VERCINGETORIX (“ver-sin-JEH-to-rix") 82 BC – 46 BC In the twilight of the Republic, Julius Caesar led his troops past the northern border of Roman territory to do battle against a formidable Celtic people called the Gauls. By Roman standards, the Gauls were “barbarians”, though even Caesar himself recognized their valor and courage as peerless. Unlike the Romans, the Gauls did not have an empire. They did not always agree amongst themselves, and were divided among several different tribes, factions, and clans. In the face of Julius Caesar’s army, however, they were compelled to band together and fight against the Romans as one people. When these newly allied tribes looked for a king to lead them, it was a man named Vercingetorix they found. Although the honor is usually bestowed upon other leaders, Vercingetorix may be considered France’s first king. Vercingetorix had a gallant spirit, a brilliant mind, and a deep love of his people. He knew that if the Gauls were conquered by Rome, they would be forced to change their ways and submit to foreign leaders who wanted to enslave them. Vercingetorix was determined to see that his people were not made into the servants of Rome. The Gauls were united under his leadership in a way they had never been before. His example of courage in the face of the Romans was an inspiration to their own bravery, and because of his moral example, Vercingetorix’s followers resisted the Romans with utmost passion. While the Roman invaders were doing battle in Gaul, they would often steal from Gallic villages and farms in order to feed their own soldiers. Where food could not be found in this manner, the Romans would have to spend great time and energy foraging through the woodlands for berries, roots, and what animals they could hunt. In a moment of decisive leadership, Vercingetorix ordered that the farmlands and storehouses near the path of Roman invasion be burned to the ground. Why would Vercingetorix command that his own peoples’ goods be destroyed? For one, because doing so would be a major inconvenience for the Romans, who would now have to find food in some other manner. But Vercingetorix’s other goal may have been to unite his people even more, by making the families who worked on the farms he burned reliant upon the charity and friendship of their neighbors. When people share things together, they are more likely to remain friends. Vercingetorix wanted his people to remain close, and to treat each other with virtue. In time, however, the Romans prevailed against the Gauls. The power of the Roman army was too strong to resist. Although the Gallic people had come together to resist the invasion, they were not equipped to continue a war against so many well-trained Roman soldiers. Vercingetorix’s army was defeated, and the time came for the king to surrender. Riding straight into the Roman camp to Caesar himself, Vercingetorix was a splendid sight. He wore all of his battle gear, and his horse was bridled in jewelry. Even in surrender, he was a sight of valor. Dismounting before Caesar, Vercingetorix threw his battle-axe to the ground and removed his shining armor in complete silence. Many Gauls were made slaves to Rome, and the great treasure of their lands was stolen from them. But the loss they mourned the most was their noble king, who to this day remains a living symbol for one of Europe’s greatest people— a symbol of courage, a symbol of leadership, and a symbol of France. PERICLES (PEH-rih-klees) (Athens, ca. 495-429 BC) Due to Pericles’ enormous influence on Athens during its Golden Age, a Greek historian named Thucydides dubbed Pericles “the first citizen of Athens.” As Athens’ government was essentially a direct democracy, Pericles did not hold official status as a ruler of any kind. His tremendous oratorical skill, however, and his outstanding statesmanship, enabled him to achieve tremendous influence over the Athenian people. Quiet and introverted growing up, Pericles preferred to devote himself to education rather than public life; as he came from a noble, wealthy family, he was easily able to acquire the best education available. The illustrious names of Herodotus, Protagoras, Zeno the Eleatic, and especially Anaxagoras, figure among those responsible for Pericles’ intellectual and moral formation as a young man. He learned to appreciate the beauty inherent in the order expressed by music and mathematics, as well as the art of oratory, becoming quite an accomplished speaker. Perhaps most importantly, however, he learned the importance of philosophy as a source of self- control and moral direction. As he grew older, he began to speak out publically in favor of democratic reforms, such as making political office more accessible to less-wealthy citizens. As the democratic movement in Athens began to seek additional power and influence, they gravitated toward the eloquent, charismatic Pericles as their leader. By the time Pericles was 34 years old, the democratic party had become dominant, thus making Pericles in effect the leader of Athens. Pericles was a true patriot, devoted to his country. His greatest wish was to see Athens become the cultural and financial center of the civilized world, and in this aim he was so successful that to this day, Athens is still referred to as “the cradle of Western civilization.” Under his guiding hand, Athens became such a hotbed of education, art, and culture, that architects, sculptors, painters, poets, and philosophers all flocked to the city. The four most famous playwrights—Aeschylus, Sophocles, Aristophanes, and Euripides—all flourished at their craft during this time, as did the well-known sculptor Phidias, and the “Father of Western Medicine,” Hippocrates, among many others. Indeed, Athens saw such an explosion of art, literature, and education during this time that historians now refer to it as a “Golden Age.” Pericles also commissioned several building projects, perhaps the most famous of which is the Parthenon, a temple dedicated to Athena, the patron goddess of Athens; the remnants of this breath-taking structure still stand on the Athenian Acropolis today. Some other Greek city-states, however—most notably Sparta—became jealous of Athens’ success and growing power. After the Greeks successfully threw the Persians out of Greece, Athens had convinced several other Greek city-states to form the Delian League; each member would contribute money to a common treasury, which the group would use to fund attacks on Persia, and for self-defense in the event of a future invasion. Pericles’ opponents accused him of taking money from this common treasury to fund his cultural projects in Athens, and of forcing Athenian domination over less-powerful Greek communities. Eventually this rivalry became an all-out war between Athens and Sparta, the two most powerful Greek city-states, with the various other city-states ranging themselves in alliance with one or the other. This war, known as the Peloponnesian War, began when Pericles was 64 years old. Due to his calm leadership and excellent guidance, Athens began the war with the upper hand, and by maintaining a conservative, defensive policy, did not suffer much from the Spartan attacks. One year into the war, however, a terrible plague struck Athens, which devastated the city and killed between one-third and two-thirds of the total population: over 30,000 people. Pericles watched his two sons die from the terrible disease before he himself succumbed to it. After they recovered from the plague, the Athenians resumed their fight in the Peloponnesian War, but gradually began to depart from the conservative military strategy Pericles had originally encouraged. This, in conjunction with the disastrous effects of the plague, caused them eventually to lose the war and be subjected to thirty years of Spartan rule. Despite his tragic and untimely end, Pericles is remembered as one of the most successful statesmen ever in history. His elevation of Athens into a blooming metropolis of cultural and educational prestige, and in such a short time, is one of the most impressive feats of political leadership the world has ever seen. Western civilization owes a debt that can never be repaid to the achievements of the Golden Athens that Pericles, in large part, created. His name in Greek means “surrounded by glory,” and indeed, one could hardly think of a more fitting name for this unparalleled politician, general, and orator. DARIUS (DARE-ee-us) (Persia, ca. 550-486 BC) Also known as “Darius the Great,” Darius I ruled the Persian Empire at its height, for nearly four decades. At his death, his empire extended from the Balkans in the west, stretching into Thrace and Macedonia, to the northwestern regions of India in the east, encompassing parts of northern Africa as well. According to some estimates, Darius may have ruled over nearly half of the world’s population at the time, which is the largest fraction of the world’s population ever governed by any empire before or since. Darius did not inherit the Persian throne, as he was not a member of the royal family. His accession, indeed, proves him to be a man of courage and cleverness: at the age of 28, claiming divine support and inspiration, he led a group of nobles in deposing an impostor who had usurped the throne. Several forms of government were then discussed, but Darius’ persuasive talents, along with some ingeniously crafty maneuvers, convinced the others not only in favor of a monarchy, but also in favor of Darius as the monarch. The pivotal event of his rule, historically speaking, was also the last: the first Persian invasion of Greece and the subsequent Battle of Marathon.