,M. University. Philippines [DoctoralDissertation].Columbia Urbanism andtheAmericanColonizationof Colonialism: Architecture,Infrastructure, Martinez, D.J.S.(2017).Concrete 71 2021 CAMILLE ESQUIVEL CAMILLE ESQUIVEL [email protected] for any corrections and errors