BOROBUDUR TIMESCAPES IDHAM BACHTIAR SETIADI B.A. in Anthropology (Universitas Indonesia) M.A. in Southeast Asian Studies (National University of Singapore) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES DEPARTMENT NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2014 DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis is my original work and has been written by me in its entirety. I have duly acknowledged all the sources of information which have been used in this thesis. This thesis has also not been submitted for any degree in any university previously. The total word count for this thesis is 63,707. Idham Bachtiar Setiadi 27 August 2014 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people have helped throughout my journey towards finalising this dissertation; some in more than one way. I am grateful for their critic, comments, and other forms of input; mistakes however are mine alone. First and foremost, I want to thank my thesis supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr John N. Miksic for his guidance and patience while listening to my queries and excuses; his support has been a beacon. I also want to express my gratitude to the chairperson and members of the Oral Panel for their understanding and helpful critic, Assoc. Prof. Dr Teofilo Daquila, Assoc. Prof. Dr Jan Mrázek, Dr Julius Bautista, as well as to the examiners. To Assoc. Prof. Dr Goh Beng Lan, I would to extend my thankfulness, not only for her support as the head of the Southeast Asian Studies Department but also for her advice as a postcolonial scholar. Living in a postcolony became palpable in the grad-room and I thank fellow grad-students for the lively discussions, comments and critic, and also support in various other ways: Arthur, Henry, Thiru, Jun, Trina, Nikki, Kar Yen, Sakti, Effendy, Arafat, Tiffany, Alice, Shu, Shao Han, and to those whose name I cannot recall at the moment, please forgive me, I’m getting old in Jakarta. In Singapore, sharing a flat with Ken Takiguchi made life much easier and of course I am thankful for that and the many discussions. To Andre and Lina Jenie, also Toby and Yudi: I cannot thank you enough for always being there when I needed help and a room to stay. Also to iii Douglas and Henny Kammen, as well as Djati: many thanks for your hospitality and help. In Yogyakarta, on my way to and from Borobudur, I was able to stay at the beautiful houses of Nita and Yando, as well as Ade and Sam. Thank you for your generous support; to Ade in particular, thank you for organising the discussion with heritage practitioners at Bentara Budaya. Also, I want to thank my hosts in Borobudur, Mas Parno and Ibu as well as Mas Utoyo and Ibu: thank you for introducing me and guiding me in the lifeworld of Borobudur. Hopefully I have presented the information you conveyed in a meaningful way. Furthermore, to Mas Parno and Mas Sucoro, thank you for your letting me be your friend and your help in gathering material for this dissertation. I gained a load of help and information at Balai Konservasi Borobudur and want to thank in particular Pak Marsis Sutopo, Mas Yudhi, Mas Taufik, Mas Mura, Mas Sugiyono, Mbak Kasyati, and Mbak Wiwit. You have made research in Borobudur so much more easier and meaningful. Furthermore, I want to thank Prof. Dr Mundarjito, Prof. Dr Hariani Santiko, Prof. Dr Hedy Shri Ahimsaputra, Dr Daud Aris Tanudirdjo, Dr Riwanto Tirtosudarmo, Dr Dedi Supriadi Adhuri, Bayu Gutomo Aji, Junus Satrio Atmojo, Gatot Gauthama, Yunus Arbi, Winarni, as well as friends at Departemen Arkeologi Universitas Indonesia, Departemen Arkeologi Universitas Gadjah Mada, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia, and iv Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan — Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, for the discussions and support that helped me to gather substantial information and material. I would also like to thank the administrative faculty of the Southeast Asian Studies Department of the National University of Singapore, particularly Mdm Rohani Bte Sungib and Miss Sharifah Alawiyah Alhadad for their support. A special thanks goes to my younger brother, Hilmar Farid Setiadi, for reading earlier versions of chapters, critic and comments, and generous support in other ways; also to my older brother, Hendarto Setiadi, who believed in me when I had doubts, as well as to Niza, Reza, Sheila and Gungtri for their support. My journey towards finalising this dissertation took eight years. In that time I saw my daughter taking her first step but also uploading her first video to YouTube; and I witnessed my son entering junior high, senior high, and now Universitas Indonesia. Throughout the journey, I was not there for them many times, leaving a burden on my wife’s shoulder and mind in addition to taking care of the household. To Sheika, Rasheed and Dede: this dissertation is dedicated to you. Bintaro, 27 Agustus 2014 ibs v TABLE OF CONTENT Statement of Original Authorship Acknowledgements Summary List of Illustrations Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1 Southeast Asian Studies and 3 Heritage Heritage and Timescapes 12 Heritage and Experience 22 Towards Borobudur Timescapes 32 Chapter 2: THE CONTEXT 38 The Heritage Game 40 Heritage as a Process 48 Heritage and Cultural Development 58 Conclusion 67 Chapter 3: THE SETTING 71 Settlements, Roads and Growth 74 Centres Spatial Planning in Borobudur 83 Political Economy in Borobudur 93 Conclusion 103 Chapter 4: ILMU PURBAKALA 107 A Brief History of Ilmu Purbakala 109 up to 1972 The Importance of Borobudur 117 The “BBC” 127 vi The Big Hidden Debate 136 Ilmu Purbakala and the Being of 145 Borobudur Chapter 5: LEMBAGA PURBAKALA 148 Lembaga Purbakala Before and 154 During the War Organising the Second Restoration 158 of Borobudur From Archaeological Park to 170 Tourism Park Lembaga Purbakala, Lembaga 176 Kebudayaan and Unit Pelaksana Teknis The Question of Authority 187 Chapter 6: PURBAKALA SPACETIME AND TIMESCAPES 189 Purbakala and the Candi 194 Purbakala and the National Park 205 Purbakala and the Region of 221 Borobudur Timescapes of Borobudur 231 Chapter 7: CONCLUSION 241 Bibliography 254 vii SUMMARY This thesis uses a timescape perspective to understand heritage as a process in the cultural landscape of the Borobudur World Heritage Site in Central Java, Indonesia. Since 2003, this process has become more and more a matter of problem solving, where fundamental issues of heritage such as gaining the support of people who are living and working in the surrounding areas of the monument, mobilising people and technologies in the course of restoration, and even producing and reproducing ideas about antiquity and modernity are regarded as management problems. I argue that the heritage process is a dialectic between everyday life and academic entreprise. Using ethnographic methods, which includes the reading and discussion of important texts in the field with the informants, I explore the world of meaning-making in Borobudur, where diverse ontologies, epistemologies, and methodologies meet, entangle, and complicate heritage. I propose that understanding the heritage process in the purbakala spacetime helps to identify the timescapes of Borobudur. Furthermore, the recognition of spacetime as a fundamental means to understand lifeworlds is put forward to enrich the study of Southeast Asia. viii LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Map 1 Tourism Map of the Borobudur Region 76 Map 2 Settlements and Roads of the Borobudur 77 Region in 1860 Map 3 Settlements and Roads of the Borobudur 78 Region in 1979 Map 4 Changes of Landuse Around Candi 79 Borobudur in 1979-1983 Map 5 Settlements and Roads of the Borobudur 80 Region in 1995 Map 6 Overlay of Settlements in the Region of 81 Borobudur, 1860-2006 Map 7 The Candi Borobudur Tourism Park Green 206 Map Illustration 1 Cross Section, Concrete Slabs 195 Illustration 2 Cross Section, Drain System 196 Illustration 3 Van Erp’s Tilt 197 Illustration 4 The South-East Corner of the ‘Hidden 198 Foot’ Illustration 5 Re-attaching a head to its body 199 Illustration 6 & 7 Photogrammetry and rebuilding a 200 balustrade Illustration 8 & 9 Schemes of rebuilding the four sides 201 Illustration 10 & 11 Photographs of the upper terrace, before 202 and after the first restoration Illustration 12 The main stupa with the yasti-chattra 203 attached after the first restoration Illustration 13 The chattra 203 Illustration 14 An officer of Balai Konservasi 207 ix Illustration 15 The promenade leading to Candi 208 Borobudur Illustration 16 Hollywood artist Richard Gere on the stage 209 of Aksobaya Illustration 17 A typical twin-bed room of the Manohara 210 ‘Borobudur Study Centre’ Illustration 18 Officers and guests in the physical/ 211 petrographical laboratory Illustration 19 The Pesanggrahan Guest House of 213 Borobudur in 1873 Illustration 20 The parking space at the west of Candi 213 Borobudur in early twentieth century Illustration 21 Ritual at the western side of Candi 215 Borobudur during Vesak Commemoration in 2010 Illustration 22 The post-restoration inscription of 1983 216 Illustration 23 The pre-restoration inscription of 1973 216 Illustration 24 The main hall of Amanjiwo at dusk 222 Illustration 25 The swimming pool of Amanjiwo 222 Illustration 26 The view from the main hall of Amanjiwo 223 Illustration 27 A view from Punthuk Setumbu 231 x Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION In 2003 the World Heritage Site of Borobudur became the confluence of several streams of heritage. The twenty-year monitoring period that followed the physical restoration of the monument of Borobudur ended, setting the stage for debating new directions in the conservation of Candi Borobudur, other than preservation. Then, 2003 was also the “Year of Heritage, which was a program of the Indonesian Ministry for Culture and Tourism, with Candi Borobudur as an icon of Indonesia’s heritage tourism.