Comparative Sociology of Education

David P. Baker

Comparing formal education across time and From Humanistic Comparison to an Early place has a long scholarly history, but system- Comparative Sociology of Education atic sociological analysis of the topic is relatively Prior to the development of a CSE in the latter new. Older and non-sociological comparative half of the 20th century, the comparative study study of education was narrow, lending soci- of educational styles, pedagogical philosophies, ology only a modest intellectual legacy upon schooling, universities, teachers, teaching and which to build, and this likely retarded the early so forth was chiefly observational in method, growth of a “comparative sociology of educa- taxonomical in aim, and humanistic in intel- tion” (hereafter CSE). So too, founding socio- lectual orientation (e.g., Kandel 1933). Lacking logical theory was developed before widespread a theoretical discipline, this intellectual enter- mass education was evident as a unique feature prise celebrated what it presumed to be signifi- of modern society. Nevertheless, over the past cant differences across nations’ organization four decades, improvements in comparative and practice of education, and assumed that data collection and dissemination, theoretical a considerable underlying cultural-historical paradigms, and empirical research have yielded immutability was responsible for these differ- a vibrant sociological approach that has become ences. In tandem these ideas created a reigning a significant part of the sociology of education paradigm in comparative study that ironically and the study of social stratification. Lastly, two restricted systematic empirical comparisons: If major sociological trends intimately tied to the most things educational are profoundly differ- development of a mature CSE make the compar- ent and culturally immutable across nations, ative analysis of education evermore relevant to little is to be gained from comparative study sociology as an intellectual endeavor. First is the other than a kind of esoteric humanism. Sociol- historically greater institutionalization of for- ogy and sociologists had little to do with this mal education worldwide that has brought the endeavor. institution into its most advanced form. Second This earlier approach began to shift by mid- is education’s robust institutional influence on century. Motivated by the dual logics of post- central societal processes in postindustrial soci- World War II Cold War international aid for ety, most notably its increasing domination of national development and academic area stud- social stratification. ies (i.e. the singular focus on education in one or After a brief discussion of early intellectual cur- several nations in a geographical-cultural region), rents behind the development of a CSE, four major intellectual energy was applied to a more meth- empirical and theoretical achievements relative to odologically systematic comparison of education sociological analysis of the development of edu- accompanied by ideas about its use in practical cation as an institution and its impact on social applications from nation to nation. Taking a step stratification will be chronicled as examples of the forward towards a foundation upon which a CSE field’s contribution to sociology. These include: could be built, in 1955 a leading comparative edu- 1) the study of origins and historical contours cationalist proclaimed: of the worldwide education revolution and its Comparative education seeks to discover underly- demographical expansion of mass schooling; 2) ing causes to explain why the educational systems the comparison of national education systems’ differ from each other, what are their motivating ability to instill academic achievement among aims and purposes, what their sources are, and students; 3) the comparison of organizational what general principles may emerge. If causes and curricular change in Kindergarten through are to be ascertained, then a carefully controlled methodology must be carefully followed. (Kandel university systems of education across nations; 1955, 5) and 4) cross-national comparison of the role of formal education in the social status attainment For the time this was a progressive statement albeit process and other sociological impacts of the a mostly unheeded one, as there was little such education revolution. scholarship in the field at this point, and the older comparative sociology of education 237 ideas about deep cultural-historical differences teacher quality and resources continue to hamper remained. Note how in an assessment of the state full expansion of formal education in many low- of the comparative education field a year later the income nations, but over the past fifty years it is old incomparability paradigm echoes on: undeniable that major improvement in access to schooling has occurred (UNESCO 2002). Specialists in Comparative Education have been warning for some time that it is not possible to Consequently, 80 percent of all humans aged export an educational system to another country. 15 or older are able to both read and write a short To this we might add the conviction that it is vir- statement about their life—a fact that would have tually as impossible to introduce in toto any basic been hard to imagine just fifty years ago, and educational change into a foreign school system. unthinkable one hundred years ago (UNESCO (Brickman 1956, 120) 2002).1 Along with the diffusion of mass education, Without explicit theory and only limited com- the normative standard of educational attainment parative data, the describing and categorizing of has risen with each new generation of schooled formal education one nation at a time by gen- parents. For example, in the United States, a nation eral comparativists continued into the 1980s. For that has largely led the way in developing mass example, a historical review of publications in the education, 100 years ago about half of all school- American-based journal Comparative Education aged children were enrolled, and within the next Review reports that the overwhelming majority of forty years that proportion rose to 75 percent, and studies were of just one national education system over the next twenty years it rose to almost 90 per- (Ramirez and Meyer 1981). The single system study cent, and now more than 12 years of schooling is done in the “area specialists” style continued to the median attainment (US Department of Edu- dominate (Koehl 1977). And as the Cold War logic cation 1993). And over the past several decades began to dwindle in the late 1980s, funding for in many nations, mass education has flowed into general comparative educational research began the higher education sector, where the beginnings to decline (Altbach 1991). This would change, how- of mass post-undergraduate education are stirring ever, with a coming greater appreciation of the (Schofer and Meyer 2005). In just the academic year worldwide dimensions of what CSE has termed of 2006–2007 the entire American higher education the “education revolution” and a highly charged system graduated about 1.5 million students with political debate over national economic progress the B.A., and another 755,000 students with gradu- and the quality of schooling in the United States ate degrees, for a ratio of about one graduate degree and elsewhere. for every two B.A. degrees; and over 10 percent of the total American population holds a graduate The Education Revolution and a Mature degree (US Department of Education 2008). Comparative Sociology of Education Fueling this growth is a powerful ideology that The largest undertaking of formal education in any has gained considerable support both among known human society is that which has occurred individuals and collectives. For example, one across the world in the form of rapid growth in can see the essence of this ideology expressed in education and a robust culture of education over the proclamations of many multilateral agencies the past century and a half. The demography of the such as the World Bank, the Organisation for Eco- education revolution is well known to sociologists. nomic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Gross enrollment rates have consistently risen and the United Nations Educational, Scientific, over the past 150 years, justified as preparing all and Cultural Organization (UNESCO 2002). It is a children for the adult world; with near full enroll- three-part ideology. Firstly, all individuals are to ments achieved first in wealthier nations, and then be formally educated as the main way to develop since the middle of the 20th century high enroll- their full potential as a human, and this is essen- ments spread globally (e.g., Benavot and Riddle tial for them and highly beneficial to collective 1988; Fuller and Rubinson 1992). While full enroll- social progress. Secondly, formal education has ment in both primary and secondary education become far more than the technical pursuit of is still well into the future for many developing occupational skill, it is for basic human develop- nations, over the past decade there has been con- ment and is a fundamental human right that runs siderable expansion of education in China, India, deep into preserving the worth of all individu- Egypt and similar nations. Certainly issues of low als. And thirdly, the academic knowledge-base,