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NASA/TP—2005-213115

Foundations of Analysis for Students of and Engineering With an Introduction to the

Joseph C. Kolecki Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

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Foundations of Tensor Analysis for Students of Physics and Engineering With an Introduction to the Theory of Relativity

Joseph C. Kolecki Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

April 2005 Acknowledgments

To Dr. Ken DeWitt of Toledo University, I extend a special thanks for being a guiding to me in much of my advanced , especially in tensor analysis. Years ago, he made the statement that in working with , one must learn to find—and feel—the rhythm inherent in the indices. He certainly felt that rhythm, and his ability to do so made a major difference in his approach to teaching the material and enabling his students to comprehend it. He read this work and made many valuable suggestions and alterations that greatly strengthened it.

I wish to also recognize Dr. Harold Kautz’s contribution to the section Magnetic Permeability and Material Stress, which was derived from a conversation with him. Dr. Kautz has been my colleague and part-time mentor since 1973.

Available from NASA Center for Aerospace Information National Technical Information Service 7121 Standard Drive 5285 Port Royal Road Hanover, MD 21076 Springfield, VA 22100

Available electronically at http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov Contents

Summary ...... 1 Introduction ...... 1 Alegbra ...... 1 Statement of Core Ideas ...... 1 Number Systems ...... 2 Numbers, Denominate Numbers, and Vectors...... 3 Formal Presentation of Vectors...... 3 Vector Arithmetic ...... 5 Dyads and Other Higher Order Products ...... 8 Dyad Arithmetic...... 10 Components, Rank, and Dimensionality...... 13 Dyads as Matrices ...... 14 Fields...... 15 Magnetic Permeability and Material Stress ...... 16 Location and Measurement: Coordinate Systems...... 18 Multiple Coordinate Systems: Coordinate Transformations...... 19 Coordinate Independence...... 20 Coordinate Independence: Another Point of View ...... 21 Coordinate Independence of Physical Quantities: Some Examples...... 23 Metric or Fundamental Tensor...... 24 Coordinate Systems, Base Vectors, Covariance, and Contravariance ...... 27 Kronecker’s Delta and the Identity ...... 29 Dyad Components: Covariant, Contravariant, and Mixed...... 30 Relationship Between Covariant and Contravariant Components of a Vector...... 30 st s Relation Between gij, g , and δw ...... 32 Inner as an Involving Mixed Indices ...... 32 General Mixed Component: Raising and Lowering Indices...... 34 Tensors: Formal Definitions ...... 35 Is the Position Vector a Tensor? ...... 38 The Equivalence of Coordinate Independence With the Formal Definition for a Rank 1 Tensor (Vector)...... 39 Coordinate Transformation of the Fundamental Tensor and Kronecker’s Delta...... 40 Two Examples From Solid Analytical Geometry...... 40 Calculus ...... 42 Statement of Core Idea...... 42 First Steps Toward a : An Example From Classical Mechanics...... 42 Base Vector Differentials: Toward a General Formulation ...... 48 Another Example From Polar Coordinates...... 50 Base Vector Differentials in the General Case ...... 51 Tensor Differentiation: Absolute and Covariant Derivatives ...... 55 k Tensor Character of Γwt ...... 56 Differentials of Higher Rank Tensors...... 58 Product Rule for Covariant Derivatives...... 59 Second of a Tensor ...... 59 The Riemann-Christoffel Tensor ...... 60 Derivatives of the Fundamental Tensor ...... 61 , , and of a Vector Field ...... 61

NASA/TP—2005-213115 iii Relativity ...... 63 Statement of Core Idea...... 63 From Classical Physics to the Theory of Relativity...... 63 Relativity...... 69 The Special Theory ...... 70 The General Theory ...... 73 References ...... 83 Suggested Reading ...... 83

NASA/TP—2005-213115 iv Foundations of Tensor Analysis for Students of Physics and Engineering With an Introduction to the Theory of Relativity

Joseph C. Kolecki National Aeronautics and Space Administration Glenn Research Center Cleveland, Ohio 44135

Summary because Einstein had used them and I was reading Einstein. Family and work responsibilities prevented Although one of the more useful subjects in higher me from daily study, so I pursued the subject at my mathematics, tensor analysis has the tendency to be leisure, progressing through my numerous collected one of the more abstruse seeming to students of texts as time permitted. I found that tensor physics and engineering who venture deeper into manipulation was quite simple, but the “language mathematics than the standard college curriculum of aspects” of tensor analysis⎯what the subject actually calculus through differential equations with some was trying to tell me about the world at large⎯were and complex variable theory. Tensor extremely difficult. I spent a great deal of time analysis is useful because of its great generality, disentangling concepts such as the difference between computational power, and compact, easy-to-use a curved and a curved space, the notation. It seems abstruse because of the intellectual physical-geometrical interpretation of covariant versus gap that exists between where most physics and contravariant, and so forth. I also followed up a engineering mathematics end and where tensor number of very necessary side branches, such as the analysis traditionally begins. The author’s purpose is to calculus of variations (required in deriving the general bridge that gap by discussing familiar concepts, such form of the ) and the application of tensors in as denominate numbers, scalars, and vectors, by the general theory of mechanics. introducing dyads, triads, and other higher order My studies culminated in my taking a 12-week products, coordinate quantities, and finally by course from the University of Toledo in Toledo, Ohio. showing how all this material leads to the standard I was pleased that I could keep pace with the subject definition of tensor quantities as quantities that throughout the 12. My instructor seemed interested in transform according to certain strict rules. my approach to solving problems and actually kept copies of my written homework for reference in future courses. Afterwards, I decided to write a monograph Introduction about my 13 years of mathematical studies so that other students could benefit. The present work is the This monograph is intended to provide a conceptual result. foundation for students of physics and engineering who wish to pursue tensor analysis as part of their advanced studies in applied mathematics. Because an Algebra intellectual gap often exists between a student’s studies in undergraduate mathematics and advanced Statement of Core Idea mathematics, the author’s intention is to enable the student to benefit from advanced studies by making Physical quantities are coordinate independent. So languagelike associations between mathematics and should be the mathematical quantities that model them. the real world. Symbol manipulation is not sufficient in In tensor analysis, we seek coordinate-independent physics and engineering. One must express oneself in quantities for applications in physics and engineering; mathematics just as in language. that is, we seek those quantities that have component I studied tensor analysis on my own over a period of transformation properties that render the quantities 13 years. I was in my twenties and early thirties at that independent of the observer’s coordinate system. By time and was interested in learning about tensors doing so, the quantities have a type of objective

NASA/TP—2005-213115 1 existence. That is why tensors are ultimately defined and the denominator. This last statement violates strictly in terms of their transformation properties. the assumption that the ratio a/b must be irreducible and therefore we conclude by reductio Number Systems that no two such integers as a and b can exist. Q.E.D. At the heart of all mathematics are numbers. Numbers are pure abstractions that can be Real numbers.⎯These numbers may also be divided approximately represented by words such as “one” and into two different groups, other than rational and “two” or by numerals such as “1” and “2.” Numbers irrational. are the only entities that truly exist in Plato’s world of Algebraic numbers: Algebraic numbers are all ideals and they cast their verbal or numerical shadows numbers that are solutions of the general, finite upon the face of human thought and endeavor. equation 1 The abstract quality of the concept of “number” is nn−1 illustrated in the following example: Consider three axnn+ a−110 x++... ax + a = 0 (1) cups of different sizes all containing water. Imagine that one is full to the brim, one is two-thirds full and where all the ai are rational numbers and all the the last is one-third. Although we can say that there are superscripts and subscripts are integers. Note that √2 is three cups of water, where exactly does the quality of such a number since it is a solution to the equation “threeness” reside? The number systems we use today are divided into x2 −=20 (2) these categories: So is the complex number √–1 since it is a solution to • Natural or counting numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 the equation • Whole numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 • Integers: …,–3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 x2 +=10 (3) • Rational numbers: numbers that are irreducible ratios of pairs of integers Transcendental numbers: All numbers that are not • Irrational numbers: numbers such as √2 that are solutions to the same general, finite equation (1) are not irreducible ratios of pairs of integers called transcendental numbers. The numbers π and e • Real numbers: all the rational and irrational (base of the natural logarithms) are two such numbers. numbers taken together The transcendental numbers are a subset of the • Complex numbers: all the real numbers in irrational numbers. to all those that have √–1 as a factor Difference between transcendental and non- transcendental irrational numbers.⎯The difference Irrational numbers.⎯ These are numbers that can between transcendental irrational numbers and non- be shown to be not irreducible ratios of pairs of transcendental irrational numbers can be understood by integers. That √2 is such a number is easily considering classical Greek constructions. In a finite demonstrated by using proof by reductio ad absurdum: number of steps, using a pencil, a straightedge, and a compass, it is possible to construct a line segment with Let a and b be two integers such that √2 = a/b length equal to the non-transcendental irrational where the ratio a/b is assumed irreducible. Then, 2 number √2. First, draw an (arbitrary) unit line. Second, = a2/b2 and 2b2 = a2. Thus a2 and therefore a are draw another unit line at right angles to the first unit even integers, and there exists a number k such that line at one of its endpoints. Third, connect the free a = 2k and a2 = 4k2. Thus, b2 = 2k2, and b2 and endpoints of the two lines. The result is the required therefore b are also even integers. But when a and line segment of length √2. A similar construction is b are both even, the ratio a/b is reducible since a possible for √3 and other such irrational numbers. factor of 2 may be taken from both the numerator However, for the transcendental irrational number π, no such construction is possible in a finite number of steps. Recall that π is the ratio of the circumference of 1Number is an abstract concept; numeral is a concrete a circle to its diameter. Equivalently, it is the length of representation of number. We write numerals such as 1, 2, 3…to the circumference of a circle of unit diameter. We now represent the abstract concepts one, two, three… .

NASA/TP—2005-213115 2 ask, is it possible, using only the classical Greek “denominate” number, a number with a name (Latin de methods, to construct a line segment of length π? meaning “with” and nomos meaning “name”). An Suppose that we begin with an n-gon of an arbitrary answer of “3 km” names the number three so that it no finite number of sides to approximate the circle. We longer strands alone as a bare magnitude. These then use the length of one of the sides and repeat it, numbers are sometimes referred to as “scalars.” end to end along a reference line n times. This result Temperature is represented by a . The total represents our first approximation of the required line energy of a thermodynamic system is also represented segment. by a scalar. We then double the number of sides in the n-gon, Let us pause here to define some basic terminology. making it a 2n-gon, and repeat the procedure. The new Consider any fraction, which is a ratio of two integers result is our second approximation, and so on as the such as two-thirds. You know from school that two is procedure is repeated. It turns out that to reproduce the called the numerator and three, the denominator. The actual circumference length precisely, an infinite quantity two-thirds is a kind of denominate number. It number of approximations is necessary. Thus, we are tells how many (enumerates) of a particular fraction of forced to conclude that using only the Greek classical something (denominated or named a third) I have. If methods, it is impossible to achieve the goal of the to your house is 2/3 km, then there are constructing a line segment of length π because it formally two denominations to contend with: a third exceeds our abilities by requiring an infinite number of and a kilometer. steps. All finite approximations are close but not exact. Proceeding on, if I were then to ask, “Then how do I A similar argument may be made for the number e. get to your house from here?” and you said, “Just walk The value of the natural logarithm ln(µ) is obtained 3 km,” again I would look at you quizzically. For this from the integral with respect to x of the function 1/x question, not even a denominate number is sufficient; from 1 to µ. For µ = e, the integral becomes ln(e) = 1, it is not only necessary to specify a distance but also a since e is the base of the natural logarithm. We start by direction. “Just walk 3 km due north,” you say. Now not knowing exactly where e lies on the x-axis. We your answer makes sense. The denominate number 3 may use successive trapezoidal approximations to find km now includes the additional information of where it lies by finding to what position x > 1 on the x- direction. Such a quantity is called a vector. The study axis we must integrate to obtain an area of unity, but of vectors is a very broad study in mathematics. the process is extremely complicated and involves Finally, suppose that we were at your house and I convergence from below and above. As was the case stopped to examine a support beam in the middle of the with π, the process exceeds our abilities by requiring main room. I might ask, “What is the net load on this an infinite number of steps. beam?” and you would answer, “(So many) pounds downward.” You answered appropriately using a vector. But now I ask, “What is the stress in the Numbers, Denominate Numbers, and Vectors beam?” You answer, “Which stress? There are three

Numbers can function in an infinite variety of ways. tensile and six shear stresses. Which do you want to For example, they can be used to count items. If I were know? And in what part of the beam are you to ask how many marbles you had in a bag, you might interested?” Thus, the subject of tensors is introduced answer, “Three,” a satisfactory answer. The bare because not even a vector is sufficient to answer the number three, a magnitude, is sufficient to provide the question about stresses. information I seek. If you wanted to be more complete, You might have noticed that as we took our first step you could answer, “Three marbles.” But inclusion of from bare number to scalar to vector, we added new the word “marbles” is not required for your answer to terminology to deal with the concepts of make sense. However, not all number designations are denominability and directionality. We will begin our as simple as naming the number of marbles in the bag. approach to tensors specifically by examining vectors Suppose that I were to ask, “How far is it to your and then by extending our concept of them. house?” and you answered, “Three.” My response would be “Three what?” Evidently, for this question, Formal Presentation of Vectors more information is required, another word or quantity or something has to be attached to the word “three” for Vectors give us information such as how far and in your answer to make sense. This time I require a what direction. The “how far” part of a vector is

NASA/TP—2005-213115 3 formally called the magnitude, roughly its size. The electron current, not conventional current. Hence, the “what direction” part of a vector is formally called the student should be aware of this difference. direction. Thus, a vector is a quantity that possesses Resuming the discussion of velocity as a vector, magnitude and direction. suppose that I were driving northeast on a level road at Now that we have acquired an intuitive sense of 34 mph. How would I specify my velocity? Well, the what vectors are, let us consider their more formal speed is known, but what about the direction? I could characteristics. To do so, take a commonly used vector say “34 mph northeast on a level road.” “On a level from the toolkit of physics, velocity. Velocity is a road” specifies that I am going neither up nor down but vector because it has magnitude and direction. Its horizontally. However, I am still unable to do many magnitude, usually called speed, is a denominate calculations because my direction combines two number such as 50 mph or 28 000 km/s. Its direction is compass headings, north and east. If I am going chosen to be the same as that in which the object is exactly northeast, then I could say that I am traveling x moving in space. Note the use of the word “chosen.” mph east and x mph north. The following triangle Mathematicians and physicists are free, within certain represents my situation: limits, to choose and define the terms and even the systems they are talking about; that is, they can choose and define how they will construct their model or theory. This point might seem subtle but in the long run, it is important. In the angular quantities, such as angular velocity or , the magnitude of the vector is obviously the number of revolutions per minute or the number of radians turned per second. But what direction should the vector have? The axis of rotation is the only direction that is unique in a rotating system, so we choose to place the vector along this axis. But should it point up or down? Tradition in physics has resolved that the direction be assigned via the right- hand rule: the fingers of the right hand curl in the direction of the motion and the thumb of the right I can solve for x using Pythagoras’s theorem: hand then points in the assigned direction of the vector. x = 24 mph approximately. Thus, I write the velocity Such a vector is called a right-handed vector. Had vector as 34 mph NE = 24 mph E + 24 mph N, the left hand been used, the result would have been understanding that the equation represents the situation the reverse. shown in the triangle. I drop the caveat “on a level Electrical current density is also a vector. It is road” because the directions east and north are usually designated by the letter j and has units of implicitly measured in the local horizontal plane. amperes per square meter. Current density is a measure To simplify, I use a unit vector u to represent the of how much charge passes through a unit area directions. A unit vector has a magnitude equal to one perpendicular to the current flow in a unit time. The and any direction I choose. When I multiply the direction assigned to j is somewhat peculiar in that denominate number by the unit vector, the magnitudes physicists and engineers use opposite conventions. For combine as 1 × 24 mph and the direction attaches the engineer, j points in the direction that conventional automatically. current would flow. Conventional current is the flow of Let uE and uN be unit vectors pointing east and north, positive charge, and the use of this convention goes respectively, and let uNE be a unit vector pointing back to the times and practices of investigators such as northeast so that the velocity vector becomes Benjamin Franklin. It is now known that electrical current is a flow of electrons and that electrons (by 34 mphuuu=+ 24 mph 24 mph (4) convention) carry a negative charge. (The positive ( ) NE( )( E ) N charge carriers barely move if at all.) Physicists have adopted the convention that j point in the direction of The vector (34 mph) uNE is said to have components 24 mph eastward and 24 mph northward. This method

NASA/TP—2005-213115 4 of representing vectors will be used throughout the Vijkl= abc++ + d (8) remainder of this text. If I divide through by the denominate number In the case of the continuum of special 34 mph, I obtain the expression relativity, the component d is usually an imaginary number. For example, if a, b, and c are the usual uuuNE=+(0.71) E( 0.71) N (5) spatial locations x, y, and z, then d is the temporal location ict where i = √−1. This situation leads to the Note that cos 45° = sin 45° = 0.71 to two decimal result that places. I use trigonometry to write Vxyzct222222=⋅=VV + + − (9) (34 mph)uuNE=×°( 34 mph cos45 ) E (6) In relativistic spacetime, the theorem of Pythagoras +×°34 mph sin 45 u ()N does not strictly apply. The properties of four-vectors were extensively explored by . The components of the velocity can be obtained solely from the velocity itself and the directional convention Vector Arithmetic adopted. This method of writing vectors should already be familiar to students of this text. Equality.⎯A basic rule in vector arithmetic is one Let us now refine the method just introduced. We that tells us when two vectors are equal. Suppose there know that we live in a world of three spatial are two vectors , forward, across, and up. Let us choose a standard notation for writing vectors as follows: Uijk= α+β+χ (10a)

i represents a unit vector forward Vijk= abc++ (10b) j represents a unit vector across k represents a unit vector up Whenever U = V is written, it will always mean that Let us also agree to represent vectors in bolded type. the individual components associated with each of the Now, let V be a vector with components2 a, b, and c in unit vectors i, j, and k are equal. Thus, the single the forward, across, and up directions, respectively. vector equation U = V gives three independent scalar Then the vector V is formally written as equations:

Vijk=++abc (7) α = a (11a)

With this notation, we can now define arithmetic rules β = b (11b) for combining vectors. By the conventions of modern physics, we live in a χ = c (11c) world, not of three, but of four dimensions⎯three spatial and one temporal. We therefore introduce a Consider now the single statement U = V on the one fourth unit vector l to represent the forward direction hand and the triad {α = a, β = b, χ = c} on the other as of time from past to future. The resulting four-vector3 completely synonymous. V is formally written as Next consider cases where there are different sets of unit vectors in the same space. Let us say that i, j, and k comprise one set (the set K) and u, v, and w comprise a second set (the set K*). Now consider a 2We might also say “scalar” components since the individual components vector V. Let us write of a quantity such as velocity are all scalars. However, there are also cases in which the components are differential operators such as in the gradient ∇ = (∂/∂x)i + (∂/∂y)j + (∂/∂z)k. Herein, therefore, we will use the V=abc i+ j+ k (12a) more generic term “components” as being inclusive of all possible cases. 3A four-vector is a four-dimensional vector in the spacetime of . The components of a four-vector transform according to the Vuvw= α+β+χ (12b) familiar Lorentz-Einstein transformation for unaccelerated motion.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 5 Now, we cannot equate components because the unit gone 6 km north, but I would also have gone 3 km + vectors are not the same. However, we can invoke the 5 km = 8 km east. Evidently, when vectors are added, trivial identity and say that for all vectors V, it is true they are added component by component. To formalize that V = V. From this trivial identity, we acquire the this as a rule, let us say that two vectors U and V can nontrivial result that be added to produce a new vector W as

abcijkuvw++ =α+β+χ (13) W = U + V (17)

If the vectors u, v, and w can be expressed as functions provided that the vectors U and V are added of i, j, and k, then the components α, β, and χ can also component by component. If be expressed as functions of a, b, and c. In other words, if Uijk= α+β+χ (18a)

ui=+uu123 jk + u (14a) Vijk= abc++ (18b)

then vi=+vv123 jk + v (14b)

UV+=α++β++χ+abc i j k (19) wi=+ww123 jk + w (14c) ( ) ( ) ( ) we can write and abcijk++ =α+β+χ uvw UV−=α−+β−+χ−( abc) i( ) j( ) k (20)

=α()()uu123ijk + + u +β vv 123 ijk + + v Multiplication.⎯Vector addition provides a good +χ()ww123ijk + + w (15) beginning for defining vector arithmetic. However, =()() αuvw11 +β +χ 1ij + α u 2 +β v 2 +χ w 2 vector arithmetic also consists of multiplication. We will next formally define several different types of +αuvw +β +χ k ()33 3 products4 that all involve pairs of vectors. Scalar or inner product: The first type of vector so that product to be defined is the scalar or inner product, so called because when two vectors are thus combined, auv=α11 +β +χ w 1 (16a) the result is not a vector but a scalar. In physics, scalar products are useful in determining quantities such as power in a mechanical system (the scalar product of bu=α22 +β v +χ w 2 (16b) and velocity). For the vectors

cu=α +β v +χ w (16c) 33 3 U=α i+β j +χ k (21a)

This last set of equations represents a set of component transformations for the vector V between the two sets V=abc i++ j k (21b) of unit vectors K and K*. Coordinate transformations will be used later to formally define tensors. In the the scalar product will be denoted by the symbol U · V meantime, we will use what we have learned about where the vector symbols U and V are written side by vector equalities to develop many important ideas side with a dot in between (hence, the scalar product is about tensors. sometimes referred to as the “”). The Addition.⎯Suppose that I traveled 6 km north and vectors U and V are combined via the scalar product to 3 km more north. How far north would I have gone? A produce a scalar η: total of 9 km north. Now, suppose that I went 3 km east, 6 km north, and 5 more km east. How far north 4We will not formally define division of vectors. We will encounter and how far east would I have gone? I would have reciprocal vector sets, but strict division is not formally defined because there are so many different types of vector products.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 6 UV⋅=η (22) Remember, everything that is done in mathematics must be defined at some point in time by a human The scalar may be obtained in one of two ways. The agency. Historically, applications in areas of physics first way is component-by-component multiplication such as field theory have produced certain recurrent and summing (analytical interpretation): forms of equations that eventually lead to the writing of definitions such as the foregoing. Study these UV⋅=α+β+χabc (23) definitions carefully. You will notice that the information about the inner products of unit vectors is The second way is the product of vector magnitudes neatly summarized in the geometric interpretation of and enclosed angle (geometrical interpretation): inner product:

UV⋅= UVcos θ (24) UV⋅ =θ UVcos (27) where |U| and |V| are the lengths of U and V, where in the case of the unit vectors |U| = |V| = 1 and respectively, and θ is the angle enclosed between them. cos θ = 1 or 0, depending on whether θ = 0° or 90°. Note that in developing these formal definitions, we The student may now proceed to complete the have stated the “new” (i.e., the “unknown”) in terms of argument. the “known.” This point might seem trivial, but it is We have already said that the scalar product is also often important to bring it to mind, especially when called the inner product. The terminology “inner you are involved in a complicated proof or other type product” is actually the preferred term in books on of argument. Arguments usually run aground because tensor analysis and will be adopted throughout the terms are not sufficiently defined. remainder of this text. Let us look at the two definitions of inner product One special case of the inner product is of particular more closely and ask whether they are consistent, one interest; that is, the inner product of a vector with itself with the other. Take the vectors U and V and form the is the square of the magnitude (length) of the vector: term-by-term inner product according to basic algebra: 2 UU⋅=U (28) UV⋅=α+β+χ⋅( i j k) (abc i ++ j k) Cross or vector product: Another type of product is =αiijk ⋅()()abc + + +β jijk ⋅ abc + + the cross or vector product. The terminology “cross” is +χkijk ⋅()abc + + derived from the symbol used for this operation, U × V. The terminology “vector” is derived from the =αii ⋅abc +α ij ⋅ +α ik ⋅ +β ji ⋅ ab +β jj ⋅ (25) result of the of two vectors, which is +β⋅jkc +χ⋅+χ⋅ k abc i k j +χ⋅ kk another vector. The direction of the new vector is =αabc()ii ⋅ +α () ij ⋅ +α ( ik ⋅ ) +β a () ji ⋅ perpendicular to the plane of the two vectors being combined and is specified as being “up” or “down” by +βb()j ⋅jjkkikj + βcab () ⋅ + χ () ⋅ + χ () ⋅ the right-hand rule: rotate the first vector in the product +χc()kk ⋅ U × V towards the second. The resultant will point in the direction in which a right-handed thread (of a

screw) would advance. At this point, what are we to do with the inner This rule may seem somewhat arbitrary⎯and indeed products (i · i), (i · k), (j · k), and so on. We know that these vectors are unit vectors and that they are (by it is⎯but it is useful in physics nonetheless, definition) mutually perpendicular. A little thought particularly when dealing with rotational quantities (and a lot of comparison with historical results in field such as angular velocity. If an object is spinning at a theory) leads us to choose the definition rate of ω radians per second, we define a vector ω whose direction is along the spin axis by the right-hand ii⋅=⋅= jj kk ⋅ =1 (26) rule. Now, select a point away from the axis in the rotating system and ask, “What is the velocity of the point?” Remember that velocity has both magnitude All other combinations = 0. (speed) and direction. Let r be a vector from an

NASA/TP—2005-213115 7 arbitrary point (reference or datum) on the spin axis to i × k = −j, and so on. These relations between unit the point whose velocity we wish to determine. The vectors are often used to define or specify a right- desired velocity is given by the cross product ω × r. handed coordinate system. (Note that for a left-handed The vector resulting from a cross product is sometimes coordinate system, the argument would run in reverse also called a (or false vector), perhaps of the one presented here.) because of the arbitrary and somewhat ambiguous way Product of a vector and a scalar: It is not possible to in which its direction is defined. form a scalar or a vector product using anything other Two vectors U and V in three-dimensional space than two vectors. Nonetheless, the operation of may be combined via a cross product to produce a new doubling the length of a vector cannot be represented vector S: by either of these two operations. So we introduce still another type of product: A given vector V may be UV×= S (29) multiplied by a scalar number α to produce a new vector αV with a different magnitude but the same where S is perpendicular to the plane containing U and direction. V and has a sense (direction) given by the right-hand In the case of doubling the length of the given rule. The vector S is obtained via the rule (geometrical vector, α = 2. In general, we let V = Vu where u is a interpretation): unit vector; then

SUV=θ(sin ) u (30) αVu=αVV =( α) uu =ξ (33) where |U| and |V| are the lengths of U and V, where ξ = αV is the new magnitude. respectively, θ is the angle enclosed between them, and Perhaps you are thinking that we are trying to make u is a unit vector in the appropriate direction. up the arithmetic of vectors as we go along. “You An equivalent formulation of the cross product is as cannot really do this,” you argue, “because it has all a determinant (analytical interpretation): been put down already in the text books.” True, it has. But where do you think that it all came from? It is important for students to approach their mathematics ijk not from the perspective that “God said in the UV×=det uuux yz (31) beginning…” but rather that somebody or many somebodies worked very hard to put it all together. vvvx yz Students must also realize, by extension, that they are perfectly capable of adding to what already is known Because of the use of the right-hand rule, note that or of inventing an entirely new system for inclusion in U × V does not equal V × U, but rather the ever growing body of mathematics.

UV×=−×( VU) (32) Dyads and Other Higher Order Products

This section will define another more general type of Thus, the cross product is not commutative. vector multiplication. The first step is simply following It is interesting to look at the cross products of the instructions from high school algebra. To take this first unit vectors i, j, and k. Since they are all mutually step, we consider how we performed the multiplication perpendicular, sin θ = sin (±90°) = ±1, and |U||V| = 1 × of quantities in algebra. Multiply the two quantities 1 = 1. If we write the unit vectors in the order i, j, k, i, (a + b + c) and (d + e + f): j, k, i, j, k, …, we see that the cross product of any two consecutive unit vectors from left to right equals the (abc++) ×( de ++ f) = adaeaf + + next unit vector immediately to the right: i × j = k; j × (34) k = i; k × i = j, and so on. On the other hand, the cross +bd+++++ be bf cd ce cf product of any two consecutive unit vectors from right to left equals negative one times the next vector Recall that each term from the first parentheses is immediately to the left: j × i = −k; k × j = −i; multiplied by each term in the second parentheses and

NASA/TP—2005-213115 8 the resultant partial products are summed together to Therefore, in a case such as this, we say that the form the product. The product actually results from an cross product is anticommutative. In the cross application of the associative and distributive laws of product, one vector premultiplies and the other algebra. Each of the original quantities had three terms. postmultiplies. The position of the two vectors Their product has 32 = 9 terms. makes a difference to the result. This concept of Suppose that we multiplied two vectors the same premultiplication and postmultiplication also plays way. What sort of entity would we produce? a role in defining the properties of the dyad. Remember that new entities must ultimately be defined in terms of those already known. Let us try. Multiply Second, recall the multiplication of a vector by a the vectors A = ai + bj + ck and D = di + ej + f k using scalar. A given vector V can be multiplied by a the same rules that were used to form the product of scalar number α to produce a new vector with a (a + b + c) and (d + e + f): different magnitude, but the vector will have the same direction. Let V = Vu where u is a unit AD=++()()abc i j k de i ++= j f k adae ii + ij vector. Then (35) ++++afik bd ji be jj bf jk + cd ki + ce kj + cf kk αVu=αVV =( α) uu =ξ (36)

The right-hand side is a new entity, but does it make any sense or have any physical meaning? The answer where ξ is the new magnitude. Note that the result is “Yes,” but we must progressively develop and has a different magnitude but has the same define just what that meaning is. direction as the original vector. In other words, this The second step is to name this new entity so that we type of multiplication alters only the size of the can more easily refer to it. We call it a dyad or dyadic vector but has no effect on the direction in which it product from the Latin di or dy, meaning “two” or points. Note also that αV = Vα. “double.” Inserting a dot between the vectors A and D and between the corresponding unit vectors on the Having reviewed these concepts, we are prepared to right-hand side would reduce the dyad to the ordinary consider the dyad AD, an unknown entity that has inner product with the result being a scalar. Similarly, entered our mathematical world. Let us exercise it and inserting the cross symbol would reduce the dyad to see just what we can discover. the ordinary cross product with the result being another Suppose that we were to form the inner product of vector. So the dyad appears to contain the inner and AD with another arbitrary vector X. Let us premultiply cross products5 as special cases. by X and see what happens. Formally, write Before making any more formal definitions, we will review two pertinent concepts. XAD⋅ (37)

First, in algebra when multiplying two terms, it Now, we have another new entity to which we must makes little difference which term is taken first. If give meaning. Let us agree that the vectors on each we multiply x and y, the result can be called xy or side of the dot will “attach” to one another just as in a yx, since xy = yx by the commutative law. normal inner product. However, we have already seen that the commutative law does not apply in all cases. For XAD=XAD⋅⋅( ) (38) example, in the discussion of the vector cross product U × V, we discovered that U × V = Now we know exactly how to handle the quantity −(V × U) because of the unusual way we chose to (X · A), which is the usual inner product of two vectors assign direction to the result (i.e., the commutative and is equal to some scalar, say ξ. So, formally write law does not hold for cross-multiplication). XAD=XAD=D⋅ ( ⋅ξ) (39)

5The dyad has nine components whereas the cross product has three. Insertion of the cross symbol in AD works as follows using the usual rules where ξD is the product of a vector and a scalar. This for the cross products of the unit vectors: A × D = (ai + bj + ck) × product has a magnitude different from the magnitude (di + ej + fk) = adi × i + aei × j + afi × k + bdj × i + bej × j + bfj × k + cdk × i + cek × j + cfk × k = (bf – ce)i + (cd – af)j + (ae – bd)k. of D but has the same direction as D.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 9 It is significant that the product has its direction α=a⎫ determined by the dyad and not by the premultiplying ⎪ 6 β=b vector X. It appears that postoperating on X with the ⎪ dyad AD has given a vector with a new magnitude and χ=c ⎬ Nine equalities altogether (42) a new direction as compared with X. This statement is δ=d ⎪ ⎪ so significant that we will consider it as part of the etc. ⎪ definition of a dyad. ⎭ Continuing on, suppose that we now postmultiply the dyad AD by the same vector X, again using the inner We will thus consider the single statement A = B on product. For consistency, use the same attachment rule the one hand and the nine scalar equations {α = a, as before. The result is β = b, χ = c, δ = d,…} on the other as being completely synonymous. AD⋅= X A( D ⋅ X) =ψ=ψ A A (40) As in the discussion of vectors, with dyads we will also consider cases where there are different sets of unit vectors in the same space. Let us say that i, j, and where ψ is the scalar (D · X) k comprise one set (the set K) and that u, v, and w As before, we acquire a vector with a new magnitude comprise a second set (the set K*). Now consider a and a new direction from X, but it is a different vector dyad A and write (both in magnitude and direction) from the one acquired when we premultiplied. Evidently, this type Aiijik= abc++i +… (43a) of operation with dyads is neither commutative (since

X · AD ≠ AD · X) nor anticommutative (since X · AD Auuuvuw= α+β+χ+… (43b) ≠ −AD · X). This result should not be surprising. Commutativity in mathematics is never a given and when it does occur, it is somewhat a luxury because it Now, we cannot directly equate components because simplifies our work. the unit dyads are no longer the same, but we can The complete definition of a dyad can now be stated: invoke the trivial identity and say that for all dyads A, it is true that A = A. From this trivial identity, we A dyad is any quantity that operates on a vector acquire the nontrivial result that through the inner product to produce a new vector with a different magnitude and direction from the abcii+ i j++=α+β+χ+ ik…… uu uv uw (44) original. The inner product of a vector and a dyad is noncommutative. As before, if the vectors u, v, and w can be expressed as functions of i, j, and k, then the components α, β, Dyad Arithmetic and χ can also be expressed as functions of a, b, and c. The actual calculation will not be carried out here for Equality.⎯Suppose that we have two dyads: the sake of space, but students are encouraged to attempt it on their own. The details are not Aiiijikji=++abc ++ d… (41a) complicated; just set up the linear transformation for the unit vectors Biiijikji=α +β +χ +δ +… (41b) ui= uu++ jk u (45a) 123 Whenever we say that A = B, we will always mean that the individual components associated with each of vi= vv123++ jk v (45b) the unit dyads ii, ij, jk, … are equal. Thus, the single dyad equation A = B will give us nine independent wi= ww123++ jk w (45c) scalar equations: and naively multiply everything together using algebra. Sums and differences.⎯In defining the equality of

6We preoperate on the dyad with X but postoperate on the vector X with the two dyads, we followed a pattern already familiar to us dyad. Note the terminology here. from vector equality. Let us continue to reason along

NASA/TP—2005-213115 10 these lines and next consider dyad addition. We will As before, it seems appropriate to allow the dot to agree that dyad addition proceeds component by attach to the vectors closest to itself. Therefore, component as does vector addition. Also, we will always represent dyads (as we have already begun to A⋅= B XY ⋅ ST = X( Y ⋅ S) T =ξ XT (53) do) by boldface type with an underscore, such as A or B. Now, write the rule for dyad addition: Let where ξ is the scalar Y · S. The dot product of two A = aii + bij + cik + dji +… and B = αii + βij + χik + dyads is thus another dyad. Is this result unexpected? δji +… . Then Perhaps, but it is consistent with everything that we have done up to this point, so we will persist. Note that A+= B(ab +α+) ii( +β) ij the inner product of two dyads is not commutative (i.e., (46) ++χ+()()cdik +δ+ ji … A · B ≠ B · A)

Dyad differences are handled the same as dyad sums: A⋅= B XY ⋅ ST = X( Y ⋅ S) T =ξ XT (54)

AB−=()()ab −α+ ii −β ij but (47) +−χ+cdik −δ+ ji … ()() BA⋅= STXYSTXY ⋅ =( ⋅) =χ SY (55)

Note from these definitions that Since the inner product of two dyads is another dyad, it is just possible that one of the original dyads in the ABBA+=+ (48) product is itself another inner product. Let A = C · D and see what we can discover. First, note that and AB⋅ =⋅⋅ CDB (56) AB−=−−( BA) (49) The question that now comes to mind is whether the Thus, dyad addition is commutative; dyad subtraction order of performing the inner products makes any is anticommutative. difference to the result; that is, whether Multiplication.⎯As with vector multiplication, dyad multiplication may take one of several forms. The dyad (CD⋅ ) ⋅=⋅ B C( DB ⋅) (57) products to be examined in the following sections are the inner product, the cross product, the product of a To answer this question, let C = XM and D = NY. dyad and a scalar, and the direct product of two dyads. Then A = C · D = XM · NY = X(M · N)Y = ψXY. Inner product: First, we must define the inner Recalling that Y · S = ξ, product of two dyads. Consider the dyads A and B.

Their inner product may be formally written as (CD⋅⋅=) B⎡⎤ XMNY( ⋅) ⋅ ST ⎣⎦ (58) AB⋅ (50) =ψXY ⋅ ST =ψξ XT

Now, as before, we must give meaning to the symbol. CDBXMNYST⋅⋅=( ) ⋅⎡⎤( ⋅) Let us begin by letting ⎣⎦ (59) =ξXM ⋅ NT =ξψ XT AXY= (51) Thus, the result is independent of the order of BST= performing the inner products, and so we conclude that the associative law holds for inner multiplication of We now substitute for A and B: dyads; that is, that

AB⋅= XYST ⋅ (52) (CD⋅ ) ⋅=⋅ B C( DB ⋅) (60)

NASA/TP—2005-213115 11 Cross product: We may also define the cross product RMN(contracted) =⋅=R (65) of two dyads as It is useful to introduce matrix notation at this point AB× (61) in our development. In linear algebra we deal with sets of linear equations such as With A = XY and B = ST, we have ax+ by+= cz u (66a) A×= B XY × ST = X( Y × S) T = XMT (62) dx+ ey+= fz v (66b) where M = Y × S. The result is another new entity, a triad. Its properties may be developed along lines gxhymzw+ += (66c) analogous to those already laid out for dyads. Note how the attachment rule for the operator (in this case, Rewritten in matrix form, this set becomes the cross ×) has again been applied. In working with dyads and higher order products, this rule has become abcx u the norm, part of the internal “rhythm” of the mathematics. defy= v (67) Product of a dyad and a scalar: Given the dyad g hmzw A = XY and the scalar α, form the product α A and note the result: where the matrix premultiplies the column vector with components x, y, and z to obtain a new column vector α=α=αAXYXYXYXY() = () α =α with components u, v, and w. Recall that we wrote this (63) =α=XY() XY () α=α=α XYA expression in a shorthand notation similar to that which we have been using:

The product of a dyad and a scalar is thus commutative. Ax= u (68) Direct (or dyad) products: We may do with dyads, triads, and other higher order products what we have The dot was probably not used in your linear algebra already done with vectors; that is, we may multiply class because it was not required to complete the them directly without either the dot or the cross. Let A notation. In generalizing from the more specific forms be a dyad and C be a triad. Then of linear algebra and vector analysis to the more general forms of dyads and higher order products, AC= Q (64) however, the notation becomes incomplete without the dot. is a pentad. If A has 9 components and C has 27 In the notation that we have been using, the left-hand components, then Q will have 9 × 27 = 243 side is actually a triad: components. Products of any order may thus be constructed and their properties defined in accordance Ax= T (69) with what we have already done with dyads. Such higher order products are called n-ads where n refers to To obtain the system of linear equations, we must the number of vectors involved in the product. Thus, a contract the triad by inserting a dot between the dyad A structure such as the one we have just worked with, and the vector x. The result is Q = QRSTU is a pentad because of the five component vectors Q, R, S, T, and U. Ax=u⋅ (70) Contraction.⎯This section introduces contraction, one more new and as yet unfamiliar operation that will As we generalize to include more information in less play a role in tensor analysis. Consider the dyad space, we must become more rigorous in bookkeeping R = MN. R is contracted by placing a dot between the our symbols. component vectors M and N and carrying out the inner In higher order n-ads, it is necessary to specify product. The result will be a scalar R: exactly where a contraction is to be made. Consider the

NASA/TP—2005-213115 12 pentad ABDCE. In any one of several ways, the dot Event = Itself (73) can be introduced between the five component vectors to produce different results, all of which are legitimate In other words, every event equals itself regardless of contractions of the pentad: the perspective from which it is viewed. Herein lies the major reason why vectors and dyads and triads and so AB⋅=µ DCE ACE (71a) forth (more generally, tensors) are used in physics. The trivial identity parallels a sort of objective reality that ABDC⋅=λ E ABD (71b) mirrors what we believe of the universe at large. We used the trivial identity to obtain transformations ABDCE⋅⋅=ν D (71c) between different sets of unit vectors. The trans- formations preserve the identities of the vector and/or Note that each dot reduces the order of the result by the dyad so that it remains the same for both sets. two. Thus, the pentad with one dot produces a triad, We can now replace the term “set of unit vectors” with two dots, a monad (vector), and so on. with “observer.” Each observer sets up a set of unit vectors (measuring apparatus), but whatever Components, Rank, and Dimensionality phenomenon is being observed must be the same for all, despite possible different perspectives. Later, when The n-ads are mathematical entities that consist of we develop the component transformations that will components. formally define tensors, we will do so explicitly with this kind of mathematical objectivity in mind. Thus, Components are just the denominate (or tensors will be ideal mathematical objects for building nondenominate) numbers that premultiply the unit models of the world at large. n-ads and are required to completely specify the Vectors and other higher order products are often entire n-ad. “viewed” simultaneously from different coordinate systems. For any given vector (event), the components As a general rule, when different observers are viewed within each individual coordinate system differ involved in a situation involving n-ads, the from those viewed in all other coordinate systems. components (component values) they record will vary However, the vector itself remains one and the same from observer to observer but only in a way that allows vector for all. Thus, the component values are the n-ad as a whole to remain the same. The n-ad must coordinate dependent (they are the projections onto the be thought of as having an observer-independent particular coordinate axes chosen), whereas the vector reality of its own. We are already familiar with this itself is said to be coordinate independent (it represents concept from our knowledge of arithmetic. For an objective reality). example, the number eight may be written as the sum In a three-dimensional space, the actual number of of different pairs of numbers: individual components that comprise a vector or some higher order entity remains the same for everybody: 8 = 5 + 3, 6 + 2, 3 + 3, +2,… (72) 1. A scalar has one component; that is, the The component numbers have been changed but their denominate number that represents it. sum remains the same. 2. A vector has three components, one in each of the In physics and engineering, it is often the case that i, j, and k directions. more than one observer is involved in a given situation, 3. A dyad has nine components, one for each of the each simultaneously watching the same event from a unit dyads ii, ij, jk, and so on. different perspective. Although their individual descriptions may vary because of their perspectives, The number of components provides a good index for their overall accounts of the event must match because making a distinction between one type of entity and the event itself is one and the same for all. This another. situation should remind students of the trivial identities used in previous sections; namely, V = V and A = A. In this case, the trivial identity is

NASA/TP—2005-213115 13 The entities7 with which we are dealing are called could repeat our development in any number of tensors (a term to be defined) and their position in the dimensions n. component number hierarchy is designated by an index number called the rank. Table I presents this concept. An n-dimensional space is any space for which n independent numbers (coordinates) are required to TABLE I.⎯TENSORS AND THEIR RANK specify a point.

Type of tensor Rank Number of components Therefore, for an n-dimensional space, it may be stated Scalar 0 1 (herein without proof) that Vector 1 3 Dyad 2 9 Number of components (Rank) = (dimensionality of space) (75) We have begun to build a sequence. Can you see the next term? It would be a tensor of rank 3 with 27 or components followed by a tensor of rank 4 with (Rank) 81 components. The terms that can be added to the list Number of components = n (76) are unlimited. The relationship that exists between the rank and number of components is presented in table II. Dyads as Matrices

TABLE II.⎯RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN You should have noticed that the rules that we have RANK AND COMPONENTS been developing for dyads are extensions of the rules Type of tensor Rank Number of already developed for vectors and are the same as the components rules developed for matrices and matrix algebra. This Scalar 0 1 Vector 1 3 is not accidental. A knowledge of matrix algebra Dyad 2 9 implies a rudimentary understanding of dyad algebra “Triad” 3 27 and vice versa. At this point, we will digress to explore “Quartad” 4 81 this connection more thoroughly. First, recall that in constructing a dyad from two Note that the rank, as we have defined it, is equal to the vectors A = ai + bj + ck and D = di + ej + fk, we number of vectors directly multiplied to form the multiplied the vectors using the same rules as those for object. A scalar involves no vectors; a vector involves multiplying numbers in high school algebra: one vector; a dyad involves two vectors, and so on. In addition, another general relationship is apparent: AD=++×++=(abc i j k) ( de i j f k) adae ii + ij (77) ++++afik bdji be jj bf jk + cd ki + ce kj + cf kk Number of components = 3(Rank) (74)

To generalize further, the number three arises because Now, suppose that we wrote out the vectors A and D we have been working in three-dimensional space, the with a slightly different notation: space most familiar to all of us. Ai= aa123++ jk a (78) A three-dimensional space is any space for which and three independent numbers (coordinates) are required to specify a point. Di= dd++ jk d (79) 123

However, the dimensionality of the space need not be where a = a, a = b,…d = d, d = e, … . Using this restricted to three. A little reflection will show that we 1 2 1 2 new notation, the dyad AD becomes

AD= ad11 ii++ ad 12 ij ad 13 ik + a 21 d ji… (80) 7In fact, tensors are proper subsets of scalars, vectors, dyads, triads, and so on. Thus, while all rank 2 tensors are dyads, for example, not all dyads are rank 2 tensors. The distinction will become more clear when we formally By setting a1d1 = µ11, a1d2 = µ12,…, this dyad may be define tensors and tensor character. rewritten as

NASA/TP—2005-213115 14 AD=µ11 ii +µ 12 ij +µ 13 ik +µ 21 ji… (81) digress again and consider the concept of a field. Before doing so, we will digress even farther to Students should see that the components µij of the dyad consider mathematical models and their relationship to AD can be arranged in the familiar configuration of a mathematical theories. 3×3 square matrix (having the same number of rows as Physicists and engineers must often set up columns): mathematical models of the systems they wish to study. The word “model” is very important here because it illustrates the relationship between physics µµµ11 12 13 and engineering on the one hand and the real world on µµµ (82) 21 22 23 the other. Models are not the same as the objects they µµµ31 32 33 represent in that they are never as complete. If the model were as complete as the object it represented, it Hence, the components of all dyads of a given would be a duplicate of the object and not a model. can be represented as square matrices. (We Sometimes a model is very simple, as was the model shall not prove this statement herein.) In an n- used earlier to represent the number of components in dimensional space, the dyad will be represented by an a tensor: n×n square matrix. Just as a given matrix is generally not equal to its (the transpose of a matrix is Number of components = n(Rank) (85) another matrix with the rows and columns interchanged), so it is with dyads: it is generally the Sometimes a model is elegant or very general, in case that UV ≠ VU; that is, the dyad product is not which case it is a theory. Theories, even though commutative. logically consistent, can never be proven 100 percent We know that a matrix may be multiplied by another correct. Wherever a given theory falls short of matrix or by a vector and also that given a matrix, the experimental reality, it must be modified, shored up, so results of premultiplication and postmultiplication are to speak. Thus, in the 20th century, relativity and usually different: does not, in quantum mechanics were developed to shore up general, commute. classical dynamics when its predictions diverged from Using the known rules of matrix multiplication, we experiment. Of course, relativity and quantum can write the rules associated with dyad multiplication. mechanics possess all the former predictive power of For example, to use matrices to show that the product classical dynamics, but they are also accurate in those of a dyad M and a scalar α is commutative, let realms where classical dynamics failed. Models in physics and engineering consist of µµµ11 12 13 mathematical ideas. When setting up a mathematical M =µ21 µ 22 µ 23 (83) model, the physicist or engineer must first define a working region, a “space” in which the model will µµµ31 32 33 actually be built. This region is an abstraction, a Then for any scalar α, substratum within which the equations will be written and the actual mathematical maneuvers will be made. αµ11 αµ 12 αµ 13 Recall the closed systems that you have already studied αM = αµ αµ αµ in thermodynamics. These spaces have a definite 21 22 23 boundary that partitions off a piece of the world that is αµ31 αµ 32 αµ 33 (84) just sufficient for dealing with the problem at hand. µα11 µα 12 µα 13 Usually, the working region is considered to comprise an infinite number of geometrical points, =µαµαµα=αM 21 22 23 with the proviso that for any point P in the region, µα31 µα 32 µα 33 there is at least one point also in the region that is infinitely close to P. Under the appropriate conditions, Fields such a region is called a continuum (or geometric continuum), but a more rigorous statement declares the Tensor analysis is used extensively in field theory by following: physicists and engineers. Therefore, it is worthwhile to

NASA/TP—2005-213115 15 For all points P in a given region, construct a A punctured field is a field wherein the sphere with P at the center. Then reduce the sphere discontinuities are circumscribed and thereby to an arbitrarily small radius. If in the limit of eliminated. Punctured fields are dealt with in the smallness there is at least one other point P* of the calculus of residues in complex number theory. region inside the sphere with P, then the region is called a continuum. In topology, such an Magnetic Permeability and Material Stress accumulation of points is also called a point set. This section provides two real-world examples of how second-rank tensors are used in physics and engineering: the first deals with the magnetic field and the second, with stresses in an object subjected to external . Recall from basic and magnetism that the magnetic flux density B in volt-seconds per square meter and the magnetization H in amperes per meter are related through the permeability of the field- bearing medium µ in henrys per meter by the expression

BH=µ (86)

If you are not familiar with these terms then, briefly, the magnetization H is a vector quantity associated A field can be properly designated over this with electrical current flowing, say, through a loop of continuum. The field may be a scalar field, a vector wire. The magnetic flux density B is the amount per field, or a higher-order-object field and is formed unit area of magnetic “field stuff” flowing through the according to the following rule: loop in a unit of time, and the permeability is a property of the medium itself through which the At every point P of the continuum, we designate a magnetic field stuff is flowing (loosely analogous to scalar, a vector, or some higher order object called the resistivity of a wire.)8 a field quantity. The same type of quantity must be For free space, a space that contains no matter or specified for every point of the continuum. stored energy, µ is a scalar with the particular value µ0: Since we want the fields to be “well behaved,” (i.e., −7 we can use calculus and differential equations µ=π×0 410H/m (87) throughout the field), we impose another condition on the field quantities: This denominate number is called the permeability of free space. Since µ is a scalar, the flux density and the Consider the specific field quantities that exist at magnetization in free space differ in magnitude only two arbitrary points P and P* in the continuum. but not in direction. However, in some exotic materials Let A be the field quantity at P and A* be the field (e.g., birefringent materials), the component atoms or quantity at P*. Then as P approaches P*, the field molecules have peculiar electric or magnetic dipole quantity A must approach the field quantity A*; properties that make these terms differ in both that is, the difference A – A* must tend to zero. magnitude and direction. In these materials, a scalar permeability is insufficient to represent the relationship When this condition is satisfied, the field is said to be continuous. Wherever this condition is violated, a discontinuity exists. When discontinuities occur in a 8The resistivity of a wire or of any conducting medium enters the field equations as a proportionality between electric current density and , the usual equations of the field cannot be applied. field. Recall that Ohm’s law for current and voltage states V = IR, where Discontinuities are sometimes called shocks or V is voltage (volts), I is current (amperes), and R is resistance (ohms). In singularities depending on their exact nature. field terms, this same law has the form E = ρj, where E is electric field in volts per meter, ρ is resistivity in ohm-meters, and j is current density in amperes per square meter.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 16 between B and H. The scalar permeability must be stress has the units of force-per-unit-area (newtons per replaced by a tensor permeability, so that the relation- square meter), it is clear that ship becomes Stress × area = force (92) BµH=⋅ (88) that is, the stress-area product should be associated The permeability µ is a tensor of rank 2. It is a with the applied forces that are producing the stress. physical quantity that is the same for all observers We know that force is a vector and that area is an regardless of their . Remember that oriented quantity that can be represented as a vector. B and H are still both vectors, but they now differ from The vector chosen to represent the differential area dS one another in both magnitude and direction. This has magnitude dS and direction normal to the area expression represents a generalization of the former element, pointing outward from the convex side. expression B = µH and, in fact, contains this Thus, the stress in equation (92) must be either a expression as a special case. scalar or a tensor. If stress were a scalar, then a single denominate number should suffice to represent the To understand how the equation B = µH is a special stress at any point within a material. But an immediate case of B = µ · H, select for the tensor µ the special problem arises in that there are two different types of form stress: normal stress (normal force) and shear stress

(tangential force). How can a single denominate µ 00 number represent both? Furthermore, there are nine µ =µ00 (89) independent components of stress: three are normal 00µ stresses, one associated with each of the three spatial axes, and six others are shear stresses, one associated with each of the six faces of a differential cube. Then, µ · H = µHxi + µHyj + µHzk = µH. Since force and area are both vectors, we must The magnetic field represents a condition of energy conclude that stress is a rank 2 tensor (3×3 matrix with storage in space. The field term for stored energy takes nine components) and that the force must be the inner on the form of a fluid density and has the units energy- product of stress and area. The differential force dF is per-unit-volume or in meter-kilogram-second units, thus associated with the stress T on a surface element dS in a material by joules() meter3 = J m3 (90) ddFTS=⋅ (93) But joules = (force × distance) = newtons × meters = newton-meters so that energy density also appears as a The right-hand side can be integrated over any surface fluid pressure: within the material under consideration as is actually done, say, in the analysis of bending moments in J m332 =N×m m = N m (91) beams. The stress tensor T was the first tensor to be described and used by scientists and engineers. The that is, force per unit area. If you read older texts or the word tensor derives from the Latin tensus meaning original works of James Clerk Maxwell, you will read “stress” or “tension.” of magnetic and electric pressure. The energy density Note that in the progression from single number to of the field is what they are referring to. scalar to vector to tensor, and so on, information is The term with units of newtons per square meter is being added at every step. The complexity of the also called stress. Thus, some older texts also spoke of physical situation being modeled determines the rank field stress. Doing so is not entirely inappropriate since of the tensor representation we must choose. A tensor many materials when placed in a field, experience of rank 0 is sufficient to represent something like a forces that cause deformations (strains) with their single temperature or a temperature field across the associated stresses throughout the material. surface of an aircraft compressor blade. A tensor of The classical example of the use of tensors in rank 1 is required to represent the electric field physics deals with stress in a material object. Since

NASA/TP—2005-213115 17 surrounding a point charge in space or the (classical)9 coordinate lines themselves will be named “coordinate gravitational field of a massive object. A tensor of rank axes” or just “axes.” The numbers associated with any 2 is necessary to represent a magnetic permeability in point P in the space will be given the name complex materials or the stresses in a material object “coordinates.” The axes will be ordered according to or in a field, and so on. the following rule:

Arbitrarily select one of the axes and call it x. Location and Measurement: Coordinate Systems Place integers along the axis and note the direction along which the integers increase. Call this Once we have chosen a working space, we need to direction positive. Now use the right-hand rule specify locations in that space. When we make a from the positive x-axis to the next axis. Call that statement such as “Consider the point P,” we must be axis y. The right-hand rule establishes the positive able to say something about how to locate P. direction along y. Finally, use the right-hand rule We do so by setting up a reference or coordinate again from the y-axis to determine the positive system with which to coordinate our observations. direction along the third axis and call it z. First, we choose a point P0. Through P0 draw three mutually perpendicular lines. Then select an interval This type of system is called a right-handed coordinate on each of the lines (e.g., the width of a fist or the system for obvious reasons (see following sketch). We distance from the elbow to the tip of the longest finger) will continue to use right-handed systems unless and repeatedly mark off the interval end to end along otherwise specified. each line. We need not select equal intervals for all three lines, but the system is usually more tractable if we do. Now, we place integer markers along each of the lines. At P0, place the integer zero. At the first interval marker on each line, place a one; at the second marker, a two, and so on. We have now constructed a coordinate system. Each point P in the space may be assigned a location using the following rule:

Through P, draw three lines perpendicular to and intersecting each of the coordinate lines. Note the number where the perpendiculars touch the coordinate lines. Agree on an order for the lines by labeling one x, one y, and one z. Write the numbers corresponding to P as a triad (x, y, z) and place the Now, put a vector into the space; represent the vector triad next to the point. If the perpendiculars do not as a directed line segment (although this representation fall directly on integers, interpolate to write the is artificial). The direction assigned to the vector is numbers as fractions or decimals. arbitrary. Place an arrow point on one end to show the direction and call this end the head. Call the other end The point P0 will be named the “origin” of the the tail. The length of the line segment represents the coordinate system, since it is the point from which the magnitude of the vector. The arrow point represents its three coordinate lines apparently originate. The three direction. The field point with which the vector is associated will be, by mutual agreement, the tail point 9In classical or Newtonian gravitation theory, the field term is the local (see sketch). acceleration g in meters per square second; the gravitational potential is a scalar energy-per-unit-mass term φ in square meters per square second; these terms are related by the Poisson equation 4πg = ∇φ. In , the components of the gravitational field (the field terms) are the i Γik in meters; the potentials are the components of the rank 2 gjk in square meters; and the equation relating these terms is a rank 2 tensor equation involving spacetime curvature and the local stress-energy tensor, the components of which are measured in joules per cubic meter.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 18 When we speak of magnitude, we progress from the fundamental to all physics and engineering and is, in problem of location to that of measurement. Let us fact, an axiom so apparently self-evident as to remain place the vector along the x-axis and imagine that its implicit most of the time. To illustrate, suppose that we tail is located at x = 1 and its head, at x = 2. What is the were each observing a new car at the dealer. I observe magnitude of the vector? “Well,” you say, “Its from the front and just a little to the right; you observe magnitude is 1, since 2 − 1 = 1.” But note that I am from the rear. I note a painted projection on one side of immediately forced to ask, “One what?” All that has the car and ask you to tell me what the projection looks been specified so far is a coordinate difference, not a like to you. For you to know what I am referring to, length. We often set things up so that coordinate you must first know where I am standing relative to differences represent actual lengths in some system of you and the car. With this knowledge in hand, you units but to do so is purely a matter of choice. observe that from your perspective, the projection is a Take a centimeter rule and measure the length of the driver-side rear-view mirror. I now know the function x-axis between the markers 1 and 2. Suppose that we of the projection, and you know that it is housed in a measure 2.345 cm. Then, the line segment with a painted metal housing. coordinate “length” of one has a physical length of The two different locations at which you and I were 2.345 cm. Call the physical length s and the coordinate standing are taken as the origins of two different length ξ. We now have the provisional relationship coordinate systems. Drawing the coordinate systems on a sheet of paper would enable us to note that the s =ξ2.345 cm (94) space represented by the sheet of paper (a plane) contains the two systems in such a way that each can If we have been careful about constructing our be represented in terms of the other. This coordinate system and have taken pains to keep all the representation is called a coordinate transformation. coordinate intervals the same physical length, then this Let us give names to our two coordinate systems. I relationship holds throughout the space. Thus, for a call my system K and we agree to call yours K*. coordinate difference of 5.20, we have Instead of a car, let us now observe a single point P. s =×=2.345 5.20 12.2 cm( approx.) (95) The coordinates of P that I record will be labeled (x, y, z); those that you record will be labeled

The number 2.345 is a denominate number and has (x*, y*, z*). units of centimeter per unit-coordinate-difference, or Next, we both observe a given vector V in our just plain centimeters. It is called a metric. Remember working space and we say that it is located at a definite it well, for in the general case, the metric associated field point P. We both record the coordinates of the with a coordinate system is a rank 2 tensor (see points at the head and tail of the vector: footnote 7 on the gravitational field) and plays a *** Head You (xH ,,yzHH) Me (x , y , z ) variety of important roles. H H H * ** Tail You (xTTT,,yz) Me (xT, yT, zT)

Multiple Coordinate Systems: Coordinate We each use our respective results to determine the Transformations square of the coordinate magnitude of the vector:

Suppose that we were working together in a given Observer Magnitude 222 space and that we each had attached to ourselves our ** You ()()()x**HT−+−+−xyyzz *HT *HT own coordinate system. You make observations and 2 2 2 measurements in your system and I make them in Me (xH − xT) + (yH − yT ) + (zH − zT) mine. Is it possible for us to communicate with one another and to make sense of what the other is doing? For simplicity, assume that for this particular Well, we are observing and measuring the same experiment, coordinate magnitude equals physical physical phenomena in the same space. If these magnitude in appropriate units (i.e., the metric is unity) phenomena are “real” (as we must assume), then they in both coordinate systems. Does it make sense that we must have an objective existence apart from what we should determine different magnitudes for the same see or think of them; they must exist independently of vector? Since the vector is an objective reality in space our respective coordinate systems. This concept is

NASA/TP—2005-213115 19 and is independent of our respective coordinate zzxyz**,,= ( ) (99c) systems, the answer is a resounding “No.” Therefore, we are able to write or its reverse is called a coordinate transformation. The origin of my system, for example, is the point (x, y, z) **222 ** ** ()()()xxHT−+−+− yy HT zz HT = (0, 0, 0). In your system, this point is located at (96) 222 =−()()()xHTxyyzz +− HT +− HT xx**0,0,0= ( ) (100a)

At least we know that our respective measurements are related by some type of equation, in this case through yy*= *( 0,0,0) (100b) the magnitude of the vector V, which magnitude must be the same for all observers. This assurance leads us zz*= *( 0,0,0) (100c) to postulate that there must be mathematical functions that relate our respective coordinate observations to The existence of such a family of coordinate one another; perhaps functions that look like transformations assures us that if I specify a point P at

the coordinates (x, y, z) in my system, I can always x**,,= xxyz( ) (97a) calculate the coordinates (x*, y*, z*) in your system and tell you exactly where to look to see the same yyxyz**,,= ( ) (97b) point P. Objects like the vector V are formally said to be invariant under a coordinate transformation. This concept of invariance is of paramount importance in zzxyz**,,= (97c) ( ) defining tensors.

Note that the last group of equations specifies a Coordinate Independence particular notation for the three functions. This notation is standard in books on tensor analysis and Think of a vector V at a point P in space. Imagine will be used throughout the remainder of this text. that you and I both observe it from our respective Also, because there is nothing particular about the coordinate systems K* and K. The symbol V represents order in which we choose between K and K*, we might something physical and has an existence independent just as easily have written the variables in reverse: of our choice of the locating and measuring apparatus; hence, V is a coordinate-independent entity. As such, it x = xx( *, y *, z *) (98a) represents the first example of what we will eventually admit into that class of objects that will formally be yyxyz= ( *, *, *) (98b) called tensors. Can we write a definition for coordinate independence in mathematical terms? Well, we can zzxyz= ( *, *, *) (98c) first say in K that I observe a vector V; in K* you observe a vector V*, the same vector that I observe (as That such functions as these do exist is easily argued V) in K. Coordinate independence is then specified by by noting that the origin of my coordinate system is a saying that V and V* are one and the same, identical, point in your coordinate system (as is your origin a equal: point in my system); my coordinate axes are straight lines in your system, and so on. From these VV= * (101) considerations, the equations relating the two systems are obtained. The system of equations Although the vectors V and V* are identical, their components in K and K*, respectively, generally are x**,,= xxyz( ) (99a) not. We have already touched upon this concept; now let us look at it a little more closely. Draw a representative picture in two-dimensions. In K, let yyxyz**,,= ( ) (99b) ** V = v1 + v2, and in K*, let Vvv* =+12.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 20 ** vvvv1112= ( , ) (102c)

** vvvv2212= ( , ) (102d)

** The functions vv121,,,and v v 2 must be specified to preserve the equality V = V*, and in formal tensor analysis, this specification can always be accomplished.

Coordinate Independence: Another Point of View

Obviously the coordinate systems K and K* in the When we spoke of the coordinate independence of diagram are oblique since the component vectors, the vector V, we argued that although the components assumed parallel to the local coordinate axes, are not were different for different coordinate systems, the perpendicular. Here we have a situation wherein two magnitude of the vector must be the same for all different sets of components make up the same vector. observers. In other words, One set belongs to K, the other to K*. The vector V is itself a physical quantity, coordinate independent, {VV=⇒⋅=⋅***} { VVVV} (103) the same for all observers. The components ** ( vv121,,,and v v 2) are coordinate dependent; they are or determined by V and the particular observer’s chosen coordinate system. In fact, the components are no more vv22= * (104) than the projections of the vector V onto the respective where v and v* are the respective magnitudes. coordinate axes. Now with this idea in mind, consider a dyad. When The physical reality of the vector V does not viewed from K, call the dyad S and when viewed from ** translate directly to the components vv121,,,and v v 2. K*, call the dyad S*. We now assert that the dyad is In the case of a car traveling at 50 mph due northeast, coordinate independent so that S = S*. Immediately, the velocity vector of the car is a measurable quantity. the question arises: Can we use the concept of If I choose a coordinate system with axes oriented magnitude, or more properly find an associated scalar, exactly due north and exactly due east, then the to gain understanding of the physical meaning of the components along those axes (36 mph due north and relation S = S*? 36 mph due east) are determined by the physical With the vector V, we found an associated scalar, the velocity vector and the angles made by that vector with magnitude V · V of the vector. We agreed, on physical the respective coordinate axes. A change in choice of grounds, that this magnitude must be the same for all axes will cause a change in the magnitudes and observers. Now, suppose that we contract the dyad to directions of the component vectors but not in V itself. find its associated scalar. Let us write The two observers ought to be able to share their results and can do so through the coordinate S (contracted) = s (105a) transformations. It may be shown that each component vector in the K system is derivable from the component S* contracted= s * (105b) vectors in the K* system and vice versa through the ( ) coordinate transformations. In other words, once we have established and agreed upon the coordinate What now can we say about s and s*? That they are transformations, we may write equal? First, observe that s and s* are scalars; that is, they represent the inner product of the two component vvvv= **, (102a) vectors comprising the dyad in each of the systems K 1112( ) and K*, respectively. Set S = AB and S* = A*B*. Then ** vvvv2212= ( , ) (102b)

NASA/TP—2005-213115 21 SS=⇒* ABAB =** (106) A test for the coordinate independence of any dyad is to contract the dyad and check the coordinate

independence of the resulting magnitude.10 Now proceed formally as follows: Form the left inner product of both sides of the equation AB = A*B* However, the same must be true of a quartad or any with A: other even-numbered product since

AABAAB⋅⋅= ** (107) 1. Contraction reduces rank by 2 (thus quartad → dyad → scalar, etc.). (AAB⋅=⋅) ( AA**) B (108) 2. Every even number is a multiple of 2.

Therefore, a more general rule states: 2 ** a BAAB=⋅() (109) A test for the coordinate independence of any ⎛⎞AA⋅ * even-numbered product is to repeatedly contract BB= ⎜⎟* (110) the product until a single magnitude is obtained ⎝⎠a2 and then check the coordinate independence of the We have now expressed the vector B as a function of result.

B*. In equation (110), call the term in parentheses β. Then, what about odd-numbered products such as We then have triads or pentads? It is stated without proof (the proof should be obvious) that their contractions will always BB=β * (111) result in a vector. Thus

Now, return to equation (106) and form the right inner A test for the coordinate independence of any odd- product of both sides with B: numbered product is to repeatedly contract the product until a quantity with magnitude and AB⋅= B A** B ⋅→ B direction is obtained and then check the coordinate AABBABBb2 =⋅=⋅→** *() * independence of the result. ABB**()⋅ A = (112) Coordinate Independence of Physical Quantities: b2 Some Examples ABB*()⋅ A * == ββb2 Tensors are formally defined by the coordinate transformation properties of their components. The

transformation properties of tensors are specified by Using (111) and (112) in A · B finally gives remembering that the physical quantities they represent

must appear the same to different observers with ⎛⎞A* different points of view. This property ensures a type AB⋅=⎜⎟ ⋅β B* = A* ⋅ B (113) ⎜⎟() of objective reality in the mathematics that mirrors the ⎝⎠β objective reality of physical objects and events. We assert that tensors must be quantities that are that is coordinate independent; conversely, only these s = s* (114) coordinate independent quantities are admissible into that class of objects that we call tensors. Some The coordinate independence of the dyad S does quantities are coordinate dependent. If a quantity is indeed imply the coordinate independence of its coordinate dependent, then it cannot be admitted as a associated scalar by contraction s. Thus tensor. The individual components of a tensor may appear different to different observers, as the shadow of a stick may appear different when the light is held at

10 We assert that S = S* => s = s*. By the theorem of the contrapositive, s ≠ s* => S ≠ S*; i.e., the quantity is not coordinate independent.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 22 different angles; however, the overall tensor (like the might be inclined to argue that I (the stationary actual stick) must remain the same for all. observer) have made the correct measurement simply So as not to get lost in the unfamiliar notational because I was stationary. That being so, you (the schemes that will be introduced later, consider some moving observer) have only to correct for your motion concrete examples from the real world. and then T = T*. Then you ask, “Isn’t T admissible as a Admissible scalars.⎯Suppose that I measure the tensor after all?” temperature (°C) at a given point P at a given time. The answer is that in classical physics it is, but in You also measure the temperature (°C) at P at the relativity it is not. T would be a tensor only if the term same time but from a different location. Say that P is a “stationary” could be adequately defined. In classical point in a beaker of fluid; I stand due north of the physics, stationary means “not moving relative to beaker whereas you stand due south. We both have absolute space.” But in special relativity, the concept identical thermometers, and so on. It would make no of absolute space is abandoned and replaced with the sense if you and I acquired different temperature notion that the observation made in either coordinate readings; we both should expect to obtain, and both system is equally valid. Since there is no absolute must obtain, the same numerical quantity from our system available for comparison, both observations are respective measurements. If T is the temperature correct. That they do not agree numerically is simply measured in K and T* is the temperature measured in accounted for by the fact that the two systems are in K*, physics requires that relative motion.12 But whether one or the other or both are “actually” moving is a meaningless question. The TT= * (115) same argument holds for motion of the monochromatic

This simple expression is a scalar transformation law source. The bottom line is that it makes no difference between K and K* for the temperature T. whether it is you or I or the source or all three that are moving. Only the relative motion counts. It is in this We now specify that only scalars that transform sense that the frequency of the monochromatic source according to this rule and are coordinate is not a tensor. independent are considered admissible as tensors. Vectors.⎯As with scalars, neither are all quantities with magnitude and direction admissible as tensors. Inadmissible scalars.⎯Since we have also hinted Let V represent a quantity with magnitude and that there are scalar quantities that are inadmissible as direction observed in K and V* represent the same tensors, is a counterexample possible? Certainly. This quantity observed in K*. If this quantity is to be time, let T represent the frequency of a light signal admissible as a tensor, then it must be coordinate emanating from an ideal11 monochromatic source at P. independent; that is, it must satisfy We both measure the frequency of the light at the same time using the same units of inverse seconds. This VV= * (116) time, let us also assume that one of us is moving relative to the other and to the source. This simple expression is a vector transformation law If I am “stationary,” the light will have a certain between K and K*: frequency, say T = T0, where the subscript 0 implies a specific numerical value. If you are moving relative to We now specify that only quantities that transform me when you do your measurement, the light that you according to this rule are considered admissible as observe will be red or blue shifted and so will appear tensors. to you as having frequency T* = T0 ± ∆T, where ∆T is Is a counterexample possible here? Yes. The position just the amount by which the light is frequency shifted. vector whose components are the coordinate values Obviously T ≠ T* in this case, and although the themselves is obviously not coordinate independent. frequency thus observed is a scalar quantity, it is We will consider the position vector in greater detail evidently not admissible as a tensor. This counterexample may seem odd at first glance, but it becomes important in special relativity. You 12In special relativity, time (and therefore frequency or inverse time) is a component of a four-dimensional vector in spacetime. This vector is called a four-vector and is a tensor. Recall that we have already said that although a tensor must be coordinate independent, its components usually are not. In 11We have evidently gotten our source from the same bin as we got the this case, the distinguishing feature of the two coordinate systems is that proverbial massless pulley and the nonstretch rope. they are in relative motion.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 23 after we have formally defined tensors according to The vector dr still represents the vector resultant of their component transformations. the coordinate differentials dx, dy, and dz; but dr now Apply the test of finding associated scalars has nothing to do with physical distance; it represents a (magnitudes) for the position vector. First, let R be a coordinate distance. However, if α, β, and χ are the position vector that locates a point in K and R* be a metric terms for x, y, and z, respectively, then the position vector that locates the same point in K*. vector Unless the origins of K and K* coincide, we must have dduijk=α( x) +β( dyz) +χ( d) (120) RR=+* C (117)

where C is the vector that locates the origin of K does carry the necessary physical distance information. relative to K*. Obviously, we cannot infer from this To find the physical length ds of du, we must form the latter relationship that R = R* unless C = 0 (the zero inner product vector). Additionally, we must also have 2222 ()dddds =⋅=α+β+χuu (xyz ) ( d ) ( d ) (121) RR⋅=()() R** + C ⋅ R + C (118) =⋅+()()()RR**2 RC * ⋅+⋅ CC The square root of the right-hand side provides the required length in meters.

Apparently, the position vector does not pass this test Can ds be directly related to the vector dr? Yes. Two approaches will now be presented to show how. either. The position vector is an example of a vector 2 that is not admissible into the class of objects called Approach 1: Take the expression (ds) = du · du = 2 2 2 tensors. (αdx) + (βdy) + (χdz) and rewrite it as Admissible vectors.⎯ Although the position vector r is not a tensor, its differential dr is. The differential ()ddddddds 2 =α22xx +β yy +χ 2 zz (122) position vector does not depend in any way on coordinate values, only on their differences; therefore, and note that this expression is the same as it is coordinate independent. Now, let us take a careful look at the differential position vector dr. ()dddddsxyz2 = ⎡⎤(α+β+χ⋅22)ijkr( ) ( 2) In college texts, dr is usually given as ⎣⎦ ⎡⎤22 2 =α⎣⎦()ii +β+χ jj kk ⋅dd r ⋅ r (123) ddrijk=++( x) ( dyz) ( d) (119) =⋅Grdd ⋅ r [] where i, j, and k are unit vectors. Again we assert that dr has as its components only the coordinate The components of the dyad G are, in fact, differentials, not the coordinate values themselves; dr components of a rank 2 tensor called the metric or is not specifically attached to any particular coordinate fundamental tensor. As a matrix, G has this system. appearance:

Metric or Fundamental Tensor α2 00 G →β002 (124) The quantity dr ⋅ dr = (dr)2 represents the square of 2 the magnitude of dr (a coordinate “distance”), but it 00χ may or may not represent a true length in meters or centimeters unless provision for doing so has been The components of G are arranged in a 3×3 square made in setting up the coordinate system. diagonal matrix whose terms each have the physical Consider the case where such provision has not been units square meters (m2). made. In fact, look at the case where a different metric Approach 2: This approach is somewhat more exists along each axis. We will associate the unit elegant and introduces the style of argument that is meters (m) with the metric quantities and not with the often used when developing formal equations. coordinate differentials or the unit vectors. Since dr is a vector, assume the existence of a dyad G whose properties are to be determined but for which

NASA/TP—2005-213115 24 G · dr is another vector. It should be obvious that we fully intend G to carry the necessary metrical (Gr⋅ dd)⋅= r( G *dd ⋅ r) ⋅ r (130) information. Specifically, we shall require G to satisfy the condition that (ds)2 = [G · dr] · dr, where ds is a or distance in meters and G will be called the metric dyad. (Gr⋅ dd)⋅− r( G *dd0 ⋅ r) ⋅= r (131) Note that in this approach, nothing restricts our choice of G to be a diagonal matrix. Necessity forces Simplifying,

G to be a square matrix, but the possibility of G ⎡⎤GG− *d⋅⋅= r d r 0 (132) possessing nonzero off-diagonal terms has not been ⎣⎦( ) eliminated. Consider what this last equation has to tell us. It states In this second argument, you might wonder why we that introduced the dyad G only one time instead of introducing a dyad g such that There exists a quantity, namely [(G – G*) · dr] · dr, which everywhere equals zero or, more precisely, which vanishes everywhere in the space 2 ⎡⎤⎡⎤ ()ddds =⋅⎣⎦⎣⎦gr ⋅⋅ gr (125) under consideration. Remember that we are working in a field and this equation must be The question is well taken. We could have done things satisfied at every point in the field. Now, we can this way, but the result would have turned out to be the neither guarantee that dr vanishes everywhere nor same as the one we initiated above. Remember that the that there is orthogonality everywhere (so that at inner product is commutative. Therefore, least one of the cosine terms in the inner products is cos(90°) = 0. Thus, we are forced to conclude ⎡⎤⎡⎤⎡⎤ ⎣⎦⎣⎦⎣⎦gr⋅⋅⋅=⋅⋅⋅dd gr gg[] dd rr that the only way we have of meeting the condition (126) that [(G – G*) · dr] · dr = 0 in all possible cases is =⋅GrrGrrdd ⋅ = ⋅ d ⋅ d [][] to assert that G – G* = 0, where 0 is the zero dyad 0ii + 0ij + 0ik + 0jk +… . In other words, we are where G = g · g is the dyad introduced originally. forced into saying that the dyad G – G* vanishes The implicit lesson here is that there exists a sort of everywhere in the field and then into drawing the “economy of symbols” in dyad (and by extension, in obvious conclusion that G = G*. In other words, tensor) notation. One learns this economy only with the dyad G is coordinate independent. Q.E.D. time and experience. Let us now show that G must be coordinate We have already said that the components of G are independent. Begin with the terms ds and dr. We have components of the metric tensor. The metric tensor is already agreed that dr is a coordinate independent also known as the “fundamental tensor.” This other vector and can argue that since ds is the physical length name pertains to the broad role it plays throughout of dr, it must be a coordinate independent scalar. So, in tensor analysis. To begin to understand this role, we the case of two coordinate systems K and K*, we have will return to the dyad G and determine the quantity (ds)2 yet once again, this time slightly altering the roles d*s = ds (127) played by i, j, k and α, β, and χ. and by extension Return to equation (120)

()()d*s 22= ds (128) dduijk=α( x) +β( dyz) +χ( d) (120)

Now, let (ds)2 = (G · dr) · dr in K and (ds*)2 = (G* · and use the associative law to write dr*) · dr* in K*. We then have

ddue=++( x) xyz( dyz) e( d) e (133) (Gr⋅⋅=dd) r( G *d*d* ⋅ r) ⋅ r (129) where we have set e = αi, e = βj, and e = χk. We But dr is coordinate independent, therefore dr = dr* x y z will call e , e , and e base vectors (or vectors). and x y z Note that these base vectors now carry the metric

NASA/TP—2005-213115 25 information and also that we have surrendered the use eex ⋅ xxyxz ee⋅⋅ ee of unit vectors in writing du. In the general cases dealt Geeeeee→⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (136) with by tensor analysis, unit vectors are seldom used; yx yy yz non-unit base vectors are used for convenience and eezx⋅ ee zy⋅⋅ ee zz expedience. 2 Now, let us find (ds) : From this argument, it is now possible to infer another characteristic of the fundamental tensor itself: its 22 2 symmetry. Since the inner product of vectors is ()ddsx=⋅+⋅+ ()eexx ( d y ) ee yy (134) commutative, we have the following relationships: 2 ()d z eezz⋅ eex ⋅ yyx=⋅ ee It should be clear at this point that the components of ee⋅ =⋅ ee (137) G may be represented in matrix form: x zzx eeyz⋅ =⋅ ee zy eexx⋅ 0 0 Any matrix with this property is called symmetric. G0ee0=⋅yy (135) Thus, the metric or fundamental tensor must be a 00ee⋅ zz . If we now replace the subscripts x, y, and z with the The off-diagonal terms are again all zero in this matrix. numbers 1, 2, and 3 and call the general term However, this time we can see that the reason they ei · ej = gij, we may represent the components of G in must all be zero is that the individual base vectors ex, the classical form used to write the metric tensor: ey, and ez are all mutually orthogonal. Now, relax this condition and suppose that the axes (and therefore the ggg11 12 13 base vectors) are not orthogonal. Look at a simple G = ggg (138) oblique two-dimensional coordinate system: 21 22 23 ggg31 32 33

Now, the symmetry of G is simply stated by noting 13 that for all indices j and k, gjk = gkj. In addition to carrying metrical information in general coordinate systems, another important function of the metric tensor is to relate the covariant and contravariant components of a vector within a given coordinate system. However, before this comment can be elucidated further, we must return to a consideration of coordinate systems and base vectors.

Coordinate Systems, Base Vectors, Covariance, and Contravariance Note now that the cross terms ex · ey and ey · ex no longer vanish but have as their common value ex ey cos It is time to give closer consideration to exactly how (θ) (where ex and ey are the magnitudes of the we chose the base vectors for a given coordinate respective base vectors). We never know when we will system. Up to now, we have tacitly assumed that we have to deal with such systems (e.g., in could find unit vectors directed neatly along the axes crystallography) so it pays at this point to generalize a of a Cartesian system, but matters are usually not so bit. It is not a big stretch to return to three dimensions and to infer a more general form for G as 13Two types of symmetry in tensor analysis are symmetry wherein the off- diagonal components are pairwise equal according to the rule amn = anm, and skew symmetry wherein the off-diagonal components are pairwise equal only after one of them has been multiplied by (−1), so that amn = −anm.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 26 simple, such as in crystallography where the axes are 1. We may construct a set of local axes at P using not orthogonal and the base vectors are of different local coordinate curves belonging to the system at magnitudes or as in relativity where the axes are large. In a Cartesian system, these curves are straight nonorthogonal and are usually bent or curved. lines parallel to the coordinate axes. Then, choose a set So, we will take a closer look at the base vectors. of base vectors such that there is one member of the set They are important for the same reason as the unit tangent to each of the local axes at P. Call this set e1, vectors i, j, and k: All the other vectors in the space are e2, and e3. The vectors need not be unit vectors but expressed as a linear combination of them. Thus, in the may be if we so desire. We may now specify V as a system where i, j, and k are the basis, any other vector linear combination of these three vectors. The resulting A may be written as components of V are said to be referred to the local axes and are called contravariant components of the Aijk=++aaax yz (139) vector; but if we are in a Cartesian system and have specified for our local basis the unit vectors i, j, and k, this additional verbiage may be omitted. where ax, ay, and az are the components of A in directions i, j, and k, respectively. 2. Alternatively, we may directly construct three Consider a Cartesian coordinate system. Two sets of local coordinate surfaces at P. (The intersections of the geometrical entities are present to make up the system: surfaces provide the local coordinate axes.) Then, the coordinate axes and the coordinate surfaces. We choose a set of base vectors such that one member of are already familiar with the coordinate axes; they are the set is perpendicular to each of the coordinate ** * the lines that we have been labeling x, y, and z. What surfaces at P. Call this set ee12,,and e 3. Again, the about the coordinate surfaces? vectors need not be unit vectors but may be if we so We know from our school geometry that two lines desire. We may again specify V as a linear determine a plane. Therefore, there are three distinct combination of these three vectors. The resulting planes in a Cartesian system generated by the three components of V are said to be referred to the local distinct pairs of coordinate axes; that is, the xy-, xz-, coordinate surfaces and are called covariant and yz-planes. These planes are the coordinate surfaces components of the vector; but as before, if we are in a in the Cartesian system and are just as useful for Cartesian system and have specified for our local basis specifying location and distance as are the coordinate the unit vectors i, j, and k, this additional verbiage may axes. We have not concerned ourselves with the be omitted. distinction between referring everything to the coordinate axes versus referring everything to the In the Cartesian system, the two sets of base vectors coordinate surfaces. So now, let us think about this (i.e., contravariant and covariant) will be identical. distinction. Pick a point P away from the origin in our However, in an oblique system, or in a curved system space and say that we wish to specify a vector V at P. such as an elliptical coordinate system, the two sets How do we actually do so? To begin, we require a will be distinct. One set is usually chosen over the basis vector set at P. In a Euclidean space, this so- other in such cases for simple expedience. called local basis is seldom of concern since the basis To recapitulate: the basis set tangent to the vectors are the same everywhere throughout the space, coordinate curves is called a contravariant basis set. but Euclidean space is a very particular space with The basis set perpendicular to the coordinate surfaces some very nice properties (other types of spaces are is called a covariant basis set. In the general case these not so well behaved). To prepare for these other cases, sets are separate and distinct, though, as we will examine the Euclidean space with its Cartesian system discover shortly, they are also related. The and try to draw out some generalities. representation of the vector V using one set or the If we are working at point P, we obviously wish to other is called either a contravariant or a covariant have a local coordinate system there, and we wish the representation. Sometimes V is referred to as a local coordinate system to correlate readily with the contravariant or a covariant vector, and the implicit global coordinate system of which it is a part. We meaning is understood. specify the local system simply by specifying a local It is a well-known property of basis. We may specify our local basis at P in one of that two nonparallel lines with a common point of two ways: intersection determine a plane. The plane is said to be the product space of the two lines. If the lines are

NASA/TP—2005-213115 27 marked with coordinate intervals, then every point in Now let us try to discover some relationships the product space will possess a coordinate pair, one between and within the two basis sets in a given member of the pair deriving from each line. coordinate system: The concept of product space is neither limited to First, recall the dyad G. Its components were shown lines nor to Euclidean geometry. Any two nonparallel to be inner products of non-unit basis vectors like the (j) curves intersecting at a point determine a unique general basis vectors e and e(k) that have just been product surface (two-dimensional space) in the same introduced. We now formally define the contravariant way that the two lines determined the plane. Thus, two and covariant components of G as follows: circles with different radii, existing in perpendicular (j) (k) planes, and intersecting at a point determine a torus; 1. Covariant gjk = e · e , where j and k also, two equal-radii circles intersecting at two points individually take on the values 1, 2, 3 jk determine a sphere. Thus can two sets of curves be 2. Contravariant g = e(j) · e(k), where j and k used to construct a curvilinear coordinate system in individually take on the values 1, 2, 314 three-dimensional Euclidean space. Therein, the difference between covariant and contravariant Next, observe that the two sets of basis vectors (i.e., components of a vector becomes very important. the contravariant set and the covariant set) are mutually In general, an n-dimensional space and an m- orthogonal. Since the coordinate curves are contained dimensional space may be used to determine a new and in the coordinate surfaces (in the Cartesian system, the unique (n+m)-dimensional product space by an coordinate lines are contained in the coordinate planes) extension of the concepts briefly outlined herein for and the covariant basis vectors are perpendicular to lines and curves. these same surfaces, it follows that each covariant We will now introduce a more formal notation for basis vector is perpendicular to two contravariant basis contravariant and covariant basis vectors. The vectors, that is, the two that are tangent to the contravariant set will be denoted by superscripts and coordinate curves in the coordinate surface under the covariant set, by subscripts: consideration. Let us agree on a labeling system for the coordinate (1) e1 → e curves and surfaces: (2) e2 → e (3) The coordinate plane perpendicular to the x-axis e3 → e will be called the yz-plane. * e1 → e(1) The coordinate plane perpendicular to the y-axis * will be called the xz-plane. e2 → e(2) The coordinate plane perpendicular to the z-axis e* e 3 → (3) will be called the xy-plane.

We may write the vector V in its contravariant and its Now, replace the designations x, y, z by 1, 2, 3 covariant forms as follows: according to the following rule:

x → 1 Ve=+vv12()123 e ( ) + v 3 e () (140) y → 2 =+vv12ee()123 ( ) + v 3 e () z → 3

Note the use of superscripts and subscripts on the We may then restate the labeling system as i contravariant and covariant vector components v and The coordinate plane perpendicular to the 1-axis (i) vj, respectively, and on the basis vectors e and e(j). will be called the 23-plane. These superscripts and subscripts are called indices. The coordinate plane perpendicular to the 2-axis The component indices do not use parentheses, which will be called the 13-plane. are reserved for the basis vector indices only. The parenthesized indices on the basis vectors are not strictly tensor indices, but the indices on the vector 14Note that the covariant and contravariant components are derived from components are. the superscripted and subscripted sets of unit vectors, respectively. This peculiarity arises from the transformation properties of the basis vectors when viewed from the standpoint of .

NASA/TP—2005-213115 28 The coordinate plane perpendicular to the 3-axis It will turn out that the represents the will be called the 12-plane. components of a rank 2 . In the following section, we will demonstrate coordinate independence. So now we have that

(1) (2) (3) Kronecker’s Delta and the Identity Matrix e ⊥ e(2) and e(3) e(1) ⊥ e and e (2) (1) (3) e ⊥ e(1) and e(3) e(2) ⊥ e and e Look carefully at Kronecker’s delta and write out its (3) (2) (3) e ⊥ e(2) and e(3) e(3) ⊥ e and e value for each pair of indices:

1 2 3 Note that this listing says nothing about the three δ1 =1, δ1 = 0, δ=1 0 (1) (2) (3) pairs of vectors e and e(1), e and e(2), e and e(3). 1 2 3 δ2 = 0, δ2 =1, δ=2 0 The reason is that these particular pairs are not usually 1 2 3 perpendicular. They are either parallel as in the δ3 = 0, δ3 = 0, δ=3 1 Cartesian system or meet at some angle θ < 90° as in Seen in this way, it should be apparent that the oblique system. At any rate, their inner products Kronecker’s delta may be thought of as representing never vanish as do the inner products of such pairs as (1) (2) (3) the components of a 3×3 square matrix I: e and e(2), e and e(3), e(1) and e and so on. Finally, we may specify that the two sets of basis δ12δδ3 vectors must always be reciprocal sets. That is, when 111 I 123 (142) the inner product is formed between a covariant and a = δδδ222 123 contravariant base vector in any order, the result will δ333δδ always be 0 or 1. Thus, we will choose the basis vectors so that the inner products of the three Those familiar with matrices and linear algebra will (1) (2) (3) respective pairs e and e(1), e and e(2), e and e(3) in immediately recognize that I is the identity matrix. any order are each equal to unity everywhere Recall that for any vector A or any matrix M, it is throughout the space. This requirement places a always true that restriction on the choices of magnitude only, since the vector directions are already fixed by the local IA⋅ =⋅= AI A (143) coordinate axes and surfaces. Again, this is done for expedience. and

All this information about contravariant and IM⋅ =⋅= MI M (144) covariant basis vectors may be summarized in a single equation. We must first introduce a peculiar symbol and that, in general, for any n-ad X, called Kronecker’s delta (Leopold Kronecker, German algebraist, number theorist, and philosopher of IX⋅ =⋅= XI X (145) mathematics, 1823−92). We will write this symbol as With these concepts in mind, we will now δ⎯j a term that appears to mix covariant and k demonstrate the coordinate independence of contravariant indices (as, in fact, it does). We will Kronecker’s delta by demonstrating the coordinate j j independence of the dyad I. Take any n-ad T in the specify that δk = 1 only when j = k, and that δk = 0 1 2 3 system K. We know that for T whenever j ≠ k. Thus δ1 = δ2 = δ3 = 1; all other combinations of indices produce zero. IT⋅ =⋅= TI T (146) We may now summarize the relationships between contravariant and covariant base vectors as15 It is sufficient to use only one of these relations, say T · I = T. For T in system K, we must have T* in system K* and we specify that T must be coordinate ee()jj⋅=⋅=δ ee() k (141) ()kk () j independent by writing T = T*. This is the same as saying

15Note again that the superscript j in the inner products becomes a covariant index in the delta and that the subscript k in the inner products becomes a TI⋅ =⋅=⋅ T** I TI * (147) contravariant index in the delta. This situation is reminiscent of what happened with the fundamental tensor.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 29 Then simplify the grammar by simply saying covariant tensors, contravariant tensors, and mixed tensors. TI⋅− T* ⋅ I*** = TI ⋅− TI ⋅ = T ⋅() I − I = 0 (148) Relationship Between Covariant and Contravariant where 0 is the zero n-ad of appropriate rank. Since T is Components of a Vector arbitrary, we must have

II−=*or* 0 II = (149) Recall that the vector V in the coordinate system K may be represented in a contravariant or covariant The last expression is just what we require to establish form: the coordinate independence of I and therefore of Kronecker’s delta. Q.E.D. Ve=+vv12(123) e( ) + v 3 e( ) (150) =+vv12ee()123 ( ) + v 3 e () Dyad Components: Covariant, Contravariant, and

Mixed j We may now ask how the components v and vk are Let us now reexamine what we have learned about related. To answer this question, we must invoke the (j) dyads in the light of our new knowledge about rules of inner multiplication for the basis vectors e covariant and contravariant vector components. In a and e(k). Those rules are restated here for the sake of typical dyad such as D = AB, the vectors A and B may completion: individually be (j) (k) e · e = gjk jk Covariant and covariant e(j) · e(k) = g Covariant and contravariant (j) (j) k e · e(k) = e(k) · e = δ Contravariant and covariant j Contravariant and contravariant We are now ready to determine how the two sets of The same dyad D may now be represented in four vector components are related. When we have finished different ways: covariant, mixed, mixed, and this determination, we will see that the fundamental contravariant. Using the indicial notation already tensor makes its presence felt. Perhaps you can already see how this is going to happen. introduced, we will display a typical term of D for each (1) case: Form the inner product V · e :

Covariant: ajbk = cjk Ve⋅ ()11231=++⋅(vv12 e () e ( ) v 3 e ()) e() k k Mixed: ajb = c j (151) j ()1 j = vv12ee++⋅ v 3 ee Mixed: a bk = ck ( ()123 ( ) ()) Contravariant: ajbk = cjk When we distribute the inner product through the The dyad is not changed by the choice of parentheses and simplify, we obtain the result that representation, even though the components are different in each case. Remember that the base vectors vgvgvgv=+123 + (152) are also different in each case. Therefore, just as we 1111213 had the covariant and contravariant representations of a vector, we may also have covariant, contravariant, and Similarly mixed representations of a dyad or of any of the higher 123 order products, triad, quartad, and so forth. Similarly, vgvgvgv2212223=+ + (153) since tensors are a subset of these different families of vector product, we may have tensors with covariant 123 vgvgvgv3313233=+ + (154) components, tensors with contravariant components, and tensors with mixed components. We usually and

NASA/TP—2005-213115 30 1111213 vgvgvgv=+123 + (155) convention. In full, Einstein’s convention states that

vgvgvgv2212223=+ + (156) 123 In the notation of tensors, summation always takes place over a repeated pair of indices, one covariant 3313233 vgvgvgv=+123 + (157) and the other contravariant. The repeated indices are called bound or dummy indices. The We might recognize that the two systems of equations nonrepeated indices are called free indices and are matrix products, which should be of no surprise at indicate actual tensor rank and type. this point. Let us call GC the covariant fundamental C k dyad and G the contravariant fundamental dyad. To work with an equation such as vj = gjkv , first Similarly, introduce the column vector VC as the observe where the repeated indices fall. Since these column vector of covariant components and the indices indicate summation, expand along these indices column vector VC as the column vector of first: contravariant components. Thus, 123 vgvgvgvjj=+12 j + j 3 (163) 1 vv1 C 2 Next, remember that the free index j must take on all VVC ==vv2 , (158) 3 possible values sequentially. Since j ranges in value vv3 over 1, 2, and 3, expand the free index (or indices) next: 11 12 13 g11gg 12 13 ggg 123 C 21 22 23 vgvgvgv1111213=+ + (164) GGC ==g21gg 22 23 , ggg (159)

g gg ggg31 32 33 31 32 33 123 vgvgvgv2212223=+ + (165)

Using familiar notation from linear algebra, we can 123 write the relationships in equations (152) through (157) vgvgvgv3313233=+ + (166) as When done, the information stored in the compact C tensor notation is ready and available for you to work VGV=⋅CCand VGV =⋅ (160) CCC with. It is worthwhile here to demonstrate the expedience Equivalently, we may write of tensor notation. Let us repeat the argument that we just went through in “longhand” but this time use strict kjjk vgvvgvjkjk=Σand =Σ k k (161) tensor notation. The vector V can be stated in terms of its Dr. Albert Einstein noticed that the summation sign contravariant components and its covariant components as Σk was redundant in these equations and all others like them since summation always occurred over a repeated i ()i index. Note that in each case above, summation is Ve==vvj e()j (167) occurring over the index k, which is repeated once as a covariant index and once as a contravariant index in Note that we do not use i as an index in both equations; each term. Thus, in the severely abbreviated notation we choose different letters. Now, form the inner of tensor analysis, we have finally product V · e(k):

kjjk vgvjjk==and vgv k (162) (kik) i ( )() ( k) Ve⋅=vv e ⋅= ej e()j ⋅ e (168) where summation over the index k is understood. This last convention is called Einstein’s summation The second equality simplifies as

NASA/TP—2005-213115 31 k kp m iij An identical argument (starting with v = g gpmv ) vgik()==δ= g ik v v jk v k (169) kp k permits us to establish that g gpm = δm . With these two identities, we can then write where in the term v δ j , summation is over the index j. j k A similar argument may be formed for V · e(m). If ij ij i ggjk==δ g jk g k Q.E.D. (176) nothing else, you see the compactness of the notation and the capability it provides for manipulating large NOTE: We never divide out terms as we do in algebra. amounts of information with only a few symbols. Division is not defined for tensors. However, because division is a process of repeated subtractions, we do st s Relation Between gij, g , and δw use subtraction as we just did in the example above and in other examples throughout this text. Now we will use our new Einstein notation to establish the relationship Inner Product as an Operation Involving Mixed Indices ij ij i ggjk==δ g jk g k (170) Now we return to the inner product of two vectors. Begin by recalling that for any vector V with covariant Recall that any vector V has two representations within j a given system: a contravariant and a covariant: components vi and contravariant components v , we can write 12(123) ( ) 3( ) Ve=+vv e + v e kkkp (177) vgviik==and v gv p (171) =+vv12ee()123 ( ) + v 3 e ()

Substituting the second equation into the first, we find Take this vector and another vector that Ue=+uu12(123) e( ) + u 3 e( ) (178) kp =+uu12ee123 + u 3 e vggviikp= (172) () ( ) ()

And we can always write the trivial identity16 and form their inner product V · U in the following ways:

vv=δp (173) ipi Covariant · covariant Covariant · contravariant Subtracting these two equations, we obtain Contravariant · covariant Contravariant · contravariant kp p ( ggik v p−δi v p ) =0 (174) We will do each combination in turn and look at the kp p results. →−δ=()ggvik pi v p 0

Covariant · covariant: But vp is an arbitrary vector so that we cannot assume that vp = 0. Therefore, this equation can only be true vv12ee()123++⋅++ ( ) v 3 e () uu 12 ee() 123 ( ) u 3 e () provided that ( ) ( ) (179) 11 12 =+vug11 vu 12 g +… ()7 additional terms kp p ggik =δi (175) Covariant · contravariant:

16A trivial identity in algebra is any identity of the type 1 × a = a × 1 = a or 0 + x = x + 0 = x. These identities are important in applications such as the one with which we are dealing and will be used many times more throughout this text.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 32 vvee++⋅++ v e uu12 ee()123 ( ) u 3 e () The following will show that the other three ( 12()123 ( ) 3 ()) ( ) (180) possibilities readily derive from equation (183): 123 =+vu12 v u + vu 3 s 1. The covariant vj is related to the contravariant v s via the expression vj = gjsv . Making the appropriate Contravariant · covariant: substitution yields

12()123 ( ) 3 () vveee++ v ⋅+ uu12 ee + u 3 e vujsj= g vu (184) ( ) ( ()123 ( ) ()) (181) jjs 12 3 =+vu123 v u + vu which is the same result found for contravariant ·

contravariant. Contravariant · contravariant: j 2. The contravariant u is related to the covariant ut j jt by u = g ut. Thus vv12eee()123++ ( ) v 3 () ⋅++ uu 12 ee() 123 ( ) u 3 e () ( ) ( ) (182) 11 12 vujjtjt== vg u g vu (185) =+vug11 vu g 12 +…()7 additional terms jjtjt

It should be clear that two of the four combinations which is the same result found for covariant · yield simpler results than the other two. The covariant. combinations covariant · covariant and contravariant · 3. Using both relations together yields contravariant yield nine separate terms, each involving mn jsjtjts the component values and the components gij or g . vujjstjst==( g v)( g u) g g vu The combinations covariant · contravariant and (186) ts t contravariant · covariant yield three separate terms, =δsvutt = vu mn each without the components gij or g and look much the same as the form for the inner product that we first which is the same result found for contravariant · memorized in basic calculus. Therefore, we will adopt covariant. These last calculations continue to the convention that the inner product of two vectors demonstrate the manipulation of the tensor indices. must always involve the covariant representation of Again, you should be able to see how effective the one and the contravariant representation of the other. shorthand of tensor analysis is when performing these types of calculations and (hopefully) why it is very Note: In adopting this convention for the inner worth your time to practice it carefully. product of two vectors, we were led by the form for the inner product that we memorized in basic General Mixed Component: Raising and Lowering calculus. It is important to always remember that in Indices extending any mathematical system into new territory (i.e., territory differing from what has Now, imagine the general n-ad R with mixed already been established), we must also take care components written as to establish firm tie-ins with what has already been ijk… established so that a two-way road exists between Rstu… (187) the old and the new. In this way, the growing body of mathematics remains a seamless whole, much The covariant components are s, t, u,… and the like the great system of highways that crisscross contravariant components are i, j, k,… . Now, if we our Nation. wish to represent this quantity using the contravariant form for the s component rather than the covariant Using Einstein’s notation, we formally define the wz k form, we multiply by g to form a new term: inner product of the tensors vj and u as

gRwz ijk… (188) vujj= uv (183) stu… jj

NASA/TP—2005-213115 33 Next, we set the index z = s and sum over the repeated scalar) to the so-called characteristic equation of a index s to obtain the new representation: matrix:

wzijk……… ws ijk iwjk MX⋅ =λ X (193) gRstu………→= gR stu R tu (189)

The term for this process is “raising an index.” where X (≠ 0) is a vector. We can rewrite this equation Similarly, we may use gqv to lower a contravariant in tensor notation, assuming that we are free to use the index. What must be done is to switch a contravariant covariant form of M: component for a covariant one or vice verse. The kj overall term is not affected by this manipulation. mxjk =λ x (194) In the dyad notation that we have become accustomed to using, this same calculation would Note that an immediate problem here is that the free appear as follows. Let index j on xj is contravariant whereas the

corresponding index j on mjk is covariant. We are RIJK= CC C… STU (190) k CC C… asserting that a covariant vector mjkx is identical to a contravariant vector λxj, which in the general case, we where the individual vectors are now represented by have no right to do. So, evidently, the use of a the same letters as those used for their respective covariant M is not appropriate here. ijk… indices in Rstu… , and the superscripted and subscripted Let us examine our situation further: the summation k capital “Cs” indicate contravariance and covariance. index k in mjkx seems to be properly arranged. Now, if we wish to use the contravariant representation Therefore, if we were to use a mixed form of M with a of S rather than its covariant representation, we first contravariant index j, everything would be in proper left-multiply the n-ad R by GC: order. Write18

j kj CCCC C mxk =λ x (195) GR= GIJK…… STUCC C (191)

which is indeed a legitimate equation. Next, proceed as Note that the dot signifying inner product has not been before by subtracting λxj from both sides: placed. At this time, we select the location for the dot and write accordingly j kj mxk −λ x =0 (196)

GRIJKGSTUCC⋅=CC C…… ⋅ ( CCC) jkj (192) Simplify further by noting that x =δk x and then CC C C = IJK…… STUCC substitute and factor out common terms:

This last result is the one sought. The new n-ad has as jjk (mxkk− λδ) = 0 (197) its components the terms Riwjk… . tu… Why raise and lower indices? For expedience. For Since xj is an arbitrary vector, we must have example, consider the dyad M with covariant 17 components mjk. We wish to find its . Can we m jj=λδ (198) just add the terms m11 + m22 + m33? No, we cannot kk because a greater degree of caution is required when j working with covariant, contravariant, and mixed But λδk is zero unless j = k. So, let us set j = k = s and 19 terms. sum: Therefore, what exactly is the definition of the trace 18Recall that mgmj = js . Therefore, if we have the fundamental tensor, of a matrix? The trace of a matrix is a solution λ (a k sk then we also have the means of obtaining the necessary mixed components of M from the given covariant components. 19We say that δ j = 0 unless j = k for which case δ j = 1 . We are here 17When the dyad is represented as a Cartesian matrix, the trace is the sum of k k j the diagonal terms. speaking of the individual terms in δk without summation. Setting j = k

NASA/TP—2005-213115 34 s Trace ofM →=λms 3 (199) dimensionality. Thus, what we are saying is not limited to Euclidean three-space or to anything else. This fact The direct approach to the problem of finding the alone does not prove the generality of tensor analysis, trace of the matrix M given its covariant components is but for our purposes, it at least points very strongly as follows: Given m , first raise one of the two towards it. jk covariant indices (it does not matter which); then set the values of the new indices equal and sum over the Tensors: Formal Definitions repeated index. Thus, Tensors are coordinate-independent objects. Because

they possess this important property, they are ideally mgmgmmst sj s (200) jk→→→ jk jk k suited for constructing models and theories in physics and engineering. The components of the physical and world are also coordinate independent, that is, they do not depend for their existence or for their properties on s u 123 mmmmmk →=++→u 123trace of M (201) what we think about them or on the direction in which 20 we view them. At this point, you might again be wondering why The components of tensors are the equivalent of covariance and contravariance never occurred before in projections of the tensor onto the coordinate axes. This college mathematics. Remember that mathematics, as statement has explicit meaning for vectors only. It has it relates to physics and engineering, assumes only heuristic meaning in all other cases and serves as Euclidean space with Cartesian coordinates almost a guide to thinking. The components are therefore exclusively. In Cartesian coordinates, the covariant and coordinate dependent in the sense that the angle at the contravariant components are one and the same, which we view a house or a car is dependent on our and the fundamental tensor is merely the identity location relative to the house or the car. tensor. Coordinate independence is best expressed When other coordinate systems are used, such as mathematically by writing down a system of equations spherical or cylindrical coordinate systems, the that relate the components seen in one arbitrarily covariant and contravariant components are still one chosen coordinate system (which we have been calling and the same, provided that unit vectors are used as K) to those seen in another arbitrarily chosen basis vectors. However, the fundamental tensor has coordinate system (which we have been calling K*). some diagonal terms other than unity. The full Such a system of equations is called a transformation. machinery of tensor analysis with all its distinctions The transformations that are used to define tensors are and carefully crafted terminology is simply not subject to the restriction that the tensors themselves necessary to handle such things, so the distinctions must be coordinate independent; that is, they must remained hidden. possess a kind of physical reality. Herein, we are introducing a branch of mathematics Now, specific mathematical shape will be given to that deals with what happens in cases that are more these ideas. We have already written coordinate general than those studied in college. In fact, we are transformations in integral form: developing a mathematical system so general that it can be used in any type of space, with any type of x**,,= xxyz( ) (202) curvature, and with any number of dimensions. This point is evident in the fact that although we are tacitly yyxyz**,,= ( ) (203) assuming the space of familiarity (Euclidean three- space), we are making no specific caveats about the actual space under consideration or about its zzxyz**,,= ( ) (204)

Now switch from using these expressions to using 1 2 3 the equivalent differential forms. Doing so involves the and summing yields δ1 + δ2 + δ3 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3. (In an n-dimensional 1 2 n use of differential calculus and actually represents the space, we would have δ1 + δ2 + … + δn = 1 + 1 + … + 1 = n.) Remember that when using tensor notation, be very specific in defining everything. Specificity is the price we must pay for the great generality and 20This situation is characteristic of classical and relativistic models; it is convenience the notation affords. replaced in quantum mechanics with the uncertainty principle.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 35 beginnings of differential geometry, the work distinction, it appears that we are free to specify which developed by Riemann and others (Bell, 1945) in the type of tensor we wish dr to be. We assert that 19th century and used so effectively by Einstein in the whatever it is in one coordinate system, it will be in all 20th century. Differential geometry is at the basis of coordinate systems. Let us choose to make it the tensor analysis and therefore of both theories of prototypical contravariant tensor. This choice makes relativity. sense because for the vanishing of dy and dz, dr = dxi, In , the transformation equations are a vector tangent to the x-axis (similarly for the vanishing of dx and dz and dx and dy). To reiterate, ⎛⎞∂∂∂xxx***⎛⎞ ⎛⎞ select the vector dr to represent the prototypical d*x =++⎜⎟ dxyz⎜⎟ d ⎜⎟ d (205) ⎝⎠∂∂∂xyz⎝⎠ ⎝⎠ contravariant vector. All other vectors that transform according to the rule established for dr will be called contravariant vectors. That is, all other vectors whose ⎛⎞∂∂∂yyy***⎛⎞ ⎛⎞ d*yxyz=++⎜⎟ d⎜⎟ d ⎜⎟ d (206) components transform like ⎝⎠∂∂∂xyz⎝⎠ ⎝⎠ ⎛⎞∂∂∂xxx***⎛⎞ ⎛⎞ d*x =++⎜⎟ dxyz⎜⎟ d ⎜⎟ d (211) ⎛⎞∂∂∂yyy***⎛⎞ ⎛⎞ ⎝⎠∂∂∂xyz⎝⎠ ⎝⎠ d*yxyz=++⎜⎟ d⎜⎟ d ⎜⎟ d (207) ⎝⎠∂∂∂xyz⎝⎠ ⎝⎠ ⎛⎞∂∂∂yyy***⎛⎞ ⎛⎞ These expressions should appear familiar since they d*yxyz=++⎜⎟ d⎜⎟ d ⎜⎟ d (212) ⎝⎠∂∂∂xyz⎝⎠ ⎝⎠ are nothing more than an application of the chain rule for partial derivatives to the differentials of x*, y*, and z* in turn. ⎛⎞∂∂∂zzz***⎛⎞ ⎛⎞ d*zxyz=++⎜⎟ d⎜⎟ d ⎜⎟ d (213) We have already argued that the vector dr = dxi + ⎝⎠∂∂∂xyz⎝⎠ ⎝⎠ dyj + dzk (the differential displacement vector) is coordinate independent. We further note that the terms In matrix form, the same transformation equations dx, dy, and dz are the components of the differential become position vector in a coordinate system K and that the terms dx*, dy*, and dz* are the components of that ⎛⎞∂∂∂xxx***⎛⎞ ⎛⎞ same vector in another system K*. Therefore, the three ⎜⎟⎜⎟ ⎜⎟ ∂∂∂xyz differential equations (205) to (207) represent an actual ⎝⎠⎝⎠ ⎝⎠ transformation between the K and K* systems. ⎛⎞∂∂∂yyy***⎛⎞ ⎛⎞ Moreover, they represent the transformation that we d*rr= ⎜⎟⎜⎟ ⎜⎟ d (214) ⎝⎠∂∂∂xyz⎝⎠ ⎝⎠ are seeking for the specific case of the vector dr. The equations are linear with respect to the ⎛⎞∂∂∂zzz***⎛⎞ ⎛⎞ ⎜⎟⎜⎟ ⎜⎟ coordinate differentials dx, dy, and dz, which are ⎝⎠∂∂∂xyz⎝⎠ ⎝⎠ combined in turn with the derivatives (∂x*/∂x), (∂x*/∂y), and (∂x*/∂z), and so forth, to give the terms If we now make the formal notational changes dx*, dy*, and dz*. The original coordinate dx → dx1, dy → dx2, and dz → dx3; dx* → dx1*, transformations dy* → dx2*, and dz* → dx3* and substitute, we

observe that this entire set of expressions can be x**,,= xxyz( ) (208) written in tensor format as

yyxyz**,,= ( ) (209) ⎛⎞∂xi* d*xi = ⎜⎟ dxk (215) ⎝⎠∂xk zzxyz**,,= ( ) (210) where summation takes place over the repeated index enter into the picture through these derivatives. k. This expression is the prototype for contravariant Since, in a Cartesian system, the unit vectors i, j, and vectors. Since all contravariant vectors must behave k are both covariant and contravariant without the same way, we are now in a position to state the

NASA/TP—2005-213115 36 general definition of a contravariant vector or tensor of ∂φ∂∂φ* ⎛⎞xs ⎛⎞ rank 1: = ⎜⎟ (221) ∂∂∂xtts**xx⎜⎟ ⎝⎠⎝⎠ Any vector having components Ai in K and Aj* in K* is a contravariant tensor of rank 1 if its where summation occurs over the repeated index s. components transform according to the rule Using arguments analogous to those used for the contravariant case, we take this expression to be the prototype transformation for covariant vectors. Since ⎛⎞∂xi* AAi * = ⎜⎟k (216) all covariant vectors must behave the same way, we are ⎝⎠∂xk now in a position to state the general definition of a covariant vector or tensor of rank 1: Now, we will do the same type of exercise for the covariant vector or covariant tensor of rank 1. Only Any vector having components Ai in K and Aj* in this time, we will dive immediately into Einstein’s K* is a covariant tensor of rank 1 if its components shorthand notation. transform according to the rule We have already said that contravariant basis vectors are basis vectors that are tangent to the coordinate k * ⎛⎞∂x curves. Also, covariant basis vectors are basis vectors AAik= ⎜⎟ (222) ∂xi* that are perpendicular to the coordinate surfaces. We ⎝⎠ know that for any surface corresponding to a scalar function of the form φ(x, y, z) = constant, a vector To reiterate, the covariant and contravariant vectors of rank 1 tensors are formally defined by their perpendicular to φ is the gradient ∇φ where ∇ is the transformation rules: differential operator:

k ⎛⎞ * ⎛⎞∂x ⎛⎞∂∂∂ ⎛ ⎞ Covariant AAik= ⎜⎟ (223) ∇=⎜⎟ijk +⎜⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ (217) ⎝⎠∂xi* ⎝⎠∂x ⎝⎠ddyz ⎝ ⎠

⎛⎞∂xi* Let us demonstrate the coordinate independence of ∇φ. Contravariant AAik* = ⎜⎟ (224) We know from beginning calculus that ⎝⎠∂xk

∇φ⋅ddr = φ (218) Many (if not most) texts on tensors begin by stating these definitions without offering any background. and therefore, What this monograph has attempted to do is build a bridge from what is considered a sound knowledge of ∇φ⋅**d*d*r =φ (219) vectors (i.e., a knowledge common to all students of physics and engineering) up to this point so that the But since φ and therefore dφ are scalars, we also have natural flow of thought, the natural connectivity of mathematical ideas, does not appear interrupted when dφ = dφ*. Furthermore, we have also established that tensors are first encountered. dr = dr*. Therefore, From this point, we may proceed at once to write

down the law for the general rank n mixed tensor ddφ=∇φ⋅ r (220) Rijl… . Since this tensor is equivalent to an n-ad made =∇**d φ ⋅rr →() ∇φ−∇ **d φ ⋅ = 0 stu… up of covariant and contravariant vectors, let us simply note that the same laws apply for those vectors when “locked up in combination” in an n-ad as when they Since dr is an arbitrary tensor, this equation is are free to stand alone. So, using what we have just everywhere satisfied only if ∇φ = ∇*φ*. Q.E.D. done, we can write the general definition of the In , the gradient of φ is simply written transformation law directly: s t ∂φ/∂x in K and ∂φ*/∂x * in K*. By the chain rule for partial derivatives, we have

NASA/TP—2005-213115 37 ijl… Assume that the components of the position vectors are Any quantity Rstu… is a rank n mixed tensor contravariant components; therefore, we must have provided that its components transform according

to the rule ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xx11** x112* =+xx (230) αβχ ⎜⎟⎜⎟12 αβχ… ⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂∂xxx*** ⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂xx R *λµν… = ⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟ ⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂∂xxxijk 22 ⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂∂xxxstu 212⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xx** x * =+⎜⎟⎜⎟xx (231) ⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟ (225) ∂∂xx12 ⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂∂xxxλµν*** ⎝⎠⎝⎠ ijk… Rstu… But, since

1 Study this rule carefully until you begin to see its ⎛⎞∂x * ⎜⎟= a (232) structure and rhythm. Note that there are bound and ⎝⎠∂x1 free indices. The free indices are represented by Greek letters to make them more distinctive; however, these ⎛⎞∂x1* = b (233) are not summation indices. The bound indices are ⎜⎟2 represented by Roman letters, and they are summation ⎝⎠∂x indices. The term on the right is a multiple summation; in other words, summation occurs first over the index i, ⎛⎞∂x2* = c (234) then the result is summed over the index j, then that ⎜⎟1 ⎝⎠∂x result is summed over the index k, and so on. Perhaps now you can begin to appreciate anew the efficacy of 2 tensor analysis’ beautiful, if somewhat severe, ⎛⎞∂x * ⎜⎟= d (235) shorthand notation. ⎝⎠∂x2

Is the Position Vector a Tensor? this obviously cannot be the case unless h = k = 0, that

Assume two linear two-dimensional coordinate is, unless the origins coincide. systems K and K* in the plane. Let the coordinates in There is another argument, for those who might have K be designated (x, y) and the coordinates in K* be some trouble with the one just advanced. From the designated (x*, y*). Since both systems comprise theory of differential equations for the general case, straight lines, we may write21 write

x* =+++ax h by k (226) ⎛⎞∂∂xx**⎛⎞ ( ) ( ) d*x =+⎜⎟ dxy⎜⎟ d (236) ⎝⎠∂∂xy⎝⎠ ycxhdyk* =+++( ) ( ) (227) ⎛⎞∂∂yy**⎛⎞ d*yxy=+⎜⎟ d⎜⎟ d (237) In index notation, these same equations become ⎝⎠∂∂xy⎝⎠

x11* =+++ax()() h bx 2 k (228) However, except under certain very specialized conditions, we are not permitted to write

x21* =+++cx( h) dx( 2 k) (229) ⎛⎞∂∂xx**⎛⎞ x* =+⎜⎟xy⎜⎟ (238) ⎝⎠∂∂xy⎝⎠

21 * * We might also have written x* = sx + ty + x0 and y* = mx + py + y0 ⎛⎞∂∂yy**⎛⎞ * * where ( x0 , y0 ) is the location of the K* origin as seen from K. If we set yxy* =+⎜⎟⎜⎟ (239) x0* = sh + tk and y0* = mh + pk, then we acquire the form of the equations ⎝⎠∂∂xy⎝⎠ presented in the text, namely, x* = s(x + h) + t(y + k) and y* = m(x + h) + p(y + k).

NASA/TP—2005-213115 38 This second argument aptly demonstrates that the Consider the point P at which the vector is located in differential position vector is a rank 1 tensor in the Rn. Set up local axes at P for both K and K*. These general case, but the position vector itself is not. axes must all intersect at P. Now embed Rn into a Euclidean space En+1 with an The Equivalence of Coordinate Independence With (n+1)-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. In the Formal Definition for a Rank 1 Tensor (Vector) En+1, the base vectors e(i) and e*(j) are tangent to the coordinate axes in their respective coordinate systems Recall that earlier, we provisionally defined a rank 1 K and K* in Rn. Also, in En+1, the space Rn is a tensor as any quantity with direction and magnitude hypersurface on which every point in Rn may be that satisfied the relationship V = V* when viewed located by a position vector r in En+1. respectively from reference systems K and K*. We will The base vectors e(i) and e*(j) are tangent to the now argue that this provisional definition is equivalent coordinate axes in K and K*, respectively. Let these to the formal definition we have just set down in terms i j axes be labeled x in K and x* in K*. Then of vector components.

Let a Riemannian n-space Rn have two coordinate ∂rr∂ n ee()ij==and *() (245) systems K and K*. Let V be a vector in R as seen from ij the system K and V* be the same vector as seen from ∂x ∂x * the system K*. To show equivalence of the expression But, from the theory of differential equations, we have V = V* for the total vector and the expression vi(∂x*j/∂xi) = v*j for the contravariant components, we j must demonstrate that ()i ∂∂∂rr⎛⎞⎛⎞x * e ==⎜⎟⎜⎟ ∂∂xxiji⎝⎠* ⎝⎠ ∂ x (246) ⎪⎪⎧⎫⎛⎞∂xi ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xx**jj VV=⇔=**vvij (240) ()jj() {}⎨⎬⎜⎟j ==ee**⎜⎟⎜⎟ ⎩⎭⎪⎪⎝⎠∂x * ⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂xxii

First: Necessity (⇐).⎯Assume that that is, e(i) = (∂x*j/∂xi)e*(j). Substitution of this result into vie(i) = v*je*(j) gives ⎛⎞∂xi vvij= * (241) ⎜⎟j jj⎡⎤ ⎝⎠∂x * ii()ij⎛⎞∂∂xx**() i ⎛⎞() j vvee==⎜⎟**⎢⎥ v ⎜⎟ e ∂∂xxii (247) Then ⎝⎠⎣⎦ ⎝⎠ = v **j e ()j ii⎡⎤ ijj()ii⎛⎞∂∂xx() ⎛⎞() i Ve==vvv⎜⎟** e =⎢⎥ ⎜⎟ e We conclude that vi(∂x*j/∂xi) = v*j. Therefore, ⎝⎠∂∂xx**jj ⎝⎠ (242) ⎣⎦ j ()j ==v **eV * ⎪⎧ ⎛⎞∂xi ⎪⎫ VV=⇒=**vvij (248) {}⎨ ⎜⎟j ⎬ Therefore, ⎩⎭⎪ ⎝⎠∂x * ⎪

⎪⎪⎧⎫⎛⎞∂xi Thus, the equation V = V* is both necessary and vvij=⇒=**VV (243) i j i j ⎨⎬⎜⎟j {} sufficient to ensure that v (∂x* /∂x ) = v* . The two ⎩⎭⎪⎪⎝⎠∂x * expressions are equivalent. Q.E.D.

Next: Sufficiency (⇒).⎯Assume that V = V*. Then Coordinate Transformation of the Fundamental ij()ij ( ) Tensor and Kronecker’s Delta vvee= ** (244) It is worthwhile to write down the coordinate transformations of the covariant and contravariant components of the fundamental tensors as practice and

NASA/TP—2005-213115 39 also for future reference. We will simply specialize the (dx*)2 + (dy*)2 + (dz*)2. The coordinate transform- general rule, equation (225). ations from K to K* are the linear equations For the covariant fundamental tensor, we have x* =−+lxx my −+− y nz z (253) st 101010( ) ( ) ( ) * ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xx g jk= ⎜⎟⎜⎟g st (249) ⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂xxjk** ylxxmyynzz* =−+−+−202020( ) ( ) ( ) (254)

For the contravariant fundamental tensor, we have ylxxmyynzz* =−+303030( ) ( −+−) ( ) (255) ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xxjk** g jk* = g st (250) ⎜⎟⎜⎟st where (x , y , z ) is the location of the K* origin in K, ⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂xx 0 0 0 and (l1, m1, n1), (l2, m2, n2), (l3, m3, n3) are the direction Finally, we know that the components of Kronecker’s cosines of the x*-, y*-, and z*-axes, respectively, delta may be represented in terms of the components of measured with respect to the x-, y-, and z-axes in K. If the fundamental tensor as we now form the coordinate differentials, we find that

i ij ddddx* =+lxmynz + (256) δ=k ggjk (251) 111

* We may use the two expressions just given to write ddddylxmynz=+222 + (257)

⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xxit* ddddzlxmynz* =+333 + (258) δ=*is δ (252) k ⎜⎟⎜⎟skt ⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂xx* and

Please study these expressions in relation to the general 2222 transformation formula to make certain that you ()()()()d*sxyz=++ d* d * d* understand how they were obtained so that you are 22222 2 2 2 =++()lll123()dd x +() mmm 1 ++ 2 3() y (259) able to write similar expressions. 222 2 +++()nnn123()d z Two Examples From Solid Analytical Geometry 222 We take our space to be the usual Euclidean three- Since the direction cosines must satisfy (lll123++) = space of our college analytical geometry and use 222 222 (mmm123++) = (nnn123++) = 1, we have that different sets of coordinate systems to map this space.

Within these systems, we will begin to see how the 2222 ideas about tensors may be applied on a rudimentary ()()()()d*sxyz=++ d* d * d* level. (260) =++=ddddx 2222yzs Example 1: Cartesian coordinates.⎯We begin with () () () () the most familiar system of all, the three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. We will place this system as we were to show. Q.E.D. This calculation reaffirms into our space and call it K. This system comprises the rank 0 tensor characteristic of ds. three mutually perpendicular straight lines intersecting at a common point called the origin. The unit interval Remember, if a quantity is shown to be a tensor in is usually taken as a unit of distance and is the same on one particular system, then it is a tensor in all 2 2 systems. all three of the axes x, y, and z. In K, (ds) = (dx) + 2 2 (dy) + (dz) . Sometimes, the proof of tensor character may be Now, let us show the tensor character of ds by greatly simplified by keeping this rule in mind and showing that ds = ds*. Let us place a second system choosing a particular coordinate system in which to into our space such that its origin is displaced from the demonstrate tensor character. origin of K and the system itself is at some arbitrary Next, let us determine the fundamental tensor in K. angle to K. Call this new system K*. In K*, (ds*)2 = 2 j k We know, in general, that ds = gjkdx dx . In the case of

NASA/TP—2005-213115 40 system K, we have (ds)2 = (dx)2 + (dy)2 + (dz)2 = calculus that in K, (ds)2 = (dρ)2 + (ρdφ)2 + (ρsinφdθ)2. (1)(dx)(dx) + (1)(dy)(dy) + (1)(dz)(dz) = (1)dx1dx1 + We have already shown the tensor character of ds in (1)dx2dx2 + (1)dx3dx3, where the superscripted the Cartesian system, so there is no need to show it variables have been substituted for x, y, and z. We must again here. It is apparent, however, that if we did, the conclude that calculation would be messier than before. Let us determine the fundamental tensor in K. First, gg11=== 22 g 33 1 (261) we must recognize that the coordinate differentials are dρ, dφ, and dθ. Setting x1 = ρ, x2 = φ, and x3 = θ, we gjkjk ()≠=0 (262) discover that

Equivalently, we have gg=1,=ρ22 , g =ρ sin φ (265) 11 22() 33 ( ) 100 gjkjk ( ≠=) 0 (266) G = 010 (263) 001 This time, the tensor GC takes on a more interesting aspect: That is, the fundamental tensor in this case is none other than the identity tensor whose components are 10 0 given by Kronecker’s delta. 2 G =ρ00 (267) Since the components that we are looking at are the C () 2 subscripted gjk, we conclude that this tensor is the 00()ρφ sin covariant fundamental tensor. What about the contravariant fundamental tensor? Well, we have just This time, the contravariant fundamental will not be a C shown that GC = I. Let G = A and invoke the rule mere repeat of the covariant fundamental tensor. Again C C GC · G = I. Substituting, we see immediately that we using the rule GC · G = I, we discover that have 10 0 IA⋅= I (264) C −2 G =ρ00() (268) There is only one tensor A that will satisfy this −2 relationship, and that is A = I. So the covariant and the 00()ρφ sin contravariant fundamental tensor are one and the same in K (and by extension, in K*, also). This identity is the In this case, there is a difference between covariance k reason that covariance and contravariance do not and contravariance. Using vs = gskv , write the appear as distinct cases in a Cartesian system in relationship between contravariant and covariant Euclidean three-space. They are indistinguishable. components of a vector in spherical coordinates: Example 2: Spherical coordinates.⎯Let us leave 1 Cartesian coordinates now and go to something a little vv1 = (269) more interesting. The spherical coordinate system 2 comprises the same three axes as the Cartesian system vv=ρ⎡⎤2 (270) 2 ⎣⎦⎢⎥() with the addition of concentric spheres centered on the origin. The coordinates used to locate a point in space vv=ρ⎡ sin φ2 ⎤ 3 (271) with spherical coordinates are (1) its distance ρ from 3 ⎣⎢()⎦⎥ the origin (i.e., the radius of the sphere on which it lies); (2) the angle φ that the line from the origin to the These equations are not overly exciting (since there are point makes with the z-axis; and (3) the angle θ that the no off-diagonal terms in the matrix to “spice things projection of the same line in the x,y-plane makes with up”), but they do illustrate the essential role played by the x-axis. the fundamental tensor and the difference between Let us erase the previous Cartesian systems and covariant and contravariant components of a vector in begin again. We place a spherical coordinate system in a familiar space using familiar coordinate systems. our space and call it K. We have learned in our basic

NASA/TP—2005-213115 41 Calculus flow of pulverized pyroclastic material from an erupting volcano. The common denominator here is the Statement of Core Idea concept of flow. The theory of fields involves flow. In a velocity In general, base vectors have nonzero derivatives field, we speak of a continuously moving medium, air with respect to space and time. These nonzero perhaps or water whose velocity at every point in the derivatives enable us to model two very important but field is represented by the vector at that point. In independent mechanical ideas: magnetic and electric fields, we speak of magnetic and electric flux (from the Latin fluxit, flow) and flux 1. The pseudoforces that are observed in density (flow per unit area). Classically, the electric accelerated coordinate systems (gravitational, and magnetic fluxes were thought to be a class of centrifugal, and Coriolis) imponderable fluids. Although the concept of 2. The curvature or non-Euclidean characteristics imponderable fluids is no longer used in physics, the of space and time as measured by real physical idea of flux remains. instruments The concept of flow leads directly to the calculus. In tensor analysis, the base vector derivatives have a Consider the flow of water from a faucet. If everything very specific mathematical form. is working properly, the flow is both smooth and continuous. However, to describe the flow, we use First Steps Toward a Tensor Calculus: An Example ratios formed from discontinuous “chunks” of space From Classical Mechanics and time. It seems that we have no choice in the matter. We speak of liters per second or gallons per Now that we have acquired a formal definition of minute, but this description applies equally well to a tensor as a quantity that possesses certain prescribed liter “slug” dropping once every second as it does a transformation properties (i.e., is coordinate continuous flow. We divide the flow into discreet independent) and a beginning grasp of , spatiotemporal portions to express its smoothness and we may proceed directly to develop a tensor calculus. continuity. The calculus that we learned in college is a body of Realizing the incongruity here, we might attempt to mathematics that enables us to deal with continuous correct our description by choosing a smaller unit of fields. Classical mechanics and relativity both are time and a correspondingly smaller unit of volume. concerned with fields: flow, gravitational and electric, Thus, we might speak of milliliters per millisecond, magnetic, and so on. We have already learned that but the idea of a slug of material is still present, prescribing coordinate independence to tensors although each slug is a thousand times smaller and the provides us with an ideal tool for building physical slugs are a thousand times more frequent in their theories, the correlation being that physical objects and appearance. We may in imagination continue this events also are coordinate independent. process of subdividing indefinitely until we approach This correlation is worth noting again and again. It the limit of an infinitesimal time unit and a provides an important clue to understanding applied correspondingly infinitesimal unit of volume. This mathematics in general. All too often, students learn concept of limit lies at the very heart of the calculus. bare problem-solving techniques without ever learning In the calculus, we learn to form ratios such as the what their solutions are telling them about the world at one described above and to take the limit as the large. If the concepts of mathematics are not as denominator term “tends to zero.” Such a ratio is familiar as the concepts of language and as easily called, in the limit, a derivative. In college, we spoke expressed and interpreted, the value of the students’ of total and partial derivatives. In tensor calculus, we mathematical knowledge is at best questionable. will speak of an absolute and a covariant derivative as Applied mathematics has its roots in the study of the natural generalizations of total and partial derivatives. world at large. As complex as that world may seem, it We will learn to differentiate a vector and then by provides us with certain comprehensible themes that extension how to differentiate a general mixed tensor. are repeated over and over in an almost bewildering We will approach these concepts via classical array of diverse phenomena. Thus, we speak of the mechanics so that the abstractions of tensor calculus flow of ocean currents as easily as we speak of the become founded in real-world considerations. flow of electrical currents in a wire or in space or the

NASA/TP—2005-213115 42 Sir Isaac Newton (1642−1727) first developed Euclidean geometries had not been conceived. It was classical mechanics as we know it today. Newton was generally accepted among philosophers that there was not the first to create classical mechanics, but he one and only one legitimate geometry of the world. synthesized ideas that were replete during his lifetime. Straight lines could be extended throughout the known He once admitted that if he had seen farther than most, universe and their various relationships written down it was because he stood on the shoulders of giants. without ever asking precisely what such extension Newton certainly realized the debt he owed to the great might mean physically. (Note that the precise minds who preceded him. correlations between the Euclidean straight line and its Newton set down his great work in a volume that is physical realization are being ignored here.) Perhaps today commonly called the Principia.22 His theoretical such questions were just not considered important.23 framework was not without problems, and his ideas For Newton, time was a quantity independent and were reformulated and refined in various ways during different from space. Like space, it was rigid and the years following his initial work. One such absolute; unlike space, the same instant (or point) of refinement is attributed to Professor Ernst Mach time could be simultaneously present to observers (1838−1916), a German physicist and philosopher who everywhere⎯could be occupied by observers specifically addressed Newton’s ideas about absolute everywhere⎯whereas spatial points were spread out so space. Recall that we just spoke of a correlation that the same point could not be occupied by more than between theoretical ideas and the real world. Mach one observer at a time. Under these conditions, Newton sought such a correlation: an astronomical assumed that information could be transferred interpretation of Newton’s absolute space. throughout space instantaneously regardless of the Mach suggested that the fixed stars provided the spatial separation between the points or regions stationary reference that Newton required. We know involved.24 today that the concept of fixed stars is a fiction and that Newton was uncomfortable with his absolutes but no such stationary reference exists in nature. But had nothing better to replace them with. For him, Mach’s ideas are nonetheless an important part of physical objects such as pebbles, boulders, or planets modern physics. Einstein strongly favored the fixed existed in space much as actors existed on the stage. star point of view and attempted without success to Remove or change the actors and the stage remained make it follow from the equations of general relativity. behind unaltered. The Newtonian stage was the In keeping with the astronomical understanding of his framework of absolute space and time. He developed time, Einstein substituted the somewhat more vague his mechanics to describe how and why the actors notion of “total distant matter” for fixed stars and moved about as they did on the stage. In the called the resultant statement Mach’s principle. mathematical formulation, the actors were represented Because relativity radically revised the foundations by Euclidean points called mass points (geometrical of physics laid down by Newton, it is essential that we understand something about them. Paramount among 23 these foundations are the concepts of absolute space But it was by asking just such a question that Einstein was first led to develop relativity. The classical straight line may be represented physically and absolute time. We begin by quoting Newton’s own by a pencil of light or as we might say today, by an ideal laser beam that words (Hawking, 2002): propagates with no divergence. Einstein specifically asked how such a pencil would appear to an observer running abreast of it. The implication is 8 Absolute space, in its own nature, without that to do so, the observer must run away from the light source at 3×10 m/s to keep pace with a single wave front of the light pencil. The answer to his regard to anything external, remains always question is surprising: to such an observer, the pencil would still outpace similar and immovable… . Absolute, true, and her at a speed of 3×108 m/s, exactly the same as if she were standing still mathematical time, of itself, and from its own next to the source. This result led Einstein to a complete redefinition of the notions of space and time. nature flows equably without regard to 24We might argue in favor of this point as follows: Suppose that there is a anything external… . supermassive star somewhere in our spatial vicinity. We may not be able to see the star, but we have instruments that indicate its local gravitational Space for Newton was strictly Euclidean and three- influence. Now, at some time t0 the star ceases to exist. Since we and the dimensional. In Newton’s day, the so-called non- star both simultaneously occupy the time t0, we know immediately that something has happened because our instruments register the change. In relativity, we have no way of knowing that anything has happened to the star until at least the time t0 + x/c where x is the spatial distance of the star 22The entire title is Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (The from us and c is the speed of light. In relativity, we say that a gravitational Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). In Newton’s day, the wave has propagated from the site of the vanished star and that its passage science that we call physics was referred to as natural philosophy. is what our instruments actually registered.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 43 points with a mass in kilograms associated with them). that the force acting between any two objects is The actors in turn were acted upon by contact forces proportional to the product of their respective masses that were the agents which produced changes in their and is inversely proportional to the square of the state of motion or rest. distance between their centers. The use of mass points to represent extended objects The mathematics used to express classical mechanics required some care in their selection. If a single point is the vector calculus. Locations, velocities, were to be used, it was typically the center of mass, accelerations, forces, and momentums are all vectors. center of gravity, center of percussion, or some other Some of these vectors appear as derivatives of others. equivalent center. There were rules and mathematical It is at this point that our development of tensor methods for locating these points given the shape and calculus may begin. mass distribution of the object being represented. The First, let us write the basic equations that describe center always moved along a well-defined trajectory the motion of a mass point in Euclidean three-space. even though the object itself might be tumbling or We will use a Cartesian coordinate system that is gyrating in some way. It was the trajectory of the unaccelerated, that is, an inertial frame of reference. center that was predicted by the equations of (Such a coordinate system is also called an Eulerian mechanics. In some cases, more than one point was frame if it is fixed.27) Here is the general procedure that required to represent an extended mass; for example, we will follow: two points were required when forces of rotation (called torques or couples) were involved. 1. Locate the mass point at any time t by using a Newtonian mechanics was governed by three laws of position vector r(t). Since the point is moving through motion: the space mapped by the coordinate system, r(t) will have a magnitude and direction dependent upon the 1. An object will persist in its state of absolute rest time of observation. This dependency is noted by the or motion along a straight line unless acted upon by an symbol (t) immediately following the symbol r. outside force. 2. The velocity of the point will be the time 2. The force acting on an object is equal to its dr(t)/dt. Strictly speaking, even though dr is rate of momentum. a tensor, the velocity dr/dt is not28 because if viewed 3. Internal forces, forces of action and reaction, from another coordinate system K* in uniform (i.e., occur in equal and opposite pairs. unaccelerated) motion VREL relative to the first, the velocity of the point as viewed in K* is dr(t)/dt + For rotational motion, the word “force” in the above V . Thus, dr*(t)/dt ≠ dr(t)/dt; that is, it is not strictly statements may be replaced by the word “torque.” REL coordinate independent. There were also conserved quantities for which strict 3. The acceleration of the point will be the time accounts were required to be bookkept. These 2 2 quantities included mass, electrical charge, energy, derivative of the velocity d r(t)/dt . Interestingly, for coordinate systems in uniform relative motion, linear momentum, and angular momentum. 2 2 2 2 In dealing with planetary motions and those of the acceleration is a tensor; that is, d r*/dt = d r/dt . This Moon and the tides, Newton had to establish one more relationship does not hold, however, when one or both 29 law for noncontact forces, specifically for the of the coordinate systems themselves are accelerated. noncontact force of gravity.25 This “action at a distance”26 operation of gravity (i.e., action that Let us use the now familiar form r = xi + yj + zk to involved neither contact nor an intervening medium) represent position. We then have the following system was particularly uncomfortable for Newton, but it of equations: certainly appeared to occur in nature and had to be accommodated in his theory. The law of gravity states 27The term “fixed” is applied either in the sense of Newton’s absolute space or Mach’s fixed stars frame of reference. In modern physics, the concept of a fixed frame loses all meaning. 25Post-Newtonian developments include similar laws of force between 28The differential time dt is the component of a so-called four-vector in isolated electric charges and individual magnetic poles. special relativity. Thus, the ratio dr/dt is not strictly the ratio of a vector and 26In modern physics, the idea of action at a distance is replaced by the field. a scalar. Einstein corrected this lack by using the spacetime metric ds in The object in question does not mysteriously respond to the influence of place of the differential time dt in special relativity. Thus, he essentially some other distant object but to the field conditions in its immediate redefined velocity as dr/ds, which is a tensor. vicinity. The field is set up by the distant object. Changes in the field 29Again, the problem is more subtle than presented here. Refer to comments propagate at the speed of light. about dt and ds in footnote 28.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 44 Position place it right at the origin of K for ease in visualization and in writing equations. rijk=++x yz (272a) We will also assume that the z- and the z*-axes coincide and that the rotation of K* is about the z-axis. Velocity Doing so actually reduces the calculation to two dimensions for the most part (in the xy-plane). The ddr ⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞x dyz d vijk==⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟ + + (272b) motion of the mass point will be confined to this plane ddtt⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠ d t d t for the remainder of this discussion, and the z-axis will be invoked only as necessary to specify the rotation Acceleration vector that lies along the z-axis in the present scheme. dd22r ⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞x d 2yz d 2 The following sketch illustrates the foregoing aijk== + + (272c) 22⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟ 2 2 discussion. ddtt⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠ d t d t

Do you notice anything peculiar about these equations? Probably not at first glance. They are easily recognizable from a basic physics text. But you might have asked, Whatever happened to the derivatives of the base vectors i, j, and k? We know from basic calculus that the derivative of a product (uv) always goes according to the rule: d(uv) = udv + vdu. So why do we not apply this rule in forming the velocity and acceleration vectors above; that is, d(xi) = (dx)i + x(di) and so on for the other terms? The answer is obvious: the derivatives of the base The Greek letter ω represents the angular velocity of vectors are all equal to zero, so there is no point in K* relative to K. Its units are radians per second (s−1). writing them. Why are they all equal to zero? The If K* is rotating at υ revolutions per second, then by coordinate systems are all inertial coordinate systems definition ω = 2πυ. (ω is also called the angular that are unaccelerated relative to absolute space. Even frequency in some cases. Note that this particular though the base vectors of K* are in motion as viewed choice for ω gives the very desirable result that one from K (and vice versa), they change neither their complete revolution corresponds to 2π radians.) As a magnitude (which remains unity) nor their direction vector, we may choose ω = ±ωk. We will take (they translate but do not rotate). counterclockwise rotation (as viewed from positive z in What if the coordinate system K* were to accelerate K) to be positive rotation. In this case, ω = +ωk and relative to the inertial coordinate system K? This points along the positive z-axis. question can most easily be answered by selecting a Now, ignoring the z-direction for the moment, test case and working it through. Make K* an concentrate on what is happening in the xy-plane. First, accelerated coordinate system and then introduce a there are the basis (unit) vectors i and j in K and i* and mass point whose motion in K* we will examine. j* in K*. Perhaps you recall that with K* rotating in First, let us introduce a slight change in terminology: the manner we have selected, they are related by the we will refer to a coordinate system as a frame of linear system of equations: reference (this usage was already hinted at a few paragraphs ago). This terminology is better in keeping with that used in classical mechanics, the theory of ii*cossin(ttt) = (ω+) j( ω) (273a) relativity, electrodynamics, and those disciplines of physics and engineering most likely to use tensor ji*sincos(ttt) = −ω+ω( ) j( ) (273b) analysis. Now, what type of acceleration should we choose for where t is time in seconds. Note that the unit vectors in K*? Let us make it a rotating frame of reference. It will K* are time variable, at least with regard to their rotate uniformly about its origin as seen from K. Where direction. Therefore, their time derivatives possess shall we locate K* relative to K? Well, since we can nonzero values: place the origin of K* anywhere we like in K, let us

NASA/TP—2005-213115 45 Position Vij***=+vv**xy (276a)

rij*****=+xy (274a) Aij***=+aa**xy (276b)

Velocity ⎛⎞⎛⎞d*ij d* Ei**=+ j * (276c) ⎜⎟⎜⎟ddtt ⎛⎞⎛⎞d*xy d* ⎝⎠⎝⎠ vi***=+⎜⎟⎜⎟ j ⎝⎠⎝⎠ddtt (274b) ⎛⎞⎛⎞d*22ij d* ⎛⎞d*ij ⎛⎞ d* Fi**=+⎜⎟⎜⎟ j* (276d) ++xy**⎜⎟ ⎜⎟ ⎝⎠⎝⎠ddtt22 ⎝⎠ddtt ⎝⎠ With these new terms, we are able to write Acceleration Position ⎛⎞⎛⎞d*22xy d* ai***=+⎜⎟⎜⎟ j rij*****= xy+ (277a) ddtt22 ⎝⎠⎝⎠ ⎡⎤⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞d*xy d*ij d* d* Velocity ++2⎢⎥⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟ (274c) ⎣⎦⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠ddtt dd tt vV****=+⋅( rE) (277b) ⎛⎞⎛⎞d*22ij d* ++xy** ⎜⎟⎜⎟22 ⎝⎠⎝⎠ddtt Acceleration These expressions may be simplified by choosing a less cumbersome notation. For the velocity terms, let aA**2****=+( VErF ⋅+⋅) (277c) vxt*d*/dx = , and so forth and for the acceleration 22 terms, axt*dx = */d, and so forth. Then we can write Note that for unaccelerated motion, E* = F* = 0 (the zero dyad), and the three equations reduce to the same Position form that they have in K. It is easily shown that the two “extra” terms in the equation for acceleration (i.e., rij*****=+xy (275a) 2V*· E* and r* · F*) are the Coriolis and centrifugal accelerations, respectively, and are pseudo- Velocity accelerations observed by an observer who is stationary in K* (and therefore rotating relative to K). When the mass point is introduced into the picture, ⎛⎞d*ij ⎛⎞ d* vij****=++vv**xy x⎜⎟ + y * ⎜⎟ (275b) the peculiarities inherent in our description will be ⎝⎠ddtt ⎝⎠ perceived. First, assume that its path in K is rectilinear; that is, no external forces are acting on the mass point, Acceleration which is in conformity with Newton’s first law of motion. In this simplest of all cases, we have (in K) v = ⎡⎤⎛⎞⎛⎞d*ij d* constant and a = 0. aij***2=++aa**xy⎢⎥ v *x⎜⎟⎜⎟ + v* y However, in K*, another situation prevails: ⎣⎦⎝⎠⎝⎠ddtt (275c) v* = v*(t) and a* ≠ 0. The path of the mass point in K* 22 ⎛⎞⎛⎞d*ij d* is seen as a curve along which the mass point is ++xy**⎜⎟⎜⎟ ⎝⎠⎝⎠ddtt22 accelerating. The accelerations seen in K* are none other than the Coriolis and centrifugal accelerations This presentation is somewhat more easily read than that are nonzero in all rotating frames of reference. the previous one. Let us go one step farther and define The nonzero derivatives of the base vectors in K* more new terms: correspond to the appearance of the Coriolis and centrifugal accelerations in K*. It is important, therefore, to keep track of the base vector derivatives,

NASA/TP—2005-213115 46 for they tell us how mass points behave in our The roles of each of the terms on the right-hand side particular frame of reference. This situation will arise will now be examined. Remember that the observer in again when we examine Einstein’s view of the K*, who is in actuality rotating relative to absolute gravitational field. space (represented by the system K), is entitled to think Let us carefully examine the acceleration given of herself as being at rest with the universe rotating above: around her. This statement is a classical statement of the relativity principle. aA**2****=+( VErF ⋅+⋅) (277c) If this assumption is made in K*, then an application of Newton’s force-as-rate-of-momentum law allows us We will ignore the term A* for the moment and to identify each of the three right-hand terms. The force-as-rate-of-momentum law states that consider just the terms 2V* · E* and r* · F*. We must proceed with care. First, consider just the term d*pvd*(mv ) ⎛⎞ d* 2V* · E*. Since we have fa**== =mm⎜⎟ = (284) ddtt⎝⎠ d t

ii*cossin(ttt) =ω+ω( ) j( ) (278a) If we now multiply the entire expression for a* by the mass m, we obtain ji*sincos(ttt) =−( ω) + j( ω ) (278b) faA**==mm *2 + mω ×−ω V * m2 r * (285) the unit vector derivatives contained in E* must be We now see that a* is the total acceleration due to d*i =−ωijsin() ωtt + ω cos () ω =ω j * (279a) external (contact) forces acting on the point under dt consideration. Since our observer considers herself to be at rest in K*, she will consider the acceleration A* d*j as being that due to all external (contact) forces plus =−ωijcos() ωtt − ω sin () ω =−ω i * (279b) dt any other field forces that happen to be acting. If no external forces are acting in K*, she will set a* = 0 and We have V*, so let us put the pieces together: conclude that the total acceleration A* that she observes must be due to the field forces A* = −2ω × V* + ω2r*. 2*VE⋅=−ω+ω * 2vv*xy i *2* j * (280) The first term, −2ω × V*, is the velocity-dependent =ω2**2kV × =ω × V * Coriolis acceleration; the second term is the radially outward-pointing centrifugal acceleration. Save this result for a moment and proceed. Next, consider just the term r* · F*. Using the derivatives (N.B.: From our point of view in K, both these terms previously obtained, we find that arise simply enough from the rotation of K* relative to inertial space. From our observer’s point of view, they d*2 i appear as real, if somewhat mysterious, accelerations =−ωij22cos() ωtt − ω sin () ω =−ω 2 i * (281a) dt2 that have no visible agents exerting the force that causes them, unless they are to be associated with the rotational motion of the entire universe around the d*2 j =ωij22sin() ωtt −ω cos () ω =−ω 2 j * (281b) origin of K*, another argument associated with Ernst d2 t Mach.) so that This discussion is given here at length because the pseudoaccelerations (as the Coriolis and centrifugal rF**⋅ =xy *( −ω222 i *) + *( −ω j *) = −ω r * (282) accelerations are often called) have much in common with the gravitational acceleration in general relativity. Putting everything together, we find that The fact that the pseudoaccelerations in K* derive their mathematical form from the nonzero derivatives of the aA**2*=+×−ωω V2 r * (283)

NASA/TP—2005-213115 47 basis vectors is all important. An identical situation is We begin by using the position-velocity-acceleration encountered in Einstein’s development of the development that we have just worked through as a gravitational field equations. springboard and demonstrate in a qualitative way how we come to expect that the base vector differentials Base Vector Differentials: Toward a General must be Formulation 1. Linearly dependent on the coordinate The essential idea in the previous section that we differentials must now develop further is this: the derivative of any 2. Linearly dependent on the base vectors quantity of higher order than a scalar must take into themselves account the nonzero derivatives of the base vectors as 3. Functions of the coordinate values well as those of the individual vector components, since the base vector derivatives carry important The first step is to write the time derivatives of the information about the system under consideration. base vectors as they appeared in the previous section, In the previous section, we saw that in a rotating in differential form: frame of reference, there are accelerations that arise simply because of the rotation, namely, Coriolis and d*ij= ω=−ω *dtt and d* j i *d (286) centrifugal accelerations. Such a frame is called a non- inertial frame of reference. Note that these differentials are already linearly In the more general case, any accelerated frame is dependent on the base vectors. Next, to make these non-inertial. The mathematical form of the so-called equations appear more complete, we will appropriately pseudoaccelerations that arise in non-inertial frames is add31 the trivial terms 0i* and 0j* so that obtained directly from the nonzero base vector derivatives relative to inertial space. In a frame where d*iij=+ω 0* *dt (287a) these derivatives vanish, there are no ( ) pseudoaccelerations. Such a frame is called an inertial frame of reference. and Jumping ahead for just a moment, it should be noted here that Einstein showed that a frame of reference in a d*jij=−ω+( * 0*d) t (287b) gravitational field is equivalent to an accelerated frame of reference in inertial space. The formal expression of Now that zero has been added to each equation, we see this idea is the principle of equivalence. In relativity, that each of the base vector differentials appears as a the gravitational field, classically an acceleration linear sum over the basis vectors i* and j*.32 Now 30 field, derives mathematically from the general form there is symmetry between the two equations where for base vector derivatives that we are about to there was not a moment ago. Since we are expanding develop. The foregoing argument along with this from a restricted (mathematically and physically) important observation provide the student with an example of a rotating system, it is not unreasonable to immediate stepping stone to the general theory of believe that these trivial terms we have just introduced relativity. will not remain trivial in all cases. In fact, it is

Note: Before continuing, let us make another categorically true in the general case that they will not. change in terminology. In developing a general Next, consider the time differential dt. It is true that expression for base vector derivatives, it is more time is an important element in all physics and convenient to consider the base vector differentials engineering methods, but not all situations that we can rather than full derivatives. We will do so starting imagine are going to be time dependent. On the other now and continue until we have a general formula hand, all situations will require coordinate in hand.

31Always remember that in doing any mathematical development, knowing how to add zero and/or how to multiply by 1 are often times your most important assets. 30 Although many people speak of gravity as a force field, formally it is not. 32We are still operating only in the xy-plane, but that is alright. The xy- The vector field term in Newton’s theory of gravitation is not force but plane actually is sufficient for representing the whole operating space since acceleration, g (m/s2). the motions we are concerned with are confined to it.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 48 measurements of some type. So, we need to involve These are coordinate transformations from K* to K. the coordinate differentials. If time is to be a Solving for x* and y*, we find the inverse coordinate in our overall system (as it is in relativity), transformations from K to K*: then it will fall under the purview of this involvement; if not, we shall not be left wholly without recourse. x *,,( xyt) = x cos(ω+ t) y sin( ω t) (292a) Recall that the base vector transformations involved time as a parameter: yxytx*,,( ) = −ω+ω sin( t) y cos( t) (292b) ii*cossin(ttt) =ω+ω( ) j( ) (288a) Now, the next step in involving the coordinate differentials is to imagine a point P that is stationary in ji*sincos(ttt) =−( ω) + j( ω ) (288b) K (and therefore in inertial space). Since P is stationary, we have the simplification that x = a As a first step to involving the coordinate differentials, constant and y = a constant. We may now proceed to we must use these transformations to show that similar differentiate x* and y* at P:33 transformations exist for x* and y* as functions of x and y. It will turn out again that time will still be a d*x =−ω⎣⎡ xtytt sin( ω) +ω cos( ω)⎦⎤ d (293a) parameter. Let us write out the position vector for any point P in the space mapped by K and K*. In this special case wherein the origins of K and K* coincide, d*yx=−ω⎣⎡ cos( ω tytt) −ω sin( ω)⎦⎤ d (293b) the position vector will be the same in both systems. Thus, in this special case, r = r* and in K Note that we may add these two expressions to obtain the new single expression rij=+x y (289a) d*d*x +=λytt( ) d (294) and in K* where λ(t) = [− xω sin(ωt) + yω cos(ωt) −xω cos (ωt) − rij*****=+xy (289b) yω sin(ωt)]. If we now eliminate34 the time t in the system of equations Remembering that r = r*, let us substitute for i* and j* in the second of these equations: x *cossin(tx) = −ω+ω( tyt) ( ) (295a) ri**cos=ω+ωxtt⎣⎦⎡⎤( ) j sin( ) yt*sincos( ) = −ω+ω x( t) y( t) (295b) +−ytt*sin⎣⎦⎡⎤ij() ω+ω cos () (290) then λ(t) → λ(x*, y*); that is, λ goes from being a =ω−ω⎣⎦⎡⎤xtyt*cos() *sin ()i function of time to being a function of the coordinate +ω+ω=+⎡⎤x *sin()ty *cos () tj xyij values x* and y* exclusively, and ⎣⎦

⎛⎞1 By equating the components of i and j in the last two dd*d*txy=+⎜⎟() (296) expressions, we immediately see that ⎝⎠λ

x( xyt*, *,) =ω−ω x * cos( t) y *sin ( t) (291a) and 33Since K* is rotating, the point P will appear, from K*, to travel in a clockwise circle about the origin. Therefore, if at time t = t0, P is at ( x0* , y0* ), then at time t = t0 + dt, it will have “moved” to ( x0* + dx*, yx( *, y *, t) =ω+ω x *sin( t) y * cos( t) (291b) y0* + dy*). It is the differentials dx* and dy* in this last expression that we are actually determining in the discussion in the text. Keeping P stationary in K is simply a device chosen to avoid extra work in the differentiation. 34Such elimination is theoretically possible but practically is a mess, since the equations involved are transcendental.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 49 The right-hand side is a function exclusively of the In the polar coordinate system, there are two sets of coordinate values and the coordinate differentials. By base vectors. One set uρ is tangent to the radial lines; substituting for dt in the base vector differentials di* the other set uθ is tangent to the concentric circles. The and dj*, we obtain two sets are orthogonal at any particular point P in the system. It should be immediately apparent that the ⎛⎞1 directions associated with the base vectors depend on d*iij=+ω+⎜⎟()() 0* * dx * dy * (297a) ⎝⎠λ where you are located in the plane relative to the origin of coordinates. Recall that the points in a polar and coordinate system are labeled as the ordered pair (ρ, θ) where ρ is the radial distance from the origin and θ is ⎛⎞1 the angle (measured counterclockwise) from a d*jij=−ω+⎜⎟()() *0*d*d*x +y (297b) preselected line sometimes called the x-axis (for which ⎝⎠λ θ = 0 by definition).

With this last equation, we have successfully shown For points on the x-axis, therefore, uρ points to the what we set out to show, namely, that the base vector right and uθ points straight up. At θ = 90°, uρ points differentials are straight up and uθ points to the left. It is apparent that the base vectors and their differentials in this 1. Linearly dependent on the coordinate coordinate system are coordinate dependent even if differentials time independent. We may write the base vectors 2. Linearly dependent on the base vectors relative to a Cartesian coordinate system with a themselves common origin as 3. Functions of the coordinate values Q.E.D. uiρ = cos(θ+) j sin ( θ) (298a) Another Example From Polar Coordinates

Perhaps you are not totally convinced by the uiθ = −θ+θsin( ) j cos( ) (298b) argument we have just completed. “There seem to have been some smoke and mirrors,” you argue tentatively. and their differentials as Point well taken. Let us look at another example that is both demonstrative and illustrative. dduuρθ=θ (299a) This time, we use a polar coordinate system rather than a Cartesian coordinate system to map the plane. The polar coordinate system differs from the Cartesian dduuθρ=− θ (299b) in one essential aspect: These expressions certainly involve both base The Cartesian coordinate system consists of vectors and one of the coordinate differentials. In the straight lines and planes and is therefore a “flat” polar coordinate system, the base vector differentials coordinate system used to map a flat (i.e., are nonzero, not because of acceleration or anything Euclidean) space. By comparison, the polar having to do with being inertial or non-inertial but coordinate system is not flat but is a curved because the coordinate system is curved. coordinate system used to map a flat space. The peculiarities that we are about to note are due to Base Vector Differentials in the General Case the curvature.35 Introductory thoughts.⎯The time has come to 35Some spaces are also curved and are called non-Euclidean spaces or generalize what we have been saying about base vector oftentimes Riemannian spaces (after , 1826−1866). In derivatives. From the rules developed herein, we will these non-Euclidean spaces, there are only straightest possible curves called be able to derive much of tensor calculus. Consider, , which possess the same curvature (locally) as the space itself. Geodesics are the natural generalization of the straight line. Coordinate first, the contravariant representation of a vector V: systems constructed of geodesics in a curved space are called geodesic coordinate systems. The Cartesian coordinate system is the geodesic coordinate system of Euclidean space. A given space can only contain sphere cannot contain a straight line, just as a spherical n-space can never curves of curvature greater than or equal to that of the space itself. Thus, a contain a Cartesian coordinate system.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 50 (k) Ve= vk (k ) (300) 3. Finally, we desire an expression of the form de m s (m) = (some term) λs dx e . Note that the index K is with summation over all the values of the repeated missing on the right side of the equation. We will index k. The contravariant representation has been supply that index by setting the dummy we called chosen with a sort of malice of forethought. The (k) m s (m) m “some term” → εk. Thus de = εk λs dx e = Γks development for the contravariant representation will s (m) be carried out by employing a unique device involving dx e . are understood to be over all permutation of covariant tensor indexes. Once we have repeated index pairs. finished with the contravariant base vector differential, We now have the general expression required for the the covariant base vector differential will practically (k) fall into our laps. contravariant base vector differential de . Let us write Now, we differentiate it one more time for completion:

kmm kkkk ddee( )()=Γ xs (302) ddVe=+( vv) ()( d e ()) (301) ks

We are far from finished, for we must now specify Each term on the right-hand side has a repeated index m k, and each term represents a summation over all the the new unknown term Γks entirely as a function of values of k, even though the index pairs do not involve known terms and then determine whether it is a tensor. the usual covariant-contravariant configuration. Remember the trivial rule that states that the unknown We now proceed to develop a general formulation is always defined in terms of the known? We are about for the base vector differential de(k) in view of the three to see that this rule is not so trivial after all. (k) To begin, we inner-multiply both sides of criteria stated below. Our formulation of de must (w) satisfy these criteria; that is, the base vector equation (302) by the contravariant base vector e or (w) differentials must be more formally, we “left-operate” with e · (read as “e superscript w dot”): 1. Linearly dependent on the coordinate differentials (wkw) ( )() m s ( m) eee⋅=⋅Γdd( ks x e) (303) 2. Linearly dependent on the base vectors themselves 3. Functions of the coordinate values Note that there are now two free indexes: w and k. Next, we will consider each side of this new equation (w) (k) We demonstrated these criteria with examples. Now, separately. On the left-hand side is e · de and on (w) m s (m) we raise them to the status of criteria that must be the right-hand side, e · ( Γks dx e ). The right-hand satisfied in general, so let us examine them closely: side is easily reduced:36

1. The coordinate differentials are components of a wmmmss wm s ee()⋅Γddxx () =Γ ee() ⋅ () contravariant vector dx . This is a condition of all ( ks) ks ( ) (304) coordinate differentials. Linear dependence here means mms s =Γksddx ggwm = wm Γ ks x that our general formulation must involve a sum of the s type αsdx . The term αs may be a function of the Note that once the base vectors are eliminated, the coordinate values. summation indexes become covariant-contravariant 2. The linear dependence on the base vectors must m (m) pairs as they should. Please study these steps until they similarly involve a sum of the type β e . Criteria 1 are clear to you. Every step taken so far derives its and 2 taken together suggest that we are seeking a term validity from what we have previously said and done. m s (m) m s (m) m of the type αsβ dx e = λs dx e . The terms β and When you are satisfied that you understand, go on. m The left-hand side is also easily reduced, since37 therefore λs may both be functions of the coordinate values.

36 (w) (m) Remember that gwm = e · e . 37 (w) (k) Remember that gwk = e · e and the rule for differentiating a product.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 51 ee()wk⋅=dd () g −⋅ ee() kw d ( ) ⎛⎞∂xs ( wk ) ddxxst=δs = d x t (305) t ⎜⎟t =−Γddg gxms ⎝⎠∂x ()wk km sw (311) ⎡⎤⎛⎞∂xs →δ−s d0xt = Combining the results for the right- and the left-hand ⎢⎥t ⎜⎟t ⎣⎦⎝⎠∂x sides yields

t t msm s But dx is an arbitrary vector (i.e., dx ≠ 0 generally); ddd( gwk) −Γgxgx km ws = wm Γks (306a) therefore, δs = ∂xs/∂xt. Q.E.D. t or Note that the expression in equation (307) now has three free indexes. The third free index arose when dddg =Γgxgxms + Γm s (306b) ( wk) km ws wm ks we differentiated. Remember that every time you take a step in a tensor calculation, you must be Look at this equation and ask yourself, “Having gotten careful not to repeat an index unless you this far, what would I do next?” The most obvious step deliberately intend a summation. that should come to mind is to differentiate with t respect to x : At this point, please pause again and go through what we have just done so that you are clear. We have ∂ g ()wk m sms done nothing new, despite the intimidating appearance =Γδ+Γδggkm ws wm ∂xt ttks (307) of the symbol soup in the last few lines. When you think that you have gotten it, then go on. What is to =Γ+Γggmm kmwt wm kt come next is new and somewhat unusual. Christoffel’s symbols.⎯To review, in the previous Note that in the second (middle) equality, we have section, Introductory thoughts, we wrote an expression used the relation for de(k):

∂xs =δs (308) ddee(km)()=Γm xs (312) ∂xt t ks

m by virtue of the linear independence of the respective We then began to seek a form for Γks . First, we inner- coordinate axes. In a three-dimensional Cartesian multiplied by e(w): coordinate system, we have

(wkw) ( )() m sm ∂∂xx ∂ x eee⋅=⋅Γdd⎡⎤x e() (313) ==1, 0, = 0 ⎣⎦ks ∂∂xy ∂ z ∂∂∂yyy We then showed that ===0, 1, 0 (309) ∂∂∂xyz ee(wm)()⋅Γ⎡⎤mmddxs =gx Γ s (314) ∂∂∂zzz ⎣⎦kswm ks ===0, 0, 1 ∂∂∂xyz and Similarly, in the polar coordinate system, we have (wk) ( ) ms ee⋅=dd( ggwk) −Γ km ws d x (315) ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂θ ∂θ ==1, 0; = 0, (310) ∂ρ ∂θ ∂ρ ∂θ and we concluded that

In the general case, we have ∂ g ( wk ) mm = ggkmΓ+wt wm Γ (316) ∂xt kt

NASA/TP—2005-213115 52 It is by manipulating this new expression that we now g ∂( wk ) mm m = ggkmΓ+wt wm Γkt (319) will determine Γks . ∂xt m However, before determining Γks , it is necessary to ∂ g review briefly the idea of permutations. Consider the ( kt ) mm = ggtmΓ+kw km Γtw (320) numbers 123. Form the following number string: ∂xw 123123. The first three numbers are our original and grouping, 123. Now, remove the initial digit to leave

23123. The first three numbers of this new string, 231, ∂ g comprise the first even permutation of 123. Now ( tw ) mm = ggwmΓ+ tm Γ (321) remove the initial digit again to leave 3123. The first ∂xk tk wk three numbers of this string, 312, comprise the second even permutation of 123. (Had we gone the other If we add the first two equations and subtract the third direction, the resulting permutations would have been using the new symmetry requirement, we obtain one the first and second odd permutations.) new equation: Next, in place of 123, write wkt, the three free ggg indexes in the last expression (eq. (316)) in the order ∂∂∂( wk) ( kt) ( tw ) m +−=Γ2()gkm wt (322) that they occur from left to right. Now, find the first ∂∂∂xxxtwk two even permutations: This equation is important because it has a single Original: wkt m isolated term involving Γwt and permits us to express First permutations.: ktw this term entirely in terms of known quantities, namely, Second permutations: twk the fundamental tensor and its derivatives with respect We will now follow a technique introduced by Elwin to the coordinates. m Christoffel (1829–1900), the German mathematician We will finally isolate Γwt by left-operating on the who invented covariant differentiation (the process that equation with ½gbh, then setting h = k, and summing we are developing here), and use these permutations to over the new repeated index. Please carry out each of generate two more independent equations from our these steps yourself on a scratch pad. Here is the result t m m original ∂(gwk)/∂x = gkm Γwt + gwm Γkt . Remember that you should obtain: a change in free index is a change in what the equation ⎡∂∂∂ggg⎤ is representing. By flipping indexes in this manner, we b 1 bk ( wk) ( kt) ( tw ) Γ=wt g ⎢ + − ⎥ (323) generate not a repeat of what we already have, but 2 ∂∂∂xxxtwk actual new information. Here are the results for the ⎣ ⎦ first and second permutations: Our task of determining the general form for the contravariant base vector differential de(k) is now ∂()g kt =Γ+Γggmm (317) complete. We have specified both the defining w tmkw km tw ∂x (t) b w (b) b equation de = Γwt dx e and the term Γwt , which and we have expressed entirely in terms of known quantities. ∂( gtw ) t w =Γ+Γggmm (318) If we formally set Γwkt = ½[∂(gwk)/∂x + ∂(gkt)/∂x − k wmtk tm wk ∂x k ∂(gtw)/∂x ], then we have We will now impose another new requirement on m b bk Γks , namely, that it be symmetrical in the covariant Γwt =Γg wkt (324) indexes k and s (i.e., we require that Γm = Γm . We sk ks By convention in tensor analysis, the symbol Γ is will have to check to make certain that we have wkt called Christoffel’s symbol of the first kind, and the actually satisfied this requirement when we are b finished.) We now have three equations: symbol Γwt is called Christoffel’s symbol of the second kind.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 53 Symmetry of Christoffel’s symbol: Remember how be too difficult to imagine that this not only can but b we imposed a symmetry requirement on Γwt ? Note certainly will be the case in any number of b systems⎯in fact, it is the exception when it is not. So, that the result obtained for Γwt is indeed symmetrical we may convince ourselves that the terms Γb may be in the covariant indexes w and t just as we required. wt Start with expression (323): and usually are functions of the coordinate values. Differential of a covariant base vector.⎯Now that we have an expression for the differential of the 1 ⎡⎤∂∂∂( ggg) ( ) ( ) Γ=b gbk wk + kt − tw (323) contravariant base vector, the expression for the wt ⎢⎥twk 2 ⎣⎦∂∂∂xxx differential of a covariant base vector is readily obtained. We start with a simple expression that we Now interchange the indexes w and t: already know:

1 ⎡⎤∂∂(ggtk) ( kw) ∂( g wt ) (a) b Γ=b gbk + − (325) ee⋅ ()b =δa (328) tw ⎢⎥wt k 2 ⎣⎦∂∂∂xxx Next, we differentiate: Since the fundamental tensor is symmetric, that is, since ⎡⎤dd0eee()aa⋅ +⋅() ⎡⎤ e = (329) ⎣⎦()bb⎣⎦() g = gjkfor all and (326) jk kj Then we substitute for de(a): we also have Γs dd0xtee()sa⋅+⋅ e() ⎡⎤ e = (330) at ()bb⎣⎦() 1 ⎡⎤∂∂(gg) ( ) ∂( g) Γ=b gbk kt + wk − tw (327) We simplify: tw ⎢⎥wt k 2 ⎣⎦∂∂∂xxx ee()a ⋅⎡⎤ddd = −δbt Γsbx = −Γ x t (331) b ()b s at at But this expression is identical to that for Γwt , and we ⎣⎦

b b must conclude that Γwt = Γtw . Q.E.D. We finally observe that if we set b The terms Γwt as functions of the coordinate values: b t b ddeebm=−Γmt x (332) We indicated earlier that the terms Γwt may be a () ( ) function of the coordinate values. Looking again at the then we automatically satisfy the inner product since expression (eq. (327))

()aab t () ee⋅=−Γ⋅⎡⎤ddmt x ee 1 ⎡⎤∂∂(ggkt) ( wk) ∂( g tw ) ⎣⎦()bm() Γ=b gbk + − (327) (333) tw ⎢⎥wt k mtbb t 2 ⎣⎦∂∂∂xxx =−δamt Γddx =−Γ atx

b b t it is apparent that Γwt will be a function of the The expression de(b) = − Γmt dx e(m) is the expression coordinate values provided that the gij and/or the sought for the differential of a covariant base vector. derivatives of the gst are functions of the coordinate Q.E.D. values. For the components of the fundamental tensor and their derivatives to be functions of the coordinate Tensor Differentiation: Absolute and Covariant values, it is sufficient to argue that there exists a Derivatives system K in which the values of the fundamental tensor and its derivatives change as we move about from Let us repeat our formulas for the differentials of a point to point. However, such a system would involve contravariant and a covariant base vector: the base vectors changing from point to point in such a way as to make their inner products vary from point to (bt)()t w ddee=Γwb x (334a) point. Without going into an actual proof, it should not

NASA/TP—2005-213115 54 bw Acceleration is an absolute derivative. If we set ddee()bm=−Γwm x ( ) (334b) ds = dt, the time differential, then the derivative of the

velocity vector with components ck or c is given Next, we write the full expressions for the differential k k of the vector V in both its contravariant and its above (eqs. (338a) and 338(b)). The term with Γwt in covariant forms: each of the expressions above is the term that contributes the components of the pseudoacceleration. ddVe=+Γvvxkkw()ktt d e () (335a) (Note that the derivative of the coordinate values in the ( ) wk second term represents a component of the velocity.) In an inertial system, the terms Γk vanish kw wt ddVe=−Γ( vvxkkwm) ()km d e ( ) (335b) k everywhere, that is, Γwt = 0.

Covariant derivative.⎯Let us now differentiate the Since there are no free indexes in either of these two vector V with respect to one of the coordinate values, equations, we may do some index swapping and write say dxq; that is, we wish now to form the partial q ktk w()k derivative ∂V/∂x . The components of this derivative ddVe=+Γ( vvwt d x) (336a) form the so-called covariant derivative of the vector, which has for its contravariant and covariant m w components, respectively, ddVe=−Γ( vvkmwk d x) ()k (336b)

kk ∂∂cv⎛⎞t k Students should examine these expressions and be = ⎜⎟+Γv qt (339a) certain that they understand how the results were ∂∂xxqq⎝⎠ obtained. Look at the two forms of the vector differential dV ∂∂cvkk⎛⎞ m more closely. Note that as written, the terms enclosed = ⎜⎟−Γvm qk (339b) ∂∂xxqq⎝⎠ in parentheses are components of a contravariant vector and a covariant vector, respectively. We call These components are often abbreviated as k these components dc and dck. Then, k kt⎛⎞∂v k ddcvvxkktw=+Γk d (337a) vv,q = ⎜⎟+Γqt (340a) wt ⎝⎠∂xq

m w ddcvvkkm=−Γwk d x (337b) ⎛⎞∂vk m vvkq, = ⎜⎟−Γ m qk (340b) ⎝⎠∂xq These last two expressions are the standard form usually seen in text books. Using these expressions, we The placement of the differentiation index q in the may now introduce two types of tensor derivatives, the covariant position in both cases is what drives the absolute and the covariant. name “covariant derivative.” Absolute derivative.⎯Let ds be the differential of a We now return to the absolute derivatives and write rank 0 tensor and form the derivative of the vector V, still further: that is, dV/ds. This derivative is the absolute derivative of the vector and has for its contravariant and covariant kkw ddcvx⎛⎞⎛⎞∂ t k components, respectively, =+Γ⎜⎟⎜⎟v wt ddsx⎝⎠⎝⎠∂ w s (341a) kk w ⎛⎞⎛⎞ddxwwx ddcv⎛⎞t k ⎛ d x ⎞ ×=vk =+Γ⎜⎟v wt ⎜ ⎟ (338a) ⎜⎟⎜⎟,w dds ⎝⎠ss ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝⎠⎝⎠dds s

w ddcvkk⎛⎞ m ⎛⎞ d x =−Γ⎜⎟vm wk ⎜⎟ (338b) dds ⎝⎠ss⎝⎠ d

NASA/TP—2005-213115 55 38 d cv⎛⎞∂ ⎛⎞d xw situation should make us suspect the “tensorhood” of kk=−Γv m ⎜⎟w ⎜⎟m wk Γm . ddsx⎝⎠∂ ⎝⎠ s sk (341b) m ⎛⎞ddxww ⎛⎞x Let us now show that Γsk is not a tensor. We will × ⎜⎟= vkw, ⎜⎟ use the fact that the covariant derivative of a covariant ⎝⎠dds ⎝⎠s vector vk,q is a tensor. Then k and for the differentials dc and dck, * ⎛⎞∂∂vvkktt⎛⎞ vv= **→−Γ=−Γ v v* (346) kkw kq,, kq⎜⎟qq tkq⎜⎟ t kq ddcvx= ,w (342a) ⎝⎠∂∂xx⎝⎠*

w and, therefore, ddcvkkw= , x (342a)

⎛⎞∂∂vv⎛⎞* We can demonstrate the coordinate independence of vvΓ−Γtt* * =kk + (347) ttkq kq ⎜⎟qq⎜⎟ k k ⎝⎠∂∂xx* v,w and vk,w by noting that the vector differential dc is ⎝⎠ w a tensor as is the coordinate differential dx . Therefore, Now, even if vv= * (i.e., even if the vector with tt covariant components v is a tensor), we still would dd*cckk= (343a) t only have

dd*xww= x (343a) ⎛⎞∂∂vvkk⎛⎞* v Γ−Γtt* = + (348) t ()kq kq ⎜⎟qq⎜⎟ so that ⎝⎠∂∂xx⎝⎠*

kwkwkw and since we cannot guarantee the vanishing of the vxvxvx,,wwd*d**d== , w (344) q q term (∂vk/∂x ) + (∂vk*/∂x *) everywhere throughout the and frame of reference, we cannot directly establish that tt* t (Γkq−Γ kq ) =0 . Thus, the terms Γkq are not kk w (vv,,ww−=*d) x 0 (345) coordinate independent and may not be admitted into the class of objects called tensors. Since dxw is an arbitrary vector (i.e., dxw ≠ 0 If we wish to establish our argument even more k k generally), we must conclude that (v ,w − v ,w*) = 0 or firmly, we may seek out and find a single actual case that vk, = vk, *. Q.E.D. tt* w w where (Γkq−Γ kq ) ≠0 . One such case is sufficient to The argument for v , is similar and is left as an k q t 39 exercise for the reader. argue that Γkq is not a tensor by counterexample. To q q * q do so, let ∂vk/∂x ≠ 0 and ∂vk/∂x = ∂∂vxk /*. In other k Tensor Character of Γ q 40 wt words, let ∂vk/∂x be a nonvanishing tensor. Then

Are the Christoffel symbols tensors? The quick 38 (k) m s (m) answer is no, they are not. The Christoffel symbols are The term de on the right-hand side is a tensor. The term Γsk dx e on the left-hand side comprises a tensor dxs, a nontensor e(m), and an unknown components of a triad, but the triad itself is not the m Γsk . The unknown is either a tensor or it is not. If it is a tensor, then its same in all frames of reference; that is, it is coordinate s m s combination with dx produces another tensor Γsk dx , whose product with (m) m s (m) dependent. e results in the nontensor Γsk dx e . We then have the contradiction that (k) m s (m) Recall that the base vectors are not tensors. They a tensor de is equal to a nontensor Γsk dx e . Therefore, by reductio ad absurdum, Γm cannot be a tensor. This argument is not a proof that Γm is have the same type of coordinate dependence as sk sk not a tensor, but it certainly makes us suspect. the position vectors. Thus, in the expression 39 t t* t The relationship ( Γkq − Γkq ) = 0 must hold for all cases if Γkq is to be a (k) m s (m) de = Γsk dx e , the right-hand side consists of a tensor. Therefore, to demonstrate the existence of even one case to the contrary is sufficient to eliminate Γt from the tensor family. tensor dxs, a nontensor e(m), and the term Γm . The left- kq sk 40Any vector field with a nonvanishing divergence, such as the gravitational (k) hand side de , on the other hand, is a tensor. This field of a point mass or the electric field of an isolated point charge, q satisfies this condition. The divergence is the contraction of ∂vk/∂x , that is, the scalar obtained from setting k = q and summing over the repeated index.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 56 ⎛⎞∂∂vv⎛⎞** ⎛⎞ ∂∂∂ vvv ⎛⎞2 * ⎡⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xxij⎤ kk−=→+=0 kkk (349) ⎜⎟qq⎜⎟ ⎜⎟ qqq ⎜⎟* ∂ ⎢⎜⎟⎜⎟gij ⎥ ⎝⎠∂∂x ⎝⎠xxxx** ⎝⎠ ∂∂∂ ⎝⎠ ∂()g*st ⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂xxst** = ⎣ ⎦ ∂∂xxqq* * In this case, ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂2 xxij ⎛⎞2∂v = ⎜⎟⎜⎟gij tt* k ∂∂xxqs** ∂ x t * vvttΓ=Γkq kq * +⎜⎟ (350) ⎝⎠⎝⎠ (353) ⎝⎠∂xq ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xxij2 + g ⎜⎟⎜⎟sqtij Even if we set vt = vt* , this argument again shows that ⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂∂xxx*** Γt does not obey the usual transformation law for kq ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xxij⎡⎤∂()gij + ⎢⎥ tensors in the particular case considered. There is an ⎜⎟⎜⎟st q ⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂∂xxx**⎢⎥ * additional term on the right-hand side of the equation. ⎣⎦ Therefore, since Γt is not a tensor in this case, it may kq We now note that not be regarded as a tensor in general. We may also proceed to explore the tensor character ∂∂ggk ⎡⎤ m ( ij) ⎛⎞∂x ( ij ) of Γsk by writing the complete transformation law for = ⎜⎟⎢⎥ (354) ∂∂∂xxxqqk** m ⎝⎠⎣⎦⎢⎥ Γsk . The process is somewhat more tedious than what we have just done, but it involves nothing new or out of the ordinary. The result is so that, upon substitution, we get

kuw ∂ g*st 2 ij k s ⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂∂xxx* ( ) ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xx Γ=Γqt * uw ⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟ = ⎜⎟⎜⎟gij ⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂xxsq** ∂ x t ∂∂∂∂xxxxqqst****⎝⎠⎝⎠ (351) ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xxka* 2 ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xxij2 +⎜⎟⎜⎟ +⎜⎟⎜⎟gij (355) ⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂∂xxxaqt** ⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂∂xxxsqt***

ijk⎡⎤ Again, the extra right-hand-side term (∂xk*/∂xa) ⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂∂xxx∂()gij +⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟⎢⎥ 2 a q t ∂∂∂xxxstq** * ∂ x k (∂ x /∂x *∂x *) shows that the transformation is not a ⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠⎣⎦⎢⎥ m tensor transformation and, therefore, that Γsk is not a tensor. Now, let us permute the indexes stq and ijk in this s To acquire the coordinate transformation for Γuw , let equation just as we permuted them when deriving the s us recognize that the individual terms that are summed original expression for Γuw . We will also take into s to form Γuw are the coordinate derivatives of the account certain dummy indexes and the symmetry of components of the covariant fundamental tensor. We gij in dealing with the right-hand side. We obtain this know that the fundamental tensor itself transforms result: according to the rule:

∂( g*st ) ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂2 xxij ij = ⎜⎟⎜⎟gij ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xx ∂∂∂∂xxxxqqst**** gg*stij= ⎜⎟⎜⎟ (352) ⎝⎠⎝⎠ ∂∂xxst** ⎝⎠⎝⎠ ij2 ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xx +⎜⎟⎜⎟gij (356) If we form the coordinate derivative of this equation ⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂∂xxxsqt*** with respect to the coordinate xq*, we will have taken a ijk⎡⎤ first step towards obtaining the coordinate ⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂∂xxx∂()gij +⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟⎢⎥ s ∂∂∂xxxstq** * ∂ x k transformation of Γuw . Thus, ⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠⎣⎦⎢⎥

The nonvanishing scalar divergence guarantees that at least one diagonal q term in ∂vk/∂x will be nonzero.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 57 TABC= (361) ∂()gtq* ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂2 xxij = ⎜⎟⎜⎟gij ∂∂∂∂xxxxsstq**** ⎝⎠⎝⎠ The differential of T is ⎛⎞⎛∂∂xxii2 ⎞ +⎜⎟⎜ ⎟gij (357) ⎝⎠⎝∂∂∂xxxtsq*** ⎠ DdTABCABCABC=++( ) ( d) ( d) (362)

⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xxjk ∂ x i⎡⎤∂()g jk +⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟⎢⎥ where D is used as the differential operator on the left- ∂∂xxtqs*** ∂ x ∂ x i ⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠⎣⎦⎢⎥ hand side to indicate that the differential DT may become either an absolute or a covariant derivative once an appropriate denominator is specified. ∂( gqs* ) ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂2 xxij Let us assume that the vectors A and B are given in = ⎜⎟⎜⎟gij ∂∂∂∂xxxxttqs****⎝⎠⎝⎠ contravariant representation whereas the vector C is given in covariant representation. We also assume that ii2 ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xx T, A, B, and C are all tensors and that the components +⎜⎟⎜⎟gij (358) ⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂∂xxxqts*** ij u s of T are tk , of A are a , of B are b , and of C are ct. ⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂∂xxxkij⎡⎤∂()g Then expressions (361) and (362) become + ki ⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟qst⎢⎥ j ⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂∂xxx***⎣⎦ ∂ x ij ij tabck = k (363) Adding the first two equations, subtracting the third, then substituting Γ*qst and Γijk in the result gives and

⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂∂xxxkij * ij iiuwj Γ=qst⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟ Γ ijk Ddtak =+Γ( uw axbc d) k ⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂∂xxxqst*** (359) ijj sw ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂2 xxij ++Γab()ddsw bxc k +⎜⎟⎜⎟gij ∂∂xxqs** ∂ x t * ijt w ⎝⎠⎝⎠ ++Γab()dd cktkw c x ij iuj w k ks =+Γ()dda bckuwk abc x And finally, using the relation Γqt = g Γqst in both ijj isw frames of reference gives ++Γabc()ddkswk abcx ijt ij w ++Γab()dd cktkw ab c x (364) ⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂∂xxxkuw* k s ij i j Γ=Γqt* uw ⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟ =+()ddabckk a () b c ⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂xxsq** ∂ x t (360) ++Γabijdd c i abc uj x w ⎛⎞⎛⎞∂∂xxka* 2 ()kuwk + ⎜⎟⎜⎟aqt j is wt i j w ⎝⎠⎝⎠∂∂∂xxx** +Γswabc kdd x + Γkw ab c t x ij iwuj j is w =+Γdtk uwswtxkkdd+Γ tx Q.E.D. t ij w +Γkwtxt d Differentials of Higher Rank Tensors Again, the use of D as the differential operator in Dtij Once having established the basic pattern for vector k (i.e., rank 1 tensor) differentials, it is a relatively is to indicate that the differential may become either an straightforward process to write the differentials of a absolute or a covariant derivative once an appropriate general rank n mixed tensor. We will provide an denominator is specified. Careful examination of example that points directly to what the general case expression (364) shows that as a general rule in writing ij should look like. out the differential for the third rank mixed tensor tk , Consider the triad one proceeds much as for a vector by writing first the ij total differential d tk and then adding an extra and

NASA/TP—2005-213115 58 appropriate Γ term for each index. You may work out rule is established for all possible cases. The extension as many additional examples as you wish and are to tensors of higher rank than 2 should be intuitive. encouraged to do so to gain facility with the notation. For the case of the absolute derivative, we simply observe that Product Rule for Covariant Derivatives km w ddcxkm ⎛⎞ = c,w ⎜⎟ (369) Just as there is a product rule for differentials of dds s functions in basic college calculus, there is also a ⎝⎠ product rule for covariant and absolute derivatives. The km k m classical product rule is usually written as We set c = a b and apply the results that we have just proven for covariant differentiation. ddd(uv) =+ u( v) v( u) (365) Second Covariant Derivative of a Tensor with extension to total and partial derivatives. We will Covariant derivatives of order higher than one⎯that show that the same rule holds for covariant and is, second and third covariant derivatives⎯are often absolute derivatives. We begin with the rank 2 km required. Obtaining these derivatives is a contravariant tensor c and form its covariant straightforward process that is illustrated here again by derivative with respect to the coordinate index s: way of an example. Let us begin with the first covariant derivative of a km km⎛⎞∂c k wm m kq contravariant tensor: ccc,swsqs=+Γ+Γ⎜⎟ (366) ⎝⎠∂xs k kt⎛⎞∂v k k vv,q = ⎜⎟+Γqt (370) Next, we observe that we can always find vectors a ⎝⎠∂xq m km k m and b such that c = a b . Therefore, We wish to obtain a second covariant derivative that we write as cabckm =→=km km ab km (367) ,s (),s vvkk= (371) ( ,,qqr),r km We now substitute for c in the covariant derivative (366) and simplify: The term on the left-hand side makes it clear that we are dealing with the equivalent of a covariant ⎛⎞∂abkm derivative with respect to the index r of a rank 2 tensor abkm=+Γ+Γ k ab wm m ab kq ()⎜⎟s ws qs (namely, the covariant derivative with respect to the ,s ⎝⎠∂x k km index r of v,q ) so that we may directly apply the ⎛⎞∂∂abmkkwmmkq ⎛ ⎞ =⎜⎟baabab + ⎜ ⎟ +Γws +Γ qs ∂∂xxss results of the previous section to obtain ⎝⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎡⎤⎡⎤⎛⎞∂∂abkm ⎛ ⎞ k =+Γ++Γbabaabmkwm kmkq (368) ⎛⎞∂v,q ⎢⎥⎢⎥⎜⎟ssws ⎜ ⎟ qs vvvkkmsk=+Γ+Γ⎜⎟ (372) ⎣⎦⎣⎦⎝⎠∂∂xx ⎝ ⎠ (),,,qqmrqrs,r ⎜⎟r ⎝⎠∂x ⎡⎤⎡⎤⎛⎞∂∂abkm ⎛ ⎞ =+Γ++Γkwmab mq bak ⎢⎥⎢⎜⎟ssws ⎜ ⎟ qs ⎥ ⎣⎦⎣⎦⎝⎠∂∂xx ⎝ ⎠ The same logic may be recursively applied to obtain covariant derivatives of any order. abkm=+ a k b m a k b m ()()(),s ,,ss The Riemann-Christoffel Curvature Tensor The last line is the sought-after product rule for covariant derivatives of a rank 2 contravariant tensor. Having acquired the second covariant derivative of The same operations may be repeated for rank 2 the tensor vk, it is important to observe that the order of covariant or rank 2 mixed tensors. Hence, the product differentiation is significant. Covariant differentiation k k is not commutative. Write the symbols v,qr and v,rq .

NASA/TP—2005-213115 59 Note that the order of the covariant indices is reversed Now imagine a vector tangent to the sphere at the between the two terms. Now it may be shown that pole. Let the vector point along the first leg of the triangle toward the equator. Move the vector, kk ks vvRv,,qr−= rq rqs (373) maintaining tangency, along the first leg of the triangle. Maintaining tangency (or equivalently, k perpendicularity to a radial line attached to the tail of This equation expresses the difference between v,qr the vector) assures parallel transport in this case. When k k and v,rq as a function of fourth-rank tensor Rrqs and the vector reaches the equator, it will have already the vector vs with summation over the index s. The turned through an angle of 90° from its original k position. It arrives perpendicular to the equator, tensor Rrqs is called the Riemann-Christoffel curvature pointing away from the pole from which it started. tensor. It plays an essential role in the development of Next, move the vector along the equator, maintaining general relativity. Using equation (372), it may be perpendicularity to the equator, until it arrives at the shown that next poleward leg. It will still be tangent to the sphere and will point along the third leg of the triangle. Now k k ∂Γ ∂Γqs move it along this third leg back to the pole. When the Rkkmkm=−+ΓΓ−ΓΓrs (374) rqs∂∂xxqr rmqs qmrs vector returns to the pole, it will still point along the third leg, but note that the third leg of the triangle Details of this calculation are left to the reader. This meets the first leg at an angle of 90°. The vector has tensor vanishes everywhere in a Euclidean n-space been rotated through 90° on its journey around the n k (i.e., for all points in any E , Rrqs = 0). This tensor spherical triangle. In general, this characteristic of a vector to undergo a does not vanish in the general case of a non-Euclidean change when transported along a geodesic line in non- n-space. This fact means that the results of vector Euclidean space is quantitatively represented by the transport in non-Euclidean spaces is path dependent. Riemann-Christoffel curvature tensor. An easy example of such a transport (called parallel transport) is the transport of a tangent vector along a Derivatives of the Fundamental Tensor closed path (a spherical triangle) on the surface of a sphere. Recall that a sphere is a non-Euclidean two- kp p We now recall the equation gikg = δi . We will space. To form the path, start at a pole of the sphere rewrite this equation in differential form: and draw a geodesic line (great circle) to the equator.

This leg of the triangle subtends an angle of 90° at the kp kp center of the sphere. Now turn at a right angle, and (dd0ggik) += g ik ( g) (375) proceed another 90° along the equator. Turn again at right angles and return along a third great circle to the or equivalently, pole. kp kp If properly drawn, the triangle will consist of three (ddgik) ggg=− ik ( ) (376) legs of equal length and three right angles. The sum of the interior angles of our spherical triangle is 270°. s Differentiating with respect to x gives the result Remember that a spherical triangle is different from a

Euclidean or planar triangle. The interior angles of all kp planar triangles add to 180°. The interior angles of a ⎛⎞∂∂ggik kp ⎛⎞ ⎜⎟gg=− ik ⎜⎟ (377) spherical triangle add to variable numbers of degrees ⎝⎠∂∂xs ⎝⎠xs depending on the triangle, but the sum is always greater that 180°. The difference is called the spherical This equation is very useful in building tensor proofs excess. and/or in reducing complicated tensor equations. In the case of our triangle, the spherical excess is Next let us write out the covariant derivative of gmk: 90°. What is important to remember here is that our spherical triangle is completely contained within our ∂g g =−Γ−Γmk t ggr (378) chosen two-dimensional space (i.e., within the surface mk, s∂xs ms tkks mr of the sphere).

NASA/TP—2005-213115 60 For practice, let us derive the expression for gmk,k arbitrary vector, this last equation is only satisfied k from the relationship vi = gikv . We begin by writing when the covariant derivative of v with respect to the index i ∂g s, and then we reduce the result. In the process, several ik − Γ−−Γ=wwgg g 0 (384) s is wk ik, s iw ks important facets of basic “tensorship” will be revealed. ∂x We form the covariant derivative with respect to the from which we are able to obtain the sought-after index s of the covariant rank 1 tensor vi: relationship:

vgvgvgv==+kkk (379) ∂g i,,, s( ik),s () ik s ik( s ) ik −Γwwgg − Γ = gQ.E.D. (385) s is wk iwks ik, s ∂x

We expand just the left-hand term vi,s: Carefully review the steps in this calculation and be certain that you understand them. This type of exercise k ∂()gvik vgv=−Γw k provides the best practice for becoming familiar with is, s is wk ∂x (380) the exigencies of using tensor notation. ∂∂gvk =+−Γvgkkik w gv ssikis wk Gradient, Divergence, and Curl of a Vector Field ∂∂xx This section presents the tensor forms of the vector and next expand the second term on the right-hand operations that are frequently used in physics and k k side, (gik,s)v + gik (v,s ) : engineering, namely, the gradient, divergence, and curl of a vector field. k First, consider a well-behaved scalar field φ over kkw⎛⎞∂v gik()vg, s=+Γ ik⎜⎟ ws v (381) some region of space. Suppose that the scalar is ∂xs ⎝⎠ temperature. It is clear that if the field is not perfectly

Let us now combine the two results just obtained: uniform (i.e., φ = constant), there will be nonzero heat fluxes: thermal energy will “flow” down the thermal kk , allowing the warmer regions to cool and the vg∂∂ik g ik v w kk +−Γ=is gvwk() g ik, s v cooler regions to warm. ∂∂xxss (382) In conventional notation, the gradient of a scalar k gvik ∂ kw field is represented as ++Γgik wsv ∂xs grad φ=∇φ (386)

We then bring all terms to one side of the equal sign The gradient of a scalar field φ defined over some and simplify: region of space is a vector field defined over the same

region of space or at least over that subregion of the kk vg∂∂ik g ik v w kk +−Γ−is gvwk() g ik, s v space in which the vector function represented by ∇φ ∂∂xxss (383a) exists. This new vector field has as its components the k gvik ∂ kw first-order coordinate derivatives of φ. The gradient, at −−Γ=gvik ws 0 ∂xs every point, has the direction along which φ increases most rapidly. In tensor notation, the gradient is vgk ∂ represented as a covariant derivative of a scalar or rank ik −Γwgvkkkw − g v − g Γ v =0 (383b) s is wk() ik, s ik ws 0 tensor: ∂x ∂φ φ=,r (387) ⎛⎞∂gik wwk ∂xr ⎜⎟−Γis ggwk − ik, s − g iw Γks v =0 (383c) ⎝⎠∂xs Since φ is a rank 0 tensor, there are no Γ terms added Note the switch in dummy indexes in the last term in k to the partial derivative, and the gradient appears the last step. Now, let us argue that since v is an essentially the same in tensor notation as it does in

NASA/TP—2005-213115 61 conventional notation. Thus, whatever coordinate dyad ∇V, which represents the gradient of the vector system we choose to work with, the coordinate field. We now set s = r and sum over the repeated derivatives of the scalar field φ are components of the index. However, to carry out this operation, we require gradient field associated with φ. a covariant and a contravariant index. We know how to find the contravariant components of V given the Be careful to make appropriate metric adjustments covariant components; we apply the fundamental when applying this rule. Remember that tensor and contract dimensional consistency is still of paramount qqs importance in the formulations of physical and vgv= s (390) engineering equations. The units associated with the gradient field comprise the units associated We can now write the divergence of V directly as with the scalar field divided by distance. Thus, if φ q represents a temperature field in degrees kelvin div V = v,q (391) (°K), grad φ represents a temperature gradient field in degrees kelvin per meter (°K/m). This exercise reiterates an important point: summation indexes must always occur on covariant- Next, consider the divergence of a vector field V. contravariant pairs. One important reason for writing The divergence is represented in conventional notation the equations relating the covariant and contravariant as components of a tensor through the fundamental tensor divVV=∇⋅ (388) is illustrated in the example just given. Finally, we consider the curl of a vector field V. The The divergence of a vector field is a scalar field. The curl of a vector field is another vector field, sometimes divergence is a measure of the net outflow from or called an axial field. In conventional notation and inflow to a source, preferably a point source. The using Cartesian coordinates, the curl of V is written electric field of a point charge has a nonzero divergence at the site of the charge itself. An ijk imponderable fluid called the electric flux was once ∂∂∂ thought to flow from the charge through the curlVV=∇× = (392) ∂∂∂x yz surrounding space. A negative divergence is sometimes called a convergence. VVVx yz A nice interpretation of the divergence field derives from Green’s theorem that states An older name for curl V is the rotation of V, abbreviated “rot V.” This name refers back to the time The volume integral of the divergence of a when physicists thought light transmission occurred as vector field is equal to the area integral of the oscillations in a mechanical medium called the same vector field over the closed surface that luminiferous ether. The curl of any physical vector bounds the volume: field, such as the magnetic field, was imagined to

represent an actual rotation or vortex in the ether. In ∫∫()∇⋅VVSddv = ⋅ (389) the representation of a vortex, the rotational axis is the most natural vector direction to choose. That is why where dv is a volume element and dS is an area the curl at any given point in the field is treated as an element. In other words, if there is a nonzero flow axial vector. Similarly in fluid dynamics, if V is the source contained somewhere within a closed volume, velocity vector in a fluid, then ∇ × V represents the the total outflow from that source must cross through rotation or vorticity of the flow. the closed surface which surrounds (bounds) the A nice interpretation of the curl field derives from volume. the theorem that states Recall that in tensor notation, inner products are represented by repeated indexes with summation. Let The area integral of the curl of a vector field is equal to the line integral of the same vector V be a covariant vector with components vs. To obtain the divergence of this field, let us first form the rank field over the closed curve that bounds the area. 2 tensor vs,r. The values vs,r are components of the

NASA/TP—2005-213115 62 In other words, if there are nonzero rotations contained When a contradiction occurs in any deductive within a closed area, the total circulation around the system,41 it is typically necessary to examine the closed perimeter of the area is the (vector) sum of the postulates on which the system is built. Changing or individual rotations. eliminating one or more of them will usually eliminate In tensor notation, the components of the curl are the contradiction. The special or limited theory of written as relativity published in 1905 accomplished its purpose by eliminating two fundamental concepts upon which Components of curlV →−vvij,, ji (393) all classical mechanics rested. These concepts were where the indexes i and j take on the values 1, 2, 3 1. The existence of absolute space sequentially in pairs: 2. The existence of absolute time

Later, another revision would be introduced: in 1917, (ij,1,2,2,3,and3,1) = ( ) ( ) ( ) (394) the general theory would eliminate the insistence that spacetime be thought of strictly in terms of Euclidean geometry. General relativity took the unprecedented Relativity step of conceiving spacetime as curved. Special relativity essentially agrees with classical Statement of Core Idea mechanics for all speeds except those approaching the

Every mathematical hypersurface has an intrinsic speed of light. As a moving system approaches this geometry. Spacetime also has an intrinsic geometry enormous speed, predictable if somewhat surprising, that is measurable by physical measuring rods and from classical predictions begin to make physical clocks. Light plays a pivotal role in making themselves felt. Also, whereas classical mechanics these measurements in astronomy and astrophysics imposes no speed restrictions on moving systems, because light provides the single means of relativity provides that nothing but light itself ever investigating the characteristics and distributions of move at the speed of light. Everything else may objects found in distant regions. If the overall approach arbitrarily close to the speed of light but must geometry of spacetime determined by light beams always move at least incrementally slower. cannot be made to match the classical geometry of Most students do not grasp the enormity of the speed of light c. Numerically, it is easily written as Euclid, then Euclidean geometry cannot be the intrinsic 8 geometry of spacetime, and another geometry must be c = 3×10 m/s. Physically, it is the equivalent of discovered from which to draw a mathematical circumnavigating the Earth at the equator just under description. Tensor analysis allows us to consider very eight complete circuits in 1 sec. If an object is moving generalized differential geometries and to investigate at some speed v < c, then the error between classical 2 how they apply to the universe at large. The merger of physics and relativity is of the order42 ½(v/c) . For the differential geometry and spacetime was accomplished orbiting space shuttle, which travels at a nominal speed in the early 20th century by Dr. Albert Einstein. of 7.4 km/s, ½(v/c)2 = 3×10−16. For the Earth’s motion about the Sun, 30 km/s, ½(v/c)2 = 5×10−15. From Classical Physics to the Theory of Relativity These numbers demonstrate that relativity does not impose significant restrictions at “everyday” speeds, The theory of relativity was introduced to the world even those speeds we consider “astronomical.” But, for in 1905. It had been developed initially to correct a a fundamental particle traveling at 3×107 m/s or 0.1 contradiction that had developed in physics during the times the speed of light, ½(v/c)2 = 0.005. This error is 19th century. The contradiction occurred between the 12 orders of magnitude larger than that for the Earth in classical mechanics of Newton and the its orbit. Laboratory measurements of fundamental electrodynamics of Maxwell. Maxwell’s theory very particles can detect differences of this size and naturally gave the speed of light as a universal therefore used to support the theory of relativity. constant; according to Newton, no such universal constant could exist. 41As a whole, physics includes classical mechanics and classical electrodynamics and is the deductive system referred to herein. 42Actually, √[1 – (v/c)2]. This term is often referred to as the “contraction factor.” By approximation, √[1 – (v/c)2] ~ 1 – ½(v/c)2. The error is taken here as the second term, ½(v/c)2.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 63 Astrophysical measurements also lend credence to Through any point outside a given line in space, relativity. Shortly after its initial publication, general there is one and only one line that can be drawn relativity predicted a general expansion of the universe. which is parallel to the given line. Einstein seriously doubted this result but it was soon confirmed by observation. The expansion is such that Some mathematicians believed that this postulate galaxies seen from Earth appear to be receding at could actually be derived as a theorem and therefore speeds proportional to their . As one looks should not be called a postulate. Others believed that it outward farther and farther, one reaches a distance at was a postulate but that it could be replaced with a which the speed of recession approaches that of light. different postulate and the result would be a geometry Beyond this distance, no telescope will ever be able to different from that of Euclid. see. In other words, there is an observational horizon to In fact, in the 19th century, two such postulates the universe as we see it.43 emerged, and they produced two very different but Today, NASA’s Hubble space telescope sees to internally consistent non-Euclidean geometries: somewhere around 75 percent of this distance. Hubble telescope observations allow us to answer some of the 5.1: Through any point outside a given straight line most perplexing questions about the large-scale in space, there is no line that can be drawn which structure of the universe and of spacetime itself. is parallel to the given line; all lines drawn through Hubble photographs of distant galaxy fields provide the point will intersect the given line at some finite tantalizing clues to the large-scale distribution of distance from the point. matter throughout the universe, the overall curvature of 5.2: Through any point outside a given straight line the cosmos, and the conditions that prevailed in the in space, there are an infinite number of other lines early universe. Hubble’s descendants, if any, will that can be drawn parallel to the given line. These enable more information to be gathered as other lines exist between two lines which intersect astrophysicists gradually piece together the greatest at a finite angle at the point and which themselves jigsaw puzzle of them all. are parallel to the given line (intersecting it, one at In his 1917 paper introducing general relativity, +∞ and the other at −∞). Einstein laid a radical new foundation for the physics of gravitational fields. Whereas Newton conceived of The simplest of the new geometries that resulted gravity as an action at a distance between individual from these postulates involved the geometry of pieces of matter, Einstein conceived of it as a location spherical surfaces on the one hand (5.1) and and local time-dependent curvature of spacetime. The pseudospherical surfaces (“saddles”) on the other (5.2). notion of curved spacetime can be daunting to the Both spheres and pseudospheres are two-dimensional student who is not familiar with it. To grasp the surfaces. The concepts developed about their concept, it is helpful on one hand to understand non- geometries are readily extended to spaces of n- Euclidean geometry and on the other hand to dimensions. Spherical geometries are geometries of understand how non-Euclidean geometry is applied to positive curvature44 and collectively are included under the world at large. the more general title “elliptical geometry.” Until the 19th century, the only geometry available Pseudospherical geometries are geometries of negative to mathematicians and physicists was that of Euclid. curvature and go collectively under the general title Many investigators had long believed that other “hyperbolic geometry.” geometries were possible, but the first of these other To understand how elliptical geometry is applied, geometries did not appear until the 19th century. The one need look no farther than a ship’s navigator. He point in question was almost always Euclid’s parallel has to apply the concepts of spherical geometry in his line postulate: calculations because the geometry of the plane does

not work over large distances on the surface of the Earth. The shortest distances between various locations

44The difference between positive and negative in this case can 43This statement is true for every observer at every location in the universe. be understood in the placement of radii of the surface. All the radii of the sphere lie on the concave side of the surface. The radii of the saddle lie on Thus, an observer on my horizon will be able to see objects that lie beyond, both sides of the surface. Another way of saying this is that the center of the objects barred from my instruments by the general expansion. I, in turn, am sphere is a single point in space a finite distance from the surface. The two able to see objects barred from his. centers of the pseudosphere lie on opposite sides of the surface.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 64 are not straight lines but the curves of great circles. correspond with elements or properties of the universe. Two ships on parallel paths along two different For Newton, this space perforce was Euclidean. For constant longitudes will eventually approach each Einstein, it was non-Euclidean. other and collide. These characteristics are easily demonstrated with a felt pen on a toy ball. And a quick We say that spacetime is curved if and only if the glance at any mathematics handbook will reveal the mathematical space that best describes it is non- trigonometric formulas for spherical triangles and other Euclidean. figures drawn on the surface of a sphere. Exploring the geometry of a sphere by drawing In other words, the property of curvature or flatness figures on a ball will reveal the geometry of the assigned to spacetime derives from a combination of spherical surface but will not necessarily demonstrate measurements made within spacetime and the specific that that geometry is intrinsic to the surface. The geometry to which those measurements can best be demonstration with the ball is the equivalent of fitted. developing spherical geometry by imagining a Let us return momentarily to the sphere. We know mathematical two-dimensional sphere embedded in a from the calculus that an incrementally small element three-dimensional Euclidean space. However, the of area behaves as though it were flat. In fact, this geometry of the spherical surface does not require the behavior is true of any curve, surface, hypersurface, three-dimensional Euclidean space for its and so on that we encounter in the calculus. A similar development; it can be worked out entirely from statement may be made about spacetime. A carefully measurements made within the spherical surface. chosen local region may be considered Euclidean Hence, we say that it is intrinsic to the surface. without incurring a large error in calculation or As with the sphere, one can also explore the measurement. This is one important property of geometry of the pseudosphere by drawing figures on a spacetime in relativity. saddle. Again, the demonstration involves the saddle The overall curvature of the sphere is constant; in being in a Euclidean space, but as with the sphere, the other words, measurements of curvature made on any geometry of the saddle is also intrinsic. The usual portion of the sphere will produce results that match heuristic model for developing the intrinsic geometry measurements made on any other portion. The overall of the sphere and the saddle is to imagine curvature of the saddle is also constant, but the measurements made by a two-dimensional being situation is more complicated for spacetime. A simple entirely confined to the surface, in other words, “a heuristic statement of Einstein’s law of gravity states shadow person” whose entire universe is the two- that local curvature is logically equivalent to local dimensional surface.45 gravity. But we already know from our classical Although we have been speaking of the sphere and studies that gravity varies from place to place. Thus, it the saddle, the development of elliptic and hyperbolic should be no surprise that curvature varies from place geometry is not confined to two dimensions. to place and time to time in relativity. It is exactly here Geometries of an arbitrary number of dimensions are that tensor analysis enters the picture. possible and have been developed. It is worthwhile to In the 19th century, a generalized differential study two-dimensional surfaces at the beginning geometry was developed to include as special cases the because examples of them are so readily available. hyperbolic and elliptical geometries we have already Once the general concepts begin to be grasped, the encountered and to include all other possibilities as extension to higher numbers of dimensions is not well. That differential geometry is exactly represented altogether difficult. in the tensor formalisms that we have been exploring. In general relativity, non-Euclidean geometries In general relativity, Einstein essentially fused become the norm for describing the gravitational field. differential geometry with the physics of the We say that spacetime is curved, and we are now in a gravitational field. In the process, he produced one of position to grasp what this idea means. First, we assert the great revolutions in 20th century thought. that there must exist a mathematical space that It is reasonable to ask whether nature provides describes the universe. Elements of the space must motivation for making such a step into the abstract. The answer is that nature, as understood in the present 45The analogue in modern astrophysics is ourselves, four-dimensional paradigm of physics, certainly does. The following beings entirely confined to the four-dimensional hypersurface called spacetime. Our entire universe is the four-dimensional hypersurface.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 65 sections will explore some of those motivations using where E is total energy, m is mass, c is the speed of our understanding as derived from classical mechanics light, and p is momentum. Elsewhere, it was and special relativity. demonstrated that light was particulate in nature, Parallel straight lines.⎯In considering the geometry propagating in discreet “chunks” called quanta. For of the universe, one question that I must answer is light of a given frequency (color) ν in inverse seconds, whether I can produce Euclidean parallel lines (two the associated quantum of energy is hν, where h is straight lines with some separation) that may be Planck’s constant, 6.626×10−34 J-sec. Using equation extended indefinitely without changing their separation (395), we see immediately that a light quantum must and without causing their intersection. We have possess a mass equivalent already established that light is the primary means available for exploring the universe, so I will choose to hν m = (397) build my lines out of light “pencils,” straight, 2 divergence-free beams of light. To do so, I will choose c two divergence-free lasers46 from my stockroom of ideal physics supplies. From my laboratory on Earth, I For blue light with a wavelength of 4000 Å, hν is −19 then fire two laser beams into space, taking every approximately 5×10 J and m is approximately precaution to ensure that the beams are locally parallel 5×10−36 kg. Since the photons in the laser beams have (i.e., they make the same angle locally with a third mass, they must exert a gravitational influence on each laser beam set up to intersect the other two), and if other, however small. We should therefore expect the these beams were gradually to come together and photons in each beam to attract the photons in the other intersect anyway, even at a distance of hundreds or beam so that the two beams will gradually approach thousands of light years from Earth, then for a cosmic one another and eventually intersect. geometry measured with laser beams, the geometry The conditions and measurements that we made in would be non-Euclidean and space would have to be our Earth-bound laboratory gave no evidence of such a regarded as something other than classically flat. That large-scale curvature, at least to within the accuracy of is, it would have to be thought of as curved. our apparatus. Certainly, Newton could not have been Why would I ever expect the beams to come expected to produce any experimental evidence that it together? Newton certainly was not worried about this existed. And in our day and age, even if we had problem, but he did not know that light paths are tracked the beams to well beyond the orbit of Pluto, we influenced by gravity. He thought that light propagated might not have detected a significant departure from everywhere in straight lines. The influence of gravity spatial flatness. Even if we had tracked the laser beams on light propagation was not known until the early out past Alpha Centauri,47 we would probably have 20th century, and then it was worked and reworked by seen nothing to deter us from a sound conviction that Einstein until it assumed its final form in general Euclid’s geometry applied perfectly well to the relativity. geometry of space as measured by laser beams. In special relativity, Einstein showed that mass and However, if we follow them far enough, eventually we energy are equivalent and expressed this equivalence will be able to observe that they really do approach one in the famous equation another and finally intersect. The overall average curvature of the universe can only be determined by E = mc2 (395) making observations over cosmological distances. We might argue that using laser beams to observe He also merged the conservation laws of mass and the geometry of the universe was a bad choice. Surely, energy into one law: there must be some means to make observations without invoking curvature. But what else could we use? Light beams are the straightest beams that we can Epc222+=Aconstant (396) produce. Since even they curve, then the Euclidean

46Real laser beams diverge over distance (i.e., their beam diameter 47 increases). A laser fired from the Earth to the Moon will illuminate a spot A very rough approximation shows that for an initial separation of 1 mm, on the Moon many times larger in diameter than the original beam. For the baring all other perturbing factors, the laser beams would intersect at a sake of this argument, such divergence is to be ignored. nominal distance of 5×109 light years from Earth.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 66 straight line is reduced to a mere theoretical abstraction mass we start out with. Anything other than zero initial with no counterpart at all in nature. It appears that even mass produces an infinite density in the limit. a naïve argument is sufficient to bring our classical Physical theories are built of numbers and their notions of geometry as it relates to the universe into relationships. Can we admit an infinite quantity into serious question, at least insofar as understanding the realm of physics? We can only if infinity is also a observations made with light beams over cosmological number. Mathematicians have investigated infinity for distances. a long time. Although they have a great deal to say The finite speed of light imposes another constraint about its unusual properties, it seems clear that it on the geometry of the straight line. In college, we took cannot be regarded as a number. Thus, it can have no no issue with the idea of extending a line to infinity. To place in physics. The point mass with infinite density, do so would imply either infinite time or an therefore, cannot be admitted into physical theory. instantaneous extension. We do not have infinite time, The point mass also has an infinite surface energy and nothing known to physics can exceed the speed of density and an infinite surface gravity. There would light. So, the idea of infinite extension has no seem to be many strokes against the point mass as counterpart in physics. Even the gravitational influence being anything other than a theoretical abstraction or a cannot propagate from place to place at greater than kind of fiction that can be used in doing calculations light speed. A mass disturbance48 in one part of the based on the dubious premise that it works. Einstein universe is felt in another part removed from the sought a way around this dilemma in his later work by disturbance by a distance x only at a time x/c after it trying to write the equations of general relativity such originally occurred. that finite-sized fundamental particles would emerge as The geometrical point.⎯As with the physical natural solutions to the field equations. He never production of Euclidean parallel lines, we now ask succeeded. about the physical production of Euclidean geometrical Fundamental particles are another concept that points. Classical physics uses point mass should give physicists heartburn. For a particle to be representations of extended objects as the sites to fundamental, it must exist in the simplest possible which external forces and torques attach. It also uses terms in the sense that such irreducible ratios of point masses and point charges to represent integers as 2/3 or 4/15 exist in the simplest possible fundamental particles. terms. Let us assume that fundamental particles do A geometrical point has no size at all; its radius is exist in nature. We then inquire specifically about their zero. Consider a point mass. The definition of a point size. There are two possibilities: mass is a single field point with a mass value attached to it. For example, if the field point is the center of 1. They possess no size, having zero radius, so they mass of a launch vehicle, then all the forces on the are truly point objects. On the basis of the infinities vehicle are assumed to act through the point. already cited, we have already argued against point Now consider a sphere of radius r possessing a mass objects in nature. A similar argument could have been m distributed in some arbitrary way throughout its made for charge or for any other quantity. volume. Take the limit as r → 0 and the result should 2. They possess finite size; however, if they possess be a point mass. But what other characteristics should finite size, however small, then they can no longer be we examine before blithely accepting this idea? fundamental because they can be reduced to parts, an Consider mass density, mass per unit volume. As r → interior and a surface. One may then ask about the 0, density → ∞, regardless of how much or how little structure, state, and composition of the surface and, similarly, about the overall constitution of the interior.

Thus, it appears that neither point objects nor fundamental particles have realizations in the physical 48Physicists have sought to measure gravitational waves propagating from world. They exist in the realm of theoretical concepts mass dipoles, such as large binary stars. Newtonian physics was silent on only. As such, it is arguable that they have no formal the issue of gravitational propagation. Most undergraduate physics students are taught to assume that the gravitational influence is felt everywhere at the place in physics if the concepts of physics are to same time. Some think that the issue of propagation is best reserved for more advanced cosmological discussions. However, a disturbance on our Sun would not be felt by an observer on the planet Pluto until 5.5 hr after it had occurred⎯and the distance to Pluto is hardly cosmological.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 67 correspond with measurable aspects of the world at A perfectly rigid object can be so moved. In fact, we large.49 could define a perfectly rigid object as being one that Ability to move figures about without any distortion could be taken from place to place without in their shape and size.⎯We have already spoken of experiencing any distortions in shape and size. spherical and hyperbolic geometry. The sphere and the However, perfectly rigid objects do not exist, or if they pseudosphere specifically are spaces of constant do, we have no knowledge of them. All real material curvature, as is the plane (a space of zero curvature). In objects experience nonzero stresses and strains when each of these surfaces, figures can be moved about subjected to material transport. The stresses arise without experiencing any distortion in shape and size. because of time-variable external forces that play But we also know of surfaces that do not possess this across the object. The strains are concomitant property, surfaces that have variable curvature, such as geometric distortions. Even objects left stationary will the surface of an egg. What geometry applies to the sag with time simply because of their own weight, an surface of an egg? If we were to begin by considering a example being the wavy glass so highly prized by small enough region (an elemental area) of the egg antique collectors. over which the curvature could be thought of as These changes in real objects suggest that not only is approximately constant, then spherical or even space curved but, perhaps, so is time. Euclidean Euclidean geometry could be used throughout that geometry has now failed to provide an adequate region to whatever level of accuracy we wished. We foundation for thinking about the real world on several could map the entire egg by carefully selecting small counts. The errors in correspondence may be small, but adjacent regions and making similar applications of they are not negligible. Einstein’s response was to geometry in each. But the overall geometry of the egg, eliminate Euclidean geometry from physical theory the one obtained when we tried to put all the individual and to replace it with non-Euclidean geometry, results together into one piece, would be something specifically, a differentially metric geometry wherein quite different from what our local observations on local curvature depended on the observer’s position their own might have suggested. and time. With regard to mapping the entire egg, we would The geometry of general relativity was the brainchild find, for example, that there were certain directions on of Bernhard Riemann (1826−1866) and others. The the egg along which geometrical figures could be differential geometry that they formulated resulted transported without distortion. Along these directions from their mapping the various individual non- we would be able to prove concepts such as theorems Euclidean geometries onto the theory of partial of congruency and similarity just as we do in the plane, differential equations. The result, differential the sphere, and the saddle. However, there would be geometry, was a grand abstraction that stood in relation other directions, orthogonal to this first group, along to non-Euclidean geometry much as René Descartes’ which transportation of figures could not be (1506−1650) mapping of planar geometry onto the accomplished without their requiring significant theory of algebra stood in relation to Euclid. Also, just bending, stretching, or even tearing. Along these as earlier investigators in physics spoke of motion in directions, theorems of congruency and similarity the plane or in a Cartesian space, so 20th century would be strictly out of the question. investigators learned to speak of motion in a So what about real world figures? Can they be Riemannian differentially metric spacetime. moved about without distortion to their shape and size? The geometry of the theory of relativity cannot be drawn out on paper except for a few special cases. The 49If we define an interaction boundary as any n-dimensional surface across beauty of differential geometry is that drawing is not which dynamical information (such as momentum or energy) is exchanged necessary because it can represent the most general and and specify that this information may only be exchanged in discreet bundles or quanta of finite size, then we have a natural definition of a particle as the most complicated geometric concepts using only pure smallest bundle of information that may be exchanged across a given mathematics. This symbology is incorporated in the boundary under a given set of conditions. We may have particles of spin, indicial notation (along with the associated concepts) translational energy, momentum, mass, charge, and so on. This type of definition eliminates all questions about what (if anything) actually moves that we have been learning in the algebra and calculus through space from point to point or region to region. We cannot note the sections of this work. progress of a particle through space (as a little hard object, the classical view) without perturbing it in some way, that is, without placing an interaction boundary or a whole series of interaction boundaries in its path. Doing so destroys the very motion that we are trying to observe (Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle).

NASA/TP—2005-213115 68 Relativity increased, its surface become more concave due to centrifugal forces operating in the rotating frame of The special theory of relativity was introduced by reference. He argued that this response was due to the Einstein in 1905. In reformulating the laws of physics, water’s motion relative to absolute space, not relative the theory eliminated absolute space and time. Newton to the bucket since the water was initially unaffected had introduced absolute space and time to serve as a by the bucket’s motion. reference system in which events took place. Absolute Ernst Mach (Mach, 1960) argued against absolute space was rigid and Euclidean. Absolute time ticked space and time. He correctly noted that there was no away throughout all the ages, independent of events in adequate means for demonstrating their existence. He the universe at large. believed, however, that acceleration relative to the Absolute space and time were akin to a theatrical fixed stars could account for the inertial forces in stage on which the actors played out their roles. accelerated frames. The fixed stars set up an “inertial Remove all matter from the universe and the stage field” throughout all space. Objects responded locally remained behind unaffected. For Newton, empty space to that field. Einstein noted that such a concept had a reality independent of matter. Together, absolute distinguished itself from that of Newton in that the space and time formed an inertial frame of reference. inertia of an object would increase if ponderable Any frame of reference in unaccelerated relative masses were piled up in its neighborhood. Such an motion with respect to the absolute frame was also increase in inertia had no place in Newton’s system. inertial. All accelerated frames were non-inertial and Einstein appreciated Mach’s thoroughly modern idea subject to pseudoaccelerations, such as Coriolis and and tried hard to incorporate it in his general theory but centrifugal. never had complete success. Mach’s principle (so We see the ideas of Newton aptly played out in the called by Einstein) stated that distant matter in the television series Star Trek in which it is possible to universe determined those local conditions under bring the ship to absolute rest. The command “All which objects exhibited inertia. Remove all matter stop” might well be issued on a ship or a submarine on from the universe except one test piece, and the inertia Earth, and in terms of Newtonian philosophy, it makes of the test piece vanishes. In the case of rotation, with sense for motion in space as well. But in terms of all the rest of the matter gone, there is simply nothing modern physics, the command has no meaning. left relative to which to rotate! Remember that Einstein Modern physics eliminates all absolute reference had abandoned Newton’s absolute time and space right systems; thus, it only makes sense to stop relative to from the outset. some known spatial marker whose motion relative to The consequences of the rotating bucket experiment other markers may or may not be known. are very different for Einstein than for Newton. For Newton argued that the inertia of a body, its Einstein and Newton both, the water recedes the same resistance to a change in its state of rest or absolute from the axis of rotation as the rate of spin increases. motion in a straight line, arose when the body was However, if all the matter in the universe were subjected to a nonzero net force that made it accelerate removed except for the bucket, Newton’s theory would relative to absolute space. The inertia of any given predict that the water would behave exactly the same object was for Newton a constant associated with that as it had with the matter present; Einstein’s theory object. In an accelerated frame, he claimed that so- predicts that there would be no change in the surface called inertial forces (pseudoaccelerations times mass) from its initial flat state. appear and become operative. He tried to demonstrate Unfortunately, there is no way to directly test these this notion by using a rotating bucket of water notions, but recent experiments with orbiting (Hawking, 2002). spacecraft have tested a related phenomenon: Recall that rotation involves centripetal acceleration. gravitational frame dragging. The idea is that a large The bucket and water were initially placed at rest. The rotating mass sets up a gravitational field whose surface of the water was observed to be flat. Then the overall geometry is affected by the rotation. Newton’s bucket was set rotating. At first the water initially theory predicts that the rotation should have no effect remained at rest. But as the bucket continued to spin, on the field geometry. Experiment appears to have the water began to acquire a rotation of its own. decided in favor of Einstein and relativity. Finally, the bucket and the water rotated at the same rate. Newton observed that as the water’s rotation

NASA/TP—2005-213115 69 The Special Theory replaced by another law that holds in all the original cases and holds for the counterexample, too. In the 18th and 19th centuries, a definite ferment was The counterexample to the law of combining brewing in physics. Many brilliant thinkers sought velocities (and therefore to classical mechanics) arose alternate formulations of Newton’s laws to allow directly from electromagnetic theory. James Clerk classical mechanics to be placed on a foundation other Maxwell gave us the now-famous four equations than that chosen by Newton. They believed that the (laws) relating electric and magnetic fields. These laws predictions of classical mechanics were correct but that are to the science of electromagnetics what Newton’s the basic laws themselves needed reformulation. Of three laws of motion are to classical mechanics. Both these other systems of mechanics, those attributed to sets of laws are so fundamental that they may be Joseph Lagrange (1736−1813) and William Rowen regarded as foundational to physics as a whole. In Hamilton (1805−1865) are the best known and most other words, it should be possible to derive all the often used. As the advanced student of physics already phenomena of physics from either set taken alone. To knows, each man’s theory of mechanics involves do so appeared possible except for the phenomenon of finding the extremum of an integral involving either light. Maxwell’s theory predicted a universal speed for energy or momentum. The solutions in each particular light propagation that had no place in Newton’s theory. case provide the investigator with equations of motion Newton’s theory applied the law of combining for that case. velocities to light as it did to everything else with Also, in the 19th century, James Clerk Maxwell, a results that had no place in Maxwell’s theory. Here is Scottish mathematician and physicist (1831−1879), how Maxwell’s prediction came about. developed the theory of . This theory From the four equations of the electromagnetic field, made the astonishing prediction that the speed of Maxwell derived a single wave equation from which a propagation of electromagnetic waves in free space complete theoretical description of the properties of was a universal constant. That any speed could have light and other electromagnetic phenomena was made this property directly contradicted Newton’s possible. The veracity of this brilliant effort was first kinematics and posed a major problem for the unity of attested to experimentally by Heinrich Hertz physics. Other issues in physics were also to arise with (1857−1894), the first experimenter to generate and the advent of Maxwell’s theory but they do not directly detect electromagnetic waves in the laboratory and to concern us here. Suffice it to say, physics was characterize their properties. From the combined work suddenly confronted with a startling contradiction that of Maxwell and Hertz, the age of radio broadcasting arose despite the apparently complete success of both had its humble beginnings. theories to explain nature in all other aspects. Maxwell’s wave equation appears at first glance like We have already shown that from the point of view any other wave equation, involving second partial of classical mechanics, the velocity v of a particle as derivatives of field parameters with respect to space observed from an inertial reference frame K differs and time. The issue that concerns us here first arises from the velocity v* of the same particle as observed with the incorporation of certain electromagnetic from another inertial reference frame K* in uniform constants in the equation. These constants are also relative motion at velocity v0 by v0: present in the original four equations and provide fundamental descriptions of the electric and magnetic vvv* =+ (398) characteristics of spacetime. From the outset of solving 0 the wave equation, these constants combine to give a speed, which is specifically the speed of This equation is sometimes referred to as the law of electromagnetic wave propagation. The constants are combining velocities or the law of addition of the permittivity ε0 and the permeability µ0 of free velocities. As a law of physics (even though the term space. They combine to give a speed of propagation c law applies loosely here), it must hold in all possible in free space where circumstances. If even a single instance can be found for which it does not hold, then it must be declared 1 false by counterexample, regardless of how well it c2 = (399) works in all other cases. If false, then it must also be εµ00

NASA/TP—2005-213115 70 Because ε0 and µ0 are universal constants, the speed c the speed of light being a universal constant emerges must be a universal constant, which means that it must quite naturally as a consequence. have exactly the same value for all observers In the simple case of two spacetime coordinate regardless of their states of relative motion. systems (Cartesian) in uniform relative motion v along In Newton’s theory, a light source traveling at speed their common x-axes, the Lorentz transformations look v relative to an observer ought to produce light waves like along the direction of motion whose speed c* is given by c* = c ± v, a result to which Maxwell’s theory xvt− x* = issues a resounding “no!” A fundamental disagreement v2 between two foundational theories of physics meant 1− c2 that somewhere in the vast body of mechanical and electromagnetic thought there must exist a flaw. yy* = Something required revision, but what? As the century zz* = (400) turned, this question was addressed on a variety of ⎛⎞v fronts simultaneously and without success. tx− ⎜⎟c2 The necessary revision in physics was ultimately t* = ⎝⎠ accomplished by Albert Einstein. In 1905 he published v2 1− in the German physics journal Annalen der Physik his c2 paper entitled “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” and the new theory it advanced became In essence, the three components of space (x, y, z) and known as the theory of special relativity. Special the single component of time t are now to be thought relativity is built upon only two postulates: of as components of a four-dimensional rank 1 tensor called (in some texts) a four-vector usually represented 1. All motion is relative (i.e., there is no absolute (x, y, z, ct).50 What remains the same for all observers frame of reference). is the four-vector because it is coordinate independent 2. The speed of light in vacuo is a universal constant and its components (which are coordinate dependent) for all observers. are the components of a tensor in Euclidean four- space. With the advent of special relativity, all time The first postulate eliminates absolute space and and space measurements become subject to “peculiar” absolute time. The second postulate places the variations depending on the relative uniform motions constancy of the speed of light beyond all question in of the observers. The famous time dilatation and length relativity since the postulates of a given system of contraction are two such effects. thought must be accepted as true a priori. The magnitude of the spacetime four-vector is a rank Since light speed must be the same for all observers, 0 tensor s that satisfies the relation Einstein sought a set of coordinate transformations between observers in uniform relative motion in a s222222=−xyzct − − + (401) Euclidean spacetime for which the constancy of light speed would hold true in a “natural” way. The transformations he derived were later named the You may verify that s = s* by using the transformation 51 Einstein-Lorentz transformations or, simply, the equations (400). The usual form of the Lorentz Lorentz transformations after Hendrik Antoon Lorentz transformations uses the differential quantity ds rather (1853−1928), who had earlier derived the same than the integral quantity s. We may reformulate the transformations but for entirely the wrong reasons. Lorentz transformations using coordinate differentials:

One immediate outcome of Einstein’s new theory was that space and time could no longer be considered separate entities but must now be thought of as a single fused entity, first christened “spacetime” in the early 20th century by Hermann Minkowski (1864−1909). As 50The speed of light is used to multiply the time component for dimensional for the constancy of the speed of light in spacetime, consistency. Thus, time is measured in meters rather than in seconds. 51On the other hand, the usual Pythagorean theorem does not work with the spacetime must have an intrinsic geometry such that 2 2 2 2 2 Lorentz transformations; that is, the quantity x + y + z + c t is not an invariant.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 71 ddxvt− motion. The first generalization would involve d*x = v2 replacing three of the diagonal terms with the more 1− general symbols g , g , g , leaving the c2 term and c2 11 22 33 the zeros as they appear in equation (406). The second generalization would involve replacing the zeros and 2 d*yy= d (402) the c term with terms of the form gij, where the d*zz= d indices i and j each range over the values 1 through 4. This latter generalization was worked out by Einstein ⎛⎞v ddtx− over the years between 1905 and 1917. (The history of ⎜⎟c2 d*t = ⎝⎠ his thinking throughout these years makes interesting v2 reading.) 1− c2 An equivalent way of saying what we just said

above is that in special relativity, the gravitational Then field is tacitly assumed to vanish (to equal zero

everywhere throughout the space of consideration). 222222 (ddddds ) =−( xyzct) −( ) −( ) + ( ) (403) Equivalently, the spacetime of special relativity is flat; that is, it is a Euclidean . and for observers K and K*, we write The vanishing of the gravitational field imposes a very d*s = ds (404) definite and unrealistic physical limitation on the overall theory. It was long accepted from astronomical Using the fundamental tensor and recalling that observations that gravity plays a ubiquitous role 2 j k (ds) = gjkdx dx , we may equivalently write throughout the universe. Therefore, a gravity-free spacetime, while teaching us a great deal about local phenomena (where the effects of gravity may be g ddxxgxxs t = ddjk (405) *st** jk ignored), could never be equal to the task of providing an adequate model of the universe at large. 2 j k The expression (ds) = gjkdx dx is usually presented as The next question after the founding of special the generalized . relativity, therefore, became how to overcome this By examining the expression for (ds)2, we see that in limitation and to introduce gravity into relativity. special relativity, the fundamental tensor G must have Einstein’s thinking on this problem makes fascinating the form reading, but here I will just summarize his conclusions:

−10 0 0 Special relativity deals largely with uniform motion in gravity-free spacetime. The spacetime of 0100− G = (406) special relativity is a four-dimensional Euclidean 00− 10 manifold or E4. As such, it is flat in the sense that 000c2 the Euclidean plane is flat: it has a curvature equal −2 to 0 inverse square meters (0 m ). The postulates and that it must be the same for all observers (since of Euclidean geometry hold throughout the each of its nonzero components is a constant). spacetime. Parallel lines exist in the usual way; As with previous arguments that we have already figures may be moved without distortion, and so encountered throughout this text, it is reasonable to on. If zero curvature corresponds to zero imagine that this tensor might be generalized in both gravitational field, then what does nonzero its diagonal and off-diagonal terms. This generalization curvature correspond to? Einstein discovered, after is necessary for representing accelerated motion in years of tedious calculation, that the key to special relativity and for representing the action of the understanding the gravitational field was to relax gravitational field in general relativity. Special the restriction of using only a flat or Euclidean relativity, with the fundamental tensor given by spacetime and to use non-Euclidean or curved equation (406), is correct only for unaccelerated spacetime. The gravitational field is equivalent to

NASA/TP—2005-213115 72 the curvature field everywhere throughout the the quantity (charge) being acted upon by the field to spacetime. This concept is a cornerstone of general the inertia (resistance to acceleration) associated with relativity. The curvature at any point in the field is the particular quantity. dependent on the mass-energy density at that point; For the magnetic field, the situation is complicated hence, geometry and the material universe become by the nonexistence of free magnetic charges. fused into a single entity. No longer do we speak However, it is possible to speak of magnetic pole of the geometry of spacetime independently of strength p and to use it in a way analogous to the test matter or of matter independently of geometry. electric charge.54 A magnetic test pole p in a magnetic field H will experience a force f such that The General Theory fH= p (409) The classical gravitational field is peculiar among the fields of classical physics in that it is an This expression yields a formal acceleration for the acceleration field. The field term g is a radially pole of oriented vector with kinematic units of acceleration (meters per square second). Other fields have dynamic ⎛⎞p aH= ⎜⎟ (410) units, such as the electric field E (volts per meter, ⎝⎠m where the volt is equivalent to a joule per coulomb of electric charge) and the magnetic field H (amperes per where m is the inertial mass associated with the meter, where the ampere is equivalent to the flow of a magnetic pole. Again, to acquire the acceleration of the coulomb of electric charge per second past a given test pole at a point, the field term must be multiplied by point). a scalar term representing the ratio of pole strength to Although the theory of magnetism does not admit the mass. existence of magnetic charges,52 the theory of For the gravitational field, we again have free electricity does.53 So it is possible to select an isolated masses, analogous to the free charges encountered in charge (often called a test charge), place it into an the electric field. Therefore, we may speak of a electric field, and observe its response to local field gravitational test mass µ as the mass acted upon by the conditions. Since, but for exceptional cases, the charge gravitational field exactly as the test charge q was accelerates, we assert that a force must be exerted on acted upon by the electric field or the test pole p was the charge by (through) the field. For example, the acted upon by the magnetic field. We then have force f on a test charge q in an electric field E is a vector given by fg=µ (411) Since, by Newton’s Law, the acceleration of the test fE= q (407) mass due to any force acting on it is a = f/m, we must have Since, by Newton’s Law, the acceleration a of the test charge due to any force acting on it is given by f = ma, ⎛⎞µ ag= ⎜⎟ (412) where m is the inertial mass of the test charge, we must ⎝⎠m have As before, the field term is multiplied by a scalar term ⎛⎞q representing the ratio of gravitational mass to inertial aE= ⎜⎟ (408) ⎝⎠m mass (the ratio of the mass being acted upon by the gravitational field to the inertia of the test object). In other words, to acquire the acceleration of the test With the argument presented in this fashion, there is charge at a point, the field term must be multiplied by a no apparent reason for demanding that gravitational scalar term representing the ratio of charge to mass. mass be equal to inertial mass or µ = m. In fact, This ratio is important since it represents the ratio of experience with the electric and magnetic fields teaches us to expect just the opposite. So, that this 52It does not admit to the existence of separate magnetic charges because of Maxwell’s equation ∇ · H = 0; that is, there is nowhere a point from which the field diverges. 54Magnetic pole strength is found more in older physics texts. Modern texts 53 By contrast, ∇ · E = ρ/ε0, where ρ is the local charge density. treat these problems in such a way as to not invoke this idea.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 73 equality actually exists in nature and has been Also, in a rotating frame of reference, if the force demonstrated experimentally in a variety of ways, is acting on a test object is due to the presence of a most amazing. The gravitational field becomes even Coriolis or a centrifugal field, it is proportional to the more peculiar in having not only a kinematical field inertial mass of the test object. Any test object placed term but the identity of the gravitational and inertial at a point in a Coriolis or centrifugal field will masses.55 experience the same acceleration regardless of the The identity of gravitational and inertial masses amount of mass it possesses. The pseudoaccelerations means that µ/m = 1 and that the acceleration of the test and the gravitational field seem to possess suspiciously mass is actually identical to the field term multiplied similar properties. Gravitation behaves more like a by the dimensionless scalar unity: pseudoacceleration than as the type of field obtained from a point charge or magnetic pole. ag= (413) These statements hold the clue to Einstein’s revision of the mechanics and mathematics of gravitation and Thus, no other measurement is necessary for the gravitational field. Mathematically, the determining the local gravitational field than directly pseudofields arise in accelerated frames of reference observing the acceleration of a test particle. Not only because the base vectors in those frames have nonzero that, all test particles will have the same acceleration derivatives. Gravitation arises in the space surrounding regardless of the inertial mass that they carry. An a mass concentration for exactly the same reason. The elephant and a feather will both accelerate at the same nonzero derivatives in the rotating frame of reference rate in a gravitational field, even though in an electric arose because of the rotation; the nonzero derivatives field, a charged elephant would accelerate at a in the gravitational field arise because of the local ponderously slow rate while an equally charged feather curvature of the intrinsic geometry. would be whisked out of sight in the blink of an eye. Now, how does the foregoing discussion relate to Another way to state the same argument is to say that tensors? We simply observe here that the tensor the force on a test object at a point in the gravitational algebra and tensor calculus that we have been field is proportional to its mass.56 The greater the mass, developing had no restrictions whatever imposed upon the greater the force; the acceleration remains the same them with regard to the types of spaces to which they for all. This is not the case with either the electric field would apply. I will here state without proof that they or the magnetic field. For these latter two fields, mass apply to all possible spaces no matter how they are does not enter the picture at all until one seeks to find curved and that their equations appear in exactly the the acceleration; then it enters as a ratio only as the same form as we have already seen them developed in charge to mass or pole strength to mass. the preceding pages. One of the real powers of tensor At this point, you are asked to reread the earlier analysis is that it is extremely general. section entitled “First Steps Toward a Tensor Calculus: Curvature of space around the Sun.⎯Let us An Example From Classical Mechanics.” The Coriolis demonstrate that space in the vicinity of the Sun is and centrifugal fields that arose in the rotating frame of curved. We will assume a Newtonian context and the reference are strangely similar to the gravitational field result that light has mass. First, imagine the Sun alone in terms of what we have just been talking about. The in space. Now pass a Euclidean straight line through Coriolis field term is an acceleration that has a the poles of the Sun and extend the line outward in magnitude 2ωv and kinematic units of acceleration either direction to an arbitrary distance. Place three (meters per square second). The same statement holds astronauts (α, β, and ε) far from the Sun at the vertices 2 true for the centrifugal field term ω r. of a triangle such that the line from the Sun passes through the centroid of the triangle. Let the triangle be sufficiently large so that we may pass the Sun through 55Another way to see this argument is to understand that inertia is the the center without its actually touching the legs of the resistance of a particle of matter to a change in its state of rest or uniform motion. This resistance has nothing whatsoever to do with gravity. triangle. Gravitational mass, on the other hand, is that mass which is acted upon by Now, let each astronaut have a mirror and one an external gravitational field (and is also responsible for the particle’s own astronaut also have an ideal57 laser. The astronaut gravitational field). From the classical point of view, that these two should be the same quantity is even more astonishing. shines the laser at her neighbor who reflects it to his 56This statement inverts the customary roles played by mass and acceleration: mass is usually the constant of proportionality and force is usually said to be proportional to the acceleration. 57Ideal laser has a beam divergence of zero.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 74 neighbor who, in turn, reflects it back to the first in our concept of space and time, which was finally astronaut. We have now physically constructed a completed in general relativity. triangle in space. Each astronaut measures the angle Now that we know to expect curvature near a between the local incident and reflected beams. When massive object, the question becomes one of restating the three angles are added together, their sum is 180°, this expectation in rigorous mathematical terms. It was which we should expect. this restatement that cost Einstein so many years of Next, move the center of the Sun onto the centroid of investigation until he arrived at the correct formulation the triangle without disturbing the positions of the of general relativity. astronauts (we can do so because this is a thought Curvature of time near a black hole.⎯Time near a experiment only). We know from special relativity that field-generating mass is also curved. The most extreme light has mass and that it must therefore be affected by case of curvature is that near the event horizon of a the Sun’s gravitational field. In fact, using nothing black hole. A black hole is the remnant of a star that more than classical calculations,58 we find that the legs has undergone catastrophic gravitational collapse. The of the triangle now curve inward toward the Sun (see event horizon is the finite (ideally spherically the following sketch). For the astronauts to keep their symmetric) region upon whose surface the escape beams aimed at each other’s mirrors, they must slightly speed equals the speed of light in free space. (Free adjust their mirrors to reflect each of the triangle legs space is an ideal space in which there are no fields of outward relative to its original position. any kind or for which all the field values equal zero; there is no such space in nature according to most modern thinkers). The speed of light varies from its free-space value when a gravitational field is present. D. W. Sciama (1926−1969), in The Physical Foundations of General Relativity (Sciama, 1969), visualized the gravitational field as possessing an index of refraction n analogous to the index of refraction possessed by matter. In matter, the index of refraction is a number that permits

us to estimate how much the path of a beam of light The triangle itself now appears to have outwardly will bend (refract) at the surface. For free space, the curved rather than straight legs, and the sum of its index is set at unity: n0 = 1. For all other matter, n > 1. interior angles is more than 180°. If we shrink the For glass, n ~ 1.6 and for diamond, n ~ 2.5. triangle, bringing everybody closer to the Sun, the Light also travels more slowly in matter than it does discrepancy grows larger. If we move everybody in free space. The speed of light in matter with outward away from the Sun, the discrepancy becomes an index of refraction n is c/n where c is the speed of smaller. In this naïve argument, the triangle looks like light in free space, or 3×108 m/s. Thus, in glass, 8 8 a spherical triangle and space near the Sun appears to cg = (3×10 m/s)/1.6 = 1.9×10 m/s; in diamond, be bent into an elliptical geometry, the more so the 8 cd = 1.2×10 m/s. The more refractive the substance, closer to the Sun. the greater its index of refraction. This thought experiment clearly illustrates that space The refractivity of space in the gravitational field near the Sun (or by extension near any star or mass varies directly with the gravitational field strength: it concentration) should be expected to be curved, the increases as one approaches the field-generating mass. more so the closer to the Sun or field-generating mass. The bending of light spoken of in the previous section It also suggests that space far from any field-generating may be thought of as being due to the astronauts’ light mass should be Euclidean or approximately Euclidean. pencils passing through a region of variable refractive Special relativity, when linked with Newton’s theory index, increasing as the pencil approached and of gravity, was already pointing the way to the revision decreasing as the pencil receded from the Sun. Along with bending, there would also be a variation in the speed of light.59 This variation may be used to illustrate the curvature of time. 58 Einstein actually made a similar calculation for light grazing the surface of the Sun. Although correct qualitatively, the result he obtained using this method differed by a factor of 2 from that later obtained from the general 59Satellite radar measurements involving the Sun and inner planets have theory. confirmed this variation.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 75 Assume that there are two astronauts stationed in the directly measured by frequency. The lower the energy, vicinity of a black hole. One astronaut α is safely at an the lower the frequency. She also remembers that the observation post well outside the hole’s gravitational speed of light is much slower in the gravity well where influence (i.e., where the field of the hole does not β is situated than it is at her station. As β’s light pulses differ significantly from the fields of other nearby are emitted, therefore, they start out slowly then speed objects in the astronaut’s vicinity). The other astronaut up as they ascend, and the distance x between β is at a post close to the hole’s event horizon. successive pulses dramatically increases. Thus, the Each astronaut has a clock and a mechanism for time interval x/c between arrival of individual pulses signaling her partner. When the astronauts were also increases. together (i.e., before they parted company to go to their Astronaut α further reasons that although the clocks respective observation posts), they compared their were identical when they were side by side, they no clocks and found them to be identical in every way; longer appear to be identical and in fact no longer have particularly, they found them to run at identical, to be thought of as being identical. Astronaut α is not uniform rates of exactly one tick per second. Each in a classical universe. Refractive effects make direct clock was also equipped with a signaling device: at telescopic observation of β’s exact distance from her each tick, the clock would emit a pulse of directed quite impossible. And she has no other absolute laser light that would be sent to the partner astronaut standard of measure, no rigid ruler, to deploy toward for observation. the hole to ascertain β’s distance. Any material ruler Now settled in at their respective stations, the dropped toward the hole would be stretched out of individual astronauts each record that their situations shape as it descended because of the severe local are nominal from their respective points of view. We gravity gradients it would encounter. It would be might be surprised at this, particularly in the case of misshapen beyond any usefulness long before ever astronaut β. But then we realize that both astronauts reaching β’s position. are in orbit around the hole (lest they plummet into the hole) and that being in orbit is equivalent to being in Still, astronaut α is able to compare the light pulses free fall. The astronaut near the hole is therefore not of astronaut β’s clock with those of her own as she particularly disturbed by the immense gravitational observes them both in her . She field in her vicinity. Only the fact that the local field concludes that the clock near the event horizon may varies significantly in magnitude from her head to her just as well be thought of as running slow compared toes60 causes any real discomfort. She feels that she is with her own. Moreover, having observed β’s entire being mercilessly stretched and realizes that there is descent into the field, she concludes that the rate of β’s 61 nothing she can do about it. clock must have diminished monotonically as β Now each astronaut observes the other. Astronaut α descended into the field toward the hole. When they records that β’s clock appears very red in color and is first parted, she observed no difference in β’s clock. It running very slowly compared with her own. By her was only as β got farther away that the slowing of her own local measure, many minutes slip by between clock became more and more noticeable. Astronaut α respective pulses from β’s clock. Astronaut α’s own is entitled to think of time near the event horizon as clock, of course, continues to run quite normally, being curved. She concludes that Einstein was right. emitting one pulse each second as the seconds tick by. Meanwhile, astronaut β shifts uncomfortably in the Astronaut α evaluates the situation. She realizes that strong local gravity gradient. She finally settles herself the light photons are red shifted as they climb out of into the best position she can and records that α’s the immense gravity well below her because they are clock appears vibrantly blue in color and is running conserving energy. As gravitational potential energy very rapidly compared with her own. Hundreds of light increases, photon energy decreases.62 Photon energy is pulses from α’s clock register on her instruments between respective pulses from her own clock. 60The gradient of the field becomes extremely steep as the event horizon of Astronaut β’s clock continues to run quite normally, a black hole is approached. emitting one pulse each second as the seconds tick by. 61Over a distance commensurate with the size of the astronaut, the local gravitational field cannot be “transformed away” (i.e., cannot be made to vanish everywhere at once). energy. If β’s laser operates at frequency υ0 and she is stationed a distance 62 Classically, the operative expression is hυ − Gm/r = E, where h is r0 from the event horizon, then E = hυ0 − Gm/r0 and the frequency at any Planck’s constant, υ is the light frequency, G is Newton’s gravitational other place along the light path is υ = υ0 − [(Gm/r0 – Gm/r)]/h. This constant, m is the mass of the black hole, r is the distance, and E is the total expression holds relativistically as well as classically.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 76 Astronaut β evaluates the situation. She realizes that assume that a differential region of Riemannian space the light photons are blue shifted as they descend into is quasi-Euclidean and in that region apply the familiar the immense gravity well in which she is immersed concepts of our school geometry.) because they are conserving energy. As their Now we have a means of effecting parallel transport gravitational potential energy decreases, the photon’s on the sphere. Let us consider the sphere as a whole energy increases. She also remembers that the speed of and imagine a tangent vector V at a point P on the light is much slower in a gravity well than in free sphere. Pass a geodesic (a great circle) through P and space. As α’s light pulses are emitted, they start out at move the vector a small distance δs (where δ is a small their free-space speed then slow up as they descend, difference) along the geodesic. From the Euclidean piling up on one another. Astronaut α appears space, we observe that for the vector to remain tangent frenetically to rush about as she does her chores. to the sphere, it must change direction in the Euclidean Astronaut β further reasons that although the clocks space. From the point of view of a two-dimensional were identical when they were side by side, they no observer in the sphere, the vector has maintained a longer appear to be identical and in fact, no longer constant angle with the “line” along which it is being have to be thought of as being identical. Astronaut β moved. engages on a line of reasoning that is essentially the The change δV in V resulting from this change in same as that of astronaut α. She decides that she is direction as viewed from the Euclidean three-space entitled to think of time in her vicinity as being curved. must be a tensor and must be the same in all coordinate She smiles. Einstein was right. systems, including the two-dimensional coordinate Base vector derivatives in curved space.⎯We have system embedded in the sphere. Thus, the ratio δV/δs already said that the base vectors in a curved space has a nonzero value in the Euclidean space and in the have nonzero derivatives and that using the Coriolis sphere. This value, in the limit of vanishing δs, is the and centrifugal accelerations as an example, we should nonzero vector derivative, and it arises solely because expect nonzero base vector derivatives to play an of the curvature of the sphere’s surface. Since V is any important part in our overall formulation of a revised vector we like (provided that it is tangent to the theory of the gravitational field. To understand how sphere), we will let V be a base vector. Our argument nonzero base vector derivatives arise in curved space, is complete. let us consider what happens on the surface of a In reality, if the vector experiment just described sphere. were to be done by a two-dimensional observer whose For this discussion, we will make use of the fact that entire world was the spherical surface and who had no a sphere is a two-dimensional elliptically curved space recourse to the three-dimensional Euclidean space, it (surface) that can be viewed from a three-dimensional would proceed differently from what was described Euclidean space in which it is embedded. above. The test vector V would actually be carried First, we introduce the idea of parallel transport of a around a closed loop (arbitrarily chosen) starting from vector. In Euclidean space, a vector may be transported P and ending at P. When it returned, V would be parallel to itself by moving it along a straight line observed to have changed direction. If V had rotated while maintaining a constant angle between the vector through an angle δθ during its parallel transport around and the line. If we wish to accomplish parallel the closed loop and if δs were the area enclosed by the transport along an arbitrary curve, we may subdivide loop, then the derivative in question would be the real the curve into straight line segments and parallel derivative δθ/δs rather than the path derivative transport the vector along each of the segments. The originally described. The ratio δθ/δs would have units finer the subdivision, the closer the approximation to of inverse square meters (m−2), the proper units for the actual curve. In the limit of infinite subdivision, we measuring curvature. have parallel transport along the curve exactly. That a vector actually changes direction when In Riemannian space, the geodesic or straightest parallel transported around a closed loop on a sphere is possible curve replaces the straight line. The geodesic easily seen if a macroscopic path is chosen. Let the is a “line” that has the same curvature as the local path start at an arbitrarily chosen point P that we will space in which it is contained. In Riemannian space, call a pole of the sphere. Let the first section of the parallel transport of a vector takes place along a loop be a great circle extending from the pole to the geodesic by carefully maintaining a constant angle equator (as a line of constant longitude would on between the vector and the geodesic. (We may always

NASA/TP—2005-213115 77 Earth). It will subtend 90° at the center of the sphere. 2. It is an extremal distance between two points Let the next section subtend another 90° at the center, (either maximal or minimal; the straight line of but this time advance along the equator. The two Euclidean space happens to be minimal). sections will thus meet at an angle of 90° as observed 3. At every point in the space, it possesses the same by the two-dimensional observer in the sphere. Let the curvature as the space itself (the line possesses the final section be another line of constant longitude same curvature as the plane, zero). returning to P. 4. Geometric figures, such as triangles, rectangles, Next, choose a vector tangent to the sphere and and so on, are always constructed of geodesics; thus, directed along the first great circle (e.g., with its head on the sphere for which the geodesic is the great circle, pointing in the direction it would have to advance we speak of spherical triangles and spherical geometry. toward the equator). When it reaches the equator, it will stand at right angles to the equator. Now, parallel The general equation expressing the geodesic is a transport the vector along the equator. When it reaches second-order differential equation obtained by the third great circle, it will still be perpendicular to the applying the calculus of variations to the invariant equator. Now parallel transport it along the third great differential element circle back toward P. When it reaches P again, it will 2 jk have been rotated 90° relative to its initial position. ()ddds = gxxjk (416) The area δs enclosed by the path is one-eighth the entire area of the sphere. Therefore, In the calculus of variations, one seeks a path along which a particular integral is external. That path is ⎛⎞1122 ⎛⎞ usually given as a function of the coordinates, the δ=s ⎜⎟4 πrr = ⎜⎟ π (414) ⎝⎠82 ⎝⎠ coordinate derivatives, and some other parameter, usually time. Historically, the original problem to be where r is the radius of the sphere measured in the solved with variational techniques was the three-dimensional Euclidean space. The angle through bachistochrone problem, which sought the particular which the vector is turned during its traverse around path between any two points in a gravitational field the loop is δθ = π/2. The ratio of these two quantities is along which a free particle would move in minimum time63. δθ 1 If between two points P and P*, we have an infinite = (415) number of nonintersecting possible (homologous) δs r2 paths along which to integrate the differential ds, at which is the measure of the sphere’s curvature as we least one of those paths will yield a maximal or first learned in calculus and analytical geometry. minimal solution for the integral.64 It is the task of the The reader can conduct this experiment with a ball calculus of variations to determine the general equation and a toothpick to grasp the idea of parallel transport, for finding that path. Typically, the integral of concern which is of paramount importance in more advanced is represented in its general form as texts where the concept of curvature is more rigorously developed than it will be here. ⎡ ⎛⎞d y ⎤ Geodesics in curved space.⎯We have used the term f ⎢ ytt,,d⎜⎟⎥ (417) ∫ ⎣ ⎝⎠dt ⎦ “geodesic” several times throughout this text and given examples of what we mean by using a great circle on a The calculus of variations uses concepts very similar to sphere. Let us now examine the concept of the those used in the maximum-minimum problems geodesic more closely and, without delving into the encountered in basic calculus. Recall that given a detailed mathematics, learn enough about its general function y(x), a minimum or a maximum of the properties to become comfortable with it. To review function could be found by forming the derivative of what we have already said, the geodesic in a given Riemannian space is equivalent in every way to the 63 straight line in Euclidean space: Newton solved the problem in a single night. The account is fascinating, and I recommend that you find it and read it. 64Either all the paths will yield the same value, in which case all are 1. It is the straightest curve possible between two extremal, or all paths will not yield the same result, in which case there points of the space in question. must be at least one path for which an extremal value is obtained.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 78 y(x) with respect to x and setting the result equal to dddsgxx= jk zero: ∫∫( jk ) (420) ⎡ ⎛⎞⎛⎞ddxxjk⎤ d y = ⎢g jk ⎜⎟⎜⎟⎥ d s = 0 (418) ∫ ddss d x ⎣ ⎝⎠⎝⎠⎦

The process of forming the derivative at a point P on And the variation of interest is the curve y = y(x) involved taking a point to the right of P and another point to the left of P, connecting the ⎡⎤⎛⎞⎛⎞ddxxjk two points with a straight line, determining the slope of δ ⎢⎥gsjk ⎜⎟⎜⎟d0= (421) ∫ ddss that line, then finding the limit of the sequence of ⎣⎦⎝⎠⎝⎠ slopes formed as the two points converged on P. When the variation is carried out, we obtain the The calculus of variations works in much the same second-order differential equation way. For any given path P, we choose two adjacent paths (one to the right and one to the left, 2 tjk metaphorically) and determine the integral along each ⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞dddxxxt ⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟+ Γ=jk 0 (422) of those paths. The integrals are compared by forming ⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠dddsss2 their difference. The path P for which the difference w w approaches zero in the limit of convergence of the whose solutions x = x (s) are the required geodesics.66 adjacent paths is the extremal path sought. In the Since the solution of this equation in the plane is the notation of the calculus of variations, we write straight line, we may argue (nonrigorously) that the equation represents an equation of motion for particles ⎡⎤⎛⎞d y upon which no forces are acting. (This statement can δ=fy,,d0 t t (419) actually be proven by rigorous methods.) We may then ∫ ⎢⎥⎜⎟dt ⎣⎦⎝⎠ write a more general equation of the form where δ means the difference between the values of the ⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞ddd2 xxxtjk + Γ=t at (423) integral taken along slightly different (and adjacent) ⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟2 jk paths connected only at their end points. To find the ⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠dddsss general equation of the geodesic, we begin with the where at are the contravariant components of the differential arc length ds, which we have already particle’s acceleration (classically, s represents represented in general form via equation (416), absolute time). We now have the equations of motion repeated here: for any particle on which some force is acting

(including the force f = 0 for which at = 0 for all values 2 jk ()ddds = gxxjk (416) of the index t). Einstein used this equation, with at = 0 as his equation of motion for all particles in the Recall that ds is the physical length associated with the gravitational field. Note that the more general quantity differential position vector dr whose components are ds replaces the quantity dt in Einstein’s formulation. the coordinate differentials dxw. By applying the In general relativity, it is strictly the curvature of calculus of variations to this expression, we are space that comprises the gravitational field. Unlike seeking the minimal (or maximal) distance between classical mechanics, there is no gravitational force in two points in the space under consideration. The general relativity. Particles in the gravitational field straight line is a special case of this more general undergo force-free (acceleration-free) motion (at = 0) situation. along their local four-dimensional spacetime geodesic. The integral of interest65 is ∫ds where The spatial part of this motion is typically seen as a curved path. For “small” gravitational fields, such as

66 t Note that in Euclidean space, all the values of Γ vanish; that is, Γ jk = 0. 65Careful examination of the integrand in the second integral above shows The resulting differential equation is simply d2xt/ds2 = 0, the differential j k t t t t t the identity gjk(dx /ds)(dx /ds) = 1. equation of the straight lines x = α s + β , where α and β are constants.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 79 our Sun’s, this path is approximately a Keplerian conic equivalent to the components of classical acceleration. section.67 In classical theory, we have The spacetime of general relativity is differentially curved: the curvature varies smoothly from place to agtt= (425) place. In a differentially curved geometry, figures t j k cannot be moved from place to place without bending, where t = 1, 2, 3. The terms Γ jk (dx /ds)(dx /ds) must stretching, and sometimes even tearing. This property therefore be the relativistic equivalent of the classical of the geometry is mirrored in the spacetime of general t g ; that is, they must represent either the gravitational relativity by the nonexistence of rigid matter. All field components or something closely related to them. matter in general relativity undergoes variations in The terms dxj/ds and dxk/ds on the right-hand side are stress and strain as it moves from region to region. The apparently velocities (reminiscent of the Coriolis term deformations (strains) reflect the fact that no absolute that also involved velocity); therefore, the actual field measurement of space or time is possible. All t measurements are local; all are related through the terms must be Γ jk . The Christoffel symbols in the generalized Lorentz transformation repeated here: equation of motion carry information about the gravitational field and are in fact its components. 2 jk ()ddds = gxxjk (416) In general relativity, these symbols are evaluated in a Riemannian spacetime with variable curvature. Recall Locally, spacetime always appears flat to the observer. that the Christoffel symbols are related to the More distant observations (in space and time) reveal coordinate derivatives of the fundamental tensor: the curvature. The “differential” region in general relativity over which the observer may assume quasi- 1 ⎡∂∂( gg) ( ) ∂( g) ⎤ Γ=b gbk kt + wk − tw (426) flatness must be carefully chosen. Within that region, tw ⎢ wt k⎥ 2 ⎣ ∂∂∂xxx⎦ the observer is entitled to apply special relativity to his or her observations. The 10 independent components68 of the fundamental Let us now try to gain some further insight into tensor therefore become 10 gravitational potentials in Einstein’s concept of the gravitational field. We will general relativity. Why? Consider the classical begin with the foregoing equation of motion: equation relating gravitational acceleration g (i.e., the gravitational field term) and the gravitational scalar 2 tjk ⎛⎞⎛⎞⎛⎞dddxxxt potential φ: ⎜⎟⎜⎟⎜⎟+Γjk =0 (422) ⎝⎠⎝⎠⎝⎠dddsss2 ⎡⎛⎞∂φ⎛⎞ ∂φ ⎛⎞ ∂φ ⎤ and rewrite it as gijk=−κ∇φ=−κ⎢⎜⎟ +⎜⎟ + ⎜⎟⎥ (427) ⎣⎝⎠∂∂∂xyz⎝⎠ ⎝⎠⎦ ddd2 xtjk⎛⎞⎛⎞xx =−Γt (424) 2 jk ⎜⎟⎜⎟ where κ = 4πG is a universal constant involving ddds ⎝⎠⎝⎠ss Newton’s gravitational constant G. The field term derives from the first coordinate derivatives of the We will consider only the spatial components of the potential term with a constant of proportionality. In motion for the moment. These components correspond t to the index t having values equal to 1, 2, and 3. (The general relativity, the field terms Γ jk derive from the value t = 4 is reserved for the time component.) It first coordinate derivatives of the 10 gravitational 2 t 2 should be apparent that the terms d x /ds are potentials guv. Only the differential operator is much more complicated, involving both space and time.69

67The approximation is most noticeable in the case of Mercury’s orbit. Kepler’s law predicts a closed ellipse. Einstein’s law predicts an open ellipse, one that does not return upon itself. As a result, Einstein’s theory predicts that the perihelion of Mercury rotates around the Sun at a rate of 68 about 64 sec of arc per century. This advance of perihelion has been There are 10 independent components in this case because the gjk are symmetric and the space is four dimensional. observed and in fact was first discovered and reported in the late 19th 69 century by the French astronomer Leverrier (1811−1877). At that time, an The rough classical equivalent of a spacetime operator is the 2 2 2 2 2 2 intramercurial planet named Vulcan was postulated to account for the d’Alembertian operator 9 = ∇ − (1/c )∂ /∂t where ∇ is the Laplacian “perturbation” in Mercury’s orbit. Needless to say, Vulcan was never seen. operator, ∇2 = ∇ · ∇.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 80 How do we acquire the 10 potentials? In general ∂Γi ∂Γi isijk si jm relativity, there is a field equation that involves R =Γ Γ − −Γ Γsm + (431) jkmjm sk∂∂xmk jk x curvature and is roughly akin to the classical Once we have the curvature tensor, we may contract Gm g = (428) it to form a rank 2 tensor: r2 Rk = R (432) with which we calculate the classical field term from jkm jm the magnitude of the field-generating mass and its Einstein did so because the 256 independent equations radius. To glimpse the more general equation, we must i recall how curvature is expressed as a tensor. that the full tensor R jkm provided overly constrained i Recall that curvature is a rank 4 tensor R jkm that the theory. He next separated the contracted curvature tensor into two terms: satisfies

ii im R jm= GH jm+ jm (433) vvRv,,jk−= kj jkm (429)

One of these terms involved the derivatives of the i The tensor R jkm is called the Riemann curvature fundamental tensor components that were considered tensor. It relates the difference between the second necessary for a proper generalization of Newton’s own covariant derivative of a rank 1 tensor vi taken with theory of gravity. He set up the following expression: respect to the indices first j then k and the second HgHT− α=− (434) covariant derivative of the same vector taken with jm jm jm respect to the indices first k then j to the actual jm components of the vector itself. Equation (429) tells us where H = g Hjm and α is a constant to be determined. that in a non-Euclidean space, the order of The right-hand side term Tjm is the stress-energy tensor differentiation in a second covariant derivative makes a (referred to as an “empirical” term in the 1917 paper). difference to the result. Recall that in Euclidean space, It is symmetrical and has 10 independent components. the order of differentiation made no difference; that is, He next required the vanishing of the divergence of Tjm that to ensure the conservation of stress energy everywhere in the universe. This condition constrained the constant ∂∂22f ( xy,,) f( xy) α to assume the value ½. The result was the field = (430) ∂∂x yyx ∂∂ equation

1 This simple and convenient rule is not true in the HgHTjm−=− jm jm (435) general case. In Euclidean four-space, Ri = 0; that 2 jkm i One of the first solutions of this equation for the case is, all 256 components of R jkm vanish everywhere of locally vanishing stress energy was attributed to throughout the space. This vanishing is the equivalent Karl Schwarzschild (1873−1916), a German of saying that Euclidean space is everywhere flat. astronomer, mathematician, and physicist, who set T The general form of the curvature tensor may be jm = 0 to approximate the spacetime conditions outside a obtained by writing out the expressions for the two large field-generating mass, such as our Sun or a second covariant derivatives, forming their difference, particular planet. Following his lead, we obtain and simplifying the result. To do so requires nothing more than you have already learned from this text. The 1 procedure becomes untidy because of the number of HgHjm− jm = 0 (436) 2 symbols to keep track of, but a little care in bookkeeping will pay off for the student who is willing Rewriting this expression in mixed form yields to try. Here is the result you should obtain:

ss1 HHmm− δ=0 (437) 2

NASA/TP—2005-213115 81 Setting s = m and summing, we find that Of the three, the first was observed in the orbital motion of the planet Mercury and accounts for the H = 0 (438) anomaly in the planet’s orbit (Leverrier, 1811−1877);

the second was first observed during the famous 1919 so that the gravitational field equation reduces to eclipse expedition of Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington s (English astronomer, 1882−1944); the third has not Hm = 0 (439) been definitively observed, although from observations that is, the second rank tensor H s vanishes of massive stars, there is spectral line-shift evidence m that tends to agree with relativity. everywhere in the space under consideration. This Later, Schwarzschild’s equation also led to the first Schwarzschild equation has yielded the following three prediction of radical gravitational collapse of massive famous effects in which predictions from general stars and to the theoretical existence of black holes. relativity differ from those of Newtonian theory. The observation of these effects by astronomers has lent Glenn Research Center considerable support to the veracity of the general National Aeronautics and Space Administration theory: Cleveland, Ohio, January 18, 2005 1. Rotation of a planet’s perihelion with time 2. Deflection of starlight passing near a massive object 3. Red shift of light moving away from a massive object

NASA/TP—2005-213115 82 References Suggested Reading

Bell, E.T.: The Development of Mathematics. Second ed., McGraw Born, Max: Einstein’s Theory of Relativity. Dover Publications, Hill, New York, NY, 1945. New York, NY, 1962. Hawking, Stephen: On the Shoulders of Giants: The Great Works Lorentz, H.A., et al.: The Principle of Relativity: A Collection of of Physics and Astronomy. Running Press, Philadelphia, PA, Original Memoirs on the Special and General Theory of 2002. Relativity. Dover Publications, New York, NY, 1959. Mach, Ernst: The Science of Mechanics: A Critical and Historical Spiegel, Murray R.: Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of Account of Its Development. Open Court, LaSalle, IL, 1960. Theoretical Mechanics With an Introduction to Lagrange’s Sciama, D.W.: The Physical Foundations of General Relativity. Equations and Hamiltonian Theory. Schaum Publishing, New Doubleday, Garden City, NY, 1969. York, NY, 1967. Spiegel, Murray R.: Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis and an Introduction to Tensor Analysis. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1959.

NASA/TP—2005-213115 83 REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Form Approved OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302, and to the Office of Management and Budget, Paperwork Reduction Project (0704-0188), Washington, DC 20503. 1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank) 2. REPORT DATE 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED April 2005 Technical Paper 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. FUNDING NUMBERS Foundations of Tensor Analysis for Students of Physics and Engineering With an Introduction to the Theory of Relativity WBS–22–332–41–00–01 6. AUTHOR(S)

Joseph C. Kolecki

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER National Aeronautics and Space Administration John H. Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field E–14609 Cleveland, Ohio 44135–3191

9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY REPORT NUMBER National Aeronautics and Space Administration Washington, DC 20546–0001 NASA TP—2005-213115

11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Responsible person, Joseph C. Kolecki, organization code RPV, 216–433–2296.

12a. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE Unclassified -Unlimited Subject Categories: 31, 59, 70, 88, and 90 Available electronically at http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov This publication is available from the NASA Center for AeroSpace Information, 301–621–0390. 13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words) Tensor analysis is one of the more abstruse, even if one of the more useful, higher math subjects enjoined by students of physics and engineering. It is abstruse because of the intellectual gap that exists between where most physics and engineering mathematics leave off and where tensor analysis traditionally begins. It is useful because of its great generality, computational power, and compact, easy to use, notation. This paper bridges the intellectual gap. It is divided into three parts: algebra, calculus, and relativity. Algebra: In tensor analysis, coordinate independent quantities are sought for applications in physics and engineering. Coordinate independence means that the quantities have such coordinate transformations as to leave them invariant relative to a particular observer’s coordinate system. Calculus: Non-zero base vector derivatives contribute terms to dynamical equations that correspond to pseudoaccelerations in accelerated coordinate systems and to curvature or gravity in relativity. These derivatives have a specific general form in tensor analysis. Relativity: Spacetime has an intrinsic geometry. Light is the tool for investigating that geometry. Since the observed geometry of spacetime cannot be made to match the classical geometry of Euclid, Einstein applied another more general geometry—differential geometry. The merger of differential geometry and cosmology was accomplished in the theory of relativity. In relativity, gravity is equivalent to curvature.

14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF PAGES 91 Scalar; Vector; Tensor; Algebra; Calculus; Physics; Engineering; Relativity; Foundations 16. PRICE CODE

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