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Institutional Analysis of Irrigation Schemes in Iringa Rural District, Tanzania Master Thesis

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Institutional Analysis of Irrigation Schemes in Iringa Rural District, Tanzania Master Thesis Ronja Hüppe A Puzzle with Missing Pieces: Institutional Analysis of Irrigation Schemes in Iringa Rural District, Tanzania Master Thesis The Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Noragric, is the international gateway for the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU). Eight departments, associated research institutions and the Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine in Oslo. Established in 1986, Noragric’s contribution to international development lies in the interface between research, education (Bachelor, Master and PhD programmes) and assignments. The Noragric Master Thesis is the final thesis submitted by students in order to fulfil the requirements under the Noragric Master programme “International Environmental Studies”, “International Development Studies” and “International Relations”. The findings in this thesis do not necessarily reflect the views of Noragric. Extracts from this publication may only be reproduced after prior consultation with the author and on condition that the source is indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation contact Noragric. © Ronja Hüppe, December 2014 [email protected] [email protected] Noragric Department of International Environment and Development Studies P.O. Box 5003 N-1432 Ås Norway Tel.: +47 64 96 52 00 Fax: +47 64 96 52 01 Internet: http://www.nmbu.no/noragric II Declaration I, Ronja Hüppe, declare that this thesis is a result of my research investigations and findings. Sources of information other than my own have been acknowledged and a reference list has been appended. This work has not been previously submitted to any other university for award of any type of academic degree. Signature..................................... Date........................................... III IV Acknowledgements Writing this thesis has been an eye-opening journey through Norway and Tanzania, which I truly enjoyed. However, many people supported me during this journey and contributed to the accomplishment of this thesis. First and foremost, I would like to mention Professor Pål Olav Vedeld. Thank you for supporting and guiding me throughout this entire journey, while giving me the freedom to follow my own ideas. Also, for always taking your time for academic discussions and motivating feedback on my drafts, and never letting me leave your office without providing me with some (humorous) worldly wisdom or anecdotes. Tusen takk! In Tanzania, I would firstly like to mention Maajabu Juma. Thank you for translating countless hours in almost unbearable heat and keeping me company. Without you I would have been lost several times! Moreover, I would like to thank Professor G. Kajembe and Dr. J. Katani from the Sokoine University of Agriculture in Morogoro for their academic advice and facilitation of logistic issues, as well as Mr. Urban from the Iringa Rural district council. Asanteni sana! Here I would also like to thank the NORAD-funded EPINAV project for financial support of my fieldwork. In Norway, I would like to thank P. Beaumont from the Noragric Writing Centre who read through my drafts week after week and asked me to write clearer, more precise, and to think through my writing. Last but not least, I would like to thank all these nice humans who surrounded and supported me during this journey, who inspired me with their ideas, fed me with good food, or simply made me laugh. Thanks a lot! Danke! V VI To the People of Itunundu & Mboliboli Villages VII VIII Abstract Irrigation management has been internationally discussed and shapes national water policies, also in Tanzania. Yet, farmers in Iringa Rural district still suffer from too dry or flooded fields, while officials are blamed for failing to implement the water policy. Thus, to better understand what accounts for this gap between national regulations of irrigation and local irrigation practices, this study investigated the formalization process of the irrigation institutions from basin to village level and farmers’ livelihoods and dependence on irrigation. Mixed methods were used; institutional characteristics of a traditional (TS) and semi-improved scheme (IS) were analysed and compared from a mainstream and critical institutionalist perspective, farmers’ livelihoods with help of the sustainable livelihoods approach (SLA) (Ellis 2000a). The findings suggest that communal irrigation management works; yet, the institutions resembled a bricolage rather than a fixed set of rules (Cleaver 2012; Ostrom 1990). The IS had a higher level of formalization than the TS, but water use-rules were informal and often unfair. The amount of allocated water and the area schemes serve is similar, yet, the IS is used by seven villages, while the TS only by two villages. SLA showed that farmers in the TS owned four times more land and had higher net-incomes than farmers in the IS. In both schemes, farmers highly depended on irrigation: 70% of their main income share came from irrigated paddies, yet, from input-extensive production. Thus, irrigated paddies have high investment potential; but high irrigation dependency and low crop diversity also comes with a high economic risk and may increase farmers’ economic vulnerability. Further, a lack of water-allocation criteria on basin level facilitated the prioritization of hydropower over irrigation. Thus, farmers only have water access during the rainy season. Thus, formalization of schemes may lead to increased control over small-scale farmers and less resource access. Hence, farmers may face threat of resource appropriation by the state. Thus, this study recommends further investigation of the basin-wide water re-allocation between different water sectors in general, and within the economic sector and between small-scale and large-scale users in particular. Moreover, Tanzania needs to define clearer criteria for and stricter monitoring of water allocation while leaving room for more community driven local irrigation management within schemes. IX X Content Declaration....................................................................................................................... III Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... V Abstract ........................................................................................................................... IX Content ........................................................................................................................... XI Abbreviations ............................................................................................................... XIII Tables ...........................................................................................................................XIV Figures ..........................................................................................................................XIV 1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background ................................................................................................ 4 1.2 Problem Statement ..................................................................................... 6 1.3 Theory ........................................................................................................ 6 1.4 Thesis Structure ......................................................................................... 9 2 Literature Review ................................................................................................... 10 2.1 Water Re-Allocation and Institutions in River Basins (Obj.1) ................ 11 2.2 Relations Between Farmers and Institutions (Obj. 2) .............................. 16 2.3 Institutions and Livelihoods (Obj.3) ........................................................ 24 3 Theory, Objectives and Research Questions .......................................................... 29 3.1 Analytical Framework ............................................................................. 29 3.2 Characteristics of Long-Enduring Institutions ......................................... 32 3.3 Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) ............................................... 41 3.4 Objectives and Research Questions ......................................................... 48 4 Study Area and Methodology ................................................................................ 50 4.1 Study Area ............................................................................................... 50 4.2 Methodology ............................................................................................ 54 5 Results and Discussion ........................................................................................... 65 5.1 Interlinking of Institutions across Government Levels ............................ 65 5.1.1 Allocation and Attributes of Water and Irrigation Infrastructure .......... 65 5.1.2 Political Actors and Different Types of Institutions .............................. 68 5.2 Formal and Informal Irrigation Institutions ............................................. 75 5.2.1 Community, farm, and resource boundaries; access and use rules ....... 76 5.2.2 Balancing costs and benefits of a formalized irrigation regime ............ 82 5.2.3 Rule-making for water access and use .................................................. 85 5.2.4 Monitoring of irrigation schemes .........................................................
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