VERCINGETORIX (“ver-sin-JEH-to-rix") 82 BC – 46 BC
In the twilight of the Republic, Julius Caesar led his troops past the northern border of Roman territory to do battle against a formidable Celtic people called the Gauls. By Roman standards, the Gauls were “barbarians”, though even Caesar himself recognized their valor and courage as peerless.
Unlike the Romans, the Gauls did not have an empire. They did not always agree amongst themselves, and were divided among several different tribes, factions, and clans. In the face of Julius Caesar’s army, however, they were compelled to band together and fight against the Romans as one people. When these newly allied tribes looked for a king to lead them, it was a man named Vercingetorix they found. Although the honor is usually bestowed upon other leaders, Vercingetorix may be considered France’s first king.
Vercingetorix had a gallant spirit, a brilliant mind, and a deep love of his people. He knew that if the Gauls were conquered by Rome, they would be forced to change their ways and submit to foreign leaders who wanted to enslave them. Vercingetorix was determined to see that his people were not made into the servants of Rome.
The Gauls were united under his leadership in a way they had never been before. His example of courage in the face of the Romans was an inspiration to their own bravery, and because of his moral example, Vercingetorix’s followers resisted the Romans with utmost passion.
While the Roman invaders were doing battle in Gaul, they would often steal from Gallic villages and farms in order to feed their own soldiers. Where food could not be found in this manner, the Romans would have to spend great time and energy foraging through the woodlands for berries, roots, and what animals they could hunt. In a moment of decisive leadership, Vercingetorix ordered that the farmlands and storehouses near the path of Roman invasion be burned to the ground.
Why would Vercingetorix command that his own peoples’ goods be destroyed? For one, because doing so would be a major inconvenience for the Romans, who would now have to find food in some other manner. But Vercingetorix’s other goal may have been to unite his people even more, by making the families who worked on the farms he burned reliant upon the charity and friendship of their neighbors. When people share things together, they are more likely to remain friends. Vercingetorix wanted his people to remain close, and to treat each other with virtue.
In time, however, the Romans prevailed against the Gauls. The power of the Roman army was too strong to resist. Although the Gallic people had come together to resist the invasion, they were not equipped to continue a war against so many well-trained Roman soldiers. Vercingetorix’s army was defeated, and the time came for the king to surrender. Riding straight into the Roman camp to Caesar himself, Vercingetorix was a splendid sight. He wore all of his battle gear, and his horse was bridled in jewelry. Even in surrender, he was a sight of valor. Dismounting before Caesar, Vercingetorix threw his battle-axe to the ground and removed his shining armor in complete silence.
Many Gauls were made slaves to Rome, and the great treasure of their lands was stolen from them. But the loss they mourned the most was their noble king, who to this day remains a living symbol for one of Europe’s greatest people— a symbol of courage, a symbol of leadership, and a symbol of France.
PERICLES (PEH-rih-klees) (Athens, ca. 495-429 BC)
Due to Pericles’ enormous influence on Athens during its Golden Age, a Greek historian named Thucydides dubbed Pericles “the first citizen of Athens.” As Athens’ government was essentially a direct democracy, Pericles did not hold official status as a ruler of any kind. His tremendous oratorical skill, however, and his outstanding statesmanship, enabled him to achieve tremendous influence over the Athenian people.
Quiet and introverted growing up, Pericles preferred to devote himself to education rather than public life; as he came from a noble, wealthy family, he was easily able to acquire the best education available. The illustrious names of Herodotus, Protagoras, Zeno the Eleatic, and especially Anaxagoras, figure among those responsible for Pericles’ intellectual and moral formation as a young man. He learned to appreciate the beauty inherent in the order expressed by music and mathematics, as well as the art of oratory, becoming quite an accomplished speaker. Perhaps most importantly, however, he learned the importance of philosophy as a source of self- control and moral direction. As he grew older, he began to speak out publically in favor of democratic reforms, such as making political office more accessible to less-wealthy citizens. As the democratic movement in Athens began to seek additional power and influence, they gravitated toward the eloquent, charismatic Pericles as their leader. By the time Pericles was 34 years old, the democratic party had become dominant, thus making Pericles in effect the leader of Athens.
Pericles was a true patriot, devoted to his country. His greatest wish was to see Athens become the cultural and financial center of the civilized world, and in this aim he was so successful that to this day, Athens is still referred to as “the cradle of Western civilization.” Under his guiding hand, Athens became such a hotbed of education, art, and culture, that architects, sculptors, painters, poets, and philosophers all flocked to the city. The four most famous playwrights—Aeschylus, Sophocles, Aristophanes, and Euripides—all flourished at their craft during this time, as did the well-known sculptor Phidias, and the “Father of Western Medicine,” Hippocrates, among many others. Indeed, Athens saw such an explosion of art, literature, and education during this time that historians now refer to it as a “Golden Age.” Pericles also commissioned several building projects, perhaps the most famous of which is the Parthenon, a temple dedicated to Athena, the patron goddess of
Athens; the remnants of this breath-taking structure still stand on the Athenian Acropolis today.
Some other Greek city-states, however—most notably Sparta—became jealous of Athens’ success and growing power. After the Greeks successfully threw the Persians out of Greece, Athens had convinced several other Greek city-states to form the Delian League; each member would contribute money to a common treasury, which the group would use to fund attacks on Persia, and for self-defense in the event of a future invasion. Pericles’ opponents accused him of taking money from this common treasury to fund his cultural projects in Athens, and of forcing Athenian domination over less-powerful Greek communities. Eventually this rivalry became an all-out war between Athens and Sparta, the two most powerful Greek city-states, with the various other city-states ranging themselves in alliance with one or the other. This war, known as the Peloponnesian War, began when Pericles was 64 years old. Due to his calm leadership and excellent guidance, Athens began the war with the upper hand, and by maintaining a conservative, defensive policy, did not suffer much from the Spartan attacks.
One year into the war, however, a terrible plague struck Athens, which devastated the city and killed between one-third and two-thirds of the total population: over 30,000 people. Pericles watched his two sons die from the terrible disease before he himself succumbed to it. After they recovered from the plague, the Athenians resumed their fight in the Peloponnesian War, but gradually began to depart from the conservative military strategy Pericles had originally encouraged. This, in conjunction with the disastrous effects of the plague, caused them eventually to lose the war and be subjected to thirty years of Spartan rule.
Despite his tragic and untimely end, Pericles is remembered as one of the most successful statesmen ever in history. His elevation of Athens into a blooming metropolis of cultural and educational prestige, and in such a short time, is one of the most impressive feats of political leadership the world has ever seen. Western civilization owes a debt that can never be repaid to the achievements of the Golden Athens that Pericles, in large part, created. His name in Greek means “surrounded by glory,” and indeed, one could hardly think of a more fitting name for this unparalleled politician, general, and orator.
DARIUS (DARE-ee-us) (Persia, ca. 550-486 BC)
Also known as “Darius the Great,” Darius I ruled the Persian Empire at its height, for nearly four decades. At his death, his empire extended from the Balkans in the west, stretching into Thrace and Macedonia, to the northwestern regions of India in the east, encompassing parts of northern Africa as well. According to some estimates, Darius may have ruled over nearly half of the world’s population at the time, which is the largest fraction of the world’s population ever governed by any empire before or since.
Darius did not inherit the Persian throne, as he was not a member of the royal family. His accession, indeed, proves him to be a man of courage and cleverness: at the age of 28, claiming divine support and inspiration, he led a group of nobles in deposing an impostor who had usurped the throne. Several forms of government were then discussed, but Darius’ persuasive talents, along with some ingeniously crafty maneuvers, convinced the others not only in favor of a monarchy, but also in favor of Darius as the monarch.
The pivotal event of his rule, historically speaking, was also the last: the first Persian invasion of Greece and the subsequent Battle of Marathon. A collection of Athenian Greeks, known as Ionians, populated the western coast of Turkey, then under Persian rule. In 499 BC, their governor convinced them to revolt, and in quelling the rebellion, Darius found himself leading an invasion into Greece itself. After putting down the Ionian rebellion and subjugating the northern parts of Greece, he then sent a force of Persian troops to Athens, intending to punish the Athenians for aiding the Ionians in their revolt. The Athenian force met them at Marathon, about 25 miles northeast of Athens.
Although the Persians were ultimately defeated at Marathon, Darius is to be admired for his perseverance and courage in the face of difficulty. He immediately determined to prepare a second assault, this time to be commanded by himself in person, instead of by his generals. This time, he vowed, he would not only punish the Athenians, but also go on to subjugate all of Greece, and thereby teach them to respect the might of Persia. By this time, however, his health had begun to fail, and he died while preparing this second attack.
One of the most impressive things about Darius was the tenacious hold he exercised over his realm. Despite several rebellions, particularly in the first year of his reign, he was able to establish firm control over the empire, and forcefully crushed all attempts to deny his authority. In addition, he extended the empire into Egypt, the area surrounding the Indus River, and finally into Greece. In a day where the greatness of a ruler was measured by the wealth and property he could add to his realm, Darius certainly earned the title of “the Great.” His greatness does not stop here, however: Darius also brought organization and stability to the Persian Empire, through such projects as building canals and roads, and establishing a unified monetary system. He also commissioned many building projects throughout the empire, and helped the Israelites to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, which had been destroyed by the Babylonians. Those under his rule, as long as they were peaceable themselves, found him a just ruler, supportive of their various religions and beliefs. In Darius we see a unique combination of power and forbearance, coupled with a remarkable native cleverness and determination: an emperor truly worthy of the epithet “the Great.”
BOUDICCA (“BOH-dik-ah”) ? to 60 or 61 AD
By the time of the reign of the emperor Nero, the Roman Empire had conquered lands in England and were fighting against the British tribes who resisted. In some circumstances, being ruled by the Romans could be beneficial, and even preferable to self-rule. Wealthy chieftains and tribesmen who cooperated with the Romans could be given important political posts, and had an opportunity to rise in the ranks of Roman government. For farmers and peasants, Roman rule could be just as agreeable; the Roman Empire was large and had many mouths to feed— other people buying your grain could mean greater access to wealth.
For those tribes who resisted, however, a very different picture exists. Some clans and tribes were proud of their self-rule, and did not want to submit to a foreign authority. These fiercely independent groups were often also the most formidable in battle— when they and their countrymen were fighting for their own freedom, a courageous fire was kindled in their hearts. However if these tribes were defeated, they were stripped of their property and possessions, and their people were brought away to Rome as slaves. In 50 BC, it was courageous tribes like these who chased Julius Caesar himself from Britain.
By 60 AD, much of the island of England was under Roman rule. Many tribes submitted to Emperor, but some fought back to maintain their right to rule themselves. One of these tribes, the Iceni, was lead by a mighty and heroic queen named Boudicca.
Boudicca’s husband Prasutagus, the King of the Iceni, had managed to secure an agreement with Rome that left his people free from Roman rule. The Iceni would be free to rule themselves, as long as the Roman Emperor was allowed to inherit Prasutagus’s wealth and property when he died. After the king’s death, however, the Romans did not honor the agreement made with the Iceni, and attempted to bring the tribe under the Imperial rule. Motivated by greed, the Romans perpetrated dishonorable and belligerent acts against the vulnerable Iceni. Romans who had loaned Iceni money demanded immediate returns. The queen herself was flogged.
In their fear and uncertainty, the Iceni turned to Boudicca to deliver her people from Rome’s abuses. When the Roman governor of Britain was away in the north country, Boudicca gathered an army among the local peoples and gave a stirring speech which mixed a righteous patriotism into their hearts. Any who would not join with her would, she warned, be made slaves of Rome.
Boudicca and her army first rescued a nearby city that had been oppressed under Roman rule. The Romans attempted to send reinforcements to help the troops they had stationed there, but Boudicca and her army prevailed. Her victory inspired other native Britons to join the revolt. For the first time in nearly a hundred years, it appeared that their island would be free from Roman rule, thanks to the courageous Queen Boudicca.
The rebels then marched on the settlement of London, which by this time was a busy and important town. Boudicca drove away Romans and any Britons who were allied with the invaders, and had the city burned to the ground. Even today, archaeologists find remains of this great fire in London.
By this time, the seriousness of the situation had become clear to Rome. The Emperor himself was considering whether to abandon England altogether. But the Romans determined to make a more focused effort, and gathered an army of allies to take battle to Queen Boudicca. Before riding into battle upon her chariot, Boudicca reminded her troops of the duty they practiced by defending their homeland from the invaders.
The rebel army had brought their families along with them. Wives, children, and elderly parents of the soldiers would station themselves in wagons along the perimeter of the battlefield, to remind any soldiers who felt deficient in courage of the great price of defeat. In the end, however, the Romans vastly outnumbered the rebels, and Boudicca and her army were vanquished. She was known to have fought bravely alongside the countrymen she loved in her last battle.
To this day, England honors the legacy of this mighty queen with a triumphant statue outside the House of Parliament in London. In the statue, she stands in her chariot with daughters at her sides, holding a spear in one hand and wearing a crown on her head. At the foot of the memorial, poet William Cowper confirms Boudicca’s proud legacy in the eyes of Great Britain:
Regions Caesar never knew Thy posterity shall sway
HANNIBAL (“HAN-i-bal”) 241 BC – between 183 and 181 BC
Opposite from Italy on Africa’s northern coast sits a city whose significance will be forever recorded in the account of human history. The city was called Qart-hadast by its inhabitants and Carthage by the posterity of the West. The people are known today as Rome’s greatest foe; and one man, Hannibal Barca, did more than any other to secure this formidable reputation for his people.
Hannibal’s father Hamilcar had fought against Rome in a battle over the command of the Mediterranean Sea’s lucrative trade routes. The victor of this war would become the strongest nation in the region, and victory favored Rome. When Carthage was defeated, the Romans imposed difficult economic burdens upon their defeated foes, crippling the people. Hamilcar and the Carthaginians harbored a strong national resentment in the face of this disgrace, and the people longed for a redemption of their thwarted fortune.
According to history, Hamilcar brought his young son Hannibal to a temple one day, and over the roaring fire, made the boy swear to avenge his people’s honor. Hannibal would spend the rest of his life in the pursuit of this oath’s fulfillment.
When Hannibal was old enough to command his own army, he attempted what would forever become known as one of warfare’s most daring strategies. Given the short distance by water between Carthage and Rome, it was always assumed that a potential attack would come from the sea. Nobody suspected that Carthage would attempt to attack Rome by land. To do so, they would need to pass straight through Spain and cross Europe’s tallest mountains in the Alps before even seeing Italian soil. To make matters worse, the lands between the two cities were occupied by hostile tribes in various stages of civilization (or lack thereof).
When Hannibal made the attempt, he brought war elephants, whose very scent caused unfamiliar horses to panic for miles in all directions.
He fought his way through the tribes of Spain, taking captives and making allegiances among the natives, many of whom were persuaded or compelled to march with him to the doorstep of Rome. When he reached the Alps, he brought a sizable army of Carthaginians and Spaniards with him. At the foot of the great mountains, he is reported to have said “Aut viam inveniam aut faciam,” or “I will find a way, or make one."
While few of his 38 elephants survived the alpine journey, his army descended into Italy prepared to avenge Carthage against the Romans once and for all. For nearly fifteen years, Hannibal and his army attacked the Roman countryside. In one of his many brilliant strategic maneuvers, Hannibal had his army tie torches to the tails of cattle in the night, driving them in the darkness toward a distant location. The Roman army, mistaking the lights for a Carthaginian army on the move, walked straight into a trap.
Although Hannibal never succeeded in taking control of the capital of Rome, his army marched as far as Sicily, and for years citizens of the Republic were in daily fear of Hannibal’s next move.
Hannibal eventually and abruptly had to return to Carthage to defend against a counter- invasion carried out by the Roman general Scipio. The Romans had attacked his homeland while Hannibal was in Italy. At the battle of Zama, the Carthaginians were defeated and Hannibal was forced to surrender. If the legend of his oath is true, his father’s words were certainly ringing in his ears in those latter days of the war.
In later life, Hannibal returned to the region of Dido’s homeland, where he helped the Syrian emperor to wage war against the Romans. Even here, victory was dealt to the Romans despite Hannibal’s genius maneuvering. After serving the Syrians, he went to fight for another nation which had engaged in war against an ally of Rome.
Hannibal’s life was dedicated to the honor of his people and his duty as a citizen of Carthage. His perseverance and creativity have ensured his place among the pantheon of history’s greatest leaders. He is frequently remembered as one of mankind’s greatest military commanders— even the generals who defeated Hitler over than 2000 years later studied Hannibal’s strategies and applied them to modern warfare.
BELISARIUS (bel-i-SAR-i-us) 505 AD – 565 AD
By the year 476 AD, the practical importance of the city of Rome had already seen a precipitous decline. The capital of the Roman Empire had been moved to the eastern city of Constantinople, which had been founded some 150 years prior under the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great.
By 536 AD, the Roman Empire had held no sway over the city of Rome for 60 years. It had been conquered when a Gothic warlord took control of the Italian peninsula and proclaimed himself King of Rome. Much of the former empire had been invaded and partitioned up among various factions of barbarians. Even the lands in North Africa had been seized, no less by a tribe from snowy Scandinavia.
The Roman empire Justinian inherited when he took the crown in Constantinople was in a state of great disarray. Religious schism threatened to pit citizens against each other, bread was in short supply, and barbarians greedily eyed the struggling empire from every corner of the world. Had this Emperor not had Belisarius by his side, it surely would have succumbed to ruin.
Belisarius distinguished himself as a dedicated servant of the empire. He served as a bodyguard to Justinian’s father, and had been given an army to command as a result. He equipped his horsemen with heavy armor, lances, bows, and broadswords; his troops were fearsome in battle.
When Justinian came to the throne, he gave Belisarius command over an army in the Middle East, which was engaged in a war against Persia, the empire’s greatest adversary. Belisarius managed to beat the Persians back into the boundaries of their former empire, and stopped an invasion dead in its’ tracks.
Returning to Constantinople, Belisarius pacified a rebellion which had started as an argument about chariot races. The riotous parties were threatening to depose the emperor Justinian.
Belisarius was next sent to North Africa, to reclaim the fertile lands of Carthage from the Vandals, who had invaded around the same time as Rome’s capture by the Goths. The Vandals were heretics who frequently persecuted those who opposed their faith. After trapping the Vandal king Gelimer in the city of Carthage, victory fell to Belisarius, who reclaimed the land for the Roman Empire.
When Belisarius returned to Constantinople, the whole city threw a great parade in his honor, and the people’s gratitude for his military service was put on full display.
Belisarius’ triumph may have encouraged the jealousy of Emperor Justinian’s wife, Theodora. It is likely that by now, Theodora would have recognized the star general’s growing popularity. That recognition, connected with her husband’s admiration for Belisarius, may have convinced her that the general’s political rise was happening all too quickly.
Justinian had aimed to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory, and to wrest its rightful lands from the barbarian occupiers. Nearly all that remained now was Italy, and at its’ heart, Rome itself.
When Belisarius successfully chased the Gothic nobles out of the city of Rome, the Roman aristocrats actually offered to make Belisarius their king. Very few men in history had ever been offered such a great honor. Such a king would command much of Europe, and his fame would be forever remembered. With the Pope next door, he may even attempt to influence divine and eternal matters.
He had clearly established himself as one of the greatest military leaders the world had ever known. As a king, he would most likely bring great prosperity to his people. Yet Belisarius owed his allegiance to the Emperor, and Belisarius’ dignity prohibited him from such ambition.
While Belisarius’ refusal of the throne was a testament to history of his excellent character, the Empress Theodora was not convinced. She convinced Justinian to suspect Belisarius, and false charges of corruption were prepared against the general.
After defending Constantinople one final time (now from Bulgarian invaders from the north), Belisarius was put on trial. Ultimately, the charges were dismissed, but Belisarius was disgraced, and was excluded from the Emperor’s inner circle forevermore. Tradition recounts a tragic fate: Belisarius was left a beggar on the streets of Constantinople—a dramatic reminder of the changeableness of political fortune. In his poem Belisarius, Longfellow solemnly writes:
Ah! vainest of all things Is the gratitude of kings;