2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | i To channel our inner film & media critic/theorist (read: movie buff) mindset, we will be introducing you to the theme of this year’s edition of Focus Media Journal with the three words that Don LaFontaine popularized in his iconic movie voice-overs: “In a world…” In a world where film has been replaced by digital and television has been derailed by online streaming, where books are converted to NOOKs and socializing is reduced to “poking” friends on Facebook—a world where all of life’s inconveniences can seemingly be answered with the phrase, “There’s an app for that”—it is clear that the media landscape is changing rapidly, and that we are changing with it. The innovation of the smart phone catapulted our culture into a new era, one where almost everything we need can be found in the palms of our iPhone-holding hands. In this era, we’ve seen a simultaneous explosion of content (via the ) and implosion of the vehicles necessary to access said content. No longer do we need to purchase CDs, DVDs, or books, nor is it necessary to watch live television or read newspapers. Those are a thing of the past. As Richard Kelly wrote in his critical and commercial flop, Southland Tales (2006), “the internet is the future” and the future is now. In a world where six conglomerates own 90% of the media we consume, where a telephone’s worth is defined by its ability to access the internet rather than its ability to make a call, and where the plotline of Spike Jonze’s Her doesn’t seem like too distant a future (let’s face it, we all know someone who takes their relationship with Siri a bit too seriously), it is clear that we live in a convergence culture. Or so it seems. But as we, at the Focus Media Journal staff, meditated on an engaging theme for this edition, we kept circling back to one idea: if the “space” of discourse is converging via the internet, isn’t the discourse itself converging, as well? And though we initially agreed it must, this convergence seemed increasingly illusive. Though technology and media platforms may be converging and synergizing, our culture is, in many way, doing just the opposite—giving rise to diverging thoughts and discourses in the face of technological unification. We have broken down this edition in terms of the various “illusions” we frequently encounter in film- and media-related discourse. The first section, “Finding the ‘Me' in Social Media: The Illusion of Self,” explores how the “selves” converging on social media are actually carefully constructed identities; the second section, “Creative Nonfiction in a Consumer Culture: The Illusion of Truth*,” investigates the effects of convergences of media news sources on truth telling; the third section, “Piracy in the Digital Age: The Illusion of Freedom,” considers the entitlements of media “owners” in a world where the terms “consumer” and “producer” are increasingly convergent; the fourth section,

ii | UCSB Film and Media Studies Undergraduate Journal

“Representations of Feminism and Sexuality: The Illusion of Diversity,” deconstructs the roles women play in a landscape of representational “convergence”; the fifth section, “The Import and Export of Culture: Illusion of the National,” examines the negotiations that seem to converge audiences of different nationalities but actually further separate them; and finally, the sixth section, “Convergence: The Illusion of Divergence,” acts as an addendum that contemplates whether there might yet be spaces of discursive convergence. The Focus Media Journal editorial team would like to give a HUGE thank you to everyone who helped us—academically, financially, and emotionally—bring this book to print, and an EVEN HUGER shout out to our academic advisor, Chuck Wolfe, and our layout and cover designer, Bill Hornung. We couldn’t have done it without your support. We are so grateful for the amazing submissions this year and proud to be publishing a wide range of meaningful and complex studies of today’s media industries. We hope you enjoy!

Yours truly,

Nick Hornung, Julia Petuhova, Carlos Sanchez The Editors-in-Chief

*Editor’s note: In light of the recent tragedy occurring in Isla Vista, the Focus Media Journal staff would like to acknowledge the sensitive subject matter that will be found in the second chapter of this journal. The article entitled “Lost Priorities and Lower Standards: The Unfortunate Evolution of Reporting Domestic Mass Shootings” analyzes a topic that the UCSB community is now, unfortunately, far too familiar with. It is with the greatest respect, love, and honor for those who were injured and lost their lives, as well as the friends and families affected by the tragedy, that we publish this piece, in hopes of continuing a thoughtful discourse on a difficult, but important subject, and maintaining the rapport of a unified community ready for a change.

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | iii

PART 1 Finding the “Me” in Social Media The Illusion of Self

Mapping the Map: Social Media, Vines, Convergence, and the Hyperreal 3 By Alberto Lopez

Instagram as Advertisement of the Social-Media Self 15 By Suzanne Cimolino

PART 2 Creative Nonfiction in a Consumer Culture The Illusion of Truth

Lost Priorities and Lower Standards: The Unfortunate Evolution of Reporting 23 Domestic Mass Shootings By Jess McKillop

Fast News is False News: Media’s War on Terrorism 34 By Alexandra Goldstein

PART 3 Piracy in the Digital Age The Illusion of Freedom

The Impact of Internet Policy on Human Rights 43 By Cynthia Chin

Digital Piracy should be Exploited, not Abolished 49 By Christopher Risden

iv | UCSB Film and Media Studies Undergraduate Journal PART 4 Women, Minorities and Special Interests in the Media The Illusion of Diversity

They Went To There: 30 Rock, the Human Bra, and the Struggles of Women in 55 the Workplace By Pailin Srukhosit

The Female Predator: Lesbianism in Pre- and Post-Code Hollywood Films 63 By Daisy Rogozinsky

United States of Tara and the Intermingling of the Hollywood and Scientific Worlds 71 By Omar Miranda

PART 5 Import and Export of Culture by the Media The Illusion of the National

El Vampiro de la Cultura: 79 The Reception of Universal’s Spanish Drácula and the Appropriation of Spanish Cinematic History By Justin Minor

The ‘Golden Age’ of Spanish Language Theaters in : The Formation 88 of a Transnational Cinema Audience By Carlos Sanchez

PART 6 Convergence The Illusion of Divergence

Homergeneity: Mathematical Paratexts in 102 By Julia Petuhova

109 Selfies

112 Thank You

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | v vi | UCSB Film and Media Studies Undergraduate Journal

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 1 2 | Finding the ‘Me’ in Social Media: The Illusion of Self Mapping the Map: Social Media, Vines, Convergence, and the Hyperreal

By Alberto Lopez

In time, those Unconscionable Maps no longer satisfied, and the Cartographers Guilds struck a Map of the Empire whose size was that of the Empire, and which coincided point for point with it. – “On Exactitude in Science” by Jorge Luis Borges

The map is not the territory. – Alfred Korzybski

The map has not yet superseded the that has no signified or is its own signified. empire, but it is only a matter of time. Baudrillard identified the mediascape as Borges borrows the map-territory relation one of the places where the “precession of from Alfred Korzybski who employed it simulacra” takes place. It is therefore apt to when speaking of language. In simple apply Baudrillard’s concepts to social terms what is meant by this is that a media. However, social media seems to be representation of reality does not constitute caught between simulation and simulacra. reality itself. Jean Baudrillard begins his The map-territory relation can be book Simulacra and Simulation by writing applied to social networks, in particular about Borges’ rendering of the map- Facebook. When applied to Facebook the territory relation. For Baudrillard Borges’ social-networking site emerges as the “allegory of simulation” does not go far “map” in the allegory and life itself as the enough in describing how simulation “territory.” Facebook, and social media in operates in our post-modern world (1). The general, has ushered in a tendency towards map no longer requires a territory as a oversharing facilitated by strides made in reference point, the map is its own technology which have allowed individuals reference point, its own reality. Simulation to remain “connected” at all times from is no longer about mirroring that which is nearly anywhere they go. This idea of being simulated, instead “it is the remaining “connected” to one another is generation by models of a real without the supposed draw and function of origin or reality” (Baudrillard 1). Facebook and other social media. Yet these Simulation becomes simulacra: a signifier “connections” play out over social

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 3 networking sites where physical contact is 372-374). Different studies support lost, where the nuances of body language, different hypotheses, though a more recent vocal cues and facial expressions give way study suggests that self-idealization is not to imprecise icons ill-equipped to fully as prevalent as once thought. It seems that express the range of human emotions. the mediascape is not a hyperreality of Not only do our social interactions take fabrication but a hyperreality of omission. place over Facebook and other social Of course omission is necessary lest we, media, but the myriad experiences that like the fictional Tristram Shandy who in constitute life itself are displaced onto writing his autobiography took a year to numerous daily updates so that our News write about a day, become engaged in a Feeds serve as a historical record of our supertask. However the convergence of lives. The entire continuum of our temporal social media is allowing the map to existences can be found there: what we become ever more detailed as the various have done, what we are doing, and what hyperrealities created by each individual we plan to do. Yet this is not mere social networking site (Facebook, , simulation; the self we present to the world Instagram, Vines, etc.) coalesce into one is mediated, as is the record of our lives we collective hyperreality, each site a different provide. It is this mediation that moves the facet of it. simulation into the realm of simulacra. As The implications of what this means soon as what we present of ourselves and are still more alarming when you consider our lives to the mediascape becomes the medium through which this is mediated, the social media we use so do happening in relation to media theory, this stop being simulations and become more specifically Marshall McLuhan’s simulacrum: models without a reference work. McLuhan is the originator of the point in reality, or in other words pure phrase “the medium is the message” (and a fabrication. number of variations), which captures the Studies have been done which asses underlying guiding principle of his the reliability of social media in predicting theories. For McLuhan the medium personality. As a result two hypothesis through which content is conveyed is just have emerged. The first, the idealized as important if not more so than the content virtual-identity hypothesis, proposes that it conveys. In large part this is because of virtual-identities are idealized identities the way that media influences human that do not reflect the user’s true development. For example he claims that personality (Back, et al. 372-374). The the advent of print “created individualism second, the extended real-life hypothesis, and nationalism in the sixteenth century” proposes that the identities and (McLuhan). He also credits motion personalities presented on social media pictures with the transition “from the world serve as extensions of individuals’ real-life of sequence and connections” (which he identities and personalities (Back, et al. identifies as a result of mechanization)

4 | Finding the ‘Me’ in Social Media: The Illusion of Self “into the world of creative configuration YouTube has been used for a variety of and structure” (McLuhan). So the question uses the most common being the that arises when viewing social media broadcasting of short skits, short opinion through the lens of media theory is, in what pieces and vlogging or video blogging. The way has social media altered human site is also used to host music videos, development? videos of live performances by any number To answer that question it is pertinent of artists ranging in popularity, interviews, to ask the larger question, in what way has reviews, television programs and movies. the Internet altered human development? In However, content of longer duration is fact this question has been given much usually fragmented, divided into multipart thought already. In an article for The videos: delivering our favorite artists, Atlantic Nicholas Carr identifies the programs and films in short parcels suited changes which he sees in himself and for our wandering minds and shortened others as a result of the ubiquity of the attention spans. Sites like Instagram, Keek Internet, namely that the way information and Vine take YouTube’s reductionist is accessed, in “a swiftly moving stream of approach to video content and reduce it particles” that is brief and associative in further: in the case of Instagram to 15 nature, is changing the way we process second videos, and in the case of Vine to information. He is no longer able to engage less than half that time with roughly a 6 in deep reading as easily as before the second time limit. Internet became the most common avenue When we consider these sites through for accessing information. He provides the lens of medium theory as framed by the historical examples of other technologies question of their relationship to reality which have affected human development (both reality independent of social media, (the clock, the printing press, and the and the hyperreality this social media typewriter), establishing a precedent (like creates) it becomes apparent that social McLuhan), wherein emerging technologies media not only affects us as users, but also influence human development, of which the physical and social and cultural The Internet and its effects on the way we structures we move through and which process information is only the latest constitute what we consider reality. The manifestation (Carr). way in which social media affects reality is Carr identifies a move towards brevity, as much related to the medium as the which manifests itself not just in our message. The principal structural shortened attention spans but in the very characteristic of social media which affects social media which plays an active role in reality is brevity, which Carr has already shaping our attention spans. Twitter and identified as a structural characteristic of Tumbler are at the forefront of the Internet itself. microblogging, with Twitter specifically This new social media operates at the restricting users to 140 characters. level of collective experience and thought

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 5 in terms of the way it contextualizes the In an effort to garner the most “likes” and content it provides as a result of its brief “shares” content creators must appeal to nature. Let us examine Vines and how they the largest amount of users possible. Even operate. The brevity imposed by the if more “likes” did not manifest themselves medium precludes anything even in greater visibility and popularity, the resembling context or background perception that this causal relation between information; instead the creators of these “likes” and popularity exists is enough works rely on the viewer supplying the ensure that the generation of content is context from his or her own experiences. In motivated by appealing to the largest many cases these Vines appeal directly to amount of users. This mass appeal can only these experiences. Ultimately, the Vine be done by exploiting collective experience only provides the punch line while the and conventional thoughts: an appeal must viewer supplies the joke. Similarly, be made to those experiences and ideas microblogging favors collective thought, widely held, and not to individual society’s platitudes. You can say very little experience or ideas. that is of intellectual value or substance in So returning to the joke allegory 140 characters, much less elaborate on (imperfect as most allegories but complex concepts or ideas. Furthermore, particularly suitable considering that many the expression of new concepts or ideas is of the most popular Vines are comedic in curtailed by the fact that necessary nature), the punch line must therefore be elaboration is not possible in 140 one that appeals to the lowest common characters. Noam Chomsky states, “The denominator of experience so as to achieve beauty of concision is that you can only necessary contextualization of the joke and repeat conventional thought” popularity. (Manufacturing Consent). He calls In a Vine titled “being on the phone w/ concision a “structural constraint” girls” by jasonmendezhoe a visibly bored (Manufacturing Consent). The structural Jason can be seen reacting to an off-screen constraint which operates in Twitter also female voice complaining about another operates in Vine, and in much of social woman wearing “sparkly boots.” As Jason media though in some cases the constraint appears to be falling asleep the off-screen is not so much an imposed structural voice asks him if he is listening, to which constraint as a result of the move towards he unenthusiastically responds, “Yeah, brevity which participants of social media fuck that bitch.” The Vine is attempting to have been conditioned towards. make a joke out of the act of speaking to Social media has tapped into the women on the phone by depicting the meritocratic mechanisms of the Internet experience as tiresome. The stereotype of and reduced them to system of up-voting: female conversation consisting content which garners the most “likes” predominantly of superficial, petty and achieves greater visibility and popularity. often vitriolic observations concerning

6 | Finding the ‘Me’ in Social Media: The Illusion of Self other members of their gender, especially suppress individual experience, must in relation to themselves, is being exploited fabricate and perpetuate collective here. The Vine is simultaneously appealing experience thereby engaging in a form of to and perpetuating this stereotype. The mythmaking (or following the title of the Vine does not differentiate Baudrillardian thread established, thereby between individual females, instead engaging in a form of simulacrum referring to the act of speaking to one construction): in this very specific case the woman as indicative of “being on the myth that talking to women is tiresome phone [with all] girls.” The title also does because their only preoccupations are petty not establish a relation between Jason in and superficial. the Vine and the off-screen female voice The Vine also assumes a male gaze. (is it his girlfriend or sister) thereby The title is simply “being on the phone w/ excluding the girls,” making no possibility that this reference to who is experience is unique on the phone with to himself and his girls, the implication female counterpart: being that it is men, the lack of a specific for whom Jason is a relational title proxy. The title identifying the off- exnominatates the screen female in the category of the male title of the Vine experience by makes the off-screen literally excluding the female a proxy for subject engaged in all of womankind. “being on the phone.” The popularity of the Vine (over 36,000 In other words the title assumes that the “likes” and almost 25,000 “revines” thus subject is male by virtue of the fact that it far) both depends on this appeal to the is a man who is the engaged in a phone collective experience of others and conversation with a woman within the perpetuates this collective experience. Vine, and therefore does not include the While many (if not all of us) have at some male subject linked to the present participle point engaged in a phone conversation with “being” of the title. a woman we have not all experienced that Some may think that a six second Vine act the way it is depicted here, yet the Vine does not warrant this amount of analytical ignores that fact and indeed must ignore attention because it is nothing more than a that fact if it is to appeal to a wide sophomoric audiovisual gag. Yet in that six audience. second gag the male perspective was Thus the Vine must simultaneously favored, generalizations were made and appeal to collective experience and gender stereotypes were upheld and

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 7 perpetuated. The last outcome identified is those involved dictate the range of perhaps the most harmful way in which meaning which can be decoded (i.e. Vines can be used. Many Vines are not because African Americans were involved necessarily about or appeal to collective in the production of the Vine the meaning experience as such but instead uphold and decoded by the viewer must necessarily appeal to stereotypes. ignore racist subtext or otherwise be There are a number of Vines that rely wrong) and advances a line of reasoning on stereotypes as the source of their humor. that if applied in retrospect would lead us Some of the more popular ones include one to believe that past representations of from a series titled “Latino commercials” African Americans such as those found in by Rudy Mancuso in which the stereotype Amos‘n’ Andy are not racist simply by of the Latino as a cheap laborer is used in virtue of the Black cast involved. That the context of a Lowe’s commercial. As these videos employ stereotypes, especially mentioned this is only one of a number of racial ones, says as much about those Vines titled “Latino commercials” which producing them as those watching them. depict Latinos in stereotypical fashion. Ultimately stereotypes are ideal material Other Vines by Mancuso that are not part for use in a medium like this one which of this series often employ Latino imposes time constraints as stereotypes, the stereotypes as well. There are also Vines impressions and associations which make which employ Black stereotypes, such as up group schema or prototypes, are “part of one titled “For just 1 bottle of lotion a day the social fabric of society, shared by the you can help ashy African American people within that culture.” Vines appeal to children” by KingBach, the title of which stereotypes because they require no summarizes the content of the Vine quite explanation or contextual background succinctly. information, and in employing them they In the case of this Vine it is the uphold and perpetuate them. His comment comments which prove more enlightening, reveals a dominant-hegemonic reading of in particular those aimed at viewers who the Vine (Hall 41-49). There are also voice their displeasure. User Jose Pruneda negotiated readings in which some viewers opined, “How is this racist if African voice their displeasure yet reluctantly Americans did the vine with him! Ya’ll are admit they found the Vine humorous (Hall so fucking ignorant. Stupidd ass people 41-49). Finally, there are oppositional [sic].” This sentiment was echoed by other readings of the Vine which are much less commenters. This point of view itself numerous and illicit responses of a similar displays an ignorance of how the nature as that of Jose Pruneda (Hall 41-49). normalization of racist stereotypes There are a number of other trends that operates, denies the agency of the viewer have cropped up in terms of the content of in decoding the message of the Vine by Vines all of which rely on references to assuming that the means of production and some aspects of pop culture. These include

8 | Finding the ‘Me’ in Social Media: The Illusion of Self Vines which reenact scenes from popular six second duration of the Vines transforms films, Vines of amateur performers the otherwise powerful juxtaposition of covering popular songs, the use of popular images into an assault on the senses, the songs to create meaning in relation to the rapid succession rendering them visual dimension of the Vine, or the use of meaningless because sense cannot be made clips from existing films as visual punch of them. Similarly, the time constraint of lines. Another interesting trend is the the medium affects those Vines in which reference to other popular Vines creating individuals voice their support of or desire meta-Vines. Like collective experiences for peace in Venezuela because little else and stereotypes, elements of pop culture can be said: essentially these Vines are need no contextualization as they are little more than quasi-advertisements of a omnipresent within the collective psyche of slogan. None of these Vines exploit the mainstream society. This particular quality unique structural quality of the medium: of pop culture (which I admit is dependent the repetition. Interestingly enough the one on how one defines pop culture) means that video that did use that quality of the those not in the know are marginalized in medium to its advantage was one whose much the same way that those who do not message would have been just as suited for share the collective experiences of society the medium of the still image as much as or accept unresistingly its stereotypes are the moving image: in which a quote marginalized. attributed to Martin Luther King Jr. (“The The medium has also lent itself to more hottest place in hell is reserved for those than comedic gags. Many Vines, though who remain neutral in times of great moral less numerous, are artistic in nature. crisis.”) written on a cue card is displayed However, due to the temporal constraint over a female wearing a Venezuelan jersey these Vines are merely novel at worst and with her mouth covered over. (Parisi). The exercises in style and aesthetics at best. looping quality of the Vine allows the cue The art of Vines is of the ars gratia artis card to be read at any pace, but beyond that tradition and not a theater of ideas. the looping transforms the six second Vine The medium has also been used as a into an accusation ad infinitum. tool of activism, but again to limited One final notable trend is the use of efficacy. A look at the content being Vines as advertisements. As part of a larger generated in relation to the socio-political trend which includes most social media, situation in Venezuela is insightful in this retailers like Urban Outfitters and brands regard. These Vines tend to play out in one like Honda are horizontally integrating of two ways: as a rapid succession of Vines into larger ad campaigns. Some violent images depicting the violent clashes companies, like Ford Motor Company and between protesters and the state, or as T-Mobile, have collaborated with well- talking heads in which individuals declare known Viners: for example Ford and T- their desire for peace in the country. The Mobile have collaborated with Rudy

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 9 Mancuso. If these Vines function as ads it answer of course is who better to is by virtue of our familiarity as consumers collaborate with in creating Vines than the with the brand being advertised. For greatest (read most popular) practitioners example, the majority of Vines produced of the medium. by Urban Outfitters follow a similar Perhaps this is the epitome of progression in which items either pop into commodity fetishism. Consider a Vine ad the frame through the use of jump cuts by Urban Outfitters titled “Black + White creating a decorative arrangement of = #BetterTogether” in which items from objects or their practical use is their new Black and White line are demonstrated using jump cuts. It is only if arranged in a square configuration that the viewer is familiar with the fact that changes as the products themselves Urban Outfitters is a retailer and with the change, appearing and disappearing with niche they have carved for themselves that each consecutive jump cut. The six second these Vines make sense, as the viewer with ad is neither informational nor this prior knowledge will realize that the transcendental, just pure fetish. As Sut items in the Vines are the products sold by Jhally has identified, the ad is itself a the retailer. fetishistic construct meant to fill with Familiarity with the brand being meaning “the hollow husk of the advertised is especially necessary if the commodity-form[,] however superficial” content of the Vine does not display or (217-229). Yet what meaning can be allude to the commodity being sold as is constructed within a six second clip? the case with a series of Vines Done by T- Instead of suffusing the commodity with Mobile Latino (in collaboration with Rudy meaning through the relationships formed Mancuso and other Viners) to promote its between the consumer and the commodity, sponsorship of the music awards show the commodity is its own meaning. In other Premios Lo Nuestro. This series of Vines words the commodity is meaningful features the Viners in various situations, because it is a commodity, or as Debord from getting ready for the awards show to puts it “that’s which appears is good, that their antics at the awards show, that which is good appears.” What better provide no contextual information as to medium to express this circular logic than why they are there, what they have to do the looping Vine? The formal structure of with T-Mobile or why T-Mobile is at the the Vine itself frames the commodities as awards show. The viewer would need to be magical, as the commodities appear and familiar with the brand T-Mobile as well as disappear within the frame with each jump be aware of their sponsorship of the award cut seemingly without human intervention. show for the Vines to make sense or have Of course this is not exactly what Jhally any meaning or value to them, but that still means when referring to magic in relation would not answer the question of why that to advertising, but we can see how this particular group of Viners is there. The could constitute a visual metaphor for the

10 | Finding the ‘Me’ in Social Media: The Illusion of Self separation between the commodity and the experiences, and the stereotypes they process which produces it, and the loss of depict from the actual demographics they meaning that results which advertising stereotype, but upon closer inspection their attempts to provide or (re)create. As Jhally imaginary foundations crumble. puts it, advertising is “the real […] hidden As Baudrillard said, Borges’ Map- by the imaginary” (217-229). Territory relation is no longer usable This assertion takes us into because it is inadequate in describing the Baudrillardian territory. If advertising is way in which simulacrum map a territory the construction of meaning at the service which does not exist (2). Furthermore the of the commodity-fetish whereby the real complexity of the hyperreality created can is hidden by the imaginary, then no longer be contained within the two- advertising is engaged in the creation of dimensionality of the map; instead what is simulacrum and this meaning is simulacral required is a three-dimensional model. The in essence: it is meaning out of imagination convergence of social media has created an and therefore out of nothing as its origins ecosystem through which movement is no are outside of any reality and therefore has longer the linear progression from A to B no relation to any reality, it is the creation of the map, but instead the sporadic of meaning where it does not naturally movement of a body moving within a exist. Even in advertising, or perhaps model which envelops it completely. The especially in advertising, the Vine is but a ecosystem created by the convergence of representation of that which does not exist social media pretends to reflect reality, but (as well as the ultimate fetishizing of the in fact is a hyperreality which exists only commodity). through the use of or appeal to stereotypes, collective experiences, conventional The advertising of familiar brands is thought and anything familiar to society only one way in which Vines have been taken from pop culture and consumer used, and therefore only one example of culture (in some definitions one and the Vines as simulacrum. Collective same, and certainly themselves convergent experience and stereotypes (especially) are or overlapping at times). themselves simulacral in essence, as they That this distinction can be made is are fabrications of that which does not perhaps evidence that “the jig is up,” but actually exist, they are representations of given the apparent tendency of technology nothing except the individual biases, to mold reality into its own image, as prejudices, and gaps in knowledge of the identified by McLuhan and Carr among individual who employs them and which others, it may be too late. It seems create them. In this way the Vines pessimistic, and maybe not a little discussed above are themselves paranoid, to think that the hyperreality simulacrums: the collective experiences which social media has created will replace they depict seem to originate from actual reality itself. Debord identified that in a

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 11 society such as ours, “where modern “physical space in fact is emptied of conditions of production prevail,” significance, becomes less dense as “everything that was directly lived has thickness, as the dimension of virtual space moved away into representation.” What I is grafted onto it” (513-528). Physical propose is only the next stage in which spaces become secondary and as such so representation moves into life, in much the do our physical bodies, so that even though same way for example that Hollywood’s we are physically present within a physical representation of romance becomes the space our minds are elsewhere (Fortunati standard for real life romance, and though 513-528). This echoes something which I perhaps initially Hollywood’s allude to earlier in the essay and which I representations of romance came from life will reiterate here: physical life is displaced itself now our conceptions of romance onto the immaterial space of social come from Hollywood. Or to use an networks, and the preoccupation is not so example from Baudrillard, our memories much with physical experiences but the of Main Street U.S.A. in Disneyland mere appearance of having physical inform our conception of what that time experiences. Furthermore, another and place was actually like. consequence identified by Fortunati is one So the structural constraint of brevity that complements Chomsky’s observations imposed by a sizeable proportion of social on concision and conventional though, media favors the familiar, altering our namely that “always speaking over the social and cultural reality so that it is only mobile phone with one’s intimate circle of made up of the familiar and anything persons […] implies remaining closed unfamiliar is marginalized or ignored inside a rigid and inert kind of discourse, outright. But what of the way in which the because one tends to say the same things, social-mediascape alters our physical to repeat the same procedures in reality? In writing about the mobile phone conversation” (513-528). Leopoldina Fortunati claims that it [the That advances in communication and mobile phone] gives us “the possibility of technologies has reshaped choosing more easily between the physical society goes without saying. Similarly, space which you physically go through and social media has reshaped the way we the psychological space of the intimacy of communicate and interact with others, as your networks of relationships” (513-528). well as the social and physical spaces in Fortunati’s observations are quite pertinent which these interactions take place. As considering the ubiquity of the mobile McLuhan has identified, new technologies phone in our present society, especially as bring about changes in the way humans a means of access into the complex develop, and social media is no exception. ecosystem of social media. Fortunati Without meaning to stereotype social identifies that many choose psychological media itself, and especially and specifically space over physical space, and as a result Vines as they form the crux of this essay,

12 | Finding the ‘Me’ in Social Media: The Illusion of Self we can begin identifying the ways in which attempting to make a larger point involving broadly speaking social media has altered social media and its relation to our social our existence. While new communications and physical realities, the Vine emerged as technology, in particular the emergence of a way of practically illustrating this the mobile phone and its transformation relation. In a way the Vine is used as a into the smart phone, has altered the way synecdoche representative of the social- which we navigate and situate ourselves media ecosystem it is a part of. That is not within physical and social space, social to say that the Vine is not worthy of serious media has altered our social/cultural scholarly consideration on its own. This realities in ways that go beyond the essay only touches the tip of the iceberg. technology used to access them. In Each unique use of Vines (as audio- particular the move towards brevity favors visual gags, as art, as tools of activism, and the familiar, the collective, the widely as advertisements) deserves its own shared, displacing the truly individual to volume, providing rich and unexplored the margins in favor of the collective. If material for scholarly consideration. In turn this will result in the homogenizing of each area of interest can be approached experience and discourse by a culture or from multiple academic angles. Indeed if society itself largely homogenized remains we hope to fully understand the medium of to be seen, and in truth is not the diagnosis the Vine, its applications, and its effects, as I aim to give. We must remember that the well as if we hope to situate it within the faces in the screen are not ourselves, no larger technological, artistic, political, and matter how striking the resemblance may sociological picture, further extensive be. study is necessary. In particular The body of this essay concentrates quantification of content trends might give almost exclusively on Vines, but this is us a better understanding of the medium in only as a way of focusing and refining a broader sense, and would be beneficial in much larger and broader claims that I supporting or disproving claims made here believe are applicable or at least relevant to or elsewhere. Additionally the subject of all of social media. Those trends and celebrity and how it operates within the mechanisms operating within the Vine are Vine community, and its manifestations or applicable to varying degrees to other implications outside of it, is one I did not social media, and as a result so are the touch upon but which itself deserves conclusions derived. In other words in consideration and discussion.

______WORKS CITED Back, Mitja D., et al. "Facebook profiles reflect actual personality, not self-idealization." Psychological Science 21.3 (2010): 372-374. Print. Baudrillard, Jean. Simulacra and Simulation. Trans. Shelia Faria Glaser. University of Michigan Press, 1994. 1-2. Print. Borges, Jorge Luis. "On the exactitude of science.” A Universal History of Iniquity. New York: Penguin, 2004. Print.

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 13 Carr, Nicholas. "Is Google Making Us Stupid?” The Atlantic, 2008. Web. Debord, Guy. Society of the Spectacle. Trans. Malcom Imrie. New York: Verso, 1998. Print. Ford Motor Company, This is what happens… by Nicholas Megalis and Rudy Mancuso. Accessed February 20, 2014. Vine. Fortunati, Leopoldina. “The Mobile Phone: Towards New Categories and Social Relations.” Information, Communication and Society. Routledge, 2002. 513-528. Print. Hall, Stuart. “Encoding/Decoding.” Culture, Media, Language. London: Hutchinson, 1980. 41-49. Print. Jasonmendezhoe. being on the phone w/ girls. Accessed February 20, 2014. Vine. Jhally, Sut. “Advertising as Religion: The Dialectic of Technology and Magic.” Cultural politics in Contemporary America. Angus, Ian H., and Sut Jhally, eds. Routledge, 1989. 217-229. Print. KingBach. For just 1 bottle of lotion a day you can help ashy African American children, by KingBach et al. Accessed February 20, 2014. Vine. Mancuso, Rudy. Latino commercials (Lowes parody). Accessed February 20, 2014. Vine. Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media. Dir. Mark Achbar and Peter Wintonick. Perf. Noam Chomsky. Zeitgeist Films, 2002. DVD. McLuhan, Marshall. Understanding media: The extensions of man. MIT press, 1994. Print. Parisi, Oriana. Pray for Venezuela. Accessed February 20, 2014. Vine. Pruneda, Jose. “How is this racist…” Accessed February 20, 2014. Comment. T-Mobile Latino, Sitting with the family! By Rudy Mancuso et al. Accessed February 20, 2014. Vine. Urban Outfitters, Black + White = #BetterTogether. Accessed February 20, 2014. Vine.

14 | Finding the ‘Me’ in Social Media: The Illusion of Self Instagram as Advertisement of the Social-Media Self

By Suzanne Cimolino

By definition, “social networking” affluence, success, happiness— or usually means the connection of people through any kind of enviable trait— to his social methods, whether that be in-person “followers” (not always a mutual or online. When social media comes into connection). Instagram users can only the picture, certain dynamics of networking snippets of information about and interaction start to change. For themselves, so they (for the most part) example, when social media applications carefully calculate the select photos that like Instagram become popular, the idea of will make the cut in order to show off the connecting people becomes commoditized best versions of themselves, as the in a way. With Instagram, people are no unpopular photos usually get deleted. In longer exchanging conversations as they the social media world where users can would in person or via email; rather they manipulate their personal profiles and thus are sharing fragments of data in the form of show off the best version of themselves to small, square photos. Of course, sharing network and connect with more people, photos is intrinsically a connection, but the Instagram is the optimum tool for content that Instagram users post is what advertising one’s online self because it gives the impression that the application is quite literally shows off the user in the most more about self-advertising than visual way, without the clutter of status communicating with friends. Instagram updates or timelines; Instagrammers gave rise to the “selfie,” pictures glorifying capitalize on the app’s features such as food, and “geotagging” elite locations, all trendy geotags and enhancing filters in of which are generally used to boost ones order to present their most attractive selves social standing. In fact, social media and thus build their best profile for social applications and websites like Instagram or networking. In a world where people are Facebook create more of an arena for almost always social networking and self- competition than they do create a level promoting, Instagram is the tool they use to playing field in terms of social status. A compete. Today’s Millennials— Facebook user conceivably aims for his Instagram’s primary egocentrics— are status to catch the attention of his “friends” diluted down to the 612 x 612 pixel- (a mutual connection) and an Instagram versions of themselves. My paper explores user a photo that may convey how the people who use Instagram are both

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 15 the advertisers and the product they are Instagram is used as self-advertising. Jhally advertising, through examples from Sut breaks down four key stages of advertising Jhally, Marshall McLuhan, and James since the 1890s… and Instagram certainly Carey, among others. represents a coalescence of these four types But, “blaming” Instagram for of advertising. producing conceited users is inaccurate and The first stage Jhally explains, incorrect. In this case, media determinism Idolatry, applies to Instagram users’ cannot apply to social media specifically pictures glorifying products, especially because social media applications are food. While Jhally refers to advertisers’ constantly adapting to the ways people aim to make ads appeal to consumers in a already interact — just as people adapt to faith-based way, appealing to the the latest technologies. Contrary to the “nostalgia for the world that was medium theorists’ “billiard ball approach” passing…religious, family, and community (Seigel), Instagram did not cause people to life…to transform the product…producing suddenly grab their phones and start taking those life-enhancing feelings” (Jhally 223), pictures, as camera phones preceded the the idea of idolatry pertains somewhat application and photography has been differently to Instagram. In 2014, these around since the early 19th century. The ‘advertisers’ are really any Instagram user, app is rather an amalgamation of several the product is food or some kind of technologies (phone, camera, etc.) and consumable treat (e.g. Sprinkles cupcakes several ways of social media interaction or Starbucks), and the consumers are the (commenting, liking, following, etc.). followers. With the hashtag function, users Instagram was created as recently as 2010, can quickly isolate any kind of photo they which means that social media itself had want to see, and #foodporn especially has already been well established at the time. grown into a hugely popular tag. Food on Additionally, Instagram is not static; Instagram becomes stylized, unreal and people are always changing the way they fetishized. Instagram filters and well interact with technology, just as technology thought-out lighting turn food into almost is ever changing—so Instagram will have arousing, mouth-watering commodities. software updates periodically to keep the An article from the Huffington Post article app up to date. Moreover, Instagram users’ offers an interesting hypothesis: that interactions with the application have “Instagramming your food may make it changed drastically since it was launched. taste better.” Not only does Instagram seem When the app was launched it had nominal to advertise products and idolize them, it is consumers. When more people joined, successful at this advertising. Huff Post’s users had a larger audience with which to Rachel Tepper writes, “Researchers from share their photos. the University of Minnesota and Harvard Sut Jhally’s “Advertising as Religion” Business School found that ‘rituals abstractly applies to my argument that enhance the enjoyment of consumption

16 | Finding the ‘Me’ in Social Media: The Illusion of Self because of the greater involvement in the Instagrammer has enough free time to experience they prompt.” (Tepper) enjoy a leisurely lunch, and that the Foodstagrams, as they are sometimes Instagrammer is hip enough to know that referred, enhance the look of food and thus Madeo has the best pasta in the city. All of elicit “ritualistic behaviors” (Tepper) in these elements elevate the social standing commenters in the form of one-liners like of the photographer/pasta eater in one “OMG” “Wow” and “I die.” Commenters small photo. Of course, iconology does not seem to dramatize these beautiful snapshots of refer only to food, it also refers to clothing, food. scenery, cars, etc. — anything visually Jhally’s article goes on to explain the tangible can become a desirable advertising age of Iconology in the 1920s commodity on Instagram. Additionally, (and I argue, the 2010s)… in which “icons literal symbols in the form of emojis are are symbols” (Jhally used as the captions 223) and Instagram or comments on users no doubt use Instagram photos. symbols of all kinds Among the top 20 to enhance their most popular emojis photos. In this stage, right now, are the “advertising moves praying hands emoji, from the worship of the smiley face emoji commodities”— in with hearts for eyes, the Instagram world: and the a-ok emoji, all food and other of which imply commodities— “to approval, acceptance, their meaning within desire, and infatuation a social context” (223). In context, it (iEmoji). Physical emotions are applied to becomes not what type of commodity, but inanimate objects on Instagram. rather the status of the commodity, and When Instagram users turn the camera what the commodity connotes. Jhally’s around (literally, there is a button to switch article has a similar idea: “Goods became to a front-facing camera like on the iPhone) powerful not only through what they could idolatry and iconology become the stage of do but through what the could mean” Narcissism— where “advertising (223). For example, an Instagram of a plate completes the shift towards the consumer” of truffle risotto from Los Angeles’ Madeo in the 1940s and 1960s, according to Jhally Restaurant is encoded with many (Jhally 225). At this point, advertising has meanings: it means that the Instagrammer gone from all about the product to all about is wealthy enough to afford a $70 plate of the consumer or the individual. The pasta, that the Instagrammer is skinny “selfie” (modern-day self portrait) has enough to indulge in carbs, that the become a very popular and “self-

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 17 objectifying” (Arkin) way to express “global village” (McLuhan) through oneself on Instagram. The interesting part hashtags and the “Popular Page,” where of the selfie is that people may disguise users can, in a sense, join together and see them as natural or #nomakeup, when really the most liked and most commented-on they are quite contrived, like the photos. The hashtag feature allows users to foodstagrams; a user has endless attempts quickly and efficiently codify and to take the perfect selfie before posting it, categorize their own photos, and to easily including being in the best lighting, using find thousands of photos of whatever they creative camera angles that can highlight want to see by searching #SantaBarbara, ones ‘good side,’ and especially using the for example, a hashtag which currently has most flattering photo filters like black and 474,552 photos to its name. Just as each white or “Walden,” a filter which softens hashtag is identifiable with individual the light and gives the photo a nice glow. group, geotagging is a way for users to In Jhally’s words, “the power of the show membership or belonging to a product can be manifested… through the specific group or place. One can geotag a strategy of ‘black magic’ where persons location to their photos only if they are undergo sudden physical transformations near that location at the time (for example: or where the commodity can be used to Santa Barbara Museum of Art), or now one entrance and enrapture other people” can create his own location (for example: (Jhally 225). Just as professional Suzanne’s Pool), which others can retag as advertisers can publish their products if to join that group. Instagram allows for exactly the way they want, Instagram users users to “participate in a very specific can manipulate and control the exact image consumption community” (Jhally 226) as of themselves they want others to see. And, they are in control of their own product, the Instagram user eventually becomes the profile, likes, and follows. commodity fetishized for the gaze of his For McLuhan, the content Instagram followers. Oxford University Press’ article users post would not be as significant as “Scholarly Reflections on the ‘Selfie’” also the form or the layout of the application. determines that Instagram selfies are He writes, “Societies have always been especially faux: “On Instagram, you don’t shaped more by the nature of the media by portray yourself; you paint a desirable which men communicate than by the persona” (Van Dijck). Instagram profiles content of the communication” (McLuhan). can be just as misleading as professional ads. The fact that the vast majority of Instagram Jhally’s idea of the era of Totemism pictures can fit in with any of the since the 1960s refers to the group culture aforementioned eras of advertising, points that advertising appeals to and encourages, to the idea that Instagram’s form cultivates and I argue that Instagram, though filled egoism. Whereas Facebook is more about with individual selfies and separate communicating with and connecting profiles, also fosters the group or the friends through comprehensive profiles,

18 | Finding the ‘Me’ in Social Media: The Illusion of Self Instagram is simple and brief. On model help to explain how and why Instagram, a user posts one photo at a time Instagram acts as advertising for the social- (not an entire album) with a concise media self. For example, the transmission caption that usually elicits comments about model demonstrates that Instagram’s that particular photo (unlike timeline condensed layout “gives information to comments, which are used to post about others” (Carey 15) about the user in a whatever). An individual’s Instagram straightforward way. The ritual model profile itself is condensed because there is points to Instagram’s group aesthetic and no designated place to fill in personal the encouragement of “sharing, information like relationship status, participation…and fellowship” (18). birthday, or hometown. Instead, users can Basically, Instagram is not an altogether write in a couple words or emojis about new medium of communication— it is themselves on their profiles, or they can merely a combination of technology and obviously post photos that will convey social networking in a fairly new package. their personal information without words. Instagram still transmits and shares Also, Instagram’s form is different from information among users, but it does so in Facebook on the micro level (Siegel) in its own particular, mainly visual, way. One that Instagram photos are not specifically reason Instagram may stand apart from meant for one person, as a Facebook Facebook— other than for its unique comment is written for one person’s form— is that some Instagrammers’ self- timeline. Instagram photos are posted advertising turns into real business, and candidly, at will, and are subject to they become successful, or rather, anyone’s judgment— in fact, if a user’s Instafamous. profile is public, he will often get many Instafamous users like Carin Olsson random comments and likes (even from (@parisinfourmonths) and Leandra Medine spam accounts). Maybe the reason (@ManRepeller), who are known primarily from their Instagram accounts, are some of Instagram is so appealing to Millennials the many that have gained hundreds-of- today is that it is so pithy, so users can thousands of followers… and the fame, immediately see and post whatever they money, and careers that apparently come want, and to their exact liking. with having a pretty, stylish Instagram Furthermore, James Carey’s “A profile. Actually, both users had blogs and websites before joining Instagram, but Cultural Approach to Communication” Instagram is what really launched their would advocate for a form-not-content careers. This phenomenon is similar of method of analyzing Instagram. Carey course to YouTube fame, which came first. articulates the two main views of But Instagram is different in that people communication, which appear distinct from use the app to get recognized, and A-list each other, but are really linked and thus celebrities use the app to get… even more famous (whereas already well-known both apply to an analysis of Instagram. celebrities do not generally post personal Both the transmission model and the ritual videos on YouTube for fans, with the

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 19 exception of Joseph-Gordon Levitt). and change. Jeffrey Cole of PR Newswire Dozens of celebrities from the entire writes that: “The growth [of Instagram] Kardashian clan to Zooey Deschanel have shows that users are eager to get their voices millions of followers on Instagram, and use out there in a quick and engaging way.” He it to reach out to their fans in ways that lists Millennials, especially, as those users were previously impossible. Instagram “craving to be heard” (Cole). But of course, makes the idea of the celebrity more this is not all bad news for Facebook, as tangible. Plus, getting a lot of likes and followers on Instagram is easy enough that Facebook recently purchased Instagram for anyone can do it, and most people try. A $1 billion. for “Instafamous” returns Facebook even capitalizes on this with pages and pages of articles on “How social media conglomeration in that the to Get Instafamous” rather than pages of two function rather in . Cole argues: research on the dynamics of Instafame. “Facebook will become the site where Businesses also recognize that Instagram [they] search for someone… then users can be utilized as advertising, and they will move that relationship to a smaller often post pictures of their products with online community, such as a microblog” exclusive sales offers to attract customers. (Cole). Instagram is strong, and as a Instagram followers are thought of as Facebook conglomerate, arguably even similar to the way Internet website hits are thought of; the larger quantity of followers stronger. Instagram is “hot property” (Van reflects the better quality Instagram Grove) and as more people join, it becomes account. an even better platform for self-advertising. The most interesting part of Instagram The more users on Instagram, the bigger the is the fact that while other social media are audience for self-advertising selfies, on the decline, Instagram continues to grow foodstagrams, and enviable vacation photos.

______WORKS CITED Carey, James. A Cultural Approach to Communication. Communication as Culture. Routledge, NY, 1988. Print. Cole, Jeffrey. Facebook Use Will Decline in Five Years; Twitter and Instagram are Growing, Reports USC Annenberg Center for the Digital Future and Bovitz, Inc. PR Newswire. 3 Feb. 2014. http://www.prnewswire.com/news- releases/facebook-use-will-decline-in-five-years-twitter-and-instagram-are-growing-reports-usc-annenberg- center-for-the-digital-future-and-bovitz-inc-243379961.html iEmoji.com. Most Popular Emojis. http://www.iemoji.com/popular/emoji. Jhally, Sut. Advertising as Religion: The Dialectic of Technology and Magic. Themes in Popular Culture. New York: Routledge, 1989, 222-227. Print. McLuhan, Marshall. The Medium is the Massage: An Inventory of Effects. Berkeley: Ginko Press, 1967. Produced by Jerome Agel, 1996. Print. Arkin, Robert. Most Underappreciated: 50 Prominent Social Psychologists Describe Their Most Unloved Work. Oxford University Press, 3 March 2011. Print. Siegel, Greg. Lecture. January 14, 2014. Siegel, Greg. Lecture. January 16, 2014. Tepper, Rachel. Instagramming Your Food May Make It Taste Better, Study Suggests. The Huffington Post. 2 Aug. 2013. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/02/instagram-food-study_n_3689129.html Van Dijck, José. The Culture of Connectivity: A Critical History of Social Media. Oxford University Press, 21 March 2013. Print. Van Grove, Jennifer. Twitter Beware— Instagram’s The Really Hot Property. C|Net. 30 Dec. 2013. http://news.cnet.com/8301-1023_3-57616365-93/twitter-beware-instagrams-the-really-hot-property

20 | Finding the ‘Me’ in Social Media: The Illusion of Self

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 21 22 | Creative Nonfiction in a Consumer Culture: The Illusion of Truth Lost Priorities and Lower Standards: The Unfortunate Evolution of Reporting Domestic Mass Shootings

By Jess McKillop

Over the past twenty years, few events 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School have captured the national media’s shootings. While the Columbine Shooting attention more than domestic mass and the Sandy Hook shooting are very shootings. The shootings at Columbine distinct events in certain ways—the High School, Fort Hood Military Base, Columbine shooting occurred at a high Virginia Tech, the Aurora Movie Theater, school, the Sandy Hook shooting occurred and Sandy Hook Elementary School are at an elementary school; the Columbine permanently engrained into the nation’s shooting occurred on an otherwise average memory due both to their horrific nature, day in April, the Sandy Hook shooting and the overwhelming amount of national occurred in December just weeks before media coverage they received. Virtually the full swing of the holiday season—these every major news outlet intensely covered two specific shootings serve as a good each of these events as they unfolded and comparison because of the over a decade for days and sometimes weeks afterwards. gap between the two shootings and the However, while the intense coverage of distinction that the victims in both cases mass shootings has remained consistent, were school children, which added to the the nature of the coverage has changed horrific nature of these events and considerably. This essay aims to explore subsequently garnered more media what exactly about the coverage has attention. The sources analyzed are the changed, particularly which aspects of the respective news outlets’ initial coverage of shootings the media has decided to the shootings published online within hours highlight, and then identify why these of the conclusion of each shooting. In the changes have occurred. In the interest of thirteen years that passed between concision, this essay only compares the Columbine and Sandy Hook, CNN and the CNN’s and The Associated Press’ Associated Press dramatically altered their coverage of the 1999 Columbine High approach to reporting the events of mass School shootings to the coverage of the school shootings, specifically in their

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 23 increased focus on the shooter(s) as condition. Conversely, there is barely any opposed to the victims, and in their information regarding the shooters. CNN’s lowered standards for citing sources used hesitance to discuss the shooters combined in their reports. The impetus for this with the details they provide about the change is difficult to exactly pinpoint from victims reveal they were more concerned an outsiders perspective, but the with reporting about the victims as development of high speed internet and the opposed to the shooters. consequent developments to the The Associated Press Article puts more multimedia news platform as well as the emphasis on the shooters than did CNN, rise of “infotainment” have undoubtedly but still fails to publish any speculation of contributed to determining the nature of the their identities or motives. The article does changes over the past thirteen years. mention that the police were looking for The most blatant difference in CNN’s two suspects, but does not elaborate on and the AP’s coverage of Sandy Hook and their condition or whereabouts (Weller). In Columbine is the amount of attention the text of the article Harris and Klebold focused on Adam Lanza, the Sandy Hook are referred to as “gunmen” and more shooter, compared to the amount of specifically as “as young men, dressed in attention focused on Eric Harris and Dylan long black trench coats” (Weller). The AP Klebold, the Columbine shooters. In article also cites a student at the school that CNN’s initial report on the Columbine claims there is a group of students at the shooting CNN only refers to Harris and school known as the Trench Coat Mafia, Klebold as “gunmen” or “shooters” including a quote from the student saying (“Gunmen”). At the time the article was “they’re into guns and stuff like that” posted, Klebold’s and Harris identities had (Weller). However, the article noticeably not been officially confirmed as those of does not directly report that the gunmen the shooters, but the article makes no were students at the school, even though speculation at all about who the shooters there seemed to be enough information via could have possibly been, or what their eyewitness accounts to validate that claim. motives were. The article does not even Similar to the CNN article, the focus of the make significant note of the fact that the AP article is on the condition of the victims shooters were Columbine students, an and provides minuscule information about eyewitness interviewed in the article said the shooters. The amount of information he “saw two students in black trench coats regarding the victims compared to the with weapons” (“Gunmen”). The CNN lesser amount of information regarding the article focuses mainly on providing a shooters reveals that the AP placed more synopsis of events. The article provides focus on the victims than they did the eyewitness accounts of what happened shooters. inside the school, information about the CNN and the AP were similar in their number of victims, and their current approach to covering the Columbine

24 | Creative Nonfiction in a Consumer Culture: The Illusion of Truth shootings. Both articles indirectly reference hyperlink, and when the reader clicks on the gunmen as students at the school, but this link, it immediately takes him or her to do not confirm that they were students at a full-page profile of Adam Lanza Columbine High school, both articles do (Candiotti). Then, after a brief paragraph not speculate on the shooters motives or detailing the exact death toll, the third identities, both articles do not focus on the paragraph once again identifies the shooter condition or whereabouts of the suspects, as Adam Lanza. The article continues with and both articles do cite hospital a synopsis of what transpired in the spokespeople to provide updates on the elementary school, but then the focus of conditions of the victims. These the article again shifts to Lanza, his similarities give insight to the priorities of motives, and his personality traits. The the news outlets coverage. Both news article cites a former classmate of Lanza’s outlets had leads on the shooters identities who described him as “quiet and reserved,” from eyewitness accounts, but either chose and then quotes his former classmate again, not to follow up on these leads, or made a this time saying, “You could definitely tell deliberate decision to not publish he was a genius” (Candiotti). The “story information about the gunmen. The highlights,” inclusion of the link to the full relatively abundant information in the page profile of Lanza, and description of article about the condition of the victims his personality traits all reveal that CNN reveals that both the AP and CNN focused more on Lanza than the victims. prioritized reporting on the victims over Obviously, it is important to note that the the shooters in their coverage of the victims of the Sandy Hook shooting, apart Columbine shootings. However, the two from the teachers, were mostly six or seven news outlets priorities shifted in the years old, and therefore would be handled thirteen years between Columbine and differently by the media. However, any Sandy Hook argument that could be made that would In CNN’s initial report of the Sandy justify CNN’s lack of coverage of the Hook shooting, it becomes immediately Sandy Hook victims goes right out the clear the focus of the article is on Adam window due to CNN’s repeated use of Lanza. To the left of the main text of the some of the surviving children as article, there is a “story highlights” section eyewitness accounts (Greenfield). If CNN that consists of four bullet points, three of was willing to exploit traumatized seven which pertain directly to Lanza, and one year old children on live national television that vaguely states “The nation and the for their eyewitness accounts of the world react with shock” (Candiotti). The shooting, it does not seem unreasonable to actual article begins with “Dressed in black expect that they should give an equal fatigues and a military vest, a heavily amount of attention to the condition and armed man…” “Heavily armed man” is backgrounds of the young victims as well. highlighted in blue, indicating it is a Unfortunately, in the initial coverage of the

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 25 Sandy Hook shooting, CNN only cared to provide significant amounts of background dig into the past of the one person who information on Adam Lanza and his deserves no recognition or attention at all: family, both articles quote previous Adam Lanza. acquaintances of Lanza, and both articles highlight his positive qualities and The Associated Press also heavily personality traits and portray a picture of focused on Adam Lanza in their coverage innocence. It is incredibly obvious that of the Sandy Hook shootings. The AP both CNN and the AP devoted article is titled “Police, world wonder about significantly more journalistic resources to Conn. Shooting motive,” which learning about Adam Lanza than they did immediately puts the attention on Lanza by to learning about the victims. After reading questioning what drove him to commit the the two articles, the reader is aware of horrible act (Christoffersen). The AP Lanza’s personality, hobbies, intelligence, article does actually focus on the victims in family history, and economic standing. the beginning of the article quoting a Meanwhile, all the information the reader community member who said, “These 20 has about the children, comes from a few Children lit up this community better than heartfelt, but uninformative and vague, all these Christmas lights we have…” and quotations from Newtown community continued to describe the beauty of the members. However, not only do the news children killed (Christoffersen). However, outlets devote their resources to this quote is immediately followed by a researching Lanza, they also disturbingly paragraph stating that Lanza “suffered highlight only his positive personality from a personality disorder,” and then later traits. They paint a picture of Lanza as details when his parents divorced, his having been a smart, reserved, harmless participation in Newtown High School young man. They even say he “suffered” clubs, his recurring presence on the school from a personality disorder, furthering the honor roll, the type of upbringing he innocent image of Lanza. If a reader only experienced and where his father works read the descriptions of Lanza out of (Christoffersen). All of this detailed context from the rest of the article, he or information about Lanza illustrates the she would most likely assume Lanza was a large and disproportionate amount of victim, not the gunman responsible for the attention the AP placed on the shooter. deaths of twenty innocent children and six CNN and the AP were similar in their innocent adults. Clearly, both CNN and the approach to covering the Sandy Hook AP were making a concerted effort to focus shooting, just as they were in their more on the shooter than the victims in approach to covering the Columbine their coverage of the Sandy Hook shooting. Both CNN and the AP shootings. deliberately draw attention to Lanza before Comparing CNN’s and the AP’s the article even begins, both articles coverage of Columbine and Sandy Hook

26 | Creative Nonfiction in a Consumer Culture: The Illusion of Truth also reveals that the two news outlets it clear where exactly they are getting their considerably lowered their standards for information from. Overall, there is little the sources they cited in their reports confusion of the origin of the facts during the thirteen year gap between the reported, no anonymous sources, and no two shootings. In their coverage of vague phrasing to describe sources, which Columbine, the two news outlets clearly reveals CNN had high standards for the identify every source they cite, whereas in sources of the facts they reported in their their coverage of Sandy Hook they rely coverage of Columbine. heavily on “officials speaking on the In the AP’s initial report on condition of anonymity,” and use vague Columbine, the author cites eleven distinct phrasing to attempt to portray speculation sources. The sources cited in the article are as fact. “Steve Davis, spokesman for the Jefferson In CNN’s coverage of Columbine, they County Sherriff’s Office,” “The Colorado cite seven separate sources in their initial Bureau of Investigation,” “Kari report. The sources Mackecher, cited in the article spokesman for Health are, “a police One,” “five other spokeswoman,” hospitals,” six student “Authorities,” eyewitnesses, and “Police,” a hospital one parent of a “spokeswoman,” and Columbine student three student- (“Two People”). The eyewitnesses, all of article also includes whom are named the phrases “Police (“Gunmen”). More had no immediate significant than the comment” and “there sources they include Police arrive at Columbine High School was no are the sources they confirmation…” leave out. CNN cites no anonymous (“Two People”). There is also no vague sources, and avoids repeatedly using vague phrasing when referring to sources. The AP phrasing, such as the passive voice, to was remarkably vigilant in citing their describe where their information came sources in their initial coverage of the from. The “authorities” and “police” Columbine shootings, going one step sources are somewhat vague, but they are further than CNN by actually naming the used in the two paragraphs immediately spokespeople, leaving no doubt regarding following the paragraph that cites “a police the source of the facts reported. spokeswoman,” which makes the source of Once again, CNN and the AP were the information more clear. The CNN consistent in their approach to reporting the article utilizes specific sources and makes events of the same shooting. Both articles

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 27 utilize police spokespeople, both articles Burn, a local teacher at another school,” utilize hospital spokespeople, and both “young students,” “third-grader Alexis articles utilize eyewitness accounts, and Wasik,” “one parent who was in the school cite them by name. The vigilance and at the time of the shooting,” “police,” clarity that CNN and the AP exhibit in “Alex Israel, a former classmate of their initial reports reveal the news outlets’ Lanza’s,” “a law enforcement official adherence to basic, but essential, principles familiar with the investigation,” “Lt. J. of journalistic integrity in their coverage of Paul Vance of the Connecticut State the Columbine shootings. Both CNN and Police,” “a law enforcement source with the AP strictly report facts in their detailed knowledge of the investigation,” coverage of Columbine, making it clear “Janet Volmer, a kindergarten teacher at where the facts came from, and do not Sandy Hook,” “law enforcement sources,” include any speculation in their reports. and “Newtown Police Lt. George Stinko” The lack of speculation gives significance ("Police: 20 Children”). The CNN article to the phrases “Police had no immediate utilizes mostly reputable and identifiable comment” and “there was no sources as they are expected to do, but confirmation…” that the AP includes in more significant is their inclusion of the their report. These phrases reveal that the cleverly worded sources such as “a law AP refused to publish any facts that the enforcement official familiar with the appropriate authorities had not already investigation,” and “a law enforcement confirmed. CNN’s and the AP’s reports of source with detailed knowledge of the Columbine focus on reporting the investigation.” While the author of the information efficiently and along the article is not saying it outright, these guidelines of journalistic integrity. They sources are speaking on the condition of appear to have held themselves to strict anonymity. The author uses names of standards of what a reputable source police sources earlier in the article, so there entailed, and as a result only reported is no reason to not do the same for the indisputable facts, while leaving out their other sources. The inclusion of these vague individual opinions on what they think and anonymous sources reveal a lowered happened, as well as leaving out any standard of what CNN considered reports that had not been confirmed by a reportable sources. legitimate authoritative source. However, The AP’s article cites nine separate these vital principles of journalistic sources in their initial report of the Sandy integrity were ignored in CNN’s and the Hook shootings. The sources cited are, “a AP’s coverage of the 2012 Sandy Hook teacher,” “at least one parent,” “Catherine shootings. Urso, of Newtown,” “Joshua Milas, who CNN cites eleven separate sources in graduated from Newtown High in 2009,” their initial report of the Sandy Hook and five “officials speaking on the shootings. The sources cited are “Renee condition of anonymity.” The author of the

28 | Creative Nonfiction in a Consumer Culture: The Illusion of Truth AP article also uses vague and uncertain media before it is actually confirmed. It is phrasing (highlighted with italics) such as also important to note the critical “Lanza is believed to…,” “a high-powered difference between a “police official” and a rifle that he apparently left…,” “Lanza “police spokesperson.” A police attended the school several years ago but spokesperson’s job is to provide news appeared to have no recent connection…,” outlets and other media with credible, “guns used in the attack may have confirmed information. A police official belonged to Lanza’s family” ("Police, may have knowledge of a situation, but World Wonder”). In some cases, these that does not mean the claims he or she unbelievably vague statements are then makes are valid. The claims are only valid sourced to an anonymous source, making once the appropriate official, such as a the claims even less valid. Between the police or hospital spokesperson, has five officials speaking on the condition of confirmed them to be true. The statement a anonymity and the repeated vague spokesperson makes may attempt to spin phrasing, it is overwhelmingly clear that the information in a certain way, but at the AP has relaxed their standards of what least the information can be traced directly they consider acceptable reporting since back to its source. The difference between the Columbine shooting. a police spokesperson and police official Again, the AP and CNN were may seem minuscule, but the bottom line is consistent in their approach to covering the that a police official is a completely same shooting. Both articles cite anonymous source, while a police anonymous sources and both articles utilize spokesperson is not. If a police vague phrasing to disguise the anonymity spokesperson makes a claim that ends up of their sources or to pass off speculation being false or misleading, the department as fact. These tactics make it clear that has no choice but to publicly address the journalistic integrity was no longer a top issue because it can directly be traced back priority of the news outlets, but instead to them. However, if a “police official” they prioritized having the most recent, makes a false claim the department has groundbreaking information, even if they much less of an obligation to acknowledge couldn’t officially confirm the validity of the issue. What would stop the police what they reported. The issue with department from simply denying the anonymous sources is that they have no information came from them? If the accountability. If the information that an reporter is not willing to reveal the source anonymous source gives to a reporter ends then there is no real proof that the source up being false, the source cannot be even exists. Once the news outlets skirt criticized because no one would know who around the agreed upon protocols for divulged the misleading information delivering information to the public, it besides the reporter. This unaccountability compromises the integrity of the entire causes information to be leaked to the report. No better example of the issues that

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 29 accompany the use of anonymous sources shooters than the victims? Both of these come from the misreporting of the Sandy developments can be explained at least in Hook shooters identity. The shooter was part by the emergence of high speed initially identified as Ryan Lanza, Adam’s internet and the rise of infotainment. older brother ("Police, World Wonder”). This obviously caused large amounts of Beginning in the early 2000’s, confusion for anyone following the story; broadband internet emerged as a much especially for Ryan Lanza himself, who faster way to connect to the internet than had to make repeated Facebook statuses the previous dial-up connections. As more making it clear he was not the shooter and more people started using broadband ("Police, World Wonder”). Not only did connections, the internet as we know it the CNN and the AP violate basic today began to take shape—social media principles of journalistic integrity in their sites, video sharing platforms, reporting of the Sandy Hook shootings, but overwhelming amounts of advertisements, their reckless reporting was also morally and most relevant to this essay, the questionable and unacceptable. The major emergence of the news outlet website. news outlets in the United States have a High-speed internet allowed the major duty to objectively and responsibly report news outlets to publish both videos and news to the public. The objectivity and text reports all in the same place. These legitimacy of what news media outlets websites became a one-stop source for all report is vital to the democratic health of the news content that was previously the country and therefore upholding the spread across various different media. standards of journalistic integrity should be News outlets now had the ability to of the utmost importance (Jones). instantly publish the news via multiple media to a worldwide audience in one While this essay only focuses on CNN single location. All of this contributed to and the AP, the fact that they consistently audiences having much higher expectations made the same changes in their reporting for how fast they received their techniques suggests that these changes are information. Instead of waiting for the not unique to just these two news outlets, evening news or the morning paper, the but instead indicative of a general shift in news audience now wanted to know about all news media protocol. This apparent an event as it was unfolding, not later that industry wide shift in news media practices night or the next morning. This need for evokes these questions: why have news current information created an arms race of media outlets become much more likely to sorts between news companies to have the intentionally blur the line between newest, most up-to-date information on a speculation and fact? And, in their developing story. Now, news outlets have coverage of mass shootings, why has news to have the latest information to garner the media focused more attention on the most attention from viewers, whereas

30 | Creative Nonfiction in a Consumer Culture: The Illusion of Truth previously news outlets focused on quality journalism today and no one seems to reporting to gain and maintain their question it. This analogy is not perfect viewership. In other words, speed replaced because major news outlets such as CNN quality. and the AP carry a degree of a prestige and These developments help explain why credibility that a student does not. CNN’s and the AP’s lowered standards for However, the prestige and credibility these sources in recent mass shootings. It takes news sources have does not excuse the use time to confirm sources and facts, so if one of anonymous sources in reporting mass news outlet decides not to wait for shootings. The public does not have a confirmed facts from one of the traditional pressing need to know the identity of the sources, such as a police spokesperson, shooter, and therefore there is no legitimate they would gain a competitive advantage in reason not to wait for an official statement doing so by catering to the audiences need from the proper authorities before for speed. It is difficult to tell which news publishing a report with the identity of the outlet started this practice of publishing shooter. However, the outlets place speed unconfirmed sources, but once the trend over accuracy in order to better serve their took hold it began a domino effect with own monetary interests every news outlet following suit, as The rise of the high-speed internet evidenced by the current state of unreliable news platform was accompanied by the news media (Jones). This process leads to rise of “infotainment.” Infotainment is a news outlets seeking out unorthodox and way of presenting news in a manner that illegitimate sources and publishing their not only delivers information to the reports as fact while not addressing the viewers, but also provides a compelling possibility that what they are reporting is and entertaining story. The rise of false. This practice is the equivalent of a infotainment helps to explain why news student citing a blog post in a research outlets have recently devoted so much paper, but asserting the validity of the more attention to the shooters than the source as if it came from an academic victims. As mentioned earlier, both news journal. In the case of news outlets using outlets portrayed the background of Adam anonymous sources, it is the equivalent of Lanza as the exact opposite of what one a student making a claim, citing it, but then would expect from a mass shooter. By refusing to indicate to the teacher where creating this contradictory profile of Lanza the facts came from, and instead just they create a more compelling story; one assuring the teacher that it is legitimate. that reads like a tragic hero falling from Any respectable teacher would grace or a promising child that somewhere immediately discount the validity of the along the way turned into a violent source, and question the legitimacy of the monster. These stories are ones that are entire argument. Yet, virtually every major more likely to be found in Hollywood than news outlet participates in this sort of on the evening news, and that is exactly

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 31 what these news outlets seem to be trying potential advertisers—sans the convoluted to accomplish. The more compelling the Nielsen system. The ability to profit from story, the more people will want to tune in, internet advertising also contributed to the and the more money the news companies manner in which news outlets covered can make. mass shootings. However, this does not The rise of the high-speed internet apply to the AP because they are a not-for- news platform was accompanied by the profit company. The best example of how rise of “infotainment.” Infotainment is a potential internet advertising profit affects way of presenting news in a manner that the coverage of mass shootings comes not only delivers information to the from CNN’s initial report of the Sandy viewers, but also provides a compelling Hook shootings. Interspersed between and entertaining story. The rise of paragraph breaks in the online article are infotainment helps to explain why news various hyperlinks that lead to other CNN outlets have recently devoted so much articles regarding the shooting. The titles of more attention to the shooters than the the four hyperlinks in the article are as victims. As mentioned earlier, both news follows: “How do we stop the violence?” outlets portrayed the background of Adam “I hope my mom is okay: tweets from the Lanza as the exact opposite of what one shooting,” “It doesn’t seem possible,” and would expect from a mass shooter. By “Slain principle worked to keep students creating this contradictory profile of Lanza safe” ("Police: 20 Children”). The nature they create a more compelling story; one of the language used in these hyperlinks is that reads like a tragic hero falling from purposely vague, dramatic, and implores grace or a promising child that somewhere the reader to click on the link to find out along the way turned into a violent more information. The more views each of monster. These stories are ones that are these pages receives ultimately contribute more likely to be found in Hollywood than to CNN being able to sell their on the evening news, and that is exactly advertisements at a more expensive rate. what these news outlets seem to be trying They seem to be purposely structuring the to accomplish. The more compelling the format of their initial report around story, the more people will want to tune in, maximizing viewership across multiple and the more money the news companies articles, and in turn maximizing the profit can make potential of their advertisement space. The rise of high-speed internet also CNN has published multiple reports since gave birth to internet advertising as a the shooting that discuss how gun stores revenue source. Internet advertising and companies are substantially profiting functions in a similar way to the cable from the Sandy Hook shootings (Cratty; television advertising model—the more Rooney). However, they fail to mention views a web page receives, the more that they too appear to be profiting from valuable the advertisement space is to the same shootings as a result of how they structure the presentation of their reports.

32 | Creative Nonfiction in a Consumer Culture: The Illusion of Truth Still, it is impossible to actually confirm CNN and the Associated Press have made that CNN is making deliberate decisions in deliberate decisions to lower the standards order to profit from the Sandy Hook for the sources they publish, and shooting without inside knowledge of the rearranged their priorities concerning decision making process of CNN whether the shooter or the victims receive executives. Therefore, this conclusive more attention. This shift over the last claim is simply educated speculation. thirteen years is disturbing and hopefully a However, what is not speculative is that trend that will not continue.

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WORKS CITED

Candiotti, Susan, and Sarah Aarthun. "Police: 20 Children among 26 Victims of Connecticut School Shooting."CNN. Cable News Network, 15 Dec. 2012. Web. 14 Mar. 2013.

Christoffersen, John, and Jim Fitzgerald. "Police, World Wonder about Conn. Shooting Motive." Yahoo! News. Associated Press, 14 Dec. 2012. Web. 14 Mar. 2013.

Cratty, Carol. "Gun Checks Top Two Million for Fourth-straight Month." CNN. Cable News Network, 04 Mar. 2013. Web. 14 Mar. 2013.

"Gunmen Open Fire at Colorado School; Some Students Trapped." CNN. Cable News Network, 20 Apr. 2013. Web. 14 Mar. 2013.

Jones, Jeffrey P. "From Insiders to Outsiders: Satiric Television and Political Engagement." Entertaining Politics: Satiric Television and Political Engagement. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010. 43-62. Print.

Rooney, Ben. "Ruger CEO: 'We're Selling Everything We Make'" CNNMoney. Cable News Network, 28 Feb. 2013. Web. 14 Mar. 2013.

Weller, Robert. "Two People Open Fire at Colorado High School." . Associated Press, 20 Apr. 1999. Web. 13 Mar. 2013.

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 33 Fast News is False News: Media’s War on Terrorism

By Alexandra Goldstein

In today’s era of a media’s ability to On April 15, 2013, news reports of a forcefully decide which “news” is bombing at the crowded Boston Marathon presented and consumed, how can readers struck fear in the hearts of Americans filter through the fluff to decipher real everywhere. Since 9/11, there have only events? The War on Terrorism has been been a few failed acts of terror on developing for many years, and the American soil. This event became the first advancement of media has greatly time in 12 years that terrorism again enhanced how the world stays informed. spawned national devastation, with three people killed and more than 200 others By examining the Boston Marathon injured. This devastation caused media Bombings, and the coverage of its mayhem, not only from television aftermath, I will show how — with the networks such as CNN, CBS, ABC, and advent of more widely accessible and Fox, but also from concerned citizens instant media access — the public expects recording, blogging, tweeting, and posting news coverage to be delivered faster. This about it. Reddit, an online social causes news organizations to have an networking service and “news” website, increasing number of inaccuracies and fluff exemplified how ordinary people could pieces, and for narratives’ “credibility” to encode their own messages onto distinct rest only on the extent of their mass media media platforms. Through the use of a representation. I shall examine Martin “subreddit,” a tool that organizes content Kaplan’s piece “Welcome to the according to specific areas of interest, Infotainment Freak Show” and consider groups of people attempted to help find the how the media fed the public an abundance Boston bomber. In particular, users posted of information regarding this terrorist on the subreddit thread event, making it difficult to separate right “FindBostonBombers” to hypothesize the from wrong in this new age of hyperreality. identity of the bomber. This eventually led I will also tie this together with Stuart to the false accusations of two plausible Hall’s piece “Encoding/Decoding” to show suspects. “According to general manager the challenge that ensues as individuals Erik Martin, 272,000 users were reading grapple with how to decode the media’s Reddit at the time of Dzhokhar’s arrest, message. 85,000 of them in a single post on the

34 | Creative Nonfiction in a Consumer Culture: The Illusion of Truth manhunt. That puts the site in direct “lack of equivalence” — namely, there is a competition with the largest U.S. news distortion between the two sides of the organizations” (Pickert). As a result, some communicative exchange (Hall 44). The of these large news publications, like the ill-informed subreddit contributors began New York Post, decoded rumors from to encode images they saw of people at the Reddit and other social media sites, and marathon with the classification of subsequently legitimized them by encoding potential terrorists. And though they them into their news publications instead confidently pointed out who, supposedly of seeking credible information objectively, looked like “suspicious” themselves. characters, they had no evidence that these So what happened here? When did the accused boys were the actual bombers job of the encoder — the person who puts (Henn and Cornish). Twitter users began to information out on a media forum — go to participate in the manhunt as well, the public, and the job of the decoder — claiming to have overheard police the person who speculations of the attempts to identity of the understand the suspects. A tweet message the encoder from the username provided — go to @YourAnonNews the news outlets? blatantly put the Tom Mornig names of supposed expands on this suspects on blast, scenario in his piece, saying: "Police on “Terrorism, Media scanner identify the and the State: An names of Incestuous Spiral.” #BostonMarathon “The real-time suspects in gunfight, transmission of evolving events risks Suspect 1: Mike Mulugeta. Suspect 2: losing the audience, whilst it is required to Sunil Tripathi" (Madrigal). Because of the secure a more reflective and contextualized authority such posts feigned, the New York reporting. Going with the flow of events Post then began to decode the public’s may secure an audience but gives those comments and opinions as sources of real actors that are outside the media the evidence rather than unproven privilege of staging the scene according to assumptions. Hall would say news their (obscure) agendas” (Mornig 75). organizations were operating within the Essentially, the news outlets are trying to dominant code (e.g. adopting the keep up with their fast and up-to-date dominant-hegemonic position), and audience members. But besides that, there decoding the message seen from social seems to be what Stuart Hall refers to as media in terms of the reference code

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 35 through which it had been encoded (47). In (Lane 123). Due to this media-focused a sense, the New York Post was operating world, the individual’s fear of the terrorist in the sub-division of this dominant code, act is augmented by its depiction in media. the “professional code,” that broadcasters Acts of terrorism occur frequently around often use when they “assume that the the globe, and the American public seems message they encode has already been to placidly accept them… until similar acts signified in a hegemonic manner” (Hall start occurring directly on American soil. 47). Here, Hall refers to the fact that the So, though media has created a world in broadcasters must operate under their which audiences have almost grown specific dominant political/social context accustomed to the horror of terrorism, while also reproducing the information at audiences have also become excessively hand. Postmodernist Jean Baudrillard afraid of terror because of media’s predicted such a scenario, where portrayal of stories and bombardment of individuals face a new hyperreality in false images of reality. which the images literally replace the Interestingly, this isn’t a recent trend; it “real” (Croteau and Hoynes 230). In fact, has, in fact, been going on for decades. the public often finds it difficult to Lane describes an event during the Gulf distinguish between the image and reality. War when CNN’s news channel asked a If the news stations are presenting readers group of reporters "live" in the Gulf what with misleading information gathered from was happening. The reporters revealed that the public, how can the reader tell whether they were watching CNN to find out news stations are conveying credible themselves (Lane 95). He goes on to say, truths? “This absurd moment reveals the Through Richard Lane’s “Jean detachment from the real, and the Baudrillard,” we can more closely examine production of ‘reality’ with third-order this concept of hyperreality in relation to simulation: news is generated by news, or terrorism. Lane describes how acts of the source of the news is also the news... terrorism should impact society in a News is producing the ‘reality’ of the war, seemingly straightforward manner, as they not only for viewers, but also for those become a “preprogrammed event” to be involved” (95). This statement was made in analyzed and presented by the media as the the context of the Gulf War as more of a events unfold based on “expected fabricated news event, though it could also sequences” (123). However, as Baudrillard be true with respect to the War on points out, when hyperreality is involved, Terrorism. Terrorism is a real thing, but the terrorist act is anything but neutral and has this hyperreality started to create more is, rather, even more frightening. “Terrorist of a war than actually exists? The War on activity tests the limits of society, of its Terrorism has been exaggerated by media institutions of power and the way in which coverage, and the audience is taught to such institutions are located conceptually” believe the messages they see because the

36 | Creative Nonfiction in a Consumer Culture: The Illusion of Truth messages are coming from journalists will be hopefully found because the whose job it is to search for and present the United States isn’t that big.” public with the “truth.” But as one news In an effort to relay news to their source copies another news source, how information-hungry audience as quickly as can one vet the information to verify its possible, news organizations don’t always accuracy? get all the facts straight. And social networking has created a way for the Many argue that if news organizations public to openly identify these derive their information from public discrepancies. As a result, the public is able blogging or from another news channel, to operate through an oppositional code they are not practicing proper journalism. (Hall 49). Before the existence of Twitter Martin Kaplan extended this critique: and social networking, inaccurate news “cable news is not so good at: insight, coverage by eager reporters had a better context, depth, reflection, proportion, chance of being decoded in a negotiated perspective, relevance, humility, manner. The audience could choose to take information, analysis, news.” If Kaplan is some of the information with a grain of right, then cable news has dwindled down salt, yet there was no public forum for to nothing but fluff pieces and chaotic people to instantly express disagreement. news coverage. In fact, in the case of the Today, readers and viewers are more able Boston Marathon Bombing, Reddit users to discuss, negotiate and critique news weren’t the only ones jumping to through a public space that is, essentially, conclusions. The news station “CNN” timeless. As a result, they can read prematurely supplied live coverage that unfolding events through a more resulted in haphazard reporting. Again, oppositional code, discrediting news Twitter became a mass media outlet to sources and lowering the credibility of inform people of transpiring events. As broadcast organizations (Hall 49). CNN CNN’s “facts” were proven false — they faced an abundant amount of ridicule and prematurely reported false arrests — scrutiny over its inability to convey news Twitter users started satirizing and properly and truthfully not only from mocking the station for its inability to set viewers, but also from other reporters, such facts straight. For example: as conservative pundit Bill O’Reilly and • David A. Graham tweeted, comedian reporter John Stewart (Mass Tea “BREAKING: Fragile strands of CNN Party). People’s opinion of CNN dropped, credibility.” and, in a poll conducted by HuffPost/ • Jonah Goldberg joked, “CNN: We have YouGov, it was voted the Least Believable been assured the Millennium Falcon’s News Station in response to the coverage hyperdrive has been disabled.” during the Boston Bombing (Swanson). • Awful Announcing cynically quoted a When viewers were asked whether the CNN reporter as having said “the person news on CNN was believable or not

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 37 believable, 36% chose not believable. This Tsarnaev, in a relaxed manner on the cover is significantly higher than the 22% who of an issue. In effect, ABC engendered a said ABC’s coverage was not believable buzz that focused on a minor debate and the 23% who felt coverage on the relative to the bombing event as a whole. conservative Fox network was not Kaplan describes this as an example of believable. how “think tanks manufacture debates…” Although the public decodes these (141), referring to television news messages in an oppositional manner, it is organizations’ tendency to create the still influenced by the ideas the media illusion of controversy around a subject, presents. Some people argue that media thereby neglecting to present all the operates under a “hypodermic” model, in evidence. This ABC news segment claimed the sense that media is “injecting” a that placement on the cover of Rolling message into the public (Siegel 18 Feb. Stone is “An honor reserved for people 2014). News surrounding the Boston with one name; Elvis, Madonna, Bono, and Marathon Bombing was constantly thrust now a 19-year-old alleged terrorist” (ABC in the public eye and framed in such a way News). However, that is quite a narrow as to economically benefit those reporting, statement. In fact, Rolling Stone has rather than to maintain a high reporting published a variety of covers exhibiting standard. Kaplan writes: people who aren’t musicians, some of them “Journalism, especially television quite controversial, as well: American journalism, has tremendous ability to Revolution 1969, Charles Manson, Narc control the tone of what it covers… Agent Gerrit Van Raam, Cast of Beverly When it comes to holding audiences’ Hills 90210, and Marilyn Manson, to name attention, the only thing better than a few ("Rolling Stone Covers”). ABC suspense is suspense about carnage, pointed out that two major drugstore chains and the only thing better than suspense wouldn’t sell the magazine and showed about carnage is suspense about the live footage of people appalled by the apocalypse. Terrorists, especially cover. It also claimed that Rolling Stone stateless terrorists, depend on the media’s was treating the suspected terrorist as a addiction to fear and crisis (143).” “star” and glorifying him. The news Sometimes, the coverage of events segment barely noted Rolling Stone’s preceding the bombing didn’t even pertain argument that it was only trying to appeal to the investigation of the bombing. News to its audience and further examine the organizations took only a piece of this complexities of this event and subsequent horrific event and created fluff pieces. For trial (ABC News). It also neglected to instance, ABC News produced a segment mention the focus of the article on focusing on the negative feedback that Tsarnaev, which was to demonstrate that Rolling Stone magazine generated for “there are no warning signs for terrorism” depicting the suspected bomber, Dzhokhar and “that even nice, polite, sweet-looking

38 | Creative Nonfiction in a Consumer Culture: The Illusion of Truth young kids” could perform an act of terror TIME, ie; The Fast and Furious (Taibbi). In fact, many other reporters franchise encourages the idea illegal praised the piece. Reporter Matt Taibbi, street racing = awesome life. Even old said, “The story Janet wrote about the school movies like Bonnie & Clyde you modern terrorist is that you can’t see him could say encourage the ‘exciting coming.” lifestyle’ of being a national criminal. This cover isn’t that big of a deal – and The comments on the uploaded honestly, if your mind is that EASILY YouTube version of this segment clearly affected by the media/glamour to the showed the many ways the audience point everything they do affects how decoded this reporting. Some were of the YOU want to live/think – than [sic] you opinion that it was wrong for Rolling Stone need help.” to print such a cover photo: • Normster1000 asked, “How many • Liquidmen commented: “Bottom line. covers have you seen with Osama Bin This kid killed, maimed and took limbs Laden on them? …exactly, this is from people. This kid ran from the meaningless. Now, if it had been Home police, ran over his brother and shot a and Garden or Dog Fancy, you bet!” policeman. This person confessed to Clearly, the public’s eagerness and performing the act of the bombs and appetite for instant news is creating a then later re-canted his statement. This dilemma for news channels in general. kid is a coward and an idiot. Why do we News organizations are exploiting terrorist glorify morons in this country and then events for the ease with which they lend expect our school system to generate themselves to quick coverage. Although intelligent young adults?” there is a correlation between news • Lee Sir said, “If I were mayor of Boston delivered to the public quickly and I would ban Rolling Stone magazine.” credibly, it is often an inverse one. As one Other viewers noted that the debate can see by considering the Boston about the appropriateness of placing the Marathon Bombings, what comes fast isn’t alleged terrorist on the cover was necessarily true. Although audiences have somewhat insignificant in the larger the ability to decode these messages with scheme of things: an objective eye, or at least a negotiated • TheRockyCrowe wrote, “As I one, they instead fall into the trap of ALREADY SAID: Hollywood listening to the dominant hegemonic code glamourizes such things ALL THE until others point out its flaws. ______

WORKS CITED

ABC News. "Outrage Over Rolling Stone Cover of Suspected Boston Bomber." YouTube. YouTube, 17 July 2013. Web. 09 Mar. 2014.

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 39 Awful Announcing. “#PrayforCNN RT @MichaelDaveSmith: A CNN reporter just said ‘the person will be hopefully found because the United States isn’t that big.’” 17 April 2013, 12:00 p.m. Tweet. Croteau, David, and William Hoynes. Media/Society. 5th ed. Los Angeles: Sage, 2014. Print. Graham, David A. “BREAKING: Fragile strands of CNN credibility.” 17 April, 2013, 11:28 a.m. Tweet. Henn, Steve, and Audie Cornish. "Social Media Vigilantes Cloud Boston Bombing Investigation." NPR. NPR, 22 Apr. 2013. Web. 09 Mar. 2014. Henn, Steve. "Social Media's Rush To Judgment In The Boston Bombings." NPR. NPR, 23 Apr. 2013. Web. 09 Mar. 2014. Goldberg, Jonah (JonahNRO). “CNN: We have been assured the Millennium Falcon’s hyperdrive has been disabled.” 17 April 2013, 11:42 a.m. Tweet. Hall, Stuart. "Encoding/Decoding." 1973. Culture, Media, Language. London: Hutchinson, 1980. 41-49. Print. Kaplan, Martin. "Welcome to the Infotainment Freak Show." What Orwell Didn't Know. 137-46. Print. Lane, Richard J. Jean Baudrillard. London and New York: Routledge, 2000. Taylor & Francies E-Library, 2001. Web. 9 Mar. 2014. Madrigal, Alexis C. "#BostonBombing: The Anatomy of a Misinformation Disaster." The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company, 19 Apr. 2013. Web. 09 Mar. 2014. Mass Tea Party. "Critiquing The Coverage - John Stewart - The Daily Show On CNN Coverage - O'Reilly." YouTube. YouTube, 23 Apr. 2013. Web. 09 Mar. 2014. Moring, Tom. Terrorism, Media and the State: An Incestuous Spiral. HELDA, 2012. HELDA - The Digital Repository of University of Helsinki. Web. 10 Mar. 2014. . Pickert, Kate. "Inside Reddit’s Hunt for the Boston Bombers." Time U.S. Time Magazine, 23 Apr. 2013. Web. 09 Mar. 2014. "Rolling Stone Covers." Rolling Stone Covers. Cover Browser, Web. 09 Mar. 2014. Siegal, Greg. "Film 70." Buchanan Hall, Goleta. 18 Feb. 2014. Lecture. Swanson, Emily. "Boston Bombing Media Poll Finds Good Ratings Overall, Lower Believability For CNN." The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 24 Apr. 2013. Web. 09 Mar. 2014. Taibbi, Matt. "Explaining the Rolling Stone Cover, by a Boston Native." Rolling Stone. Rolling Stone, 19 July 2013. Web. 10 Mar. 2014. Twitchy Staff. "Ouch: CNN’s Sloppy Boston Bombing Coverage Inspires Major Mockage." Twitchy. Twitchy, 17 Apr. 2013. Web. 09 Mar. 2014.

40 | Creative Nonfiction in a Consumer Culture: The Illusion of Truth

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 41 42 | Piracy in the Digital Age: The Illusion of Freedom The Impact of Internet Policy On Human Rights

By Cynthia Chin

A right is defined as a moral or legal Article 10 of the European Convention for entitlement to have or obtain something or the Protection of Human Rights and to act in a certain way. According to Tom Fundamental Freedoms. Amongst other Campbell, “rights affirm equal human rights, freedom of expression is one of the worth…and are seen as providing most ubiquitously fundamental rights, protection against the abuses of the though the respect for this right may differ powers” (2006, p. 4). The relatively recent across different countries. However, when rise of the Internet and cyber space has this right is applied to the Internet, the given rise to a whole new set of rights definition changes and the lines are blurred specific to the Internet. On the Internet, between what is considered freedom of rights regarding freedom of expression, speech and what is not. For example, copyright and access to knowledge, access, Douglas Vick (2005) argues that it is privacy and data protection, and security important to collectively control the and computer misuse have been central dissemination of hate speech on the issues of debate. Internet, while others, like the United Freedom of Expression States, believe that hate speech still falls According to Eric Barendt (2007), a within the definition of freedom of professor at University College London, expression and will not create any freedom of speech is crucial to discovering legislation that violates the First truths, encourages citizen participation in Amendment. Regarding policies and democratic processes, is central to regulation to protect freedom of speech, we individual freedom, and is important for can refer to Lawrence Lessig’s four expression any suspicion of the modalities of regulation, which maintains government. Most will agree that freedom that the Internet can be regulated either by of expression is an important right for law, norms, the market, or code (Murray). every human to have. Specifically, freedom Through law, the government would only of speech has been regarded as a right in have a negative obligation to respect the First Amendment of the United States freedom of speech on the Internet, only Constitution, in Article 19 of the Universal taking action when necessary (in, for Declaration of Human Rights, and in example, hate speech cases), following the

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 43 United Kingdom’s current “notice and access to knowledge, which states: takedown” policy (Freedman, 2012). As “Everyone has the right freely to freedom of speech has been so engrained in participate in the cultural life of the us for the past hundreds of years, community, to enjoy the arts and to share community norms, for the most part, in scientific advancement and its benefits” regulate freedom of speech on the Internet. (Human Rights, 2008). If, however, this right is being abused (by, In regulating copyright, we can refer for example, hate activists and child back to Lessig’s four modalities, all of pornographers), filtering can be used to which can be used for regulation of block harmful material. In the United copyright laws. Through law, though it has Kingdom, a program exists called been ineffective thus far, the copyright law Cleanfeed that automatically blocks child in the United Kingdom holds “producers pornography websites without positive and distributors of parody, pistache and action (Mcintyre, 2008). These filtering caricature potentially liable for copyright programs can be controlled by infringement” (Edwards et al., 2012, p. 4). intermediaries (such as Internet Service In addition, individual users can also be Providers), without human intervention fined for copyright infringement. Similarly, required as filtering programs would block patents, which protect new inventions, are websites automatically. protected by law and are therefore Copyright and Access to Knowledge protected from free open-source software Copyright is defined as an “exclusive developers. Efforts have also been made to right granted to producers of new creative teach copyright in classrooms and works” (Moss, 2012). Copyright campaigns against piracy targeting youth infringement, then, is unauthorized usage have been shown in order to prevent future of copyrighted material. This has become copyright infringement (Edwards et al., an issue because piracy, the reproduction 2012). More successfully, there have been and redistribution of copyrighted material, efforts to regulate copyright through has become easier and easier to commit. In market with promotions of legal platforms addition, copyrighting material is in of getting the same material (such as conflict with both freedom of speech and Netflix and iTunes). Lastly, specific code access to knowledge. Neil Netanel argues and computer programming have been that copyright burdens speech as we often used to regulate, though unsuccessfully, by “copy or build upon another’s words, engineering files so that they cannot be images, or music to convey our own ideas shared (Edwards et al., 2012). effectively…we cannot do that if a Access copyright holder withholds permissions” When discussing access regarding (2008, p. 2). Copyright is also in conflict the Internet, it is important to understand with Article 27 (1) of the Universal that “access” does not simply refer to entry Declaration of Human Rights regarding or ability to go online. It also refers to

44 | Piracy in the Digital Age: The Illusion of Freedom having the knowledge necessary to been introduced in several countries, in navigate the Internet, having the physical favour of net neutrality. capabilities, and even owning a device to Lastly there is the issue of access connect. The ultimate goal is digital regarding people with disabilities. inclusion, but this cannot be achieved According to the Web Accessibility without access and infrastructure (Helsper, Initiative, their goal is to “achieve 2011). In attempt at digital inclusion, it was accessibility for the broadest possible range thought that developing faster Internet of users that is compatible with any would make assistive slower technologies connections they might use” more (WAI, 2012). In affordable, thus discussing allowing more access, we must people to take into account connect to the those who may Internet. But, as not physically be Helsper argues, able to access the “universal roll Internet, such as out high speed broadband does not people with disabilities. According to the automatically lead to increased use for all” Employers’ Forum on Disability (2008) (2011, p. 15). In addition, there is also a over 10% of the United Kingdom is digital divide between developed and considered to have a disability. With such a developing countries. Net neutrality is also large population of disabled people, an issue of access. Linked to freedom of government regulation is needed to create a expression, net neutrality is a “concept that standard for all websites to ensure that suggests ISPs or other user access disabled people will be able to access it. networks should not advocate restrictions Although some may argue that the Internet or regulations on content, specific Internet is for the most part self-regulated, and self- site, or Internet platforms” (Stover, 2010, regulated access for disabled people has p. 75). been working for some services thus far, a While those against net neutrality standard will allow disabled people to visit argue that discrimination would help to any site an able person could. offer a better quality and wider range of Privacy and Data Protection service, those in favour of net neutrality Privacy on the Internet has argue that discrimination will have more recently become a prevalent issue as users incentive to make deals with ISPs rather continue to increasingly input more and than to make better quality services more personal data on the Internet. Many (Stover, 2010). Legislation has already online companies that deal with a large

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 45 database of personal information, such as default) and data could have expiration social networking websites (Facebook for dates, being deleted automatically after example), online banking, and email have expiry and preventing outdated information been central to the issue of privacy. from remaining in databases for an Facebook in particular has been popular for extended period of time (Edwards and study regarding privacy, with the website Brown, 2009). hosting users who post a great deal of Security and Computer Misuse sensitive information about themselves. A In recent years, as Internet study by Edwards and Brown found that security has advanced, so have malware Facebook profiles contain “almost every (viruses, worms, and Trojans) and botnets category of data deemed especially (which is a created “network of infected ‘sensitive’ by EU law” (2009, p. 4). In computers”) (Moss, 2012). These viruses, addition, there has been controversy over worms, and Trojans “exploit weaknesses in the usage of the data—in particular, installed software to gain control of an Facebook can sell information to Internet-connected machine and access advertising networks and intermediaries in data entered by and available to users” order to advertise effectively or to (Brown et al, p. 2). Malware is not the only employers in search of information about security issue. According to Milton potential employees (Bermejo, 2011). Mueller, “governments can and do get Although it can be argued that users input access to just about any information they data themselves, Internet users should have way…on the Internet, the limits on their the right to privacy. With third parties data surveillance capacity are governed collecting information about users through more by technical limitations than by law” click streams and cookies, in addition data (2010, p. 176). So, with so many potential shared publicly, the Internet has become a dangers on the Internet, how can we place that is no longer safe for users. regulate security of the Internet? Referring Legislation has been created, however, to back to Lessig’s four modalities, it is protect users’ privacy. In the United possible to create legislation to make the Kingdom, the Data Protection Act of 1998 Internet a safer space, but, as Zittrain was created to protect personal data, data (2009) argues, it could threaten the relating to a living individual, and sensitive Internet’s unique quality of generativity. data with the key principle being that On the contrary, the House of Lords, Science “personal data shall be processed fairly and and Technology Committee (2007) compared lawfully” (Murray, 2010). Code and Security Policy to the process of purifying computer programming can also be used to water in California, implying that regulate privacy on the Internet—settings intermediaries should be responsible for could explain more to users about privacy security and not individual users. Most with default settings being more private (as importantly, however, it is imperative and Facebook is currently less private by more effective than assigning responsibility

46 | Piracy in the Digital Age: The Illusion of Freedom to intermediaries for Internet users to be extensive source of knowledge, access to it educated about security and how they can has become the most important issue. protect themselves on the Internet. Without the right of access to the Internet, Conclusion none of the other rights apply. In addition, As more and more of us are moving it has become an increasingly significant online as technology advances, Internet issue with the digital divide between rights have become an important topic of developing and developed countries getting debate. In the words of the Internet Rights bigger. However, with the Charter of and Principles Coalition, the Internet Human Rights and Principles for the “present[s] tremendous opportunities to Internet and the Association of Progressive enable individuals, communities, and Communication’s Internet Rights Charter, peoples to achieve their full potential in we are beginning to move towards a cyber promoting their sustainable development space that is safe, welcomes all opinions, and improving their quality of life” (2010, inspires innovation, and facilitates idea p. 1). With the Internet being such an exchange.

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WORKS CITED

Barendt, E., 2005. Freedom of speech. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bermejo, F. (2011) Mapping Digital Media: Online Advertising—Origins, Evolution, and Impact on Privacy. Open Society Foundations. Brown, I., Edwards, L., & Marsden, C., 2009. Information security and cybercrime, in Law and the Internet, edited by L. Edwards & C. Waelde, 3rd ed., Oxford: Hart. Campbell, T., 2005. Rights: a critical introduction New edition., Routledge. Edwards, L. & Brown, I., 2009. Data control and social networking: Irreconcilable ideas?, pp. 202-228 in Harboring data: Information security, law and the corporation edited by A. Matwyshyn, Stanford: Stanford University Press. Edwards, L., Klein, B, Lee, D., Moss, G and Philip, F. (in press) ‘Framing the Consumer: Copyright Regulation and the Public’, Convergence. Freedman, D, (2012) Outsourcing internet regulation. FROM: Curran, James, Misunderstanding the Internet. pp.95-120. London: Routledge. Guadamuz, A. 2009. Free and open-source software, pp. 361-395 in Law and the Internet, edited by L. Edwards & C. Waelde, 3rd ed., Oxford: Hart. Helsper, E., 2011. The emergence of a digital underclass: digital policies in the UK and evidence for inclusion. Available at: [Accessed October 31, 2011]. House of Lords (2007) Personal Internet Security Human Right #27, 2012. United for Human Rights. [online] Available at: [Accessed 5 January 2013]. Internet Rights and Principles Coalition Charter of Human Rights and Principles for the Internet McIntrye, T. J. & Scott, C., 2008. Internet filtering: Rhetoric, legitimacy, accountability, and responsibility’, in Regulating technologies, edited by R. Brownsword & K Yeung, Hart Publishing: Oxford. Moss, G., 2012. Copyright, Piracy, & Copyright Wars, and Security & Computer Misuse. Mueller, Milton, (2010) Chapter 8: Security Governance on the Internet. FROM: Mueller, Milton, Networks and states: the global politics of internet governance. pp.159-183. Cambridge: MIT Press.

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 47

Murray, A, (2010) 4: Regulating the digital environment. FROM: Murray, A, Information technology law: the law and society. pp.55-82. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Netanel, N., 2008. Copyright's paradox, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stover, C., 2010. Network neutrality: A thematic analysis of policy perspectives across the globe, Global Media Journal—- Canadian Edition, 3 (1): 75-86. Vick, D. W., 2005. Regulating Hatred. In: M. Klang & A. Murray, eds. 2005. Human Rights in the Digital Age. London: Routledge-Cavendish, pp.41-55. WAI, 2012. Web Accessibility Initiative. [online] Available at: [Accessed 3 January 2013]. Zittrain, J., 2009. The Future of the Internet: And How to Stop It New ed., London: Penguin.

48 | Piracy in the Digital Age: The Illusion of Freedom Digital Piracy should be Exploited, not Abolished

By Christopher Risden

Every Sunday night at 10 pm— Torrents aren't inherently illegal, but the immediately after Game of Thrones—- use of the technology to distribute people begin scouring the Internet for a copyrighted materials is. free method to watch the latest episode. Today, internet piracy is at an all time Just last weekend, the Game of Thrones high. Eighty percent of the 16 billion Season 4 premiere shattered piracy records; videos downloaded last year were illegally over 1,000,000 people illegally distributed, with an estimated loss to the downloaded the episode in just half a day industry at $250 billion per year. A June (Schwartz). 2013 study by Columbia revealed that 45% of The only legitimate way to tune into U.S. citizens actively pirate media; that figure HBO weekly is a premium cable skyrockets to 70% when examining the subscription bundle which costs over younger-than-30 demographic (Karaganis). $80/month — which is too much to pay for Alan Horn, chairman of Walt Disney some. HBO does not provide any viable Studios and producer of the successful viewing options for people without a Harry Potter and Dark Knight series, says, premium cable subscription so pirating the “piracy is killing our industry because it show is the only option for many fans. takes money out of the hands of the Nick Schlies, a 20 year old Game of workers.” Hollywood studies estimate the Thrones fan from Pleasanton, says, "I love cost of digital piracy to the industry at [Game of Thrones], but I can’t afford to pay $250 billion per year. Other estimates from for HBO in college. I torrent the show independent reports paint a less extreme illegally because I have no choice” (Schlies). picture, estimating the loss to be between A major problem for creative $6 to $20.5 billion annually. industries, torrenting is a popular form of Advocates of internet piracy argue that peer to peer file sharing which allows for the $250 billion figure is highly inflated. large amounts of data to be transferred over Studio executives assume that each illegal the Internet. Torrents download small bits download or view amounts to a purchase, of files simultaneously from separate but pirates dispute the logistics of doing online sources, meaning it only takes a few that. They point out that digital pirating is minutes to download a full-length movie. significantly different from physical theft

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 49 because there isn’t always a lost sale since previous decade is 472 releases per year. It digital piracy doesn’t actually cause a seems both profits and productivity are physical copy of a DVD to go missing. In steadily increasing. some cases, piracy can substitute for a It is worth noting that the LSE did not legitimate transaction. It is a lost sale when find a significant correlation between someone who would have spent money on enforcing a three strikes policy in France media chooses instead to download it on for digital piracy offenders and increased BitTorrent. However in other cases, the spending on media. "It showed that digital person pirating the movie or song may piracy did not displace legal purchases in have never purchased the item, and the digital format and that the majority of studio doesn't lose any profits. [media] consumed illegally would not have "Despite the Motion Picture been consumed if not freely available," Association of America's claim that online reports the LSE. piracy is devastating the movie industry, There’s a reason Game of Thrones is Hollywood achieved record-breaking the most widely pirated show in the world. global box office revenues of $35 billion in It is incredibly difficult for many to 2012, a 6% increase over 2011," reports subscribe to HBO. If the rapidly growing the London School of Economics (LSE) in user base of Netflix means one thing, it's its recent media policy brief about piracy. that consumers want a streamlined service It can be argued that the 6% increase in without the bells and whistles a premium revenue is a direct result of inflation and cable package comes with. Jeff Bewkes, rising ticket prices, but there has also been CEO of Time Warner (the parent company an increase in number attending and not of HBO), says that “Game of Thrones just revenue. [being] the most pirated show in the This impressive growth hasn't stopped world… is better than an Emmy. Our the major film studios from pushing hard experience is that it leads to more paying for stronger intellectual property subscribers.” enforcement such as the Stop Online Columbia University corroborates this Piracy Act (SOPA) that was pushed for in opinion in their report. They write, 2011. The core function of SOPA was to "[pirates] buy as many legal DVDs, CDs, incentivize the production of creative and subscription media services as their works, because the argument is that non-file-sharing, Internet-using filesharing has caused declining output. counterparts. They also display marginally However, this is hard to prove. Looking at higher willingness to pay." Game of the new release statistics, compiled by the Thrones is an example of this. Despite industry statistics site Box Office Mojo, the being the most illegally downloaded show numbers show an average of 558 releases in the world, it has also broken many DVD per year over the past decade, and 578 in sales records - moving 244,000 units on the just the past five years. The average for the very first day of sales for last season's

50 | Piracy in the Digital Age: The Illusion of Freedom collection, making Game of Thrones the The Internet, by way of torrents, has fastest moving release ever. provided the means for consumers to Because of the digital nature of these circumvent the media sold by the goods, they are infinitely reproducible at entertainment industry. The widespread use no cost. If someone was never going to buy of torrents has demonstrated that the good anyway, they cannot represent consumers are unhappy with prices. They lost value to the producer's revenues, but are voting with their dollars, and the fact add value by talking to others about that their dollars aren't being spent on this product experience. Karen Coxson, an media should be a sign to studios that their Oxford researcher, claims that, "consumer business model is faulty. Going back to `buzz’ is hugely France's three strike important for sales policy, the LSE found success, studies that after its have shown, and implementation people piracy drives up began switching to buzz without the more convenient need for extra platforms that stream marketing." movies and music. Not only does Certain American piracy create hype, companies have there is also clear already proven that evidence that this paradigm of pirates will pay distribution works. money for products that they believe are Companies such as Netflix and Spotify are worth the money. The problem the the future of the entertainment industry. entertainment industry is facing with Netflix charges a low monthly fee for users digital piracy is not the piracy itself, but to view the vast library of movies that it what it signifies—that customers place less offers, while Spotify streams a large library value on the goods they download than the of music to users for free -- offering a studios do. This creates a deadweight loss premium subscription for users who don't in the market, because the firms are not want to listen to advertisements. This has supplying their product (DVDs and proven to be a very successful model, and movies) at the competitive equilibrium Netflix has experienced a 1465% growth in its price. Because firms are trying to charge stock over the past 5 years, while Spotify has above the equilibrium price, the price at doubled revenues for two years straight now. which value is maximized for both The problem is that Hollywood studios consumer and producer, value is being left are notorious for having an archaic stance on the table and equilibrium has not been on new technology. One does not need to reached in the market. go far back to find studios fighting the

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 51 advent of VHS recording because it would As the London School of Economics’ impact their bottom line. In the Audio put it, "when both [the creative industries Home Recording Act of 1992 ("The and citizens] can exploit the full potential Betamax Case"), the Supreme Court ruled, of the Internet, this will maximize much to Universal City Studio's dismay, innovative content creation for the benefit that recording individual copies of complete of all stakeholders.” The entertainment television shows is fair use and legal. industry is experiencing record highs, but it Maybe this time around, film studios is still in position to profit even more. can learn from their mistakes and try to When the unmet demand in the market is embrace the new technology as it comes. finally met, these businesses will thrive Digital piracy is a sign that the times are more than ever. Digital piracy has been changing, and instead of fighting the winds around since the beginning of the Internet, of change, studios should learn to harness it’s time for industries to exploit internet it, as Netflix has done. culture and adapt to the times.

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WORKS CITED Cammaertes, Bart, Robin Mansell, and Bingchun Meng. "Copyright & Creation: A Case for Promoting Inclusive Online Sharing." LSE Media Policy Project. Ed. Sally B. Micova and Damian Tambini. Higher Education Innovation Fund 5, Sept. 2013. Web. 12 Apr. 2014. . Karaganis, Joe, and Lennart Renkema. "Copy Culture in the US & Germany." The American Assembly. Columbia University, Web. 12 Apr. 2014. . Masnick, Mike. Techdirt. N.p., 26 Dec. 2012. Web. 12 Apr. 2014. . Raustiala, Kal, and Chris Sprigman. Freakonomics. 12 Jan. 2012. Web. 12 Apr. 2014. . Schlies, Nick. Personal interview. April 2014. Schwartz, Terri. 'Game of Thrones' Season 4 breaks piracy record. Web. 16 May 2014.

52 | Piracy in the Digital Age: The Illusion of Freedom

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 53 54 | Representations of Feminism and Sexuality: The Illusion of Diversity They Went To There: 30 Rock, the Human Bra, and the Struggles of Women in the Workplace

By Pailin Srukhosit

“I have a suspicion that the definition of ‘crazy’ in show business is a woman who keeps talking even after no one wants to fuck her anymore.” -Tina Fey, Bossypants “This is what I tell young women who ask me for career advice. People are going to try and trick you. To make you feel that you are in competition with one another. ‘You’re up for a promotion. If they go with a woman, it’ll be between you and Barbara.’ Don’t be fooled. You’re not in competition with other women. You’re in competition with everyone.” -Tina Fey, Bossypants

Rich, complex, nuanced, and to subvert her own position as a powerful, interesting representations of women in the influential player in the entertainment workplace have flooded-- excuse me, industry through the characterization of her trickled into our media landscape since the on-screen avatar, Liz Lemon, Fey creates inception of film and television. Granted opportunities to critically comment upon that the allowance of women’s entry into not only the way in which women are the capitalist workforce has been relatively represented in the media in accordance to recent, explorations into the subjective today’s hegemonic ideologies, but she also subtleties of the female experience in the works to challenge and subvert these professional setting have been sparse and stereotypes through the narrative devices of simple, leaving much room for growth parody, self-reflexivity, and representations within the existing collection of of hyper-reality. Furthermore, both through characterizations. Tina Fey, through both the text of her show and Bossypants her published writing and 30 Rock (2006 – (2011), her autobiography, she actively 2013), the show that Fey created, executive engages in discourse concerning the produced, co-wrote, and starred in, actively complex systems of power through and works to intelligently insert layers of within which women must negotiate their complexity into this milieu of place in the work-sphere. While critics representations. By continuously working praise the show’s progressive efforts and

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 55 intelligent, rich content, they also mediate traditionally been defined and delegated as the dissonance between Liz Lemon’s a boy’s club.³ (The question of “are women characterization and the reality of Tina funny?” and it’s implicit assumptions are Fey’s professional stature. only now beginning to be refuted as 30 Rock operates within the United preposterously groundless and bitingly States’ current socio-historical context of sexist.) However, the show must also an ideologically neoliberal capitalist navigate within our era of post-feminism, society within which hegemony may be defined by Eleanor Patterson as “the defined as white patriarchy. Modern neoliberal assumption that patriarchal capitalism arose out of the European 14th structures have been superseded (Brooks, century ideological shift that Silvia 1997),” and women have now achieved Federici calls the sexual division of labour. equality in all spheres of life, including the Reproductive work, labour that involved workplace. This notion is challenged domestic work such as cooking and caring metaphorically via storylines and for the family, becomes devalued and representations on 30 Rock and directly by feminized in the emerging profit-based Fey herself through her society. On the other hand, productive autobiography/memoir, Bossypants (2011). work – labour that is directed towards Through the depictions of female producing commodities to sell for money – protagonists on the show, 30 Rock engages becomes prioritized and masculinized. As in discourse about the struggles that such, modern capitalism descends from women face in the workplace and, more this long tradition of men dominating the specifically, the entertainment industry; the work-for-monetary-gain sphere while text allows for a negotiation of meanings women have not been regarded as valued on the level of reception as the show’s labourers in the capitalist economy. In characters often challenge hegemony and modern American society, it has become authority but also sometimes align more common and culturally acceptable for themselves with the dominant structures of women to participate in the formal patriarchy and capitalism. 30 Rock workforce… yet patriarchal structures are descends from a short line of female- still very much at work (pun intended) and created and/or starred network television a woman in a position of professional sitcoms, from The Goldbergs ((CBS, 1949 leadership is still a rarity. The - 1951, NBC 1952 - 1954) also written by characterization of Liz Lemon as a head Gertrude Berg) and I Love Lucy (CBS, writer on her own network television show 1951 - 1957) to the Mary Tyler Moore not only provides a progressive Show (CBS, 1970 - 1977), Roseanne representation of a woman in the (ABC, 1988 - 1997), and Ellen (ABC, workplace, but that the field of comedy 1994 - 1998). Fey carves out her own space serves as the context of Liz’s power is within this lineage of female media- and significant – comedy as a profession has ideology-producers, creating, writing, and

56 | Representations of Feminism and Sexuality: The Illusion of Diversity executive producing her own show. But, affirmative action, Liz woefully concludes, she does this with a twist – not only does “I shouldn’t be here,” to which Pete she provide a representation of working replies, “This is America. None of us are women, but they are representations of supposed to be here.” The instance calls women that parody the conditions and into question Liz’s legitimacy and merit as circumstances of Fey’s own line of work: a writer, but more importantly it draws the entertainment industry. By centering attention to the fact that her profession is Liz Lemon as the head writer of her own so strongly dominated by the structure of network television sketch comedy show, white patriarchy that the network must Fey artistically explores the nuances of her actively seek out minorities to hire to bring past experiences as a head writer at SNL as diversity into the production process. If Liz well as critically engages in questions of feels like she isn’t supposed to be there, workplace inequality – all while literally who’s to say that her employers are? Fey running the show as the head of 30 Rock. also directly engages with the absurdity of The show satirizes the rarity of a the inequality within the field of comedy in woman’s position of leadership in the field her autobiography, Bossypants: “only in of comedy and on network television most comedy...does an obedient white girl from notably in the episode, “Lee Marvin vs. the suburbs count as diversity.” Derek Jeter” (Season 4, Episode 17). In the While Fey and her onscreen avatar, Liz episode, Toofer (Keith Powell) quits his Lemon, occupy this privileged, powerful job as a writer for TGS when he discovers position as a producers of culture in the that his employment is simply a product of field of television, both use their stature in affirmative action. Liz refuses Pete’s (Scott different ways to critique the entertainment Adsit) plea to convince Toofer to return, industry and the representation of women stating that she respects his decision; she within it; in the episode “TGS Hates goes on to soapbox that “as a woman in Women” (Season 5, Episode 16), Joan of this business,” to the animated groans of Snark, a feminist website, posts an article her coworkers, “and in this world, I have entitled “Why Does TGS Hate Women?” never received special treatment in work or The article lambasts Liz’s show for her in love. So why should anybody else!” Liz regressive representations of women in is humblingly proved wrong when Pete their various sketches. Cut to Jenna reveals to Liz at the end of the episode that Maroney (Jane Krakowski) playing various TGS was only picked up by NBC because powerful women - Hillary Clinton, Amelia of the negative backlash they got after Earheart - rendered crazy and unable to airing the show, Bitch Hunter, in which a perform their jobs the second they get their white man (Will Ferrell) run around period. These depictions draw upon the hunting women with a rifle. Upon realizing stereotype that women are incapable of that her job as head writer for her own rationality and especially vulnerable to the comedy show has also been a product of negative effects of bodily hormones. In

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 57 attempted defense, Liz begins to explain Jenna, that’s exactly the problem,” says that they are “an ironic re-appropriation...” Liz, trying to discourage the actress from before giving up her explanation. TGS her plans to “destroy” Abby. “Men then, represents a media text that infantilize women and women tear each perpetuates hegemonic notions about other down.” Fey elaborates in Bossypants women. Fey, though, utilizes comedy as she reflects upon her career experiences much more effectively: in the middle of that often times in the workplace women expressing to her fellow writers and Jenna are encouraged to believe the manipulative that “this started as a show for women notion that they are in competition with starring women. At the very least we other women, encouraged to fight amongst should be elevating the way women are one another; Fey reveals the social perceived in society and—AOUUL MY practices that work to maintain the PERIOD! YOU’RE ALL FIRED!” Liz stagnation of female progress in the labour theatrically collapses to the ground. Here, force. Fey conducts an actual Furthermore, re-appropriation of Abby’s laughter – she invites us exaggerated to laugh not in hypersexualization agreement with this (dressing in tight- patriarchal image of fitting tank tops women, but to find that expose much humour in the absurdity of her cleavage, of the stereotype. giddily As the episode volunteering to sit progresses, Liz decides on Frank’s (Judah to hire another woman Friedlander) lap to her staff as a guest during her first Tiny Fey as Liz Lemon of 30 Rock writer, opening the plot writer’s meeting, up to further trying to get Liz to explorations of female workplace make out with her to get the attention of a stereotypes and struggles. Abby Flynn homeless man) highlight the current (Cristin Milioti), the self-infantilizing, pressures on women working in comedy hypersexual, male-attention-seeking writer today. As Alessandra Stanley examines in that Liz hires, creates tension in the TGS her article for Vanity Fair: “now a female workspace as a jealous Jenna perceives her comedian has to be pretty - even sexy - to presence as a threat to her own narcissistic get a laugh.” Liz assumes that it is greed for attention (Jenna herself “pressure from society,” and the desire to embodying a comically caricatured have her talents recognized (as Flynn had stereotype of the celebrity woman). “No, only gained internet attention on Joan of

58 | Representations of Feminism and Sexuality: The Illusion of Diversity Snark when she became a “sexy baby” suddenly panics and yells, “She’s grabbing comedienne) that has influenced Abby’s oil- Owen, run!” and literally runs out of behavior. Rebecca Traister observes about the room to avoid seeing more. The male the popular reception of female gaze also protects its eyes from the sight of comediennes, “those women who don’t a naked Liz in “Dance Like Nobody’s make their sexuality the most salient part Watching” (Season 6, Episode 1) when she of their personae get ignored or dismissed,” unzips her sweater to reveal her Christmas elucidating the real-life parallels to Abby’s dickey and a repulsed Jack (Alec Baldwin) perceived motivation. However the jig is quickly jabs at elevator buttons to escape up by the episode’s end as a good- from the monstrosity that is Liz in her bra. intentioned Liz forces Abby to reveal the Furthermore, while often times true reason behind her performance of “television’s female protagonists[’] femininity; Liz is proven disastrously personal ambitions and pleasures are cast wrong when Flynn angrily confesses that to the wayside as the goal of ‘getting the her need to impersonate a new identity guy’ trumps all,” Jace Lacob for Newsweek constitutes her survival method for Global praises 30 Rock’s “modern and escaping an abusive ex-husband. The forward thinking” portrayal of an reveal suggests that such social struggles “independent woman in the workplace. are often more complicated that people While Liz has several boyfriends...her may think and illuminates that structures of one true love was her job.” Even Liz’s patriarchal dominance affect the social almost frightening love for food rivals her reality of working women in complex desire for a relationship with a man, as ways. evidenced in “Sandwich Day” (Season 2, Further engaging in the discourse of Episode 14) when, chasing Floyd (Jason representation, the show’s embodied Sudeikis) at the airport, Liz refuses to characterization of Liz Lemon counters compromise between her pursuit and her conventional ways in which women are sandwich, devouring her sub so she can represented on television and in comedy. pass through security. Vesey and Lambert Directly challenging the notion that note the particular significance of this comedic women must be beautiful and scene as “women rarely eat on network utilize their sexuality to gain professional television,” and “the feminist pleasure in success, 30 Rock characterizes Liz as this scene resides in Lemon’s refusal to decidedly not physically attractive; the trade in self-gratification for heterosexual times when she takes off her clothes are romance.” comically met with others’ disgust, like in Critics often note the ease with which “¡Que Sorpresa!” (Season 5, Episode 13) – Liz Lemon may be confused with Tina when Lemon does a mock pregnant Fey. Vesey and Lambert note the difficulty photoshoot. As she observes Liz posing for of wrenching “the character from the photos, Carmen Chao (Vanessa Minnillo) actress,” while Brian Hiatt observes a level

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 59 of complicity in Fey’s willingness to share (whereas Jack, her male superior, is often similarities with her character: “‘I wouldn’t treated with deference, most notably by his want her to do anything that I wouldn’t assistant, Jonathan (Maulik Pancholy)). In do,’” Fey has said. However, where Fey is “Rosemary’s Baby,” (Season 2, Episode 4) tremendously successful within the Jack presents Liz with the GE Followship industry (with Celebrity Net Worth Award, “presented annually to the woman– calculating her net worth to $45 million sorry, person – who best exemplifies a and cite her as making $500,000 per follower.” The award and Jack’s Freudian episode of 30 Rock, her show showered slip satirize societal expectations for with awards over the course of its run, female submissiveness and the ways in garnering trophies from such associations which social institutions reward and as the Writers Guild of America, the reinforce such behavior. (The award is also Television Critics Association, Screen an ironic subversion of Liz’s workplace Actors Guild, the Primetime Emmys, and status, as Fey in real life is often cited for the Golden Globes, as well as being blazing the trail for women hoping achieve acknowledged by Lacob as “a critical success within the entertainment industry: darling, known for its smart, tongue-in- “one of the leading voices in a new cheek writing and acerbic wit”), Fey and generation of comediennes.” Liz at first the other creative forces behind 30 Rock rejects the labeling as a follower, but when consistently work to subvert and contest Jack informs her that the award comes with Liz Lemon’s authority within the $10,000, she immediately and proudly workplace, creating dissonance between accepts without hesitation, poking fun at her own stature and her avatar’s the notion that in this age of capitalism, characterization. In the process, they “the higher people climb in corporatized explore the struggles that working women media production, the more likely they will face in the professional sphere. Where Fey be compromised by economic security.” enjoys the respect and admiration of her Fey and co. even challenge Liz’s colleagues and superiors, Liz frequently authority to mediate representations of struggles to obtain the respect of the co- women of other races, highlighting the workers. In “Let’s Stay Together” (Season particularly difficult hardships encountered 5, Episode 3), Lemon expresses to Jack her by women of color who often do not frustrations with her fellow writers’ control representations of their ethnicities recurring prank of putting fake, insulting in the media. Trying to get Angie (Sherri name-tags on her door, “I love a good joke, Shepherd) to convince Tracy (Tracy but I am their boss and at a certain point, it Morgan), supposedly on sabbatical in crosses a line.” As a woman occupying a Africa, to come back to TGS, Liz position of leadership in the workplace, Liz impersonates Jordan in the episode, struggles to get both her male and female “Queen of Jordan” (Season 5, Episode 17). subordinates to treat her with respect She affects his speech and mannerisms

60 | Representations of Feminism and Sexuality: The Illusion of Diversity with the lines like, “damn woman, I wanna happiness. It IS happiness.”), and even make love to yo’ neck!” and “damn you network television and Alec Baldwin’s Liz Lemon–” before Angie, unamused, professional merit (when Jack, trying to chastises her not to do impressions of other convince Tracy to come back to TGS for races. Liz gives her cause for indignance once and for all, monologues. again when she catches her writing an email to Tracy pretending to be Angie: “Do TV and no one will ever take “...come home now. Sho’ nuff, Angie.” you seriously again. It doesn't matter Angie eyes Liz after reading this directly how big a movie star you are, even if back to her. “Sho’ nuff??” she says to the you had the kind of career where you head writer, with a “really? Seriously?” walked away from a blockbuster tone of voice. As a white woman who franchise or worked with Meryl Streep holds the position of being a producer of or Anthony Hopkins, made important content within the culture industry, she has movies about things like civil rights or the power of being able to mediate for Pearl Harbor, stole films with popular consumption representations of supporting roles and then turned around other races and ethnicities and create their and blew them away on Broadway. representations based on her gaze and point None of that will matter once you do of view. Liz is embarrassingly put in her television. You could win every award place though when forced to take in sight. Be the biggest thing on the responsibility for her mediations face-to- small screen and you'll still get laughed face to a rightfully disapproving Angie out of the Vanity Fair Oscar party by who scolds her for her offenses. Greg Kinnear. Tracy, your career hit rock bottom the first time you decided 30 Rock actively engages in discourse to do TGS. You want it to hit rock about the complex structures of dominance bottom again? Go on network that work within the field of the television.” “100: Parts 1 & 2” (Season 5, entertainment, not only subverting Episode 20). hegemonic ideas about women, but also making fun of the dominant structures Tina Fey truly is the “human bra” that within which it operates. Fey and her co- Liz claims to be, a woman in the sub- writers jab at everything from advertising profession of comedy as well as within the (Liz looking into the camera and asking 30 larger context of the entertainment industry Rock’s viewers, “Can we have our money who not only supports the advancement of now?” after a plug for Verizon in women in society, but paves the way for “Somebody to Love” (Season 2, Episode other women to follow in her footsteps as 6)), capitalistic greed (when Jack proclaims one of the most powerful people (amongst in the episode, “Black Tie” (Season 1, other women and men) working in film and Episode 12) that “money can’t buy television today.

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 61 She brings feminist issues to the distinctions between high and low culture – forefront in clever, complex, funny and providing audiences with a rich source of engaging ways, providing a cornucopia of material to make sense of in different different, dynamic representations of ways, as well as think about complex women on television. A few critics issues from many viewpoints and highlight some of the troubling aspects of perspectives. these characterizations, such as the In doing so, Fey and her fellow moments when Liz “easily cows to the productive forces behind 30 Rock help to pressures of patriarchy,” as discussed by elevate the medium of television as a site Vesey and Lambert, but these very of contested, conflicting, contradictory, contradictions open up the text to differing complex struggles for meaning and interpretations and negotiations of representation, and in doing so, meaning. 30 Rock engages in a complex compliment their viewers in their process of mixing progressive and assumption that they are both fully capable regressive comedy, talking about serious of such intelligent engagement and enjoy topics in absurd ways, confusing the such an active spectatorship.

______WORKS CITED

Lisa Duggan, The Twilight of Equality?: Neoliberalism, Cultural Politics, and the Attack on Democracy, (Boston: Beacon Press books, 2003). Silvia Federici, Caliban and the Witch: Women, the Body and Primitive Accumulation, (Brooklyn: Autonomedia, 2004). Eleanor Patterson. "Fracturing Tina Fey: A Critical Analysis of Postfeminist Television Comedy Stardom." The Communication Review. vol. 15, no. 3 (2012): 232-251. Alessandra Stanley. "Tina Fey Signs Off, Broken Barriers Behind Her ." , sec. Leisure, January 30, 2013. Tina Fey, Bossypants, (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2011), 109. Estelle R. Ramey, "Sex Hormones and Executive Ability," Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 208, no. March (2006): 237-245. A. Vesey, and K. Lambert, "‘I Can Have It All’: Liz Lemon Negotiates Power, One Sandwich at a Time," Flow (2008). Tina Fey, Bossypants, (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2011), 81. Alessandra Stanley. "Who Says Women Aren't Funny?." Vanity Fair, April 2008. Rebecca Traister, "‘30 Rock’ takes on feminist hypocrisy - and its own," Salon (2011) Jace Lacob. "Tina Fey’s iconic '30 Rock' sings its swan song." Newsweek Global, January 21, 2013. Brian Hiatt. "The Last Days of '30 Rock'." Rolling Stone, January 31, 2013. Forbes, "Tina Fey." Last modified May 2012. Accessed June 4, 2013. Brian Warner. Celebrity Net Worth, "Tina Fey Net Worth." Accessed June 4, 2013. IMDb, "Awards for "30 Rock"." Accessed June 4, 2013. Melena Ryzik. "Producer, Writer, Star and One Funny Mama." The New York Times, April 13, 2011.

62 | Representations of Feminism and Sexuality: The Illusion of Diversity The Female Predator: Lesbianism in Pre- and Post-Code Hollywood Films By Daisy Rogozinsky

The primary question I considered in Code Administration, with an attempt to embarking upon my research was “how did explain why its implementation didn’t have lesbian representation in change much of an effect on lesbian before and after the implementation of the representation. Finally, I will conduct a Production Code Administration in 1934?” close reading of some canonically Originally, I’d thought that there would be “lesbian” films of the 30s, particularly clear differences, with pre-Code lesbian Dracula’s Daughter, concluding that both films having a significantly different before and after 1934, lesbian characters, amount or type of lesbian representation behavior, and desire were either dismissed, than post-Code films. However, throughout framed as something to be fought against, my research, I discovered that such a or both. difference didn’t exist; that, in fact, it In a quick review of existing wasn’t until far later in the 20th century scholarship about homosexual and lesbian that lesbians were explicitly identified in representation in the 30s and 40s, I quickly film and treated as positive characters on discovered a preoccupation with volume or (more of) a regular basis. What became amount of representation – almost a desire more interesting to me than lesbian to categorize as many films as possible as representations’ relationship to the “lesbian.” My research consisted primarily Hays/Breen Production Code of reading secondhand sources making Administration was the ideological these kinds of arguments and watching the implications of the ways in which lesbians films they refer to in order to ascertain were coded and shown, if at all. In this whether or not I agreed with their paper, I will trace the position of previous categorization. I followed this up with scholarship on homosexuality in film, rewatching the films that I found most discussing the reason I disagree with them interesting and looking into their reviews almost completely. I will follow a brief and advertisements. Finally, I revisited the historical account of the history of secondary articles and books in more depth censorship in the early sound period, in order to more accurately form a particularly concerning the Production comparison with my findings.

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 63 While I acknowledge the importance of lesbians do read as cross-gendered – any amount of academic research on however, simply the identification of a homosexuality in film, the majority of woman with masculine gender codes in no sources I consulted fell flat. The first fault way leads straight to the identity of was what seemed to be a desire to assert “lesbian.” If you remove the films in that there were more homosexuality in Lugowski’s list that have no sign of 1930s films than otherwise would be lesbianism despite some amount of assumed. In fact, this is the thesis of David feminine androgyny and masculinity, M. Lugowski’s article “Queering the you’d be left with very few – Queen (New) Deal: Lesbian and Gay Christina, Morocco, Sign of The Cross. Representation and the Depression-Era Lugowski writes about this so-called Cultural Politics of Hollywood's surprisingly large number of homosexual Production Code.” He suggests that, films as a positive thing, yet when you because the Depression led to women bring the list down to a more accurate set taking on more traditionally masculine of films, almost all of them have quite roles in culture and making up a larger part negative connotations. I will return to this of film audiences, lesbianism had a strong later on. presence in 1930s film (Lugowski 4). He Another pattern in the body of goes on to cite quite a number of films as scholarship I researched was a focus on “lesbian,” including Blood Money, how clear the homosexuality in 1930s film Broadway thru a Keyhole, Morocco, The was. One of Lugowski’s more minor Sign of the Cross, Heat Lightening, The arguments is that the queerness he reads in Kiss Before the Mirror - “[I have] evidence these films is more than just subtext; that it for queer references, characters, and was actually read as such by audiences of situations in nearly 150 films out of those the time (Lugowski 8). The evidence he I’ve seen from the Depression era” cites primarily comes from production (Lugowski 11). However, even he admits code letters regarding the (potential) that his categorization of these films as censorship of queerness in films, lesbian relies on the presence of “mannish” suggesting (to him) that lesbianism was women, those with a short haircut, a deep more widely acknowledged by censors voice, or dressed in a suit. “By ‘queer (Lugowski 19). In contrast, Rhona J. imagery’,” he writes, “I am focusing on… Berenstein finds the exact opposite, saying characters that represent behavior that censors “wrote around lesbianism.” coded…as cross-gendered” (Lugowski 4). She takes a middle ground, saying that This overt conflation of gender finding lesbianism in 1930s and 1940s transgression with homosexuality is quite films is and was and exercise of reading bothersome. Admittedly, gender and both with and against the grain. Finally, sexuality are categories that are inevitably Chon Noriega takes a completely opposite mixed up with each other and often times, position from Lugowski, suggesting that

64 | Representations of Feminism and Sexuality: The Illusion of Diversity the homosexuality that may or may not regulate – in 1909, the National Board of have been present in 1930s and 1940s Censorship was created through the Motion cinema was largely subtextual and that Picture Patents Association as a solution to since then, gay and lesbian film critics the tensions between film producers and have worked specifically to “recuperate a exhibitors over the fact that the exhibitors history of homosexual images from the felt they had little control over what films censored screen” (Berenstein 28). they’d be asked to sell to the public. The While I choose to focus on quality National Board of Censorship was a body rather than quality of lesbian representation authorized to implement the standards of in this era of cinema, I acknowledge the morality that the general movie-going reasons for Lugowski’s casting of a wider public seemed to hold (Rosenbloom 309). net for queer readings. It is the sparsity of Yet a series of scandals involving queer characters itself that has motivated Hollywood films and stars in the early scholars to widen their definitions of what 1920s raised concern, amongst mostly can be considered gay or lesbian. Yet it Catholics and conservatives, about the film seems a glaring omission not to discuss the industry’s supposed immorality (Doherty ideological implications of what the 7). Thus, in 1922 Will H. Hays was audiences were seeing, regardless of issues brought in to dissipate such fears and make such as when audiences began to look at Hollywood look good again. The first these films and see lesbianism. A focus on precursor of the Production Code was his who picked up on what and when draws 1927 list of “Don’ts and Be Carefuls,” a set attention away from the more important of guidelines without much ability to be question of what those images, stories, and enforced (Vaughn 44). This step was not suggestions meant. enough to prevent state legislatures from The surprising thing is that it seems as considering film censorship bills or civic, though they meant the same thing both women’s, and Christian groups from before and after the Production Code accusing Hollywood of depravity (Vaughn Administration in 1934. This is surprising 45). Thus, in 1929, Hays hired Catholic because in popular filmic folklore, that educator Martin Quigley to help draft the year changed everything, including, it Production Code, which was adopted in would seem, lesbian representation. Yet the 1930 by the Motion Pictures Producers’ Code doesn’t disallow lesbianism to be and Distributors’ Association (Vaughn 48). shown in film, nor homosexuality at all – Similarly to the “Don’ts and Be Carefuls,” simply “sex perversion,” an open-ended, the Code was at first not enforced. Then, in ever-changing enigma. 1934, the publication of a study suggesting Of course, the story of censorship in that films could be harmful to children and the American film industry is not quite so the Catholic move to categorize viewing of straightforward. The Production Code was certain films as a sin motivated Hays to not the first effort Hollywood made to self- hire Joseph Breen and begin enforcing the

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 65 Code through the Production Code fighting against. What follows is an Administration (Doherty 60). analysis of such ideological negativity in One would assume that the two the canonically lesbian early films primarily Catholic-influenced sets of Morocco, Ladies They Talk About, and guidelines – the Don’ts and Be Carefuls Dracula’s Daughter. and the Production Code – would be Morocco (1930, Paramount) is a prime explicit about banning homosexuality. example of a pre-Code film often labeled However, both forbid “inference to sex “lesbian” that, in fact, barely shows perversion,” a totally vague category lesbianism and connotes it in a negative subject to change (The Production Code 3). way when it does. It is famous for a girl- However, the Code explicitly names such on-girl kiss, a moment that is lauded as “perverse” acts as miscegenation or able to happen only because of its pre- adultery. Why then, did it not name Code time frame. In fact, it could be homosexuality in the same way? This is included because the kiss is then not because homosexuality wasn’t a completely negated by later behavior. priority in terms of things to avoid Morocco follows the story of nightclub exposing the public to but rather because it singer Amy Jolly, played by Marlene wasn’t a real threat yet, because if it were Dietrich, after she moves to Morocco. The shown at all, it was coded as something key moment of the film comes fairly early negative. The Production Code on, when the audience is first shown Administration didn’t have to worry about Amy’s nightclub act. In it, she wears a films showing homosexuality in a positive tuxedo, something that would already lead light the same way as they did more some, such as Lugowski, to identify her as obvious crimes. Time and time again, a lesbian. Her engagement in a homosexual censorship records of films with act lends further credence to this potentiality for lesbianism show that the assumption – at the end of her lesbianism wasn’t mentioned as one of the performance, Amy kisses a female relevant issues – not because lesbianism audience member on the lips. Yet the kiss wasn’t viewed as harmful but because this is chaste and clearly for entertainment sense of harm was present in the films as purposes only – it is followed by big much as it was in the minds of the censors laughter and applause, a reaction Amy (Berenstein 28). Both pre-Code and post- seems as though she sought. Afterward, Code films represented lesbians in a way Amy emerges in a more feminine costume that was ideologically negative, if at all. – tight and revealing – to sing a new song. The films often referred to as lesbian, by Her previous masculine clothing is shed as scholars such as Lugowski and Berenstein quickly as her brief moment of lesbian are as damaging as absence would have behavior. Amy then invites audience been, as they treated female homosexual member Legionnaire Tom Brown to meet desire and behavior as evil and worth up with her by slipping him her key. When

66 | Representations of Feminism and Sexuality: The Illusion of Diversity they rendezvous later, she tells him, in a quasi-flirtatious, “we are bad, “husband? I haven’t found a man good aggressive girls,” type of way but almost enough for that… do you think you can immediately, Linda asserts that all the restore my faith in men?” Naturally, women in the prison want nothing more throughout the rest of the film, Tom proves than “freedom and men.” She goes on to himself to be good enough, with just mention the heterosexual pasts of the enough back and forth to keep the audience women she introduces Nan to. Why, then, interested. Aligned with common views is Ladies They Talk About considered to be about lesbians, Amy’s brief, coded a lesbian film? For the sake of the brief homosexual potentiality is suggested just to presence of one unnamed character: in the be an inability to find the right man, ending bathroom Linda points out a short-haired in a realization that heterosexual love is the woman in a suit-like dress to Nan, saying, most important thing of all. Ideologically, “be careful, she likes to wrestle.” This then, the “classic lesbian film” proves itself character is only shown once more, to do nothing but reinforce negative exercising in her cell. This representation stereotypes about lesbians. Is it possible for is, again, stereotypical, but even worse, it a lesbian viewer to glom onto the few frames the sole lesbian character in the images that code Dietrich’s character as a women’s prison as predatory, somebody to lesbian in Morocco? They can and they fear, somebody whose desire for women is did. However, anybody looking at the dangerous. It may be possible that being bigger picture can easily pick up on the produced and distributed before 1934 implications of her potential homosexual allowed for Morocco and Ladies They Talk attraction as invalid, particularly in About to have somewhat explicit lesbian comparison to her strong love for a man. behavior and characters shown, but to what Ladies They Talk About (1933, Warner end? This was permitted not because of Bros.) is another example of a canonically some pre-Code acceptability of lesbianism lesbian pre-Code film. It follows the (recall that “sexual perversion” was on the gorgeous criminal Nan Taylor, played by list of Don’ts and Be Carefuls before it was Barbara Stanwyck, as she is jailed for a in the Code) but because the robbery. The all-women’s prison is a representations of lesbianism were classic setting for lesbian behavior, similar negative, making it seem unappealing, to the all-girl’s boarding school of films invalid, and largely irrelevant. Not a such as Madchen in Uniform. However, concern for censors. like in Morocco, the possibility for lesbian Dracula’s Daughter (1936, Universal), representation is wasted with a barely- a post-Code canonical lesbian film there, stereotype-ridden character. When suggests that the Production Code Nan arrives in prison, she makes a friend, Administration didn’t change much in Linda, who introduces her around. The terms of lesbian representation. The film, opportunity for homosociality is palpable like those before it, shows lesbianism in a

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 67 way that suggests it to be predatory, Marya seeks out the beautiful Lili, inviting dangerous, and something only men can her over to be painted. “I’m doing a study solve. As made clear by the title, Dracula’s of young girls’ head and shoulders,” Marya Daughter is a follow-up to Dracula (1931, tells her, “you won’t object to removing Universal) that follows the vampire’s your blouse, would you?” Though at first daughter after his death. She is Countess she doesn’t, Lili quickly begins to panic as Marya Zaleska, a mysterious woman first Marya hypnotizes her, leading to her being shown all in black, everything covered but carried away from Marya’s home on a her eyes. From the very beginning, she is stretcher. shown to use her sexuality in a Though Lili survives, she is clearly manipulative manner, using “something coded as a sexual assault victim, suffering more precious than money” (in this case a from amnesia and what appears in literal ring that seems pretty clearly to be a hindsight to be symptoms of post-traumatic metaphor for sexuality) to hypnotize a stress disorder – memory loss, trouble policeman in order to steal the body of her communicating, troubling flashbacks. She dead father. She burns the body in an is brought to be treated by Dr. Garth. attempt to become free – “free to live as a Though Lili dies before being able to woman.” After the ritual, Marya is excited reveal the truth, Garth figures things out about her new ability to live a normal life nonetheless. At first, he is unable to punish but her manservant, Sandor, reminds her of Marya for her behavior because she the inevitable evil within her. He tells her kidnaps his assistant, telling him that she that she sees evil in her eyes. wants his eternal companionship in death, This so-called evil that undeniably or else she will kill the girl. Garth is plagues Marya is her bloodlust, a genetic prepared to sacrifice himself but Sander desire for the blood of mostly young, kills Marya in jealousy. The happy ending beautiful women. Later, Marya finds of the movie is a heterosexual coupling – herself at a party, having a conversation when Garth and his assistant can be safely with Dr. Garth, a psychiatrist quite familiar together at last. with the case of Van Helsing, her father’s The ways in which this representation killer. In a discussion about the situation, of lesbianism is problematic are many. Garth reveals his view that obsession, “like Marya’s vampirism very clearly stands for any disease of the mind… can be cured.” a sexual desire for women, shown in her Marya immediately seeks Garth out as a choice of Lili as a victim and in her later potential cure for her own obsession. She sexual behavior with Dr. Garth’s assistant, asks for his help, as a “man of strength and who she refers to as “beautiful and courage,” though without revealing exactly helpless.” The way that she talks about her what sort of desire ails her. Garth offers desire frames it as something she cannot Marya the solution of meeting her dark control but desperately wants to rid herself influence head on and fighting it. Thus, of. In discussing her affliction with Dr.

68 | Representations of Feminism and Sexuality: The Illusion of Diversity Garth, she tells him, “it came over me from six different sources, don’t have a again, that overpowering demand. word to say about the lesbian character Wordless. Persistent. And I had to obey.” (New York Reviews 402). She is unworthy Further, the desire comes off as quite of comment. It is worth noting that, though predatory – particularly when Marya reviews for Dracula’s Daughter did not readies herself to “paint” Lili. She offers categorize Marya’s behavior as lesbian, her wine for “warmth,” telling her, “don’t they do pick up pretty clearly on the be afraid, my dear,” before coercing her to negative connotations of her character, undress. This calls to mind the stereotype referring to her as “sinister” (The Show of lesbian desire as rapacious, dangerous, Window 60) and her behavior as “ghoulish and perverse. And, like Amy Jolly before proclivities,” (Brief Review 258) her, Marya looks to a man for the solution “satisfying a blood-curdling obsession,” to this “problem.” She is so desperate, in (Hollywood Preview 22) “terrorizing acts,” fact, for Dr. Garth, that she resorts to and “monstrous passions.” (Topper 52). extortion. Yet, in this story, even the man Naturally these terms aren’t directly is not enough to rid Marya of her perverse, associated with the lesbian desire that lesbian desire and the only solution for her Marya shows but the ideology tied to it. becomes death. In particular, death at the hands of the man whom she used to If a lack of enforcement of the dominate, who finally rises to assert his Production Code was the only thing that natural power over her as a woman. made possible the images of lesbian Despite her desire to cure herself, characters or acts, it would be safe to Dracula’s daughter is ultimately a villain assume that the Production Code due to her threat to heteronormativity. Administration would have stamped out all The reviews for all three of these films suggestions of lesbian desire or behavior. – Morocco, Ladies They Talk About, and Indeed, the Code does forbid even just an Dracula’s Daughter, don’t seem offended “inference” to sexual perversion. However, or taken aback by the lesbianism. In fact, 1934 was not the last year that lesbian they don’t mention lesbians at all. Picture images were shown onscreen. The reason Play Magazine doesn’t shy away from for this is not because the representations mentioning desire – it just refers to the of lesbianism were so subtextual that desire that Dietrich’s character has for her censors or reviewers couldn’t read them, male love interest (Lusk 196). Time and but because they were ideologically coded again, the reviews rave over the in a way that did not subvert common heterosexual love story. This is because the “morality,” that did not transgress, but that brief lesbian moment is made totally reinforced traditional stereotypes and irrelevant in comparison. Similarly, negative views toward homosexuality. The reviews for Ladies They Talk About, main goal of censorship was fighting the aggregated by The Hollywood Reporter depiction of unlawful or immoral acts in a

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 69 positive light, but lesbianism, both pre- and 1930s, further research efforts would be post-Code was depicted as nothing but best put toward a qualitative look at the negative. Rather than focusing on the ideological implications of homosexual quantity of homosexual images in the representation.

______

WORKS CITED

Anon, . "Brief Reviews of Current Pictures." Photoplay, Jul-Dec 1936, 258. Anon, . "Motion Picture Daily’s Hollywood Preview." Motion Picture Daily, May 4, 1936, 22. Anon, . "New York Reviews." The Hollywood Reporter, Jan - Jun 1933, 402. Anon, . "The Show Window." Movie Classic, , 60. Anon, . "Topper's Film Reviews." Hollywood , July 1936, 52. Berenstein, Rhona J. "Adaptation, Censorship, and Audiences of Questionable Type: Lesbian Sightings in "Rebecca" (1940) and "The Uninvited" (1944)." Cinema Journal. no. 3 (1998): 16 - 37. Doherty, Thomas. Hollywood's Censor: Joseph I. Breen & The Production Code Administration. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007. Lugowski, David M. "Queering the (New) Deal: Lesbian and Gay Representation and the Depression-Era Cultural Politics of Hollywood's Production Code." Cinema Journal. no. 2 (1999): 3 - 35. Lusk, Norbert. "The Screen in Review." Picture Play Magazine, Jan - Jun 1931, 196. Motion Picture Producers and Distributors Assoc., “The Production Code” Noriega, Chon. ""Something's Missing Here!": Homosexuality and Film Reviews during the Production Code Era, 1934-1962." Cinema Journal. no. 1 (1990): 20 - 41. Rosenbloom, Nancy J. "Between Reform and Regulation: The Struggle over Film Censorship in Progressive America, 1909-1922." Film History. no. 4 (1987): 307 - 25. Vaughn, Stephen. "Morality and Entertainment: The Origins of the Motion Picture Production Code."The Journal of American History. no. 1 (1990): 39 - 65.

70 | Representations of Feminism and Sexuality: The Illusion of Diversity United States of Tara and the Synergistic Relationship between Hollywood Production and the

Scientific Community

By Omar Miranda

Utilizing mental disorders as a focal (Tartakovsky). While filmmakers have an point for major motion pictures has limited amount of time to display the become a big trend in the Hollywood struggles of a mental disorder, leaving industry among producers and directors. more room for sensationalistic displays, a From the wildly successful Emmy television show, contrarily, will ideally last nominated TV movie mini-series Sybil multiple seasons, allowing depictions of (Daniel Petrie, 1976) to the recent academy mental disorders to be explored in a more award nominated success story Silver expansive and efficient manner. One of the Linings Playbook (David O. Russel, 2012), more established television shows that it is no secret that medical disorders explore the realities of mental disorders is generate appeal amongst huge audiences. Diablo Cody’s United States of Tara. The While some critics argue that films comedy-drama on Showtime focuses on a featuring mental disorders help shed light woman named Tara Gregson who suffers on an otherwise unknown disorder, many from Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) other critics contend that several of these while also struggling to maintain the representations fail to accurately depict the sanctity of her dysfunctional family. reality of the disease. Margarita Once known as Multiple Personality Tartakovsky, for example, comments on Disorder, DID, is a very complex disorder the problematic representations of mental that is still difficult to understand today. illness in reference to the film Thirteen According to the journal, Psychology (Catherine Hardwicke, 2003), noting the Today, "DID is a severe condition in which film’s portrayal of “substance abuse, two or more distinct identities, or sexual promiscuity, an eating disorder and personality states, are present in—and self-injury, [and the fact that] the main alternately take control of—an individual. character never seeks treatment. The person also experiences memory loss Ultimately, these behaviors may be viewed that is too extensive to be explained by as ‘a glamorous benchmark to beat,’” ordinary forgetfulness," (“Dissociative

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 71 Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality television show as an art work and Disorder)”). These multiple identities are entertainment piece. also known as alters because they are the One of the important techniques to repressed parts of the personality as a result highlight during the production of the show of a trauma one has endured. “An alter is a is the producers’ attempt to remain true to part of the self that the person has ‘pushed the disorder by employing a psychologist away’ or disowned” (“FAQ’s on to be part of the creative team. “Richard Dissociative Disorders (US Tara Kluft, the clinical psychiatrist who serves Edition)”). While there have been positive as the consultant for the "Tara" series, took reviews in terms of the casting and the a look at the first episode and had concerns writing of the show, the integrity of the about how the seriousness of DID (and that DID representation becomes questionable its most common cause is thought to be throughout the series (Lowry). The show childhood abuse) would be translated,” triggered the scientific community— (Maron). Having that type of consultant comprised of psychologists, researchers, adds credibility and authenticity to the and people clinically diagnosed with the overall execution of the disorder. However, disorder—to take action and inform the writers of the show did not always use audiences abou the actualities of the Kluft’s advice. “Kluft offers as much disease. The synergy among the scientific advice on the medical accuracy of the show community and the creative team at United as he can, though he says the writers may States of Tara provides a meaningful not always use it. He’s happy with the situation for this television show. Tara is show overall, but he admits he still winces not only serving its loyal fan base as their at some of the depictions of Tara and DID primary audience, but also psychologists and notes that the main character's more and scientific organizations as a secondary flamboyant alters are typical of only 1 in audience, who in turn provide their 20 DID cases,” (Maron). The most response to the fan base. The television complex aspect of having a show form, unlike film form, allowed the centralized on a mental disorder is production of United States of Tara the balancing the accuracy of the disease while opportunity to construct extraordinary and keeping the show interesting and fresh. The in-depth narrative arcs that provide a more show experienced several instances in expansive and holistic representation of the which the portrayal of DID did not disorder. Fans of United States of Tara are adequately meet the standards of several offered an exceptional chance to consider members of the scientific community. the intertextuality in media, utilizing both An organization called the the text of the show, as well as the International Society for the Study of criticisms of Psychologists and researchers, Trauma and Dissociation (ISSTD) started in order to obtain a better understanding of up as a result of the television show’s DID as a whole, while still enjoying the representation of DID. This organization is

72 | Representations of Feminism and Sexuality: The Illusion of Diversity comprised of a Board of Directors who all The Board of Directors of the ISSTD have an expertise background in began their commentary with the pilot psychology or psychiatry,” with episode of United States of Tara. The specialized studies in trauma and episode begins with the very strong dissociation (“Board of Directors”). The character development of Tara Gregson, as ISSTD's mission as an organization is to she reveals two of her three different alters. provide education regarding the Tara’s alters can “range from a flirtatious dissociative disorders and to promote the and spunky teenager named 'T' and a gun- effective treatment of clients with these loving male alter-ego named Buck,” (“Pilot disorders, (“United States of Tara and – United States of Tara”). As seen in the Dissociative Disorders”). Although this episode, these alters are so visibly different organization recognizes the positive nature from each other, most notably observed of United States of Tara being the “first through the unique wardrobes of each alter, television show” to and the changing identify DID, it still mise-en-scene of the aims, solely, to show. Despite much provide education on of the intrigue the disorder and clear brought on by Tara up common Gregson’s multiple misconceptions. The personalities, ISSTD organization is really believes that the grateful for show’s version of Showtime for DID is hyperbolized. shedding light on this “Almost everything disorder, but wants to about Tara and her make it clear that Toni Collete as Tara and her alters alters is ‘over the “only a small top.’ DID looks like percentage [of people with DID] have this this in only about 5% of cases, and even classical presentation of DID while many then is rarely paraded this openly. In the go on to live normal lives with the vast majority of cases, switching from one disorder,” (“United States of Tara and alter to another is covert or hidden, Dissociative Disorders”). appearing as abrupt, but often subtle The website provides many tools and changes of mood, behavior, or attitude” resources for people interested in the (“US Tara Psychological Commentaries”). disorder, as well as locations on the Having these subtle changes in DID on the website made specifically for fans of show may not have been salient enough for United States of Tara, including a the viewer to fully observe the change in commentary on every episode of the entire personality. Thus, the writers of the show series. may have had to sacrifice the authenticity

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 73 of the disorder in order to have a much up going to jail for crimes committed by more exciting narrative structure. one of their alters. Even today, with all the There were several instances during the developments and research carried out by show’s run that the creators abandoned the the scientific community, it seems that DID authenticity of the disorder for more remains as mysterious as ever” spectacular and carnivalesque (Pamoukaghlian). The alters may come performances. During season one, episode across as exaggerated on the show, but two of United States of Tara, an episode there are possibilities that real people are called “Aftermath” brings out Tara’s third going through similar experiences with alter, Alice, “ a 1950s-style, perfect their alters. homemaker who claims to be a graduate of Some viewers feel empathetic with Radcliffe,” (“US Tara Psychological Tara’s character and the complexities the Commentaries”). Alice ends up washing “alters” bring to her life. Heather B., author her (Tara’s) daughter’s mouth out with of blog post “D.I.D. I Do That? Thoughts soap because she was speaking on Dissociative Identity Disorder” on the inappropriately to her. This can be seen as PsychCentral blog, reflects on her own an outrageous moment and not something experiences with DID, and comments on that typically happens to someone who has Tara’s DID. When it comes to Tara’s DID, DID. Later in the series, in season 3, and DID in general, she claims that “most episode 9 (“Bryce Will Play”) Tara ends up of us with DID do not have alters that developing another alter, Bryce, who is appear as extreme as Tara’s… Tara is revealed to be the stepbrother that molested certainly ‘over the top.’ Nonetheless Toni her as a child and caused all her childhood Collette’s portrayal of Tara accurately trauma. During this episode, Tara, as well depicts the emotional experience of DID,” as her psychologist, Dr. Hatteras, her sister, (B, Heather). Despite the exaggerated and daughter all have dinner together. Dr. representation of Tara’s alters, the Hatteras starts having an allergic reaction emotional struggle endured by both Tara to the meal, because of the insertion of and her family members is real and can be crab, a food he is deathly allergic. Dr. empathized with. Hatteras has previously informed Tara Others feel that DID in United States of about his allergy and even though Tara Tara is a gross misrepresentation of the denies putting crab into the meal, her alter actual disorder. In another blog post, titled Bryce resurfaces and deliberately talks “Televism: Ableism, Appropriation, and about putting the crab into the meal. United States of Tara,” Rachel McCarthy Although these alters may be seen as James critiques the overall message of the ludicrous and exaggerated for their show, a message that Steven Spielberg malicious behavior, there are reports that introduces in a quote from the following validate the bizarre activity some alters New York Times article: “Ultimately the produce. “Many times, people have ended creators and Showtime executives hope

74 | Representations of Feminism and Sexuality: The Illusion of Diversity that the obvious metaphor in “United Disorders (US Tara Edition)”). It is clear States of Tara” — that we all struggle with that, although Tara attempts to depict an our fragmented selves — will be easy for honest, thoughtful presentation of someone viewers to relate to,” (Mcdowell). While with DID, the creative team is still Rachel McCarthy James respects the fact commodifying the subject matter to be that Spielberg and his team wanted the edgier, to sell. show to be something people can identify Steven Gold, psychology professor at with, she feels that DID is not something Nova Southeastern University, also that should be appropriated. “This is not addresses his concerns with the portrayal about a woman who happens to have DID. of this show because of the ways it might This is about DID as a sensitive freak affect actual people with DID. “Some of show, and it contributes to the fraught the major consequences of misleading perception of DID. Using disability to portrayals of DID are widespread communicate these multiple personae, skepticism among the general public; the when no one prominently involved in the risk of hindering detection of clients with production of the show has actually DID; and the creation of confusion and fear experienced DID, is appropriation” in clients with DID that they eventually (James). Although the language utilized by will display behaviors as dramatic as the following blog post seems somewhat Tara’s” (Giller) There are several aggressive, it is completely justifiable for consequences that can occur because of her to believe Tara’s character is these misrepresentations. Gold further caricatured. James feels that people lack a expounds that people with DID generally greater understanding for the disease, and attempt to live fully functional lives, and the show’s exaggerated take on DID does since Tara never really seems to “develop a not help that situation. In a different blog greater level of self-control, and her family post “I Am Not Your Plot Device,” blogger resigns to it…the show is more disturbing Static Nonsense, illustrates their qualms than reassuring” (Giller). Since there are with the media representations of DID and very few viable representations in the gives commentary on those issues. “The media, people with DID lack accurate problem with media portrayals of reflections of themselves on TV, and Tara DID? They don’t take these things into inherently becomes the only character who consideration. They focus on what will is somewhat comparable to them—whether sell, what will make their plot or character accurate or not. more interesting, edgy or unique. They do When living in a world where the not care about accuracy, or who is affected “media is the message” it is important to by the lack of it.” Static Nonsense also have several distinct media outlets to offer. reveals that many people are ashamed to Depending on the media outlet, everyone have DID and try to hide it from others as has their own unique agenda and message best as possible (“FAQ’s on Dissociative they would like to convey. In the

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 75 Hollywood industry, officials seek to media texts arose in response to Tara. present a “reality” that maintains an artistic From blogs created by users with DID to aesthetic, whereas a scientific community an organization called The International presents a “reality” that is backed by Society for the Study for Trauma and logical data. With a television show that Dissociation, having these scientific texts combines both sources, it allows the available to the audience while watching audience to become active in interpreting the show allows for the audience to fully the show in their own respective manners. immerse themselves in these texts for a In today’s media driven society, there are more holistic understanding of the forums, blogs, and articles written on disorder. Through the integration of the nearly all television shows that provide Hollywood and scientific texts viewers are viewers an intertextual experience. able to become more aware and better Because so many people saw the disorder educated about the disorder while still portrayal as over the top, several different deriving pleasure from the show.

______WORKS CITED

"Aftermath - United States of Tara." IMDb. Web. 04 June 2013. . B, Heather. "D.I.D. I Do That? Thoughts on Dissociative Identity Disorder | World of Psychology." Psych Central.com. Web. 26 May 2013. . "Board of Directors." International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation. Web. 04 June 2013. . "Bryce Will Play - United States of Tara." IMDb. Web. 04 June 2013. . “Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder).” Psychology Today: Diagnosis Dictionary. Web 14 April 2013. . "FAQ's on Dissociative Disorders (US Tara Edition)." FAQ's on Dissociative Disorders (US Tara Edition). Web. 04 June 2013. . Giller, Esther. Will Showtime Series The United States of Tara Promote Understanding or Misconceptions? Sidran Institute. Sidran Institute: Trauamatic Stress Education & Advocacy. Web. 30 Apr. 2013. . James, Rachel Mc. "TelevIsm: Ableism, Appropriation, and United States of Tara." Web log post. Bitch Media. 9 July 2010. Web. 26 May 2013. . Lowry, Brian. "Review: “United States of Tara”." Variety. 6 Jan. 2009. Web. 04 June 2013. . Maron, Dina Fine. "TV's Split Personality." The Daily Beast. 25 Jan. 2009. Web. 30 Apr. 2013. . Mcdowell, Jeanne Dorin. "TELEVISION; The Four (at Least) Faces of Tara." The New York Times. 11 Jan. 2009. Web. 30 Apr. 2013. . Muller, Robert T. "The Media and Dissociative Identity Disorder." Psychology Today. 19 Jan. 2013. Web. 29 Apr. 2013. . Nonsense, Static. ""Im Baaaaaack!"" Web log post. Some Assembly Required. 12 May 2013. Web. 4 June 2013. .

76 | Representations of Feminism and Sexuality: The Illusion of Diversity Pamoukaghlian, Veronica. "Behind the Masks -- The Mysteries Fo Dissociative Identity Disorder." Web log post. Brain Blogger. 28 Aug. 2011. Web. 24 May 2013. . "Pilot - United States of Tara." IMDb. Web. 04 June 2013. . Tartakovsky, Margarita. "Media’s Damaging Depictions of Mental Illness." Psychcentral.com. Psych Central, 2009. Web. 26 May 2013. "United States of Tara and Dissociative Disorders." United States of Tara and Dissociative Disorders. Web. 26 May 2013. . "US Tara Psychological Commentaries." The International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation. Web. 04 June 2013. .

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78 | Representations of Feminism and Sexuality: The Illusion of Diversity

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 79 80 | The Import and Export of Culture: The Illusion of the National El Vampiro de la Cultura: The and the Appropriation of Spanish CinematicReception History of Universal’s Spanish Drácula

By Justin Minor

In 1931, as a part of Universal Studios’ advertised the Spanish-language version in ongoing effort to produce multiple- Cine-Mundial saying “Contribuya al auge language versions of their films in order to del cine hispano parlante viendo sus expand into an international market, the primeras obras maestras;” or, “Contribute studio produced two versions of the Bram to the rise of Spanish ‘speaking’ cinema by Stoker novel adaptation, Dracula. The watching its first masterpieces” (“Cine- English version of the film (dir. Browning, Mundial”). The journal encouraged its 1931) made famous the iconic performance readers to support Spanish “talkie” cinema of Hungarian-born actor and by going to watch the films advertised served as a flagship franchise for therein; interestingly, since Universal (an Universal, spawning a number of sequels American studio) produced both the and “monster-mashes” spanning into the English and Spanish versions of Dracula, late 1940s. The Spanish version (dir. the advertisement displays a Hollywood- Melford, 1931), lauded by critics for its centric mentality. Although the longer running time as well as its more advertisement promotes Spanish varied and dynamic cinematography, viewership of these films in exchange for proved to be one of Universal Studios’ contributing to the impending “rise” of more successful entries in its multiple- Spanish “talkie” cinema, the economic language effort, regardless of its slip into angle of the advertisement locates Universal obscurity for several decades before being Studios in a time when their multiple-language pulled from an archive in Cuba (Jarvinen productions caused the studio to lose 37). In order to promote the Spanish- considerable money (Don Q. 373). language film abroad in 1931, Universal Universal Studios’ effort at self- would release advertisements heralding aggrandizement reflects an American ’s Drácula as a preeminent appropriation of Spanish-speaking example of what multiple-language cinematic history. In a transnational versions could achieve. In the months context, this is complicated by the leading up to the film’s release, Universal reception of George Melford’s Spanish-

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 81 language version of Drácula—the film language versions of Dracula, I have represents an anomaly, given the positive located the latter version entangled within reception for an American-produced a web of social, cultural, and economic Spanish-language film in an otherwise factors that lend insight into how such a hostile market characterized by class well-received film faded into obscurity for divisions, offended by the problematic years. linguistic dimension of these films, and A review of the Spanish-language unaccustomed to the production qualities version of Drácula from the Los Angeles of such a film in relation to others of its ilk. Times, dated May 11, 1931, highlights this My research focuses on the reception of film as an exception to the otherwise George Melford’s Spanish-language poorly executed Spanish-language films version of Drácula by Spanish-speakers in from Hollywood’s early production efforts America and abroad in relation to its of the 1930s. In this article, the writer English-language counterpart. Whereas commends George Melford’s directing Spanish-speaking moviegoers in the United techniques while also noting the work of States and abroad had grown accustomed translating screenwriter, B. Fernandez Cue, to the poor quality of Hollywood’s oft- whom the reviewer credits for writing “not a maligned Spanish-language film few of the better adaptations” (“‘Dracula’ in production efforts, Drácula represents an Spanish Opens at California” A7). The exception that—by many accounts— review also notes an attraction that was to surpasses the English version in terms of accompany the exhibition of the film at the “mise-en-scene, editing, and camera work” California Theater in Los Angeles, as an (Jarvinen 37). By implanting an analysis of added bonus to appeal to Spanish-speaking both films’ reception within the context of audiences—it showcases a newsreel based Hollywood’s domination of the global on the Mexican holiday, Cinco de Mayo, market in the beginning of the “talkie” era, and its celebration by “the local colony,” in and alongside Latin America’s push to reference to the local Latino community develop a national cinema, the remarks to (A7). The inclusion of such an attraction follow will demonstrate how the “better” highlights exhibitors’ efforts to draw of the two versions ended up shrouded in Spanish-speaking audiences who had temporary obscurity, even with its initial presumably grown accustomed to the low- commercial success at home and abroad. quality fare that characterized a number of To research this topic, I have examined Hollywood’s Spanish-language films. This several English and Spanish-language film article also calls into question the standard trade periodicals focusing on news production qualities of American-produced regarding film production, distribution, and Spanish-language films in general. exhibition. In compiling a variety of According to the author, the quality of reviews, an interview, and critical directing is “unusually good” for George responses to the English and Spanish- Melford’s Drácula (A7). This distinction is

82 | The Import and Export of Culture: The Illusion of the National drawn from a canon of Hollywood- venues, yielding a “centrally located and produced films that audiences detested for vibrant Mexican-oriented entertainment their poor translations, unrecognizable district” in downtown Los Angeles (“War Spanish-speaking actors, and , according to of the Accents” 3). In , moviegoing Colin Gunckel “their neglect and/or became an almost utopic event as misunderstanding of culturally specific audiences from a “broad spectrum” of subject matter” (“A Theater Worthy of Our Mexican society engaged in this social Race” 107). activity that was ever-increasing in its Exhibition of importance (Noble 74). Hollywood films These theaters would be in Latin America crucial for the exposure of as well as Spanish-speaking Spanish-speaking moviegoers to American- Los Angeles produced Spanish- exposes class- language films. related faultlines A crucial dimension that lend insight to Spanish-speaking into the film’s audiences’ experience of reception in these Hollywood-produced spaces. Gunckel Spanish-language films notes that in the was contingent upon early part of the “the war of the accents,” 20th century, or the critical discourse downtown Los directed at Hollywood Angeles witnessed studios for paying little a paradigm shift to no attention to the in moviegoing Poster: Spanish-language version of Dracula (1931) accents of the actors they demographics— cast in their Spanish- where downtown language films. According to Lisa was once principally dominated by elite, Jarvinen, disputes that arose “over accent upper-class, Anglo-Saxon audiences, an and idiom” created controversy among film influx of working-class Mexican professionals and critics who noted immigrants into this urban space during the Hollywood’s lack of competence in nailing 1910s came at a time when major movie down a “national variant” of Spanish that palaces were being constructed (“War of would be familiar to the ears of most, if not the Accents” 3). The construction of these all Spanish-speaking countries (60). For new palaces in the 1910s and 1920s saw Melford’s Drácula, this issue is taken to the conversion of older and smaller almost comic heights in the disconnect theaters into Spanish-language cinema between the Mexican regional dialect of

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 83 the actors and the setting of the film’s speaking Melford was aided significantly opening scenes in Transylvania (especially in his direction by Spanish-speaking for Carlos Villarias as the “Transylvanian” Enrique Tovar Avalos, who worked closely Count); the glaring similarity between the with the actors on set (Lenart). Tod Spanish dialects of Pablo Alvarez Rubio Browning’s Dracula was produced in (as Renfield) and Carlos Villarias (as the accordance with increasing efforts to Count) as characters colliding from star- produce Hollywood films that were cleaner crossed cultures lacks the same (Jarvinen 37). Where Browning’s version atmospheric “bite” as the disparate accents relied merely on the power of suggestion of the American Dwight Frye (as Renfield and off-screen violence, Melford’s Drácula in the English version) and Hungarian-born left “much less to the imagination” with its Bela Lugosi (as the Count) (37). Such depiction of blood, eroticism, and plunging criticisms were commonly leveled at necklines worn by the film’s actresses (Tovar). Hollywood’s Spanish talkies, but in the The marketing for both film versions case of Drácula, this problematic also highlights discrepancies that provide dimension did not put the final nail in the insight into their respective releases and coffin for the film’s audiences abroad. reception. Full-page advertisements in film The anomalous positive reception of trade journals such as Film Daily herald Melford’s Drácula can be attributed to the Tod Browning’s English version of great care employed by the largely Dracula as “the sensation of the year” and Hispanic cast and crew which was able to claim that it “will beat All Quiet on the produce the film away from the Front”—the box office giant of scrutinizing eye of Universal’s producers 1931 (“The Film Daily” 425). Full-color who often hampered production of the advertisements for Dracula are featured on English version (Lenart). The Spanish- the front page of Film Daily twice in 1931; language film was largely shot at night one cover page dubs the film as “Tod utilizing the same sets as were used by the Browning’s greatest production,” while the English cast and crew, and this allowed other urges readers to “Save your best Melford to avoid the stringent censorship playdates” (“The Film Daily” 425). Such a that plagued the English version. This lack vibrant and presumably expensive of oversight provided Melford the benefit advertising campaign stands in stark of “following the instructions of the contrast to the marketing for George original screenplay” and resulted in a film Melford’s Spanish-language Drácula—the with “more violence and erotic content” campaign for this version was much less than the English version (Lenart). flamboyant, most notably because for films Screenwriter Baltazar Fernandez Cue is of their kind, Spanish-language versions of often credited with having written an Hollywood films were made “in the excellent translated adaptation of the shadows of Hollywood with small original screenplay, and the English- budgets” and news regarding their

84 | The Import and Export of Culture: The Illusion of the National production “rarely appeared outside countries proved largely successful among industry trade papers” (Jarvinen 35). A full Spanish-speaking populations in New page photo in Cine-Mundial of Drácula York. By the time Hollywood’s Spanish co-stars Carlos Villarias and Lupita Tovar films had met their inevitable conclusion, bares merely a caption naming the film Spanish-language films produced by advertised with no accompanying article or Spanish-speaking countries began to review, even though the photograph is dominate at the box office (Jarvinen 83). featured at the front of the “Nuestra However, Hollywood demonstrated a sharp Opinion”—or, “Our Opinion”—section of decline in their multiple-language the Spanish-language trade journal (“Cine- productions by this time. Nataša Mundial” 21). Regardless of the surprising Durovicová notes the collapse of all commercial success of Drácula, the box- foreign language versions in Hollywood in office returns it received did little to offset the early 1930s and points out that the the tremendous costs incurred by the dissemination of these films negotiated production of such multiple-language power differentials between Hollywood films; shortly after the film’s release and foreign markets following the advent abroad, Universal and several other of sound (139). Durovicová also argues production studios were forced to that Hollywood attempted to position itself reevaluate their endeavors. Universal as the dominant force in the global film Studios found critical success with their market and would eventually succeed Spanish-language film versions penned by following the implementation of cheaper screenwriter Fernandez Cue (including forms of language conversion (dubbing and Drácula), but filming of these productions subtitling), while the short-lived production was indefinitely suspended in order to of foreign language versions would offset the debts that the studio was ultimately bare little negative effect on incurring, says an analyst for Cine- contemporary domination of English in Mundial, a Spanish-language film news today’s global mass media (139). The and commentary periodical that focused on production of Hollywood foreign language in-depth exposés oriented toward a middle versions was drained of its vitality and the and upper-class readership. The analyst effects of this decline left visible marks on dubs the situation a “crisis” and states “se the industry. Jarvinen qualifies the decline filmo muy poco y que la disorientacion of Hollywood’s Spanish-language films by sigue imperando en las esferas directivas;” noting that a significant job vacuum was or, that because of this situation, “very left after the collapse which left many little is being filmed and a sense of Spanish-speaking film professionals disorientation prevails at the management looking for work elsewhere—namely, in level [in Hollywood]” (Don Q. 372). the burgeoning Spanish-language sound The reception of Spanish-language cinema of Spain and Latin America films produced by Latin American (Jarvinen 84). In the context of Spanish

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 85 cinema, the sudden drop-off in was forced to completely suspend filming Hollywood’s production of multiple- on these productions as the studio began language versions is conversely hemmorhaging money to cover the massive attributable to the rise of national cinemas cost of these films’ production. An article in Spanish-speaking countries (specifically in the makes it clear Mexico) that arose in response to and in that by 1945, Hollywood-produced the wake of critically panned Spanish Spanish-language films had been all but Hollywood films. This rise in national wiped off the face of the cinematic Spanish-language features demonstrates a planet—by this time, Hollywood was reciprocal exchange tranferring the solely in the practices of dubbing and Spanish-language talkie market from subtitling (Schallert B1). Hollywood control into the context of a The reception of Drácula serves as an Mexican national cinema. interesting case study for the lofty At the beginning of the sound age, the economic goals of Hollywood in the age of Hollywood studio system had gotten a the coming of sound. Although Latin jump on the global film market and sought American film critics and historians new methods for exporting their films bemoaned the technical, aesthetic, and internationally. Prior to the coming of cultural faults of the Hollywood-produced sound, silent films were easily exportable set of Spanish-language films, a number of for their universality of language in these American films proved popular displays of physicality through the among mass audiences. Opinions of the pantomime of silent actors—when the elites often clashed with populist opinions; sound age erupted on the scene, Hollywood the stigma surrounding Hollywood’s began producing “talkies” with spoken Spanish-language versions reveals a English and this complicated the historiography of critical aversion that international distribution of films to surely dealt a hand in the disappearance of countries where English was not the native Melford’s Drácula from physical and language. Practices of dubbing and academic memory for several years subtitling seemed a solution but had their following its release and subsequent fall own drawbacks—particularly because of into obscurity. Even a film like Drácula, the disconnect between actors and speech which was received well in the market, with dubbing, while the reading of subtitles could become lost among the shuffle and was impossible for illiterate audiences. buried by those who wanted to obsure this Universal Studios announced plans to illegitimate child of American and greatly expand their output of foreign “Spanish” cinema, and put a stake through language versions of their films as late in the heart of Hollywood-produced Spanish- January-June 1931(“Bigger Foreign language films; but—as Universal’s Version Program Being Mapped Out by monster films never tire of reminding us— Universal” 169). This same year, the studio nothing lies buried forever.

86 | The Import and Export of Culture: The Illusion of the National ______

WORKS CITED

“Bigger Foreign Version Program Being Mapped Out by Universal.” The Film Daily (1931): 169. Web. Cine-Mundial. (1931): 21-373. Web. Don Q. “Hollywood.” Cine-Mundial (May, 1931): 372-373. Web. Dracula. Dir. Tod Browning. Universal Studios, 1931. DVD. i. Dir. George Melford. Universal Studios, 1931. DVD. “‘Dracula’ in Spanish Opens at California.” Los Angeles Times (May 11, 1931): A7. Web. Durovicová, Nataša. “Translating America: The Hollywood Multilinguals (1929-1933).” Sound Theory/Sound Practice, New York (1992): 139. Web. The Film Daily 55.8 (1931). Web. The Film Daily 55.38 (1931). Web. Gunckel, Colin. “‘A Theater Worthy of Our Race’: The Exhibition and Reception of Spanish Language Film in Los Angeles, 1911-1942.” Ph.D. Dissertation, UCLA (2009): 107. Web. Gunckel, Colin. “The War of the Accents: Spanish Language Hollywood Films in Mexican Los Angeles.” Film History 20.3 (2008): 325-343. Web. Jarvinen, Lisa. The Rise of Spanish-Language Filmmaking: Out from Hollywood’s Shadow, 1929-1939. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1969. Print. Lenart, Andras. “Hispanic Hollywood: Spanish-language American Films in the 1920s and 1930s.” Americana E- Journal of American Studies in Hungary 9.2 (2013). Print. Noble, Andrea. “The Formation of a National Cinema Audience.” Mexican National Cinema (2005): 74. Web. Review of Dracula. The Film Daily (February 15, 1931). Web. Schallert, Edwin. “Hollywood Gaining Below Border Despite Cantinflas.” Los Angeles Times (June 10th, 1945): B1. Web. Tovar, Lupita. Introduction to the Spanish version of Dracula. Universal Studios, 1999. DVD.

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 87 The ‘Golden Age’ of Spanish Language Theaters in Los Angeles: The Formation of a Transnational Cinema Audience

By Carlos Sanchez

The rising international popularity of theaters? A closer analysis of spectatorship the Mexican film industry during the 1940s in these foreign-language theaters is vital started an unprecedented era of foreign in understanding the mechanics of film exhibition. At the start of 1941, transnational film history during the early approximately 145 American theaters sound era. included Spanish-language movies in their I have selected Los Angeles as the site programs, and by 1945 about 300 theaters of my research because by 1928 it had the were regularly showing Mexican films largest Mexican population of any city in (Agrasánchez 8). The boom reached a the United States, and therefore became an high point in 1951, when 683 screens in important distribution center for Mexican 443 U.S. cities packed houses with Spanish films. In Los Angeles, Frank Fouce melodramas and charro films. established a powerful organization of Most historical accounts about Spanish-language theaters, including three American movie theaters tend to overlook picture palaces. I investigate one of the this period of Mexican film exhibition, or it theaters under Fouce’s ownership, The is often suggested that high Mexican Mayan Theater, to provide an immigration rates during this period understanding of how Spanish-language explains the phenomenon. Although there theaters operated and attracted spectators at has been extensive writing on the study of the peak of foreign film exhibition. This Latin American immigrants in the United study makes extensive use of La Opinión States, most publications say little about and the Los Angeles Times—two the leisure activities of Hispanics regarding periodicals that publicized and extensively filmgoing. Because movie theater reviewed the events at the Mayan during attendance during the 1940s was the Fouce’s management. highest ever recorded in America, a It is evident from these sources that significant question remains unanswered: Spanish-language theaters did represent a What kinds of people made up the niche market in the United States; audience for Mexican films in the United however, I argue that the audiences who States, and what factors defined the movie- went to these theaters were more diverse going experience in Spanish-language than previously defined. At the Mayan

88 | The Import and Export of Culture: The Illusion of the National Theater, three distinct groups of to answer why immigrants were interested moviegoers found Mexican cinema in Spanish-language cinema and theaters. appealing in different ways: 1) Immigrants Of course, Hispanic laborers who did who migrated more than once between not speak sufficient English were drawn to Mexico and America due to fluctuating entertainment in their native language. At labor needs between 1920 and 1960; 2) the reopening of the California Second-generation families who International Theater, the importance of established long term homes in the U.S., native language was emphasized in the Los with loyalties divided between Mexico and Angeles Times: “The theater’s policies America; 3) Non-Spanish speaking were flashed on the screen previous to the moviegoers with an interest in foreign starting of the picture and it was evident films, and a particular fascination with that the audience, always used to reading Mexican Cinema, who attended Spanish- English titles, gave a sign of relief upon the language theaters even though films rarely appearance of the first paragraphs in their had English subtitles. own language” (Baguez). Illiteracy in Spanish and English also The Appeal of Mexican Cinema for contributed to the popularity of filmgoing Immigrants and the Emergence of as a central leisure activity for immigrants, Spanish movie houses but specifically for Latin American When the United States mobilized for productions. As Lisa Jarvinen notes in The World War II, the military draft and Rise of Spanish-Language Filmmaking, growing demand for factory workers Hollywood failed to satisfy Spanish- created agricultural labor shortages. In speaking audiences with their own 1942, the government responded by production of Spanish-language films establishing the Bracero Program, a guest throughout the 1930s. Jarvinen argues that worker program with Mexico. At the the persistence of American studios to program’s peak in the late 1950s, the offer Spanish films suggests that audiences program attracted 400,000 Mexicans a during the early sound period had a strong year, who took jobs in 25 different states desire for films spoken in their local (United States 6). The transportation language. By 1945, Hollywood still infrastructure that was used to recruit and struggled to dominate the Spanish- deport Mexican laborers between the speaking market, and the Los Angeles Mexican interior and American Southwest Times even reported that American pictures had a lasting effect on the business of film were unsuccessful in Latin America, exhibition. In regions of the Southwest despite their “pan-hemispheric” appeal. where Mexican populations were high, Dubbing appeared to be Hollywood’s last failing first-run theaters converted to hope for capturing the Spanish-speaking specifically attract Spanish-speaking market, as rural audiences in many Latin audiences. In the section that follows, I aim American countries were unable to read

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 89 subtitles. Yet, dubbing was ultimately As if they were doing us a big favor deemed “disconcerting for some of the in charging 40 cents to see only one native population” (Schallert). Sharing picture in our Spanish language, and at these sensibilities, Mexican immigrants those scandalous hours, up until two or moving back and forth between the U.S. three in the morning, in a theater and their homeland, were therefore more packed full to the second balcony with likely to spend spare wages on films so many people left standing. It’s an produced in their native language—films injustice. The way of handling these not considered “disconcerting.” exhibitions is an insult to the Mexican people. I will not allow them to treat Hispanic moviegoers who did want to me like an animal” (Agrasanchez 26). attend first-run theaters to view American Under these conditions, distributors pictures confronted racial discrimination. A were able to argue that Spanish-language common theater policy in Texas and movies had a dedicated and enthusiastic certain parts of California was to sit white audience in the United States—racism and spectators in the orchestra section, and discrimination could not completely deter send Hispanics and African-Americans to them away theaters showing Mexican stand in the balcony (Tobar). Many first pictures. Movies provided Mexican and second-run theater owners also had no immigrants temporary relief from their interest in exhibiting Spanish pictures, daily struggles; Mexican cinema offered even when potential revenue from Mexican them an addition pleasure—a memory of immigrant populations was high. native traditions and values, and an A leading distributor of Spanish- imagined connection to the homeland. language films in the United States, Clasa- The Second-generation and the Mohme, kept detailed reports of theaters Question of Nationality that would not play Mexican pictures. A Prior to the 1930s, when economic theater in White Face, Texas was opportunities vanished in America, it was reportedly “not interested in Mexican common for Mexican immigrants to return pictures, will not play them… exhibitor to Mexico—their loyalty remained with believes in segregation” (Agrasanchez 24). Mexico (Sànchez 212). By the 1930s, When theater owners were persuaded to however, a large group of Mexicans were exhibit Spanish-language films, Hispanic beginning to view the United Sates as their spectators faced unfair viewing policies. In new homeland, and indeed many were now a letter sent to Clasa-Mohme, the Secretary citizens by right or birth. Consequently, of the Hispanic American club in Austin their identity as “Americans” and expressed the poor treatment of Hispanics “Mexicans” was called into question and the need for theaters devoted solely to during the onset of the Depression. Mexican pictures: Mexicans became a popular scapegoat for

90 | The Import and Export of Culture: The Illusion of the National the economic troubles, and the government (1937)—suggesting that second-generation responded by enacting repatriation polices. families continued to attend in high enough George Sánchez’s Becoming Mexican numbers to encourage exhibitors to open American provides a detailed history of the more Spanish-language theaters. Mexican community in Los Angeles during The 1930s also represented a crucial the enforcement of these polices between period in Mexican cinema history, when 1930 and 1940, a history that contributes to the government deemed filmgoing as our understanding of the formation of the crucial to forging national identity. Andrea Mexican-American spectator. Sánchez Noble makes this argument in “The argues that repatriation policies attempted Formation of a National Cinema to regulate immigration from the South Audience,” stressing that Mexican while igniting a nativist discourse that audiences participated in Mexican cultural stigmatized Mexicans and self-fashioned experience by going to see films during the Mexican-Americans as impure “others.” “Golden Age” of Mexican cinema. President Hoover, for instance, enacted Because the consumption of Mexican deportation plans in 1930 claiming cinema also peaked in the United States Mexicans “took jobs away from American during the 1940s, Mexicans in America citizens”—this policy came after he eagerly continued this cultural experience. The recruited Mexican farm workers to maintain transnational distribution of Mexican films wartime production during World War I allowed Mexican-Americans to nourish (Sánchez 213). their native roots in Spanish-language Sánchez maps the demographic shift movie theaters. of the Mexican population in Los Angeles Off-screen, two significant that occured when one-third of the nationalizing projects were initiated over Mexican residents departed. Repatriation the remaining population of Mexicans in initiated two significant shifts: 1) the Los Angeles. In hope of creating a departure of single Mexican-born men and homogeneous America, U.S. agencies young families, which increased the began strong “Americanization” efforts to prominence of second-generation families; prune Mexican-Americans and Mexican 2) increased racial segregation and immigrants of their native culture. More decreased inter-ethnic contact as families surprisingly, however, the Mexican moved into suitable housing in East Los government initiated counter efforts by Angeles (225). imposing policies of a ”New Nationalism” Despite the exodus of Mexican-born that promoted native heritage and Mexican immigrants, the growth of foreign film loyalty throughout the Southwest (Sánchez exhibition in Los Angeles continued. Frank 113). In Los Angeles, for instance, the Fouce opened his first three theaters during consulate office founded Spanish-language this period—the Teatro California (1932), schools and libraries for Mexican the Roosevelt (1937), and the Mason immigrants and their American-born

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 91 children to study Mexican history and cinema was crucial to Mexican cultural culture. The central hope was to lure experience at this time, the second- immigrants back to Mexico (113). Neither generation’s attendance at the Mayan as a programs succeeded in controlling the central leisure activity contributed to the cultural adaption of Mexican immigrants, acquisition of a hybrid Mexican-American but they encouraged unintended responses identity. Denise Chavez, a distinguished among second-generation Mexican- Mexican-American author, illustrated the Americans. clear relationship between national identity A significant portion of second- and film. Regarding Pedro Infante, the generation self-identified as Chicanos and leading star of the Golden Age: were characterized by high political "If you're a Mejicana or Mejicano, involvement. At the top of their political and don't know who he is, you should goals, the second-generation wanted to be tied to a hot stove with a yucca rope reclaim their rights, heritage, and city and beaten with sharp dry corn husks against Americanization efforts. In Making as you stand in a vat of soggy fideos. If Lemonade Out of Lemons, Jose Alamillo your racial and cultural background or argues that this generation of Mexican- ethnicity is Other, then it's about time Americans laid the groundwork for the you learned about the most famous of civil rights movement by transforming Mexican singers and actors." leisure spaces, such as movie theaters, into Thus, identity-formation culminated in politicized spaces. This was clearly evident the 1930s, during a crucial period when in Frank Fouce’s Teatro California, where theaters emerged specifically for Spanish- Mexicans could conveniently obtain voting speaking audience in Los Angeles. cards at the door (“Teatro California”). As a result, Spanish-language theater spaces Mexican Cinema for Non-Spanish became charged with new meanings. To speaking moviegoers? survive on the margins, Mexican- Although Spanish-language theaters Americans invented lifestyles that were primarily attracted the Spanish-speaking influenced by both the traditions of their population in Los Angeles, the films and homeland and the realities of their new events were publicized in the English- environment. Movie theaters became a language press. The Los Angeles Times place where Mexican-Americans could extensively reviewed Mexican films in a negotiate competing national identities. way that encouraged Americans to catch I argue that the establishment and these films, even when very few features financial success of Fouce’s Spanish- had English subtitles. At the time of the language theaters demonstrates that lavish reopening of the Million Dollar Mexican Americans resisted cultural Theater, a critic said, “What a pity no assimilation and challenged the melting pot English subtitles illuminate [Cantinflas’] polices of the 1930s. Because Mexican most amusing comedy, ‘Puerta, Joven.’ Yet

92 | The Import and Export of Culture: The Illusion of the National so vivid is his pantomime that it is likely the and how were their experiences different story can be traced even by non-Spanish from Mexicans and Mexican Americans? speaking spectators” (“Stage Revue”). When the first theaters began showing By the late 1940s, critics continued to Spanish-language films in the 1930s, it was distinguish Mexican films from perceived that these theaters were only Hollywood’s, but this now made them appealing to foreigners, and the films were attractive. During the war years, Mexican inferior to Hollywood productions. A cinema provided an alternative to positive review of Cuerpo del Delito went Hollywood’s propaganda films. In the like this: “It is a form which passed from post-war era, independent niche markets or Hollywood long ago. But disregarding this, Hollywood alternatives thrived, and there it is well done—surprisingly well done for was an especially high proliferation of a country unaccustomed to picture foreign language theaters emerging across production… The cast includes only native the U.S. The English-language press players who are amazingly competent” presented the news to Los Angeles (Baguez, “New House”). As exhibitors moviegoers enthusiastically: “The Mexican programmed more Mexican films, method, so frankly emotional, is however, a small English-speaking completely unlike Hollywood’s” audience for these foreign films developed. (“Mexican Stars”), and “the acting is good, By the mid-1940s, spectators who went to as always in Mexican film, with a number see these films in Los Angeles were of players seldom seen in American- labeled “travel-minded” college students or released pictures” (Mexican Film). “international-minded older folk” In some instances, sex was (“Spanish Cinema”). emphasized, which further differentiated The historiographical problem posed Mexican movies from Hollywood products by this moviegoing culture is that there is that faced higher scrutiny. The star of no demographic data or concrete record of Ballando en Las Nubes (1947) was attendance rates. English-speaking introduced with the following line: “Her spectators did have access to Mexican name is Canta Maya and she has a movies, however, as most theaters were sensationally lovely figure… Senorita located outside of Hispanic neighborhoods Maya appears in one barbaric number in the tourist-clotted city core. Moreover, which our censors probably would blue- advertising for Spanish-language films did pencil pronto” (“Mexico Provides”). At appear in English-language newspapers. this time, Latina actresses working for And there was a great body of reviews in American studios were typically marketed the press on Mexican films that targeted as excessive and inviting bodies, which this enigmatic group of “fans who do not played on historical tropes of Latinas as speak Spanish”(“Mexican Stars”). But why seductive but trivial sex objects (Beltrán did English-speakers attend these theaters, 85). Mexican stars were marketed

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 93 following the same tropes, which warned exhibitors across the nation about reinforced these stereotypes in the U.S., the suppression of The Angry God (1948) even when the films themselves tried to in Iowa theaters. The film was withdrawn project authentic Mexican identity. from its original U.S. release for unstated A critic who denounced Carta Brava reasons because “common decency” did (1949) as “one of those melodramatic not allow the journal to publish why the pattern pictures which Mexicans turn out film was offensive. But the warning was so frequently,” did not fail to mention the clear: “DON’T BUY IT—IF YOU HAVE “unusually wriggly rhumba dancer” BOUGHT—DON’T SHOW IT!!!” (“Carta Brava”). Alternatively, a review of (“Beware”). Nevertheless, The Angry God the film in La Opinión emphasized how the had multiple screenings in Los Angeles in gangster conventions and action sequences 1949, and the film was advertised in the made the film worth seeing. Because the Los Angeles Times as a full color Mexican sexualized female was the redeeming film with English dialogue (“Angry God”). quality of the film in the English press, In part, the exhibition of The Angry God in spectators who read the review entered the Los Angeles is explained by the city’s film with a different set of expectations strong metropolitan film culture, which than readers of the Spanish press. supported greater access to specialty and Exhibitors of Spanish Language novelty films than less multicultural cities Cinema in Los Angeles did. Yet the culture of Los Angeles also During the Golden Age of Mexican embraced a Hispanic tradition, at least in Cinema, Los Angeles was the most the eyes of tourists, and had a high demand important distribution center in U.S. for for good, bad and even controversial Spanish-language film industries. This was Mexican films among both English and evident from having both the largest Spanish-speaking spectators. English population of Latinos outside , dialogue also added value to The Angry and also from the proliferation of theaters God, which likely caught the attention of that exhibited Mexican movies. In Mexican Los Angeles exhibitors. Movies in The United States, Rogelio In the 1940s, the few Mexican films Agrasánchez suggests Mexican films went released with English subtitles captured almost uncensored in Los Angeles. wide attention. Films were not just released Although this claim is quite with English subtitles; they were “decked overgeneralized1, Los Angeles projected a out”(“Singer”). One longstanding reviewer supporting attitude towards Mexican of Mexican films in Los Angeles hoped movies, unlike many American cities, to a Mexican producers could be persuaded to point where LA exhibitors programed at least put English subtitles on their best controversial Mexican films. films, so they could contend with other In one bizarre case, Harrison’s Reports foreign films (“New Mexican”). included an editorial entitled “Beware” that Ultimately, the lack of English subtitles

94 | The Import and Export of Culture: The Illusion of the National suggests that Mexican film producers did as a home for Mexican culture and art. The not recognize English-speaking Americans architecture and pre-Columbian theme as a significant audience for their films. distinguished the theater from Fouce’s Instead, they were focused on unifying a previous venues and complied with his diverse Hispanic film audience through marketing of the Mayan as nostalgic and Mexican cinema. mythical homeland. A week prior to the The Mayan Theater: Where Mexicans, reopening, a full-page advertisement ran in Americans, and Mexican-Americans La Opinión, which presented a story of mingled Fouce’s efforts to obtain the Mayan. Reminiscing on a time when the California The news—carried by La Opinión in region was a part of Mexico, Fouce told the 1949—that Libertad Lamarque was flown Hispanic community in Los Angeles: from Argentina to Los Angeles for the opening of the Mayan Theater came as a Eso teatro, que en otras sensation. Though the Mayan was to be the circunstancias hubiera costado cerca home of Mexican pictures, the opening de dos millones de dólares, ha sido program intended to showcase the most obtenido a través de una serie de famous figures of Latin American cinema sacrificios y de esfuerzos, con el and radio in a spectacular live presentation. objetivo de convertirlo en escaparate The international stage revue headed by para el Arte de Nuestra America: de la Lamarque included a cast of 30 dancers, America que todavía piensa, siente y singers and musicians from Argentina, habla en español. Mexico and Spain. Fouce already appeared This theater, which in other to hold the loyalty of his patrons, charging circumstances would have cost nearly them $1.50 (triple the average entry price two million dollars, has been obtained thereafter). The inauguration was drawn through a series of sacrifices and out for two weeks and underwent several efforts, with the goal of converting it to program changes, with Mexican film showcase the art of Our America: of “masterpieces” added in the second week. the America that still thinks, feels and Fouce’s lavishly choreographed program speaks in Spanish. (“Teatro Maya”). cut across national boundaries and enticed a diverse population of Hispanics in Los In other words, Hispanic spectators Angeles, who had varying social could show their loyalty to Mexico and backgrounds, levels of education, and keep their cultural traditions alive by economic statuses. attending the theater. To Fouce, the Mayan represented The environment of the Mayan also something more than a movie theater. enhanced the fantasy and sensationalism of Boldly advertised as “El Teatro Máxima de Mexican films. First imagined as a la Raza / The Great Theater of The legitimate theater in 1927, the Mayan was [Mexican] People,” he presented the space designed by Stiles O. Clements and

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 95 Francisco Cornejo, a well-known Mexican piece, modeled after a Mayan calendar, artist, using both Mexican and Mayan commanded attention. Even the exit sign— themes (“All About”). After two decades plastered to look like stone and engraved of shifting ownership and an overall with tribal-block-lettering—conformed to decline in the building’s condition, Fouce the theme. brought the theater back to its former Moreover, the building operated like a glamour in 1949. He exploited the “de luxe” movie palace of the 1920s—as it theatrical design in several ways: the had a stage show, lavish interior architecture and interior style decoration, over 1,700 seats, and extra complemented the cultural narrative that spaces for live entertainment. In “The Fouce marketed; and the theater space, Movie Palace and the Theatrical Sources of functioning as a movie palace, was utilized Its Architectural Style,” Charlotte Herzog economically. indicates that the function of the movie Andrea Noble notes that the Golden palace was “to provide quality Age of Mexican entertainment to as cinema was many people as underpinned with possible at one time, indigenous as often as possible, mythologies and and for the most pre-Columbian reasonable price.” cultural imagery Though varying (Noble 80-82). From exhibition practices, a distance, the Fouce certainly theater’s exterior intended to reach a projected these same wide-ranging iconographic audience—from the features and set affluent to the less Mayan Theater circa 1965 expectations as to prosperous. He the inner changed the program entertainment. From the street, spectators weekly and adjusted prices in accordance stepped into the outdoor ticket lobby and to the cost of each week’s spectacle. At were enveloped by relief-carved tiles that “precios populares” (popular prices), paneled every surface with mythological patrons could expect to see popular and narrative subjects. The sacred Quetzel comedians, live presentations from film bird, serpents and other ancient symbols stars, and musical features in addition to feathered the walls throughout the inner- the films. Thus, Fouce’s vaudeville lobby and corridors. Two gila monster programing was utilized by the theater heads guarded the stairs to the balcony, and space and was an effective marketing in the auditorium a magnificent ceiling

96 | The Import and Export of Culture: The Illusion of the National strategy that attracted thousands of its existence as a Spanish-language theater, customers. moviegoers of different national origin, The presence of stars at the Mayan also social background, and who spoke allowed spectators to participate in the different languages would mingle in this entertainment. For many years, Libertad space to view national Mexican cinema. Lamarque’s films were exhibited in Beginning February 1968, this gathering Fouce’s theaters, which helped fashion her would end. The Mayan would become a international stardom. Her live appearance run-down venue for pornography, and a at the Mayan therefore engaged Los new type of customer interested eroticism Angeles spectators in a new way: “Oirán su found only in films like "101 Acts of voz, no a través de los micrófonos, ni de las Love" would fill this architectural jewel sincronizaciones de la película, sino (“Mayan Theater”). directamente (“You will hear her voice, not Conclusion through the microphones, nor through the synchronization of the film, but directly”) (“El As for the other Spanish-language Maya”). The spectators’ identification with the theaters during this period, most began as characters on screen was thus reinforced by the venues exhibiting commercial American star’s performance at the Mayan. films. If the theaters still exist today, they Fouce’s advertising in spanish- have either returned to showing language newspapers exploited this commercial English-language films, or facination by featuring the star’s name have been converted for non-theatrical use. larger than the name of the movie being As this paper has shown, Mexican exhibited. Latin stars were also well known immigration was not the only factor among English-speaking audiences, as contributing to the establishment of these many Hispanic actors worked in both theaters. Mexican migration to the United Hollywood and the Mexican film industry. States has increased significantly since the Headlines in the English press often 1940s and began doubling in the 1970s featured the names of Latin American (United States 5). Yet, the theatrical actors and singers without telling readers exhibition of Mexican film had the highest who they were or what they did. It was activity from 1920 to 1960, and the assumed they knew. Latino and Latina phenomenon finally ended in the 1980s stardom was therefore crucial to the (Agrasánchez 2). Remarkably, the promotion of Mexican films. consumption of Spanish-language cinema Frank Fouce’s ability to bring stars to in the United States flourished at a time the Mayan gave the theater an undisputed when Americanization efforts were respectability among fans. Spectators strongest, and then declined in later entering the theater could expect first class decades when multiculturalism was entertainment that would generally be embraced and Mexican immigration beyond their economic reach. Throughout continued.

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 97 Arguably, the popularity of Spanish- the formation national identity for Mexican language theaters is linked to the period of citizens, Mexican-American moviegoers the Golden Age of Mexican Cinema, when developed a different identity using those both the quality of Mexican films high and same films—one that was culturally tied to theater attendance in the U.S. peaked. The Mexican heritage but nationally aligned transnational practices of film distribution with the U.S. Despite having no legal between the U.S. and Mexico also relation to the Mexican state and by highlight another reason, which choosing to remain in the United States, destabilizes the concept of national cinema. Mexican-Americans strengthened their While Mexican films were crucial to imagined relation to Mexico through film.

______

END NOTES 1. Agrasánchez only cites a questionable musical sequence in Ballando en Las Nubes that went unnoticed by the local censor board.

WORKS CITED

Agrasánchez, Rogelio, and Carl J. Mora. Mexican Movies in the United States: A History of the Films, Theaters and Audiences, 1920-1960. Jefferson, NC: Mcfarland, 2011. Print. Alamillo, José M. Making Lemonade out of Lemons: Mexican American Labor and Leisure in a California Town, 1880-1960. Urbana: University of Illinois, 2006. Print. "All About the Mayan and Belasco Theatres." Los Angeles Historic Theatre Foundation. Web. 08 Mar. 2013. “Angry God” Melvan Theater. Advertisement. Los Angeles Times 4 Feb. 1949: ProQuest. Web. 5 Feb. 2013. Baguez, Salvador. "New House For Foreign Film Opens." Los Angeles Time 30 Aug. 1930: ProQuest. Web. 5 Feb. 2013. Beltrán, Mary. Latina/o Stars in U.S. Eyes: The Making and Meanings of Film and TV Stardom. Urbana: University of Illinois, 2009. Print. "Beware." Editorial. Harrison's Reports 25 Sept. 1948: 156. Media History Digital Library. Web. 7 Feb. 2013. "Carta Brava Mayan Fare." Los Angeles Times 17 Dec. 1949: ProQuest. Web. 5 Feb. 2013. Chavez, Denise, "Loving Pedro Infante", New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux (2001), p. 5 "El Maya, Proximo a Abrirse, Presentara ‘El Alma Del Tango’ Libertad Lamarque." La Opinión [Los Angeles] 23 Feb. 1949 Microfilm. Herzog, Charlotte. "The Movie Palace and the Theatrical Sources of Its Architectural Style." Cinema Journal 20:2 (Spring, 1981). Jarvinen, Lisa. The Rise of Spanish-language Filmmaking: Out from Hollywood's Shadow, 1929-1939. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP, 2012. Print. "Mayan." CinemaTreasures.com. Web. 15 Feb. 2013. “Mayan Theater exterior painting.” 1965. Photograph. Los Angeles Public Library. Security Pacific National Bank Collection. “Mexican Stars Enact Film Roles At Mayan." Los Angeles Times 11 May. 1949: ProQuest. Web. 5 Feb. 2013. "Mexico Provides New Star." Los Angeles Times 22 April. 1947: ProQuest. Web. 5 Feb. 2013. “Mexico Film Flamboyant." Los Angeles Times 27 Aug. 1953: ProQuest. Web. 5 Feb. 2013. “New Mexican Picture Rated Outstanding.” Los Angeles Times 15 Febuary. 1951: ProQuest. Web. 5 Feb. 2013. Noble, Andrea. “The Formation of A National Cinema Audience.”Mexican National Cinema London and New York: Rowtledge, 2005.

98 | The Import and Export of Culture: The Illusion of the National Sanchez, George J. Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900- 1945. New York: Oxford UP, 1993. Print. Schallert, Edwin "Hollywood Gaining Below Border Despite Cantiflas." Los Angeles Times 10 Jun. 1945: ProQuest. Web. 5 Feb. 2013. “Singer Negrete Bright Star of Mexican Picture." Los Angeles Times 24 Mar. 1947: ProQuest. Web. 5 Feb. 2013. “Spanish Cinema Screens." Los Angeles Times 24 Mar. 1947: ProQuest. Web. 5 Feb. 2013. "Stage Revue AT Mayan." Los Angeles Times 3 Mar. 1949: ProQuest. Web. 5 Feb. 2013. “Teatro California.” La Opinión 29 Sep. 1946: Microfilm Teatro Maya. Advertisement. La Opinión 27 Feb. 1949: Microfilm. Tobar, Hector. "Civil Rights History — in Orange County." Los Angeles Times 3 Dec. 2010: Print. United States. Congressional Research Service. Mexican Migration to the United States: Policy and Trends. By Marc R. Rosenblum. 2012. Print.

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2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 101 Homergeneity: Mathematical Paratexts in The Simpsons

By Julia Petuhova

“The Simpsons, basically—and —are really smart shows. They’re kind of disguised as these goofy animated sitcoms, but the references within the shows, if you’re paying attention, are pretty smart and pretty sophisticated.” —

At its inception, The Simpsons (Fox, pilot. So, Groening hired a Los Angeles- 1989—) was neither envisaged nor based team of eight writers to create a received as a “smart” show. As the story Christmas special that aired on December goes, Matt Groening created the Simpsons 17, 1989. Fox picked up the show in early family characters in five minutes, while 1990 as a cheaply-produced primetime waiting in a lobby for a meeting with Fox sitcom, and, twenty-five seasons later, the producer James L. Brooks (Singh 9). show boasts an archive of over 550 Groening knew Brooks was looking for an episodes and status as a renowned cult animator to produce a series of shorts as classic. Much of the early popularity of the interludes during hair and makeup changes show, specifically during the first nine between sketches on The Tracey Ullman seasons, stemmed from the show’s ability Show (Fox, 1987-1990); he also knew to simultaneously access multiple Brooks was interested in his audiences. Those that sought out a goofy Life in Hell, which starred a depressed sitcom marveled in the show’s slapstick rabbit named Binky (9). But, hesitant to humor (d’oh!), while those that sought out dole out all legal and financial rights to the “smart” humor could just as easily character that had elevated him to the big deconstruct references to disciplines such leagues of major network attention, as astronomy, evolutionary psychology, Groening instead offered a new set of and political theory, though the most characters: Homer, Marge, Bart, Lisa and salient and common references were to Maggie. The shorts became immediately theoretical mathematics (e.g. number popular, and, in 1989, Brooks proposed theory, topology and probability). The they be extended to a full-length animation emergence of niche groups that would

102 | Convergence: The Illusion of Divergence deconstruct The Simpsons’ referential text • J. Stewart Burns: BS Mathematics prompted the creation of an online forum (Harvard University), MS Mathematics space, alt.tv.simpsons, which, in the early (UC Berkeley) • Ken Keeler: BS Applied Mathematics 1990s, became one of the first mass online (Harvard University, PhD Applied “newsgroups.” Though The Simpsons’ Mathematics (Harvard University) writing team initially began to reference • : BS Mathematics (Harvard mathematics in background jokes for their University) own amusement, the references became • Jeff Westbrook: BS Physics (Harvard increasingly self-reflexive as the writers University), PhD Computer Science () began a dialogue with these fans on newsgroups, which produced one of the Upon first realization, the heavy earliest cases of television texts responding mathematics-based educational to online forums. backgrounds of the Simpsons writing team If The Simpsons was not initially may seem surprising. But, if nothing else, envisaged as a “smart” show, it was the this mathematics served as the writers’ inspiration that made it one. Of the underpinning for the fine-tuned logic eight writers that drafted the inaugural necessary for meta-humor; I also believe, episode, two were Harvard-graduate though, that their STEM backgrounds mathematics enthusiasts: and made the writers more sensitive to the Al Jean (Singh 13-14). Reiss and Jean were dialogues entering the online technological responsible for the earliest mathematics space, which they later joined themselves jokes on the program, and though they via the program’s text. Yet their degrees were rather elementary and entirely certainly didn’t contradict their careers or narrative-driven, these jokes set the tone preclude their interest in humor—Reiss, for future writers. For example, in the early Jean and Cohen all wrote for The Harvard episode “Dead Putting Society,” Lisa Lampoon, and others, like Ken Keeler, seemingly miraculously realizes that mini- were highly invested in college comedy- golf can be understood as a simple writing clubs (Greenwald). Reiss and geometry game, to which Bart retorts, “I Jean’s basic mathematics jokes strewn can’t believe it. You’ve actually found a throughout the first two seasons could have practical use for geometry!” Quite unusually, been fluke occurrences of isolated humor. many of the future writers—and nearly all of Instead, at the beginning of the third season, the most prolific creative contributors—also Groening promoted them to executive had higher education degrees in STEM producers, and that new control cemented the disciplines. The following are a few of the power the mathematicians held. most notable (Greenwald): Though this power was mostly cemented, it must be noted that the degree • David Cohen: BS Physics (Harvard of mathematics within each particular University), MS Computer Science (UC Berkeley) episode varied depending not only on the

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 103 executive producers, but also on the writers humor. While a viewer accessing the show and the consultants giving creative input on a lower level of humor could during read-throughs. Because of this, effortlessly enjoy first- or second-order there is no one formula that describes the jokes, viewers accessing the show on a role of mathematics within the humor of higher level—like the active participants of The Simpsons. I posit that mathematical the online newsgroup alt.tv.simpsons— humor on the program exists on three could enjoy jokes of all three orders. orders. The first order includes jokes The first examples of first-order jokes whose resolution or “punchline” explicitly whose resolution relies on mathematics can relies on basic mathematics (or at least its be found in the second episode of the first absurdities), while the second order season, “Bart the Genius.” In this episode, includes jokes that deal with more obscure cheats off the class brain on math and thus live an intelligence class, on the periphery of which prompts the the narrative and Springfield visual landscape. Elementary Nearly all essays psychologist to discussing math in declare him a genius The Simpsons and request that Bart describe jokes on be transferred to an these first and academy for gifted second orders. But children. Bart, an perhaps the most exceptionally average interesting order is student, cannot follow the third. Recall that the nature of his peers’ discussions, and when they turn mathematics is arbitrary—formulas and the conversation onto him, he loses his equations aren’t inherent truths, but rather entire lunch through a series of trades (e.g. codified systems of patterns. Thus the most “Tell you what, Bart, I’ll trade you the natural way to observe embedded weight of a bowling ball on the eighth mathematics is as what I will refer to as the moon of Jupiter from my lunch for the third order: a system of humorous (though weight of a feather on the second moon of still homogenous) patterns, as opposed to Neptune from your lunch”). Later, when an isolated joke. If we closely examine the Bart returns to the classroom after lunch, text of The Simpsons, we see new patterns his teacher rearranges a basic calculus emerge, particularly beginning in the third integral to read “r dr r.” His peers, having season, that combine visual references with both followed the teacher’s algebra trick first- and second-order jokes to create and realized the homophonic relationship mathematical paratexts spread throughout between “r dr r” and “hardy-har-har,” burst the series, creating a new kind of meta- into chuckles. Bart appears obviously

104 | Convergence: The Illusion of Divergence confused, and his teacher again explains read that somewhere :-).” But mostly, the the joke: “Don’t you get it, Bart? posts on this thread discuss jokes— Derivative dy equals three r squared dr particularly the “r dr r” one. On May 30, over three, or r squared dr, or r dr r!” 1990, Tom Almy wrote, “Personally I was Again, Bart does not understand; again, his put off by the y = r3/3 joke…While her peers chuckle. In neither the interactions verbal explanation was correct, what she between Bart and his peers nor the wrote on the board was ridiculous…Also interaction between Bart and his teacher nobody I know would refer to r squared dr does a viewer need an extensive as ‘r dr r’ which was the point of the joke.” understanding of mathematics, whether A response from Kyle Jones noted that: “It calculus or weight conversions, to seemed very realistic to me. Try crashing a appreciate the humor—the humor can just Mensa shindig sometime. You'll find as easily exist in the context of Bart’s people who thrive on jokes even more overwhelming experience dealing with a obscure and oblique that ‘r dr r’.” cluster of nerds. Because these jokes rely Ultimately, the “deconstructions” of first- on mathematics to some extent as part of order jokes on these spaces are not so their resolution—on a lower-level as plain much deconstructions as discussions of “nerdy” or on a higher-level as actual plays reactions—because the jokes are more on mathematics—they are first-order jokes. explicit and narratively exposed, there is As early as the second episode of the less to deconstruct. program, viewers accessing the show on a Second-order jokes, however, were higher level turned to the online newsgroup heavily deconstructed on these spaces, “alt.tv.simpsons” to deconstruct these largely because the nature of the jokes was mathematical jokes, as evidenced by posts inherently different. Perhaps the most well- on the thread entitled “Inconsistencies in known second-order joke is that of the ‘Bart the Genius’” in 1990. Some of these “solution” to Fermat’s last theorem in the very early posts characterize the anxieties 1995 episode “ VI” (a surrounding forum discussions. On June 1, second “solution” appeared in the episode 1990, Kent Paul Dolan wrote, “Geez! I “The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace” three read the net so that I won't have to watch years later, but was less discussed because television to waste hours and hours sitting the users had already heavily in front of a cart full of mindless drivel. deconstructed—and “solved”—the joke). Now you nerds are importing TV onto the In this episode, Homer becomes trapped in net. G e t a l i f e ! ! ! ! !” Other posts a three-dimensional world. After piercing demonstrate users’ attempts to negotiate the space-time continuum, Homer wobbles definitions of the space, as in Evan around a wormhole; it is here, in the Marshall Manning’s June 1, 1990 response background of this three-dimensional post: “I want to get really technical. That's wormhole, that the viewer sees the what this newsgroup is for, isn't it? I think I equation “178212 + 184112 = 192212.” If

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 105 true, this equation would solve Fermat’s amazing. The left side comes out to: 2.541 last theorem, which states that there exists 210 258 614 589 E 39 and the right: 2.541 no three positive integers a, b and c such 210 259 314 801 E 39 A difference of that an + bn = cn for any n greater than two. 0.00000003 percent ! I had never seen this Many viewers noticed this “solution,” if before. Is it famous?” Second-order jokes, perhaps belatedly. On the October 29, 1996 which deal with more obscure math, like thread “Homer3 equations,” “curtis Fermat’s last theorem, and lie on the visual cameron” called it to attention: “ I checked periphery, like in the background of a it out on my calculator. I added the two wormhole, were prime for deconstructions terms on the left side, and took the 12th online because they could be both root. The answer was 1921.99999996. This “detected” and “solved.” is like calculator round-off error. What's I first realized the relationship between going on here? Did we just disprove the writers and online forum participants Fermat?” On a related thread, “Esoteric during an NPR interview with David Observation,” Steven Boswell’s also noted Cohen in which he told Ira Flatow, it: “The equation works... is this a dis-proof “…these are sort of background jokes, of Fermat? Seems awfully weird to hide things that you can only see really if you something that profound in a Simpsons freeze frame later on, at that time a VCR, episode.” Of course, this equation does not or nowadays on your DVR. It didn't really prove Fermat. The writing team merely matter to us that much if people got them. found a solution that was exact up to ten You know, we just wanted to fill up the digits (called a “near miss”), and thus—if space and make it look like Homer was inputted into a calculator—would appear doing something smart. So only later when correct. Interesting, here, is that every we saw people discussing it energetically single thread that dealt with the equation, on the Internet did we realize people were found some “solution” to this second-order actually getting these jokes that were done mathematical joke. On the “Esoteric really pretty much for our own Observation” thread, for instance, Peter amusement.” So, I began to explore other Vachuska solved the joke by realizing the ways in which the writers of The Simpsons left side must be odd, while the right side could have filled up “space” by embedding even: “Actually 178212+184112=192212 mathematical jokes. And what I discovered becomes was that many first- and second-order 2541210258614589176288669958142428 jokes with a common mathematical 526657=254121025931480141081927864 “theme” (e.g. bases) could be linked, even 9643651567616 which is close enough to across episodes and seasons, to generate be interesting, but…no cigar.” Meanwhile, greater humor, almost like meta-humor. on the “Homer3 equations” thread, “curtis cameron” answered his own question using Jokes that can be so linked, I call a calculator—“the numbers are pretty third-order jokes.

106 | Convergence: The Illusion of Divergence My idea for a third-order joke dealing belongings are in base 6—most noticeably, with bases, the number of distinct digits Marge and Lisa’s necklaces average 6 used by counting systems to signify pearls, Homer’s favorite “Duff” beer is numbers, initially came from a sold in packs of six and most of the “Numberphile” Youtube video. Simpsons’ household belongings are found Numberphile is a group that is supported in pairs of three, including cans always by the Mathematical Sciences Research present on the kitchen counter and books Institute and consists of twenty-two STEM always placed on the shelf next to the professors—one of them, Simon Singh, the couch. (I must note that earlier episodes recent author of The Simpsons and Their have inconsistencies in these bases, while Mathematical Secrets. In this particular later episodes follow them closely.) And video, “Pi and Four Fingers,” Singh yet everything else in Springfield—from pi discusses the clash of bases 8 and 10 in the to money to statistics jokes—is in base 10. episode “Marge in Chains.” Singh points If we define base 6 as material, base 8 out that, since the Simpsons characters as physical and base 10 as numerical, we have four fingers on each hand, they find some jokes elucidated. In the 1992 should live in a base 8 world; instead, they episode “Dog of Death,” for instance, live in a decimal one. But this is accounted Principal Skinner fantasizes that if for in “Marge in Chains,” in which we see Springfield Elementary had lottery money, the only Simpsons character that has five he could buy “math books that don’t have fingers on each hand: God. And so, that base six crap in them.” At first, this according to Singh, during Apu’s recitation joke doesn’t make sense—why do they to God of the first 40,000 digits of pi, it have base six textbooks in the first makes sense that he offers the decimal place?—and is written off as absurdist. But version of pi. But I posit that this clash of if we consider that material objects, like bases can be further extended. The textbooks, belong to base 6 in the Simpsons characters all have base 8 Simpsons’ world, this joke suddenly has physical characteristics—though Singh much deeper meaning. However, these only points out their fingers, this also third-order jokes are not limited to material includes their teeth, eyelashes and toes, and objects. The 1997 episode “Lisa’s Sax,” Lisa and both even contains a flashback in which Homer, average 8 spikes in their hair (Bart Marge and Lisa meet with Springfield averages 7—what a rebel!). This trend is Elementary’s psychologist, Dr. Pryor. made especially apparent during the 1991 When Dr. Pryor asks Lisa how old she is, episode “I Married Marge” in which she responds, “I am three and three- Homer sees Bart for the first time and tells eighths.” Again, this seems initially odd— Marge, “Hey, as long as he’s got eight why not say three and four and a half fingers and eight toes, he’s fine by me!” months?—and is, again, written off as (Singh 101). Yet most of the Simpsons’ absurdist (or as just “nerdy Lisa,” similar

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 107 to Bart’s interactions at the school for fans was not just elementary or gifted children). But if we consider that the temporary—it was symbiotic and remains Simpsons’ physical beings are in base 8, it to this day. Cohen, an integral part of The makes sense that Lisa would describe her Simpsons’ writing team, admitted, “our physical age (at least partially) in terms of theory was if you put in a very obscure base 8. And, unsurprisingly, joke in the background, those few people alt.tv.simpsons is littered with who get it will be so amazed that you hit deconstructions of base paratexts, with this obscure thing that only they and a few what I believe is most success in the 1992 other people know about, that they'll really thread “Base 8,” the 1993 thread “Four be hooked for life” (Flatow). With a total Fingers” and the 2007 thread “Notes for of twenty-five successful seasons (and KABF01 (Funeral for a Fiend).” counting), it would appear that, through More importantly, though, is the fact this formula of linking fan analysis and that there are currently nearly 100,000 textual response, the writers of The threads on alt.tv.simpsons, deconstructing Simpsons uncovered possibly the most similar first-, second- and third-order jokes. successful “hook” in American television The relationship between the writers and to date.

______WORKS CITED

Almy, Tom. “Inconsistencies in ‘Bart the Genius’.” 30 May 1990. Online posting. . Newsgroup alt.tv.simpsons. “Bart the Genius.” The Simpsons. Fox, 1990. Boswell, Steven. “Esoteric Observation.” 3 Nov. 1996. Online posting. Usenet. Newsgroup alt.tv.simpsons. Cameron, Curtis. “Homer^3 equations.” 29 Oct. 1996. Online posting. Usenet. Newsgroup alt.tv.simpsons. “Dog of Death.” The Simpsons. Fox, 1992. Dolan, Kent Paul. “Inconsistencies in ‘Bart the Genius’.” 1 June 1990. Online posting. Usenet. Newsgroup alt.tv.simpsons. Greenwald, Sarah J. “Mathematical Background on The Simpsons’ Writers.” simpsonsmath.com. Web. 10 May 2014. . Flatow, Ira. Interview with David X Cohen and Simon Singh. “The Simpsons’ Secret? It’s Written by Math Geeks.” NPR, 6 Dec. 2013. Radio. Jones, Kyle. “Inconsistencies in ‘Bart the Genius’.” 30 May 1990. Online posting. Newsgroup alt.tv.simpsons. “Lisa’s Sax.” The Simpsons. Fox, 1997. Manning, Evan Marshall. “Inconsistencies in ‘Bart the Genius’.” 1 June 1990. Online posting. Usenet. Newsgroup alt.tv.simpsons. “Marge in Chains.” The Simpsons. Fox, 1993. Nestler, Andrew. “Guide to Mathematics and and Mathematicians on The Simpsons.” simpsonsmath.com. Web. 10 May 2014. . Numberphile. “Pi and Four Fingers - Numberphile.” Online video clip. Youtube, 31 Oct. 2013. Web. 10 May 2014. Singh, Simon. The Simpsons and Their Mathematical Secrets. London: Bloomsbury, 2013. “Treehouse of Horror VI.” The Simpsons. Fox, 1995. Vachuska, Peter. “Esoteric Observation.” 6 Nov. 1996. Online posting. Usenet. Newsgroup alt.tv.simpsons.

108 | Convergence: The Illusion of Divergence Selfies

Cynthia Chin (writer) is lists/calendars or doing homework, she can a fourth-year Art and be caught re-watching Sex and The City or Communication double How I Met Your Mother. A film fanatic major. She loves and closet comic book nerd, her favorite watching a capella superhero is the Flash because he gets groups, drinking water things done very quickly and has a great with ice cubes floating in sense of humor. In July, she is crossing the it, and dancing like no one's watching. She International Date Line to spend a semester looks forward to graduation and is waiting for studying abroad in Australia (she can’t wait to the day she can finally get a dog. meet all the Liam Hemsworth look alikes!).

Suzanne Cimolino Nick Hornung (co-editor-in-chief) is a (writer) is a third-year second-year Film & Film & Media Studies Media Studies major. His major. When she interests include rain, graduates next year, she clouds, darkness, staying plans to move to Paris for inside, and puppies. a few months to have a After learning he was too great adventure before moving back to her tall (and too awkward) to hometown of LA to start a career in film make it as an international pop sensation, production. She loves classic films, Nick chose to pursue his second passion in especially those of Godard and Hitchcock. life: writing. He hopes to be the voice of She would like to thank the Academy and his generation. Or at least a voice…of a her UCSB professors for introducing her to generation. (If you understand this some of her now-favorite films. reference, he will buy you a cookie*)

*He probably won’t do that. Alex Goldstein (writer, staff) is a second year Film and Media Studies and Psychology double major. She can be found color coordinating her to- do lists and meticulously planning her iCal, sometimes, months in advance. When she isn’t making

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 109 Alberto Lopez (writer, Omar Miranda (writer) staff) is a third-year Film is a fourth year & Media Studies major. Psychology and Film and He hopes you will read Media Studies double his essay in its entirety. major. Omar's involvement on campus

ranges to planning an

event with Program Board, helping out at Jess McKillop (writer) is the Student Resource Building or to a second-year Film & rhapsodizing about everything and Media Studies/History anything Beyoncé. Omar plans to work in double major. Originally the Entertainment industry in hopes of from Washington, D.C, trumping Oprah and Ellen Degeneres in he is a huge Redskins fan having the ultimate talk show. and eagerly awaiting

RG3 to return to form and take over the Julia Petuhova (co- NFL. Officially a west coast sell out now, editor-in-chief, writer) is for the first time in his life Jess will not be a third-year Film & spending summer in DC, but instead is Media Studies major. going to be interning for a small production She can usually be found company in Venice and doing a film either doing number program at UCLA. Jess one day hopes to theory homework or work in the Entertainment Industry in one crying to soldiers-coming-home videos way or the other, and ultimately wants to (more realistically, crying to both). Next start a production company / media house year, she’s shipping herself off to with his older brother, Greg. Americorps. Her primary life goal is to be reunited with her golden retriever, Abby, Justin Minor (writer) is but finally catching up to Game of Thrones a third-year Film & and becoming the next feminist icon are Media Studies major at close seconds. UCSB. He grew up

somewhere that no one Christopher Risden has ever heard of and he (writer) is a third year currently works as a going to school at UCSB. radio DJ and assistant chef. He has He is a pretty cool guy. passions for horror films, screenwriting, and David Bowie.

110 | Selfies Daisy Rogozinsky Victoria Tsai (artist) is a (writer) is a filmmaker second-year and a student of life/The Communications major. Universe (and the Film & She loves drawing, video Media Studies games, films, droll department). She speaks comedy, and food. Her Russian, English, and favorite pastry is a lemon French but prefers to communicate through bar. If there is an opportunity for dancing, dance. Please don't ask her what she's she will grab that opportunity and shake it doing after graduation. Ask her about out to its fullest. She is probably dancing poetry instead. You'll both have more fun. right now.

Carlos Sanchez (co- Mariela Villa is a junior editor-in-chief, writer) is transfer majoring in Film fourth-year transfer Film and Media studies. When and Media Studies major. she isn’t being consumed He spent most of his final by coursework and her year editing short films. job, she can be found in His interests includes her kitchen cooking up animation, queer theory, TV writing, nap- new vegetarian recipes. A perfect day for taking, yoga, and dark chocolate. her consists of a challenging hike that will allow her to reward herself with an Pailin Srukhosit (writer) abundance of dark chocolate while is a recent Sociology and watching Robert De Niro films, whom she Film & Media Studies thinks is a gangster on and off screen. graduate. Whether she's While at UCSB, she has also participated gasping for breath in the Film Studio club, where she has been running up a 20-degree able to practice her interests in promotion incline or shredding and event coordination. treacherous 2ft waves at Devereux, she's always contemplating new and exciting contexts for cheese-eating. She is fascinated by the processes of subjective meaning-construction and the development of social relationships. She can be found engaging in feminist film theory or looking at herself in a mirror.

2013-14 FOCUS Media Journal | 111 Thank You! We Couldn’t Have Done It Without You

Joe Palladino Thong Win Cristina Venegas Erika Carlos Dana Welch The Film and Media Studies Department Peter Bloom Associated Students Anna Brusutti Jennifer Holt A very special thanks to: Lisa Parks Bill Hornung Janet Walker Chuck Wolfe Steven Malcic Fran Goldstein

112 | Thank You