Community-Based Adaptation to Climate Change

60 participatory learning and action

Community-based adaptation to climate change Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) – formerly The International Institute for PLA Notes and RRA Notes – is published twice a year. Environment and Development (IIED) Established in 1987, it enables practitioners of is committed to promoting social justice participatory methodologies from around the world to and the empowerment of the poor and marginalised. It share their field experiences, conceptual reflections, also supports democracy and full participation in and methodological innovations. The series is informal decision-making and governance. We strive to reflect and seeks to publish frank accounts, address issues of these values in Participatory Learning and Action. For practical and immediate value, encourage innovation, further information contact IIED, 3 Endsleigh Street, and act as a ‘voice from the field’. London WC1H 0DD, UK. Website: www.iied.org We are grateful to the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) and the UK This work is licensed under the Creative Department for International Development (DfID) for Commons Attribution-Non- their continued financial support of PLA. The views Commercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported License. expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect Recipients are encouraged to use it freely for not-for- the views of the funding organisations or the employers profit purposes only. Please credit the authors and the of the authors. PLA series. To view a copy of this license, visit This special issue of PLA was produced in http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0 or collaboration with IIED’s Climate Change Group. send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, We would also like to acknowledge the support of the Suite 300, San Francisco, California 94105, USA. Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS) and Practical Action for enabling the guest editors to We welcome contributions to PLA. For information provide their valuable input and expertise. and guidelines, please see the inside back cover.

Subscribe Subscriptions are free to the South. For more information please contact: Research Information Ltd., Grenville Court, Britwell Road, Burnham, SL1 Participatory Learning and Action 60 8DF, UK. Email: [email protected]; © IIED, December 2009 Website: www.researchinformation.co.uk Order no: 14573IIED Cover illustration: Regina Faul-Doyle Purchase back issues Design and layout: Smith+Bell Please contact Earthprint Ltd., PO Box 119, Stevenage, Printed by: Russell Press, Nottingham, UK SG1 4TP, UK. Email: [email protected]; Website: www.earthprint.co.uk Guest editors: Hannah Reid, Terry Cannon, Rachel Berger, Mozaharul Alam, and Angela Milligan. Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) is an umbrella Editors: Holly Ashley, Nicole Kenton, and term for a wide range of approaches and Angela Milligan. methodologies, including Participatory Rural Appraisal Strategic Editorial Board: Nazneen Kanji, Cath Long, (PRA), Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), Participatory Jethro Pettit, Michel Pimbert, and Learning Methods (PALM), Participatory Action David Satterthwaite. Research (PAR), Farming Systems Research (FSR), and International Editorial Advisory Board: Méthode Active de Recherche et de Planification Oga Steve Abah, Jo Abbot, Jordi Surkin Beneria, Participative (MARP). The common theme is the full Ivan Bond, L. David Brown, Andy Catley, Robert participation of people in the processes of learning Chambers, Louise Chawla, Andrea Cornwall, Bhola about their needs and opportunities, and in the action Dahal, Qasim Deiri, John Devavaram, Charlotte required to address them. Flower, FORCE Nepal, Ian Goldman, Bara Guèye, In recent years, there has been a number of shifts Irene Guijt, Marcia Hills, Enamul Huda, Vicky in the scope and focus of participation: emphasis on Johnson, Caren Levy, Sarah Levy, Zhang Linyang, sub-national, national and international decision- PJ Lolichen, Ilya M. Moeliono, Humera Malik, making, not just local decision-making; move from Marjorie Jane Mbilinyi, Ali Mokhtar, Seyed Babak projects to policy processes and institutionalisation; Moosavi, Neela Mukherjee, Trilok Neupane, Esse greater recognition of issues of difference and power; Nilsson, Zakariya Odeh, Peter Park, Bardolf Paul, and, emphasis on assessing the quality and Bimal Kumar Phnuyal, Giacomo Rambaldi, Peter understanding the impact of participation, rather than Reason, Joel Rocamora, Jayatissa Samaranayake, simply promoting participation. Participatory Madhu Sarin, Daniel Selener, Anil C Shah, Meera Learning and Action reflects these developments and Kaul Shah, Jasber Singh, Marja Liisa Swantz, recognises the importance of analysing and Cecilia Tacoli, Peter Taylor, Tom Wakeford, Eliud overcoming power differentials which work to exclude Wakwabubi, and Alice Welbourn. the already poor and marginalised. 1

Contents

Editorial ...... 3

THEME SECTION: COMMUNITY-BASED ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE...... 9 1. Community-based adaptation to climate change: an overview Hannah Reid, Mozaharul Alam, Rachel Berger, Terry Cannon, Saleemul Huq, and Angela Milligan ...... 11 Glossary ...... 34

PART I: REFLECTIONS ON PARTICIPATORY PROCESSES AND PRACTICE ...... 39 2. Combining different knowledges: community-based climate change adaptation in small island developing states Ilan Kelman, Jessica Mercer, and Jennifer J. West ...... 41 3. Children’s participation in community-based disaster risk reduction and adaptation to climate change Thomas Tanner, Mercedes Garcia, Jimena Lazcano, Fatima Molina, Grace Molina, Gonzalo Rodriguez, Baltz Tribunalo, and Fran Seballos ...... 54 4. Katalysis: helping Andean farmers adapt to climate change Stephen Sherwood and Jeffery Bentley ...... 65 5. Ethics and methods in research for community-based adaptation: reflections from rural Vanuatu Olivia Warrick ...... 76 6. Participatory rice variety selection in Sri Lanka Rachel Berger, with Rohana Weregoda and Varuna Rathnabharathie ...... 88 7. Lessons from a transboundary water governance project in West Africa Sam Wong ...... 99 2 60

PART II: PARTICIPATORY TOOL-BASED CASE STUDIES ...... 107 8. Participatory three-dimensional mapping for disaster risk reduction Jean-Christophe Gaillard and Emmanuel A. Maceda...... 109 9. Amplifying children’s voices on climate change: the role of participatory video Tamara Plush ...... 119 10. Farmers become filmmakers: climate change adaptation in Malawi Fernanda Baumhardt, Ralph Lasage, Pablo Suarez, and Charles Chadza ...... 129

PART III: PARTICIPATORY TOOLS...... 139 11. Developing a climate change analysis Christian Aid ...... 141 12. Rain calendars: a tool for understanding changing rainfall patterns and effects on livelihoods Cynthia Awuor and Anne Hammill ...... 149 13. Mental models: understanding the causes and consequences of climate change Petra Tschakert and Regina Sagoe ...... 154 14. Child-friendly participatory research tools Fatima Molina, Grace Molina, Tom Tanner, and Fran Seballos ...... 160 15. Participatory scenario development for translating impacts of climate change into adaptations Livia Bizikova, Thea Dickinson, and László Pintér...... 167 16. Reflections on practical ethics for participatory community-based adaptation extracts from Elkanah Absalom et al., and Giacomo Rambaldi et al...... 173

REGULAR FEATURES Tips for Trainers ...... 179 17. Communications maps Sonal Zaveri ...... 180 18. Rivers of life Ziad Moussa ...... 183 In Touch ...... 187 RCPLA Network ...... 211 3

Editorial

Welcome to the new look 60th issue of gases is crucial to limiting the extent of Participatory Learning and Action! The future climate change. However, there is focus of this special issue is community- also recognition that human-induced based adaptation to climate change. Its climate change is already happening, and publication is timed to coincide with the those most affected will be the estimated forthcoming United Nations Climate one billion people living in developing Change Conference (COP 15) to be held in countries who are already poor and December, in Copenhagen, Denmark, and marginalised.2 Since the industrialised events surrounding it. The conference will countries are responsible for most past bring together world leaders to try to make greenhouse gas emissions, they have decisions on four key questions: accepted that they should help those who • How much are the industrialised coun- will be most affected by climate change to tries willing to reduce their emissions of adapt to its impacts (UN Framework greenhouse gases? Convention on Climate Change). • How much are major developing coun- It is now increasingly recognised that, tries such as China and India willing to do for poor communities, adaptation to limit the growth of their emissions? approaches that are rooted in local knowl- • How is the help needed by developing edge and coping strategies, and in which countries to engage in reducing their emis- communities are empowered to take their sions and adapting to the impacts of own decisions, are likely to be far more climate change going to be financed? successful than top-down initiatives. In • How is that money going to be managed?1 addition, communities have the right to Reducing emissions of greenhouse participate in decisions that affect them.

1 Source: http://en.cop15.dk 2 Jessica Ayers and Saleem Huq, Community-based adaptation to climate change: an update. IIED briefing, June 2009. 4 60

For these reasons, community-based adap- happened with PRA in the 1990s. The tation has come to the fore in recent years. overview for this issue reflects on different ‘Good’ community-based adaptation, types of participation, and on what is like other forms of participatory develop- meant by ‘good’, empowering participation. ment, is community-driven, empowering, and strengthens local capacity. Much CBA Structure of the special issue is rooted in disaster risk reduction The special issue is divided into three approaches, designed to build the resilience sections: of communities to disasters, such as floods • The first section includes reflections on and drought, with the difference that it participatory processes and practice in should also incorporate longer-term community-based adaptation to climate climate change and its predicted impacts change. These have a variety of entry into community-based planning. Broader points, including participatory vulnerabil- participatory community development and ity analysis, disaster risk reduction frame- livelihood approaches should also be taking works, and Farmer Field Schools. The case into account the effects of climate change, studies provide a rich source of experience if development gains are to be sustained. and lessons for CBA practitioners. Communities have a wealth of knowl- • The second section focuses on participa- edge about the local environment, and have tory tool-based case studies. These been adapting to and coping with change describe a participatory process with an for years. Although this knowledge and emphasis on the use of a particular partic- traditional coping mechanisms may ipatory tool, such as participatory video or become less effective as climate change participatory mapping. They also reflect on leads to greater unpredictability in weather the strengths and limitations of these tools. patterns (e.g. rain coming at any time • The third section, participatory tools, rather than at predictable times) and more includes shorter, step-by-step descriptions extreme events (e.g. droughts and floods) of how to facilitate a particular tool in a it remains an invaluable resource, and, in community, for example, rain calendars the absence of historical written records, is and mental models of the drivers and often the only source of information on e.g. effects of climate change. rainfall trends. This is not to say that scientific knowledge does not have a very signif- Guest editors icant role to play in helping communities The guest editors for this issue are Hannah to adapt to climate change, and many of Reid, Terry Cannon, Rachel Berger, Moza- the articles in this issue reflect on the harul Alam, and Angela Milligan. respective strengths and weaknesses of Hannah Reid is a Senior Researcher in local and scientific knowledge, and how the the Climate Change Group at IIED. She is two can best be integrated. interested in the links between climate Community-based adaptation brings change and sustainable development and together those working in the fields of is a lead editor for Tiempo: a bulletin on disaster risk reduction, community devel- climate and development. opment, and climate change science. There Terry Cannon works with the Climate is still much work to be done to encourage Change Group as a Visiting Fellow at IIED. these different communities to develop a Until recently he was Reader in Develop- common language, to share good practice, ment Studies at University of Greenwich. and to draw on the lessons of other partic- His special interest is in community-based ipatory development work, in particular, vulnerability assessment and disaster the dangers of rushing to scale at the reduction, and climate change adaptation expense of the quality of participation, as in relation to rural livelihoods. He is G Editorial 5

Flyer for the 3rd international conference on community-based adaptation to climate change. currently working on projects for this in community-based adaptation project in Bangladesh and Vietnam. Bangladesh and provided technical inputs Rachel Berger is currently climate on CBA projects in African Countries. change policy adviser with Practical Action, Angela Milligan is Co-Editor of Partic- a development NGO that focuses on reduc- ipatory Learning and Action. She worked ing poverty through enabling poor people with poor farming communities in Kenya, to access and develop technologies appro- Tanzania, and Uganda in the early 1990s, priate to their needs and resources. Before an exciting time when the use of participa- her current role, Rachel managed multi- tory approaches was expanding rapidly, country projects in sub-Saharan Africa and and the rate of innovation was extremely south Asia focusing on strengthening liveli- high. She was an avid reader of those early hoods in the face of increasing climate vari- issues of PLA (then RRA Notes)! After ability, and empowering communities to returning to the UK, Angela worked as a address their problems. She currently tutor and course writer for the Wye College, works on advocacy and policy on adapta- University of London distance learning tion to climate change in the international courses in Agricultural Development. After UN climate change negotiations, as well as a stint communicating the research find- supporting Practical Action's country ings of DfID’s natural resources research offices on climate change policy and programmes, she joined IIED in 2001 as programme work. Editor of Participatory Learning and Mozaharul Alam has recently joined Action, and has been here ever since! UNEP as Regional Climate Change Coor- Getting to grips with the discourse of disas- dinator for Asia and the Pacific Region, ter risk management and climate change located in Bangkok. Before joining UNEP, adaptation has been a steep learning curve, he coordinated the climate change but guest editing this issue has been a great programme of the Bangladesh Centre for learning experience, and has highlighted Advanced Studies (BCAS). He has the importance and challenges of CBA conducted and coordinated significant work. amounts of research on climate change impacts, vulnerability, and adaptation at How this issue came about national, regional, and international levels. The idea for this issue arose from the He has also designed and implemented a involvement of the International Institute 6 60

for Environment and Development tory feedback from climate change ‘experts’ (IIED)’s climate change programme in the and participation ‘experts’, and who dealt First International Community-based with our requests for changes with patience Adaptation (CBA) conference, held in and good humour. Dhaka, Bangladesh in 2005. More then 80 experts, policy makers, NGO representa- The rest of the issue tives, and grassroots practitioners discussed the possible impacts of climate Tips for Trainers change on communities, and how to help For this issue we have two Tips for Train- them adapt in the future. Whilst the first ers articles. First, Sonal Zaveri presents conference focused on firming up the Communication Maps, a participatory tool concept of CBA and gaining acceptance for to understand communication patterns it, a second and third conference (in 2007 and relationships. Developed in Nepal, the and 2009) considered issues such as the tool provides a simple and effective way to distinction between CBA and community- plot and understand how children commu- based development, scaling up CBA, and nicate with the people in their lives. how to integrate climate science into CBA Next, Ziad Moussa provides some tips on whilst maintaining a community-driven using a tool called Rivers of Life, which process.3 A fourth conference will be held allows participants to reflect on personal in Tanzania in February 2010 (see In experiences and influences that have moti- Touch, page 199 for more details). vated them in their personal and professional An invitation to submit papers for this life. Participants are invited to use the symbol special issue of Participatory Learning and of a river to reflect on key stages in their lives, Action was circulated to PLA and climate positive experiences and influences, and diffi- change networks prior to the third CBA cult challenges. This is a fun way to introduce conference, and abstracts were then people to each other in a workshop setting selected by the guest editors for develop- and was used at the RCPLA workshop in ment into full papers. These were supple- Cairo last year. See the RCPLA pages for an mented by directly commissioned papers, update on the programme Deepening Partic- drawing on the guest editors’ suggestions ipation for Social Change that was initiated and those of staff at the Institute of Devel- at the workshop. opment Studies, Sussex, in particular Robert Chambers. In Touch The In Touch section of this issue is divided Acknowledgements into two sections. The first section contains We would like to thank the guest editors for a variety of books, papers, and web-based their hard work and dedication to this resources on climate change adaptation, issue, despite many other demands on their including sources of climate data, case time, as well as all who submitted articles. studies of CBA, and CBA methodologies. We would also like to thank Robert Cham- The second section includes resources on bers for pointing us towards innovative other participatory themes. work on CBA, particularly the development of new participatory tools. Thanks RCPLA also to our editorial board for their insight- Find out the latest news from partners and ful comments on the papers for this issue. colleagues from the Resource Centres for Finally, huge thanks to our authors who Participatory Learning and Action had to contend with sometimes contradic- Network.

3 Ayers and Huq, ibid. G Editorial 7

PLA 59: DVD about participatory Web 2.0 that this is Together with the Technical Centre for clearly meeting a need, and we hope that Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA), the issue has encouraged many of you to we are working on a bilingual DVD which dip a toe in the world of Web 2.0. contains English and French versions of Don’t forget that you can also access the articles in PLA 59: Change at Hand: and download most issues of PLA free Web 2.0 for development, as well as video online. Visit www.planotes.org for more documentaries, and a Tips for Trainers in information. Spanish. This will be available in January 2010. PLA 59 has been extremely well- Next issue received (see under PLA online below), and In a change to our publicised schedule, our we hope that the bilingual DVD will enable next issue, PLA 61, will be published in you to share the issue more widely with June 2010 rather than December 2009, partners and colleagues. and the issue will be a special theme one on community-led total sanitation (see Other news below).

Change of format PLA 61: Community-led total sanitation, You have probably noticed that this issue of June 2010 PLA looks rather different from previous This issue is being produced in partnership issues! We have been considering a change with Plan International and will be guest of format for some time now as feedback edited by Sammy Musyoki from Plan Inter- from readers suggested they would prefer national and Petra Bongartz from the Insti- a smaller, more portable size. The new size tute of Development Studies, UK. should also mean that issues of PLA sit In recent years, sanitation has received easily on a shelf, without flopping over as renewed attention internationally and has the larger size does! A further considera- been acknowledged as one of the central tion, in these times of financial crisis, is that components of development because of its the format is a standard size, and so is interconnections with health, livelihoods, considerably cheaper to print. education, the environment, and other Whilst the look is a little different, we sectors. Its close ties with poverty reduction still aim to be an informal journal, with are being increasingly recognised. plenty of photographs and illustrations. All The WHO and UNICEF reports our articles are peer-reviewed by members suggest that as many as one in three people of our International Editorial Advisory worldwide lack sanitation facilities. Most Board, helping us to maintain the very high of those affected live in low-income coun- quality of the content, while also keeping a tries in Asia and Africa. Poor sanitation, focus on practitioner-based experiences. lack of access to clean water, and inade- We would very much welcome your quate personal hygiene are responsible for feedback on the changed format. Does it an estimated 90% of incidences of child- work better for you? Are there any other hood diarrhoea (WHO). It is estimated changes you could like to see? Email us at that diarrhoeal diseases kill at least two [email protected] with your views. million children in poor countries each year, and diarrhoea is the second highest PLA online single cause of child mortality (WHO). We had a record number of downloads of Despite the efforts and resources that PLA 59 on Web 2.0 for development, and have been poured into sanitation in the last have had an amazing amount of positive decade, the millennium development goal feedback on the issue. There is so little (MDG) for sanitation (‘halving by 2015, the 8 60

proportion of people without sustainable continued input on the development and access to safe drinking water and basic content of PLA. sanitation’) is a distant dream for many Sonja Vermeulen left IIED in Novem- developing countries. Providing subsidies ber this year to pursue other interests. to build toilets has not been enough and Sonja has been a very valuable critical creates a culture of dependency on exter- friend during her time on the PLA Strate- nal help. gic Editorial Board. She also guest edited In contrast, Community-Led Total PLA 53, Tools for influencing power and Sanitation (CLTS) focuses on mobilisation policy. This issue was developed around of collective action and behaviour change the Power tools project, which provides to ensure real and sustainable improve- ‘how-to’ ideas that marginalised people and ments in sanitation and hygiene. CLTS has their allies can use to have a greater posi- its origins in Participatory Rural Appraisal tive influence on natural resources policy.4 (PRA), drawing on simple PRA visual tools We would like to extend our warm thanks such as mapping, transect walks, and flow to Sonja for all of her good-humoured diagrams to enable communities to analyse support over the years, and look forward to and learn from their hygiene habits and keeping in touch in future. practices, and come up with collective action plans for sanitising their habitat Final thoughts… without depending on external subsidies. The decisions that will be made at in Copen- This issue will focus on recent CLTS hagen in December 2009 will have far- experiences in Africa, enabling sharing of reaching repercussions for people the world experience and lessons, and improving over for years to come. As we move forward, practice and policy around CLTS. Practi- good participatory practice will play an tioners will come together to share and essential role in community-based adapta- reflect critically on the questions, issues, tion. We hope that this issue will encourage and challenges that CLTS practice throws readers to take into account climate change up, and develop articles for the issue. This impacts, both present and future, in their promises to be a fascinating and timely development or relief work with communi- issue, which will be of interest to practi- ties, in participatory research, and in policy- tioners in Africa as well as other regions. making. We hope also that this special issue will promote the spread of good practice, Editorial board news and the sharing of experiences and lessons, We would like to say farewell to two IIED so that we can all help to meet the global members of our Strategic Editorial Board. challenge of climate change. Ivan Bond left IIED in September to join the UK Department for International Development. He will be working primarily on REDD (reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation), but will maintain close contact with IIED. Ivan took a leading role in the development of PLA 55 on Community conservation in southern Africa, and he will continue to be a member of the wider PLA advisory editorial board. We wish Ivan well in his new position, and look forward to receiving his

4 See www.policy-powertools.org 9 THEME SECTION Community- based adaptation to climate change 10 60 11

Community-based adaptation to climate change: an overview 1

by HANNAH REID, MOZAHARUL ALAM, RACHEL BERGER, TERRY CANNON, SALEEMUL HUQ, and ANGELA MILLIGAN

Introduction approaches to adaptation to climate Scientists are clear that climate change is change which are community-based and happening, and that it is due to emissions participatory, building on the priorities, of greenhouse gases produced largely by knowledge, and capacities of local people. industrialised countries (IPCC, 2007). Community-based adaptation draws on Those likely to be worst affected are the participatory approaches and methods world’s poorest countries, especially poor developed in both disaster risk reduction and marginalised communities within (DRR) and community development work, these countries. Ironically it is these poor as well as sectoral-specific approaches such countries and people who have contributed as farmer participatory research (Berger et least to the problem of climate change, al., this issue) and Farmer Field Schools because of their very low greenhouse gas (Sherwood and Bentley, this issue). Inno- emissions, but who will suffer most from its vative participatory methods are also consequences. Even if emissions are emerging to help communities analyse the severely curbed, climate change will still causes and effects of climate change, to occur. The industrialised countries have integrate scientific and community knowl- accepted they have a responsibility to help edge of climate change, and to plan adap- poor and vulnerable countries to adapt tation measures. (UNFCCC). However, until recently, most In this overview paper to the issue, we adaptation efforts have been top-down, describe how community-based and little attention has been paid to approaches to climate change have communities’ experiences of climate emerged, and the similarities and differ- change and their efforts to cope with their ences between CBA and other participatory changing environments. development and disaster risk reduction This special issue of Participatory approaches. Whilst CBA is a relatively new Learning and Action focuses on recent field, some lessons and challenges are 12 60 G Reid, Alum, Berger, Cannon, Huq, and Milligan

beginning to emerge, and we analyse these, dependent on natural resources for their drawing on the experiences contained in livelihoods. Smallholder farmers have much the collection of articles for this issue. Many experience of adapting to their complex, of the articles are concerned with natural diverse, and risk-prone environments. resources, reflecting the preponderance of However, farming is now becoming even submissions we received in this area. more difficult and risky because of greater However, climate change will affect many unpredictability in the timing of rainy other aspects of communities’ lives, and we seasons and the pattern of rain within would urge practitioners working in other seasons, making it more difficult to decide sectors, such as human health and urban when to cultivate, sow, and harvest, and areas, to share their experiences of commu- needing more resources to seize the right nity-based adaptation. time for planting, and to maintain crops and animals through dry spells. Heat stress, Climate change and its impacts lack of water at crucial times, and pests and Climate change refers to short-, medium-, diseases are serious problems that climate and long-term changes in weather patterns change appears to be exacerbating. These and temperature that are predicted to all interact with ongoing pressures on land, happen, or are already happening as a result soils, and water resources that would exist of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse regardless of climate change (Jennings and gases such as carbon dioxide. These changes McGrath, 2009). include a higher frequency of extreme Vulnerability to climate change is not weather events such as drought and floods, just a function of geography, or depend- as well as greater unpredictability and vari- ence on natural resources; it also has ability in the seasons and in rainfall. Over- social, economic, and political dimensions lying this increased variability are expected which influence how climate change longer-term changes, such as temperature affects different groups (Action Aid, and sea-level rises, and lower (or in some 2005). Poor people rarely have insurance cases higher) rainfall. Annex 1 shows in to cover loss of property due to storms or more detail how the climate is predicted to cyclones. They cannot pay for the health- change over the medium- and long-term care required when climate change- (Christian Aid, 2009, based on the IPCC induced outbreaks of malaria and other 4th assessment report, 2007). diseases occur. They have few alterative livelihood options when their only cow Why are poor people most vulnerable to drowns in a flood or drought kills their climate change? maize crop for the year – and they do not Poor countries and communities are more have the political clout to ask why their vulnerable to climate change because they country’s early warning system did not tend to be located in geographically vulner- warn them of likely flooding. Climate able areas, such as flood-prone Mozam- change will also have psychological and bique, drought-prone Sudan, or cultural effects, for example beliefs and cyclone-prone Bangladesh, and in more traditions associated with the seasons vulnerable locations. For example, the being undermined by climate change slums and informal settlements surround- (Jenning and McCrath, 2009). ing many developing country cities are Poor communities already struggle to usually sited on land prone to landslips or cope with the existing challenges of poverty to flooding and river bank erosion. Wealthy and climate shocks, but climate change people, commerce, and industry can afford could push many beyond their ability to to situate themselves on safer land. cope or even survive. It is vital that these Many poor communities are heavily communities are helped to adapt. Community-based adaptation to climate change: an overview 13

Adapting to climate change ures undertaken by local communities into International climate change negotiations, those initiated as a response to ‘normal’ multilateral and bilateral agencies, donors, climate variability, and those initiated as a and international governance and financial response to climate change. However, the institutions such as the World Bank are difference is that CBA work attempts to paying increasing attention to adaptation factor in the potential impact of climate and how best to help people to adapt. More change on livelihoods and vulnerability to and more funding is available for adapta- disasters by using local and scientific tion.1 However, until recently, most efforts knowledge of climate change and its likely to help countries adapt focused on national effects. planning and top-down approaches based CBA may start by identifying commu- on climate change modelling. Remarkably nities in poor countries that are most little attention has been paid to the ways in vulnerable to climate change, or these which poor people have been coping with communities may themselves ask for assis- climate variability and extremes for tance (Kelman et al., this issue). It may also decades. follow on from work with communities to cope with a disaster, such as severe flood- What is community-based adaptation? ing. International development NGOs and Community-based adaptation to climate donors funding CBA usually work through change is a community-led process, based local partners, such as local NGOs or on communities’ priorities, needs, knowl- community groups which already have the edge, and capacities, which should trust of local communities. empower people to plan for and cope with the impacts of climate change. As Tanner Incorporating climate change information et al. and others in this issue point out, CBA work needs to incorporate informa- climate change is only one of a range of tion on climate change and its impacts into natural, social, and economic problems planning processes. This includes: that may face poor people (such as unem- • scientific information (e.g. long-term ployment, the prices of food and other predictions from climate change models, essentials, commodity prices, drugs, seasonal forecasts, information on trends gambling, community conflict, and health). based on data collected at nearby weather So it is unlikely that interventions focusing stations); as well as only on climate-related risks will reflect • local knowledge about trends and community priorities. changes experienced by communities at a CBA needs to start with communities’ local level and strategies these communi- expressed needs and perceptions, and to ties have used in the past to cope with have poverty reduction and livelihood similar shocks or gradual climatic changes. benefits, as well as reducing vulnerability Both these sources contribute to an to climate change and disasters. In prac- understanding of risk. Climate change tice, CBA projects look very like ‘develop- science cannot say for certain, for example, ment as usual’ and it is difficult to how much rainfall a particular area will distinguish the additional ‘adaptation receive over any given time – but it can give components’. For example, in a drought some guidance on the probability that rain- year, we cannot divide water storage meas- fall will increase or decrease and to what

1 For example, funds have been established to support adaptation activities under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol such as the Adaptation Fund, and the World Bank’s Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR). While such international funds are not always aimed specifically at community-based adaptation (CBA), some of them, such as the Adaptation Fund, are trying to target the most vulnerable communities. 14 60 G Reid, Alum, Berger, Cannon, Huq, and Milligan Photo: Terry Cannon Terry Photo: Moveable cooking stove designed to cope with floods, 2007, near Khulna, Bangladesh. Community-based adaptation to climate change: an overview 15 extent. CBA builds in this notion of risk ning in small island developing states and uncertainty into activities, with the aim (SIDS), such as Papua New Guinea. They of building communities’ resilience to both then show how the framework can be current climate variability and future adapted to take into account the likely climate change. effects of climate change by drawing on external scientific information such as Drawing on participatory disaster risk downscaled climate projections and satel- reduction approaches lite images, as well as local knowledge of The lessons from disaster risk reduction hazards and vulnerabilities. Taking into (DRR) work are of tremendous value for account these longer-term impacts is one climate change adaptation, because climate of the key differences between DRR and change is likely to change the magnitude, climate change adaptation. frequency, and timing of extreme events such as flooding, landslides, and storms, as Livelihoods, DRR, and climate change well as generate new disaster events. In practice, all disaster risk reduction and Disaster risk reduction is likely to be the development work should take into account entry point for communities suffering from climate change impacts if development severe shocks as a result of short-term gains are to be sustained in the future. climate variability (Christian Aid, 2009). Whilst development agencies may differen- Many of the papers in this issue use a tiate between DRR, climate change adap- participatory DRR framework (e.g. Tanner tation, and poverty alleviation, at the et al., Warrick, and Gaillard and Maceda). household level the issues converge into one Although different approaches and frame- complex interrelated problem which boils works for participatory DRR exist, all down to the same thing – the security and involve working with local people to under- wellbeing of people’s lives, livelihoods, and stand the types of hazards they face (e.g. assets (Oxley, 2009).2 There is increasing earthquakes, droughts, floods, pests and recognition that, for many communities diseases, human diseases), the factors facing frequent hazards, poverty, disasters, which make them vulnerable to these and climate change adaptation are closely hazards, and their causes. These together linked and cannot be viewed in isolation give an indication of how ‘at risk’ commu- from one another.3 nities are and which groups are most This points towards the need to find vulnerable. They also help communities practical ways of integrating DRR, liveli- consider what capacities they have for hoods, and climate change adaptation. reducing vulnerability, and aim to Christian Aid, for example, has developed empower communities to take action a climate risk cycle management approach themselves to reduce the risks they face. to development planning which builds on Many organisations working with local the expertise and experience of existing communities to reduce poverty and disas- DRR and livelihoods programmes, using ter risks are now trying to incorporate the existing tools wherever possible. In the effects of climate change into their work model, predictable risks are anticipated, with communities. Kelman and Mercer long- and short-term risk reduction activ- (this issue), for example, describe a disas- ities are integrated into livelihood develop- ter risk reduction framework developed ment, and the time spent in emergency or with communities to facilitate DRR plan- rehabilitation is minimised (Figure 1).

2 ESRC-funded seminar, Integrating Approaches: Sustainable Livelihoods, Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation, December 2009, organised by Practical Action (www.practicalaction.org.uk). See: http://community.eldis.org/.59cc7287/ 3 Ibid. 16 60 G Reid, Alum, Berger, Cannon, Huq, and Milligan

Figure 1: Climate risk cycle management

Source: Christian Aid (2009a)

These integrated frameworks are still Co-learning about climate change largely untested and there are likely to be Whilst local people are extremely aware of challenges in handling the array of factors changes in their environment, they often to be considered, as well as in encouraging have little knowledge of the global causes the different support institutions needed to and effects of climate change. The papers tackle vulnerability to work together. in this issue describe a wide variety of participatory tools to help communities Participatory methods for CBA understand climate change and the Many of the participatory tools used in CBA impacts it may have. Many use co-learning (see Table 1 for some examples) will be approaches, drawing on both local and familiar to DRR and development practi- external scientific knowledge. Communi- tioners, but other innovative approaches are cation about climate change should be in being developed for communities, develop- the first language of the community ment workers, and scientists to co-learn approached and in terms it can under- about climate change and adaptation, as stand. well as for working with particular groups In Ghana, for example, communities such as children (Tanner et al., this issue). developed mental models showing drivers Community-based adaptation to climate change: an overview 17

Table 1: Some examples of participatory tools used in CBA

PARTICIPATORY USES TOOL/APPROACH

Mental models • Drivers and effects of climate change

Seasonal calendars • Seasonality and links with livelihoods • Can be combined with timelines to show perceived changes in seasonality over time

Timelines • Hazards and events • Trends in climate, e.g. temperature and rainfall

Community mapping and • Resources modelling • Types and causes of risks and threats • Extent of vulnerable areas • Vulnerable households and individuals • Planning DRR/CC adaptation measures

Transect walks • Vulnerability/risks • Land use • Resources

Ranking • Vulnerabilities and hazards • Coping and DRR strategies, e.g. water management options, crop varieties

Dream maps and drawings • Vision of community or farm and how to achieve

Theatre, poems, songs • Awareness raising of risks and risk reduction measures • Advocacy

Participatory video • Awareness raising • Farmer to farmer communication • Advocacy

Stakeholder analysis • Institutions, relationships, power

Key informant discussions • In-depth discussion of vulnerability, livelihood sources (e.g. storian)4 and effects of climate change (Tschakert Aid, this issue). Sherwood and Bentley (this and Sagoe, this issue). During this process, issue) describe a similar process in the they reinforced and expanded their own Andes. knowledge of climate change, with the Children can be very effective commu- input of external agents. In Indonesia, nicators of climate change causes and Climate Field Schools followed a partici- effects. They often have a better under- patory ‘learning by doing’ approach to help standing of the science of climate change farmers increase their knowledge of processes than adults in the community, climate change and observe climatic through school lessons, and can draw out parameters themselves, such as rainfall, to the implications for local livelihoods. Plush help guide farming activities (Christian (this issue) shows how videos, produced in

4 Storian means to ‘chat, yarn, swap stories’ and is an umbrella term indicating semi- structured interview, informal interview, and opportunistic discussion as part of observation. See Warrick, this issue. 18 60 G Reid, Alum, Berger, Cannon, Huq, and Milligan

a participatory way by children, can be a data are unlikely to be available, one way powerful means of raising awareness of forward may be to strengthen local people’s climate change and its impacts, especially ability to collect their own data (Sherwood where literacy rates in the community are and Bentley, this issue). low. In this case, the children were first taught about climate change using locally Using scientific climate change data available materials (although Plush notes The science of climate change and predic- that there is a severe lack of material that tions regarding future changes have a key is not too technical, or related to the urban role to play in adapting to climate change. mitigation context). They then used this Finding ways of making scientific data knowledge to develop questions and carry accessible to communities is crucial if they out filmed interviews with other commu- are to adapt and remain in control of the nity members, to give a clear picture of the CBA process. There are potentially many impacts of climate change at the local level. different kinds of information that would Although it is important for communi- be useful for community planning, such as ties to understand the drivers and remote sensing observations, satellite processes of climate change, Warrick (this pictures, downscaled climate scenarios, issue) warns of the dangers of disempow- and seasonal and long-range weather fore- ering communities, giving them a sense casts. Where these are available, commu- that they cannot take action to deal with nities need to learn how to interpret them. climate change, even though they have Christian Aid (this issue), for example, often been dealing with highly variable describe how participatory climate forecast climates for many years. To avoid this, she workshops were held in Zimbabwe, in suggests discussing climate change in the which forecasts for the coming season, context of how people have already expressed in terms of probabilities rather responded to climate stress, how this has than firm predictions. were explained to changed over time, and on communities’ farmers, and then downscaled using own capacities to adapt. farmers’ own historical rainfall data.

Local knowledge about climate change Integrating local and scientific knowledge Several papers in this issue look at ways in Many of the papers in this issue consider which familiar participatory tools can be how to integrate scientific and local knowl- adapted to document local knowledge edge so as to build on the strengths of each. about climate changes. For example, rain Although this can present challenges (see calendars were used in Malawi to analyse later), several papers suggest ways of bridg- changes in rainfall over the past five years ing the gap between local communities and (Awuor and Hammill, this issue) whilst scientists (e.g. Gaillard and Maceda). seasonal analysis charts showed changes in the seasons in West Bengal, India over a Identifying and planning adaptation similar timescale (Christian Aid, this issue). activities Climate timelines in Sudan were used to Participatory ways of documenting, priori- record extreme weather events and tising, and sharing risk reduction and temperature trends over the past 30 years adaptation approaches are important if (Christian Aid, this issue). CBA is to fit with community priorities, In the absence of historical local and build on existing practices or those weather data, the memories of older used in the past, for example traditional community members are often the only rice varieties which have better salinity source of information on climate trends tolerance than more recent varieties (Berger et al., this issue). Where scientific (Berger et al., this issue). Commonly Community-based adaptation to climate change: an overview 19 Photo: Terry Cannon Terry Photo: Children take a class on the environment, 2007, near Khulna, Bangladesh. mentioned on-farm adaptation options farmers made videos of the adaptation include diversification of the crops grown, activities they found most useful, which changes in farming practices, better water were then screened in nearby villages with management, and food storage. In extreme which they did not have contact. Whilst the cases, for example, where droughts are videos were an important communication likely to be of such magnitude that crops tool for raising awareness of adaptation can no longer survive, then alternative options, there are likely to be differences in livelihood strategies, or even migration abilities to adopt adaptation measures, and may need to be explored. additional support will often be needed if There is much scope for approaches local people are to make these changes. which encourage the sharing of adaptation Molina et al. (this issue) describe how practices. Sherwood and Bentley (this children in the Philippines developed issue), for example, describe an approach theatres, songs, and dances to communi- to climate change adaptation in the Andes, cate the potentially destructive impacts of in which farmers learn through visits to hazards such as flooding and river bank other farms and through experimentation. erosion, and were effective advocates for As farmers learn and take action at the risk reduction activities, such as tree plant- farm level, the focus shifts to collective ing. actions, such as sharing responsibility for Gaillard and Maceda (this issue) collecting weather data, and implementing describe how communities in a flood-prone soil and water conservation measures. part of the Philippines created extraordi- Baumhardt (this issue) describes how narily detailed, scaled three-dimensional 20 60 G Reid, Alum, Berger, Cannon, Huq, and Milligan Photo: Fernanda Baumhardt Fernanda Photo: Mphunga villagers filmmaking training. Mphunga village, Salima district, Malawi – July 21st 2008. See Baumhardt et al., this issue. Photo: Grace Molina Grace Photo: Children mixing cement for school retaining wall, Potrerillos, El Salvador. See Molina et al., this issue. Community-based adaptation to climate change: an overview 21 Photo: Terry Cannon Terry Photo: Women queue for drinking water from a filtered tank in area where salinisation is increasing due to sea-level rise. models of their area, made from local young children, elderly people, pregnant materials such as cartons and paper, which women, and those with disabilities. They they used for disaster risk reduction plan- then identified local resources to deal with ning. They used the models to identify hazards, e.g. boats, vehicles, and then important areas for livelihoods, e.g. fishing planned disaster risk reduction activities, and hunting grounds, areas prone to differ- e.g. meeting points, evacuation routes, and ent types of flooding (river, tidal), different shelters. The information from these households, the material of their house models can also be input into GIS systems (which affects how robust the houses are), for use by local government or scientists household inhabitants, and the most (subject to the communities’ permission), vulnerable people in the community, e.g. and can easily be updated. 22 60 G Reid, Alum, Berger, Cannon, Huq, and Milligan

Lessons and challenges in community- Access to reliable, appropriate forecasts is based adaptation essential in meeting the challenge of Although CBA is a very recent develop- greater unpredictability and increased ment, a number of lessons and challenges hazard events, and meteorological depart- are already emerging, around the avail- ments need to be strengthened to meet this ability and credibility of climate change need. Ideally, scientific data should be veri- information and data, the quality of partic- fied against local data, so that the scientific ipatory processes in CBA, scaling up, and information has credibility with users monitoring and evaluation. (Christian Aid, this issue).

Issues around knowledge Local knowledge Good information on which to base climate Whilst communities often have little confi- change adaptation is vital, but it is not dence in the reliability of information from always available, accessible, or credible. scientists, scientists are often equally reluctant to trust local knowledge, which they Scientific data regard as subjective and lacking in rigour Christian Aid (this issue) highlight the diffi- (Gaillard and Maceda, this issue). culties communities often experience in However, in the absence of weather records accessing climate change data that they can and climate change data, CBA may be use in planning. Whilst climate models can largely dependent on local knowledge of help identify which parts of the world are past climate trends for forecasting future more likely to be physically vulnerable (see trends. Annex 1), these predictions are often at a Gill (1991) compared rainfall patterns geographic resolution or timescale which recorded by Nepali farmers using rainfall are of little use to local communities. Better calendars with the ‘real’ data recorded at climate change models, which can make the nearby weather station, and found a predictions that are more relevant for remarkably good fit when comparing communities, are urgently needed. modal rainfall. A more recent study was There are also problems with weather able to match farmer perceptions of chang- forecasts. Meteorological stations are often ing timing and character of seasons against woefully under-resourced and under- meteorological records and get a fit good staffed, data are not computerised, and enough to show that farmer analysis needs data which would be useful for farmers are to be taken seriously (McGrath, pers. not collected. Jennings and McGrath comm.). However, several authors (e.g. (2009), for example, point out that the vast Warrick) note that, when analysing longer- majority of analyses of meteorological term trends with communities, more records and climate model data focus on recent events tend to overshadow more mean annual temperature and precipita- distant ones, and this needs to be taken tion change rather than the timing of rains into account when trying to extrapolate and intra-seasonal rainfall patterns, which from past trends. are of much more interest to farmers. Many communities use traditional Where data are available, communities systems to forecast the coming season. are often not able to access them, for Sherwood and Bentley (this issue) describe example, because they lack Internet access, how farmers use wind patterns, cloud or the data are not passed from meteoro- formations, the position of rainbows, and logical departments to other government animal behaviour to predict the coming departments which can make use of them, season. Berger et al. (this issue) describes a such as agriculture. Finally, communities traditional weather forecasting system often have little confidence in the data. called Litha, based on lunar cycles, and Community-based adaptation to climate change: an overview 23 used by communities in southern coastal patory processes need time to develop and in Sri Lanka to predict rainfall patterns, they need flexible funding. They do not fit and the best time to plant crops. However, with the pre-determined calendars, there are fears that these traditional budgets, and outputs demanded by govern- systems will become less effective as ment and other organisations. climate change impacts increase. Berger et The way in which adaptation activities al. observe that in recent years, the Litha are funded may be of help here. Poor system has been falling out of use, although nations argue that, as wealthy nations have whether this is because it is less effective or caused the problems of climate change, any because scientific weather forecasts are international funding streams for adapta- more reliable is unclear, and this would tion activities should be used as recipient merit further investigation. countries and communities see fit, and that such funding should be more stable and Issues around participation long-term than development funding, CBA activities demonstrate a variety of which is subject to the conditions and types and degrees of participation (see priorities of donors. This provides an Table 1 for one typology). Participatory opportunity for flexible, long-term funding tools are sometimes used as a way of of participatory community-based adapta- collecting local information about vulnera- tion processes. bility and climate change to be used and In the rush to go to scale to respond to analysed by outsiders (e.g. the case climate change adaptation and to spend described by Wong, this issue). Often the newly available funds, there is a danger priorities and interests of outsiders over- that, as with PRA in the 1990s, participa- ride those of communities, and there is still tory CBA approaches will be abused and a lot of ‘doing to’ communities, rather than misused. At the end of this issue, in communities taking charge. Experience ‘Reflections on practical ethics for partici- from many different fields, including those patory community-based adaptation,’ we relevant to climate change adaptation, such have reproduced a statement by a group of as natural resource management and soil practitioners called ‘Sharing our concerns’ and water conservation, shows that if adap- (Absalom et al.), which was published in tation is to be effective and sustainable, it PLA (then PLA Notes) in 1994. This state- must draw on the knowledge and priorities ment is essentially an ethical code for of local people, build on their capacities, participatory practitioners, and with a few and empower them to make changes them- amendments, it has stood the test of time. selves. In this overview, we have argued We have also included here an extract that communities, scientists, and develop- from an article in a more recent issue, PLA ment workers need to learn, analyse, and 54 (Rambaldi et al., 2006) on practical plan action in partnership, but that ethics for participatory development prac- communities need to be in the driving seat. titioners. This has wide-reaching implications for Honest critical reflection – of the sort professional behaviour, attitudes, and exemplified by Warrick (this issue) – is mindsets, and for institutional cultures and essential if CBA practitioners are to learn structures. Sherwood and Bentley (this from each others’ experiences. For example, issue), for example, point out that people- what happens when, as Warrick cautions, centred, community-based issues are in climate change is not seen as a priority in conflict with dominant professional behav- communities, where a highly variable iour and with dominant institutional climate is regarded as ‘normal’, or where designs. Outsiders are facilitators and co- climate change impacts are not yet evident, learners, not ‘teachers’ or ‘experts’. Partici- even though scientists are confident that 24 60 G Reid, Alum, Berger, Cannon, Huq, and Milligan

Table 2: Types of participation

Type of participation Characteristics

Passive participation People participate by being told what is going to happen or has already happened. It is a unilateral announcement by an administration or project management without listening to people’s responses. The information being shared belongs only to external professionals.

Participation in People participate by answering questions posed by extractive researchers using information giving questionnaire surveys or similar approaches. People do not have the opportunity to influence proceedings as the findings of the research are neither shared nor checked for accuracy.

Participation by People participate by being consulted, and external people listen to views. These consultation external professionals define both problems and solutions, and may modify these in the light of people’s responses. Such a consultative process does not concede any share in decision-making, and professionals are under no obligation to take on board people’s views.

Participation for People participate by providing resources, for example labour, in return for food, material incentives cash, or other material incentives. Much on-farm research falls into this category as farmers provide the fields but are not involved in the experimentation or the process of learning. It is very common to see this called participation, yet people have no stake in prolonging activities when the incentives end.

Functional People participate by forming groups to meet predetermined objectives related to participation the project, which can involve the development or promotion of externally initiated social organisation. Such involvement does not tend to be at early stages of project cycles or planning, but rather after major decisions have been made. These institutions tend to be dependent on external initiators and facilitators, but may become self-dependent.

Interactive People participate in joint analysis, which leads to action plans and the formation participation of new local institutions or the strengthening of existing ones. It tends to involve interdisciplinary methodologies that seek multiple perspectives and make use of systematic and structured learning processes. These groups take control over local decisions and so people have a stake in maintaining structures or practices.

Self-mobilisation People participate by taking initiatives independent of external institutions to change systems. They develop contacts with external institutions for resources and technical advice they need, but retain control over how resources are used. Such self-initiated mobilisation and collective action may or may not challenge existing inequitable distributions of wealth and power.

Table 2: A typology of participation5

there will be serious impacts? What Difficulties with the concept of ‘community’ happens when an external organisation’s Whilst CBA focuses on ‘the community’, it focus and funding does not match the prior- is very important to be aware of differences ities raised by communities? Without the in priorities, needs, vulnerability, and flexibility to address communities’ real capacities within communities. Tanner et concerns, it is difficult for the process of al., for example, show that there are adaptation to be community-driven. marked differences in perceptions of the

5 Table sourced from Pretty et al. (1995), who adapted it from Adnan et al. (1992). Community-based adaptation to climate change: an overview 25

Box 4: Looking within the community

Climate change impacts have different effects on women and on men and have been well attested in many places. The need to find water as well as firewood and fodder is a well-known reason for girls to be kept out of school, and male migration has been linked to the spread of HIV and AIDS. In Nepal, increasing crop failure has increased the strategy of men migrating. Women are left alone to look after families yet with the least access to resources to be able to adapt. They have less access to cultivable land to grow food and have to find water, wood, and fodder. Any worsening of livelihood options has to be made up in physical labour, one of the few resources women control. So to compensate for the decline in food production, women are doing more daily waged labour. This is often extremely onerous – such as portering construction materials – and badly paid – women are paid only three-quarters of what a man would earn for the same work.

Source: S. Jennings and J. McGrath (2009). importance of different hazards by age and dangers of ignoring intra-community gender in the Philippines. Men, as the power differentials when planning adapta- farmers in these communities, highlighted tion activities. Local chiefs ensured that agricultural hazards such as pests and their family members were included as drought, whilst women were concerned community representatives, excluding the with social hazards (gambling, drugs), and voices and interests of poorer farmers from children had the most awareness of envi- decision-making processes. Even though ronmentally unsound livelihood practices the project made special efforts to ensure and global environmental problems. gender balance, planned adaptation activ- Different sections of the community ities were both poverty insensitive and also vary in their capacity to undertake served to reinforce existing power inequal- adaptation activities. Women are particu- ities. larly badly affected by the combination of Many articles in this issue use partici- climatic and environmental stresses, but patory approaches in a differentiated way their particular needs and wishes for adap- to capture the perspectives of different tation are less likely to be heard or acted groups. Some make particular efforts to upon (Jennings and McGrath, 2009) (see ensure that more vulnerable households, Box 4). Children are affected by both and vulnerable individuals within house- current and future climate change impacts, holds, are included, for example, the partic- yet their voices are rarely heard or consid- ipatory modelling process described by ered in climate change adaptation activi- Gaillard and Maceda, giving the opportu- ties (Plush, this issue). nity to ensure that the voices of those In many National Adaptation people are heard. Less is said, however, Programmes of Action (NAPAs), agricul- about analysing power relations within ture and forestry feature heavily as priority communities, and how differences in needs projects. However, McGrath and Jennings and priorities can be reconciled. We need (2009) point out that, in Malawi, women to keep asking: Who benefits? Who loses? prioritised a crèche, family planning, access Who is empowered? Who is disempow- to loans, credit, training, and free health- ered?6 care over support for agriculture. They argued that without childcare and support Monitoring and evaluation to start up small enterprises, they could not Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of CBA make adaptation changes. activities will also be a challenge. Good Wong (this issue) highlights the CBA should be truly participatory and

6 See ‘Reflections on practical ethics for participatory community-based adaptation,’ this issue. Source: Rambaldi et al., 2006. 26 60 G Reid, Alum, Berger, Cannon, Huq, and Milligan Photo: Terry Cannon Terry Photo:

Houses raised on plinths to try and keep them above flood levels, 2007, near Khulna, Bangladesh.

devolve much of the decision-making Policies and institutions for CBA down to the community level, but this Whilst CBA is focused on the community makes any centralised reporting or evalu- level, it cannot be carried out in isolation ation activities more difficult to coordinate. from events and activities occurring at This is an important issue, because it is the other levels, for example: responsibility of industrialised nations to • CBA is affected by the services and help poor countries adapt to climate support available (or more often not avail- change, so some means of evaluating the able) at district and national levels, for effectiveness of funded CBA programmes example, long-range weather forecasts, is required. But any move towards downscaled climate scenarios, satellite centralised tracking and evaluating images, information on weather forecast- systems must be sure not to lose sight of the ing, and agricultural and other extension need to facilitate genuine participatory services, and the ability of support organi- processes that empower communities to sations to integrate their activities. adapt to climate change in ways which • Some adaptation activities have spill-over address locally identified priorities. effects on other communities, for example, Community-based adaptation to climate change: an overview 27 if one community builds a dam to cope Conclusion with drought, this will affect communities The theory and practice of CBA are still in lower down the river. Wong (this issue), for their infancy. Both are likely to grow very example, describes how communities rapidly, however, as needs increase as a participated in transboundary river water result of intensifying climate change governance in Burkina Faso and Ghana, impacts and as interest in and support for which allowed for coordination and adaptation grows at national and interna- advance warning over the flow of water. tional levels. • Policy makers at district, national, and Although funding is increasingly avail- international levels need to know how able for adaptation activities, simply communities are being affected by climate providing poor country governments with change, and to understand and respond to more money does not mean that it will communities’ priorities and needs. This reach the poor and those who are most might be through participation in ‘invited’ vulnerable to climate change, let alone spaces, such as through participatory increase their ability to adapt. Such scenario development workshops (Bizikova communities are often marginalised, et al. this issue)7, or through advocacy by remote, and receive limited services and communities (e.g. Plush describes how little support from their governments even videos produced by children influenced when they are able to articulate what policy makers in Nepal), or by communi- support they need. Reaching these ties organising and putting pressure on hundreds of millions of people and powerful local actors (Dodman, Mitlin, and supporting their genuine participation in Rayos, unpublished abstract). any decision-making about resource allo- Some CBA approaches explicitly build cation for CBA will be an immense chal- in a multi-level approach. Action Aid, for lenge for any international or national example, uses participatory vulnerability programme or funding mechanism focus- analysis (PVA), which starts by assessing ing on adaptation. vulnerability at the community level, but Whilst CBA initiatives are increasing in this feeds into the district, national, and number and information sharing on these international levels. They argue that there activities is developing, translating these are multiple determinants/causes of activities and documentation into vulnerability, and many of these fall outside improved policy responses and scaled up individuals or communities. Hence analy- CBA initiatives worldwide remains a chal- sis of vulnerability must go beyond the lenge. Power structures are at the heart of individual to micro- and macro-level polit- climate change vulnerability and it is ical processes. Similarly, Practical Action important to find ways to allow poor have been developing a framework for vulnerable people to influence policy and understanding, analysing, and addressing be heard in key policy arenas, such as the the multiple factors – lack of resources; UNFCCC negotiations. fragile livelihoods; hazards; climate To be successful, community-based change; political marginalisation; and, adaptation programmes will need to weak institutional support mechanisms – ensure that communities are able to that contribute to vulnerability in an inte- participate in identifying priorities, both grated and holistic manner (Pasteur, local and regional, and in planning, imple- 2009). menting, monitoring, and reviewing adap-

7 Participatory scenario development workshops engage those most directly concerned (e.g. community members, local officals) in discussions about how the future may develop, and about possible adaptation pathways, and their pros and cons. The conclusions may feed into local, district, and national planning. 28 60 G Reid, Alum, Berger, Cannon, Huq, and Milligan

Box 3: Sharing information on CBA

The second and third International Conferences on Community-Based Adaptation were held in Dhaka, Bangladesh, in February 2007 and February 2009. This will become an annual event at which practitioners, policy makers and researchers can share information on methodologies for CBA, upscaling CBA, communicating CBA, CBA in different ecosystems, funding for CBA etc. The next will be held in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania in February 2010. The conferences involve field visits to CBA projects in different ecosystems and regions so people can see CBA activities on the ground.8

tation. Such programmes should provide opment and Climate Days event, held each support and link communities to relevant year during the Conference of Parties decision-making institutions. They will (COP) to the UNFCCC. This event has a also need to build the capacity of local dedicated CBA session to share informa- organisations and local governments to tion on CBA with negotiators and enable them to effectively take part in deci- observers at the international climate sion-making processes.9 change negotiations.10 CBA practitioners CBA draws on a number of different can also benefit from the rich literature fields, including disaster relief work, that is available on participation.11 community development work, and climate science. These different areas of Final thoughts knowledge and expertise often employ We face increasing pressure to meet the different languages and concepts, and myriad challenges that a changing climate there is still much work to be done in presents. As this new community of prac- developing a common understanding and tice emerges and matures, the ethics and language, and sharing experiences and quality of participatory processes will be good practice. central to the success of community-based Continuing to document CBA adaptation to climate change – and there processes in an honest and critical way is are both opportunities and dangers. As very important, both to improve practice Absalom et al. wrote in 1994, and to share experience in little-documented areas, such as incorporating The opportunities are to initiate and sustain climate change adaptation into health processes of change: empowering disadvan- policy. You will find a list of resources on taged people and communities, transforming CBA, including websites, later in this issue. organisations, and reorienting individuals. Other important opportunities for experi- The dangers come from demanding too much, ence-sharing include the International in a top-down mode, too fast, with too little Conferences on Community-Based Adap- understanding of participatory development tation (see Box 3), and the two-day Devel- and its implications.

8 The second and third conferences were run by the Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies. See www.bcas.net for more information. See www.iied.org for more information on the forthcoming 4th CBA conference in Tanzania. 9 ESRC-funded seminar, Integrating Approaches: Sustainable Livelihoods, Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation, December 2009, organised by Practical Action (www.practicalaction.org.uk). See: http://community.eldis.org/.59cc7287 10 These events are run by the International Institute for Environment and Development. For more information see: http://tinyurl.com/iied-COP15-d-c. Full URL: www.iied.org/climate-change/key-issues/climate-negotiations-capacity-building/cop15- development-and-climate-days 11 See, for example, www.planotes.org for back issues of Participatory Learning and Action. Recent issues include PLA 54: Mapping for change: practice, technologies, and communication, and PLA 55: Practical tools for community conservation in southern Africa. PLA 50: Critical reflections, future directions looks at participation in a wide range of different fields, as well as focusing on good participatory practice and ethics. IIED’s Participatory Learning and Action: A Trainers Guide is also an invaluable resource on participatory approaches, processes, and methods. Community-based adaptation to climate change: an overview 29

As we move forward with community- based adaptation to climate change, we hope that this issue of Participatory Learn- ing and Action will contribute to learning and experience sharing around CBA – and help to promote good participatory practice.

CONTACT DETAILS Hannah Reid Senior Researcher Climate Change Group International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) 3 Endsleigh Street London WC1H 0DD UK Email: [email protected] Mozaharul Alam Project Manager United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Regional Office of the Asia and Pacific (ROAP) Bangkok Thailand Email: [email protected] Rachel Berger Practical Action The Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development Bourton on Dunsmore RUGBY CV23 9QZ UK Email: [email protected] Terry Cannon Visiting Fellow Climate Change Group International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) 3 Endsleigh Street London WC1H 0DD UK Email: [email protected] Saleemul Huq Senior Fellow Climate Change Group International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) 3 Endsleigh Street London WC1H 0DD UK Email: [email protected] Angela Milligan Co-Editor Participatory Learning and Action series International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) 3 Endsleigh Street London WC1H 0DD UK Email: [email protected] 30 60 G Reid, Alum, Berger, Cannon, Huq, and Milligan

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Special thanks to Holly Ashley for her careful reading of this overview, many helpful suggestions, and support during the writing process. Thanks also to Michel Pimbert for insights around the quality of participation.

REFERENCES Absalom, E. et al., (1995). ‘Sharing our concerns and looking to the future.’ In PLA Notes 22, February 1995. IIED: London. Online: www.planotes.org/documents/plan_02201.PDF Action Aid International (2005). Participatory vulnerability analysis: a step-by-step guide for field staff, Action Aid International Adnan, S., A. Barren, S.M. Nurul Alam, and A. Brustinow (1992). People's participation: NGOs and the flood action plan. Research and Advisory Services: Dhaka, Bangladesh Anuchiracheeva, S. and T. Pinkaew (2009). Case Jasmine Rice in the Weeping Plain: Adapting Rice Farming to Climate Change in Northeast Thailand. Oxfam Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation Resources, Oxfam GB Chambers, R., N. Kenton and H. Ashley (2004). Participatory Learning and Action 50 Critical reflections, future directions. IIED: London. Online: www.planotes.org/documents/plan_05003.pdf Christian Aid (2009a). ‘Module I: Framework and Approach.’ Christian Aid Adaptation Toolkit: Integrating adaptation to climate change into secure livelihoods, p.13. Christian Aid: UK Christian Aid (2009b). ‘Module II: Developing a climate change analysis.’ Christian Aid Adaptation Toolkit: Integrating adaptation to climate change into secure livelihoods. Christian Aid: UK Corbett, J., G. Rambaldi, P.K. Kyem, D. Weiner, R. Olson, J. Muchemi, M. McCall, and R. Chambers (2006). ‘Overview: mapping for change – the emergence of a new practice.’ Participatory Learning and Action 54 Mapping for Change: practice, technologies and communications. IIED: London and CTA: Wageningen. Online: www.planotes.org/pla_backissues/54.html Gill, G. (1991). ‘But how does it compare with the REAL data?’ In PLA Notes 14, IIED: London. Online: www.planotes.org/pla_backissues/14.html#AB1 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2007). Fourth Assessment Report, United Nations Jennings, S. and J. McGrath (2009). What Happened to the Seasons? Oxfam GB Research Report: UK Pasteur K., (2009). ‘Practical Action’s Vulnerability to Resilience Framework’ to be presented at Frameworks for Integration: challenges and opportunities for bringing together Disaster Risk Reduction, Climate Change Adaptation, and Sustainable Livelihoods, 4th Livelihoods Seminar ito be held in December 2009. http://community.eldis.org/.59cc7287/ Pretty, J., I. Guijt, J. Thompson, and I. Scoones (1995). Participatory Learning and Action: a trainer’s guide. IIED Participatory Methodology Series, IIED: London Rambaldi, G., R. Chambers, M. McCall and J. Fox (2006). ‘Practical ethics for PGIS practitioners, facilitators, technology intermediaries and researchers.’ In Participatory Learning and Action 54 Mapping for Change: practice, technologies and communications. IIED: London and CTA: Wageningen. Online: www.planotes.org/pla_backissues/54.html Community-based adaptation to climate change: an overview 31

Annex 1: Predicted impacts of climate change, vulnerability, and adaptive capacity by region

Region Likely regional impacts of climate change Vulnerability, adaptive capacity

Africa • By 2020, between 75 million and 250 million • Most vulnerable due to multiple people are projected to be exposed to increased stresses and low adaptive capacity water stress due to climate change. Coupled with is low due to low GDP per capita, increased demand, this will adversely affect widespread poverty (the number of livelihoods and exacerbate water-related problems. poor grew over the 1990s), inequitable land distribution, and • Agricultural production, including access to food, in low education levels. There is also many African countries and regions is projected to be an absence of safety nets, severely compromised by climate variability and particularly after harvest failures. change. The area suitable for agriculture, the length of growing seasons and yield potential, particularly • More than one quarter of the along the margins of semi-arid and arid areas, are population lives within 100 km of expected to decrease. This would further adversely the coast and most of Africa’s affect food security and exacerbate malnutrition in largest cities are along coasts the continent. In some countries, yields from rain-fed vulnerable to sea-level rise, coastal agriculture could be reduced by up to 50% by 2020. erosion, and extreme events.

• Local food supplies are projected to be negatively • Individual coping strategies for affected by decreasing fisheries resources in large desertification are already strained, lakes due to rising water temperatures, which may be leading to deepening poverty. exacerbated by continued overfishing. • Dependence on rain-fed • Towards the end of the 21st century, projected sea- agriculture is high. level rise will affect low-lying coastal areas with large populations. The cost of adaptation could amount to • Adaptive capacity is likely to be at least 5-10% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). greatest in countries with civil order, Mangroves and coral reefs are projected to be further political openness, and sound degraded, with additional consequences for fisheries economic management. Some and tourism. adaptation to current climate variability is taking place; however, this may be insufficient for future changes in climate.

Asia • Glacier melt in the Himalayas is projected to • Adaptive capacity varies between increase flooding, rock avalanches from destabilised countries depending on social slopes, and to affect water resources within the next structure, culture, economic capacity, two to three decades. This will be followed by and level of environmental decreased river flows as the glaciers recede. degradation.

• Freshwater availability in Central, South, East, and • As a region, poverty in both rural South-East Asia, particularly in large river basins, is and urban areas has decreased in projected to decrease due to climate change which, Asia. along with population growth and increasing demand arising from higher standards of living, could • Capacity is increasing in some adversely affect more than a billion people by the parts of Asia (for example, the 2050s. success of early warning systems for extreme weather events in • Coastal areas, especially heavily populated Bangladesh), but is still restrained megadelta regions in South, East and South-East due to poor resource bases, Asia, will be at greatest risk due to increased flooding inequalities in income, weak from the sea and, in some megadeltas, flooding from institutions, and limited technology. the rivers. 32 60 G Reid, Alum, Berger, Cannon, Huq, and Milligan

Annex 1 (continued): Predicted impacts of climate change, vulnerability, and adaptive capacity by region

Region Likely regional impacts of climate change Vulnerability, adaptive capacity

Asia • Climate change is projected to impinge on the (continued) sustainable development of most developing countries of Asia, as it compounds the pressures on natural resources and the environment associated with rapid urbanisation, industrialisation, and economic development.

• It is projected that crop yields could increase by up to 20% in East and South-East Asia while they could decrease up to 30% in Central and South Asia by the mid-21st century. Taken together, and considering the influence of rapid population growth and urbanisation, the risk of hunger is projected to remain very high in several developing countries.

• Endemic morbidity and mortality due to diarrhoeal disease primarily associated with floods and droughts are expected to rise in East, South and South-East Asia due to projected changes in the hydrological cycle associated with global warming.

• Increases in coastal water temperature would exacerbate the abundance and/or toxicity of cholera in South Asia.

Latin America • By mid-century, increases in temperature and • Some social indicators have associated decreases in soil water are projected to improved over the 1990s, lead to gradual replacement of tropical forest by including adult literacy, life savannah in eastern Amazonia. Semi-arid expectancy, and access to safe vegetation will tend to be replaced by arid-land water. vegetation. There is a risk of significant biodiversity loss through species extinction in many areas of • Other factors such as infant tropical Latin America. mortality, low secondary school enrolment, and high income • In drier areas, climate change is expected to lead inequality contribute to limiting to salination and desertification of agricultural land. adaptive capacity. Productivity of some important crops is projected to decrease and livestock productivity to decline, with • Some countries have made adverse consequences for food security. In efforts to adapt, particularly temperate zones soya bean yields are projected to through conservation of key increase. ecosystems, early warning systems, risk management in • Sea-level rise is projected to cause increased risk agriculture, strategies for flood of flooding in low-lying areas. Increases in sea drought and coastal surface temperature due to climate change are management, and disease projected to have adverse effects on Mesoamerican surveillance systems. However, coral reefs, and cause shifts in the location of south- the effectiveness of these efforts east Pacific fish stocks. is outweighed by: lack of basic information, observation and • Changes in precipitation patterns and the monitoring systems; lack of disappearance of glaciers are projected to capacity building and appropriate Community-based adaptation to climate change: an overview 33

Annex 1 (continued): Predicted impacts of climate change, vulnerability, and adaptive capacity by region

Region Likely regional impacts of climate change Vulnerability, adaptive capacity

Latin America significantly affect water availability for political, institutional, and (contiued) human consumption, agriculture, and energy technological frameworks; low generation. income; and settlements in vulnerable areas, among others.

Small Island • The projected sea-level rise of 5 mm/yr for • Adaptive capacity of human States the next hundred years would cause enhanced systems is generally low in small soil erosion, loss of land, poverty, dislocation island states, and vulnerability of people, increased risk from storm surges, high; small island states are reduced resilience of coastal ecosystems, likely to be among the countries saltwater intrusion into freshwater resources most seriously impacted by and high resource costs to respond to and climate change. adapt to changes. • Declines in coastal • Coral reefs would be negatively affected by ecosystems would negatively bleaching and by reduced calcification rates impact reef fish and threaten due to higher carbon dioxide levels; mangrove, reef fisheries, those who earn sea grass bed, and other coastal ecosystems their livelihoods from reef and the associated biodiversity would be fisheries, and those who rely on adversely affected by rising temperatures and the fisheries as a significant food accelerated sea-level rise. source.

• Small islands, whether located in the tropics • Limited arable land and or higher latitudes, have characteristics which extensive soil salination make make them especially vulnerable to the effects agriculture on small islands, both of climate change, sea-level rise and extreme for domestic food production events. and cash crop exports, highly vulnerable to climate change. • Deterioration in coastal conditions, for example through erosion of beaches and coral • Tourism, an important source bleaching, is expected to affect local resources, of income and foreign exchange e.g. fisheries, and reduce the value of these for many islands, would face destinations for tourism. severe disruption from climate change and sea-level rise. • Sea-level rise is expected to exacerbate inundation, storm surge, erosion, and other coastal hazards, thus threatening vital infrastructure, settlements, and facilities that support the livelihoods of island communities.

Climate change is projected by mid-century to reduce water resources in many small islands, e.g. in the Caribbean and Pacific, to the point where they become insufficient to meet demand during low-rainfall periods.

• With higher temperatures, increased invasion by non-native species is expected to occur, particularly on mid- and high latitude islands.

Source: Adapted from IPCC (2007). 34

Glossary

Adaptation Climate change mitigation Adjustment in natural or human systems in Technological change and substitution that response to actual or expected climate reduce resource inputs and emissions per stimuli or their effects, which moderates unit of output. Although several social, harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. economic, and technological policies would Various types of adaptation can be distin- produce an emission reduction, with respect guished, including anticipatory and reactive to climate change, mitigation means imple- adaptation, private and public adaptation, menting policies to reduce greenhouse gas and autonomous and planned adaptation emissions and enhance sinks (see also (IPCC). Greenhouse gas) (IPCC, 2007).

Adaptive capacity Climate hazard The ability of a system to adjust to climate Potentially damaging physical manifesta- change, including climate variability and tions of climatic variability or change, such extremes; to moderate potential as droughts floods, storms, episodes of damages; to take advantage of opportu- heavy rainfall, long-term changes in the nities; or to cope with the consequences mean values of climatic variables, potential (IPCC, 2007). future shifts in climatic regimes, and so on (Brooks, 2003). Climate change A change of climate which is attributed Climate impacts directly or indirectly to human activity that Consequences of climate and climate alters the composition of the global atmos- change on natural and human systems. phere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over compara- Climate model ble time periods (UNFCCC). A numerical representation of the climate G Glossary 35 system based on the physical, chemical, and physical damage (Tearfund). biological properties of its components, their interactions and feedback processes, Disaster risk reduction and accounting for all or some of its known The concept and practice of reducing disas- properties. The climate system can be ter risks through systematic efforts to represented by models of varying complex- analyse and manage the causal factors of ity (i.e. for any one component or combina- disasters, including through reduced expo- tion of components a hierarchy of models sure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of can be identified, differing in such aspects people and property, wise management of as the number of spatial dimensions, the land and the environment, and improved extent to which physical, chemical, or preparedness for adverse events (UNISDR, biological processes are explicitly repre- 2009). sented, or the level at which empirical para- meterisations are involved (IPCC, 2007). Early warning system The set of capacities needed to generate and Climate trend disseminate timely and meaningful warning The general direction in which climate information to enable individuals, commu- factors, such as average annual temperature nities, and organisations threatened by a or rainfall, tend to move over time. hazard to prepare and to act appropriately and in sufficient time to reduce the possibil- Climate variability ity of harm or loss (UNISDR, 2009). The UNFCC makes a distinction between ‘climate change’, attributable to human El Niño – or El Niño Southern Oscillation activities altering the atmospheric compo- (ENSO) sition, and ‘climate variability’, attributable A complex interaction of the tropical Pacific to natural causes. Ocean and the global atmosphere that results in irregularly occurring episodes of Coping capacity changed ocean and weather patterns in The ability of people, organisations, and many parts of the world, often with signifi- systems, using available skills and resources, cant impacts over many months, such as to face and manage adverse conditions, altered marine habitats, rainfall changes, emergencies or disasters (UNISDR, 2009). floods, droughts, and changes in storm patterns (UNISDR, 2009). Disaster risk management El Niño and La Niña are defined as The systematic process of using adminis- sustained sea surface temperature anomalies trative directives, organisations, and oper- of magnitude greater than 0.5°C across the ational skills and capacities to implement central tropical Pacific Ocean, El Niño being strategies, policies, and improved coping a warming and La Niña a cooling event. El capacities in order to lessen the adverse Niño events are associated with wetter impacts of hazards and the possibility of weather in Peru/Ecuador and East Africa disaster (UNISDR, 2009). and drier conditions in South-East Asia, northern Australia, and Southern Africa. La Disaster Niña events generally cause the opposite and An event, either natural or man-made, that are associated with increased Atlantic causes great distress or destruction. It is a cyclones. Climate change may increase the social crisis which occurs when a hazard strength and frequency of the oscillation. coincides with a vulnerable situation, resulting in significant loss of life, severe life- Extreme weather event threatening disruption, and substantial An event that is rare within its statistical 36 60

reference distribution at a particular place. substances, human activities or conditions Definitions of ‘rare’ vary, but an extreme that may cause loss of life, injury or other weather event would normally be as rare as health impacts, property damage, loss of or rarer than the 10th or 90th percentile. By livelihoods and services, social and definition, the characteristics of what is economic disruption, or environmental called ‘extreme weather’ may vary from place damage (UNISDR, 2009). to place. Extreme weather events may typically include floods and droughts (IPCC, Indigenous knowledge 2007). Also referred to as local knowledge, is the ancient, communal, holistic, and spiritual Forecast knowledge that encompasses every aspect Definite statement or statistical estimate of of human existence (Brascoupé and Mann, the likely occurrence of a future event or 2001). conditions for a specific area (UNISDR, 2009). Institutions Institutions are humanly created formal Geographic information system (GIS) and informal mechanisms that shape social A computer-based system designed to and individual expectations, interactions, collect, store, manage, and analyse spatially and behaviour. They can be classified as referenced information and associated falling into public (bureaucratic adminis- attribute data. Participatory GIS (PGIS) trative units, and elected local govern- facilitates the representation of local ments), civic (membership and cooperative people’s spatial knowledge using two- and organisations), and private sectors (service three-dimensional maps. These maps can and business organisations) (Uphoff and be used to facilitate decision-making Buck, 2006). Understanding how local processes, as well as support communica- institutions and their organisational forms tion and advocacy. Unlike traditional GIS shape the adaptation practices of poor applications, PGIS places control over communities is important for strengthen- access and use of culturally sensitive spatial ing communities’ adaptive capacities. data in the hands of those communities that generated it (Corbett et al., 2006). Livelihoods A livelihood comprises the capabilities, Greenhouse gas assets (stores, resources, claims, and access), A gas that absorbs radiation at specific wave- and activities required for a means of living. lengths within the spectrum of radiation A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope (infrared radiation) emitted by the Earth’s with and recover from stress and shocks, surface and by clouds. The gas in turn emits maintain or enhance its capabilities and infrared radiation from a level where the assets, and provide sustainable livelihood temperature is colder than the surface. The opportunities for the next generation; and net effect is a local trapping of part of the which contributes net benefits to other absorbed energy and a tendency to warm livelihoods at the local and global levels in the planetary surface. Water vapour (H2O), the long- and short-term (Chambers and carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), Conway, 1992). methane (CH4), and ozone (O3) are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth’s Maladaptation atmosphere (IPCC, 2007). Actions that increase vulnerability to climate change. This includes making Hazard impacts development or investment decisions while Impacts related to dangerous phenomena, neglecting the actual or potential impacts G Glossary 37 of both climate variability and longer-term assumptions about driving forces and key climate change (Burton, 1998). relationships. Scenarios may be derived from projections, but are often based on Maladaptation feedbacks additional information from other sources, Consequences of actions taken to reduce sometimes combined with a narrative story- short-term vulnerability which then accel- line (IPCC, 2007). erate medium or long-term vulnerability to climate change. Triangulation The verification of information gained from National Adaptation Programmes of one source or methodology with that gained Action (NAPAs) from one or more other sources or method- Documents prepared by least developed ologies. countries identifying urgent and immediate needs for adapting to climate change. The Vulnerability NAPAs are then presented to the interna- The extent to which a natural or social tional donor community for support system is susceptible to sustaining damage (UNFCCC). from hazards caused by climate change, and is a function of the magnitude of climate Remote sensing change, the sensitivity of the system to The process of gathering information about changes in climate, and the ability to adapt the Earth from a distance. Such data is the system to changes in climate. Hence, a commonly gathered by satellite or air highly vulnerable system is one that is (aerial) photography (IAPAD). highly sensitive to modest changes in climate and one for which the ability to Resilience adapt is severely constrained (IPCC, 2007). The ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate, and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions (UNISDR, 2009).

Risk Expected damage or loss due to the combination of vulnerability and hazards.

Scenario A plausible and often simplified description of how the future may develop, based on a coherent and internally consistent set of

SOURCE Christian Aid (2009a). ‘Module I: Framework and Approach.’ Christian Aid Adaptation Toolkit: Integrating adaptation to climate change into secure livelihoods. Christian Aid: UK

Definitions and figures that are unattributed were generally based on original material, multiple information sources, and/or adapted substantially to ensure they relate to the Christian Aid context (or a combination of these). 38 60

REFERENCES Brascoupé, S. and H. Mann (2001). A community guide to protecting Indigenous Knowledge. Research and Analysis Directorate, Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development: Canada Brooks, N. (2003). ‘Climate change, growth and sustainability: the ideological context.’ Tyndall Centre Briefing Note 8. Online: www.cru.uea.ac.uk/~e118/publications/TynBNote08.pdf Burton, I. (1998). ‘Adapting to Climate Change in the Context of National Economic Planning and Development.’ In P. Veit (ed.) Africa’s Valuable Assets: A Reader in Natural Resource Management. World Resources Institute: Washington DC Chambers R. and G. Conway (1992). ‘Sustainable rural livelihoods: practical concepts for the 21st century.’ Institute of Development Studies: Brighton. Online: www.eldis.org/vfile/upload/1/document/0708/DOC12443.pdf Corbett, J., G. Rambaldi, P.K. Kyem, D. Weiner, R. Olson, J. Muchemi, M. McCall, and R. Chambers (2006). ‘Overview: mapping for change – the emergence of a new practice.’ Participatory Learning and Action 54 Mapping for Change: practice, technologies and communications. IIED: London and CTA: Wageningen. Online: www.planotes.org/pla_backissues/54.html IAPAD (Integrated Approaches to Participatory Development website). Online community mapping glossary: www.iapad.org/glossary/default.htm IPCC (2007). IPCC 4th Assessment Report 2007. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Online: www.ipcc.ch IPCC online glossary: www.ipcc.ch/pdf/glossary/tar-ipcc-terms-en.pdf Tearfund online glossary: http://tilz.tearfund.org/Publications/Glossary.htm UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). Website: http://unfccc.int UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (2009). UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction. Online: www.undp.org.ge/new/files/24_619_762164_UNISDR- terminology-2009-eng.pdf Uphoff, N. and L. Buck (2006). ‘Strengthening rural local institutional capacities for sustainable livelihoods and equitable development.’ Paper prepared for the Social Development Department of the World Bank: Mimeo 39 PART I Reflections on participatory processes and practice 40 60

Articles in this section have a variety of entry points, including participatory vulnerability analysis, disaster risk reduction frameworks, and Farmer Field Schools. The case studies provide a rich source of experience and lessons for CBA practitioners. 41

Combining different knowledges: community-based climate change 2 adaptation in small island developing states

by ILAN KELMAN, JESSICA MERCER, and JENNIFER J. WEST

Introduction framework for combining different types of Throughout history, indigenous peoples knowledge to address climate change. It around the world have successfully builds on earlier work by Mercer to develop adjusted to social and environmental and pilot a framework for addressing disas- changes. However climate change is under- ter risk reduction in Small Island Develop- mining many existing livelihoods based on ing States (SIDS).1 The 52 SIDS face similar natural resources and challenging the rele- sustainability challenges, including excep- vance of indigenous knowledge on which tional vulnerability to climate change. those livelihoods are based. Similarly, The framework also draws on an assess- current scientific knowledge about climate ment of climate change impacts, vulnera- change and weather patterns is limited, bility, and adaptation across SIDS prepared and can rarely provide all that is needed for by Kelman, West, and colleagues under the dealing with change. The challenge is to Many Strong Voices (MSV) programme.2 find ways of combining indigenous and The MSV assessment work indicates that scientific knowledge to help in successful many SIDS communities have extensive adaptation at community level. indigenous knowledge and traditional This paper describes a community-based skills that have helped them to deal with

1 The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines disaster risk reduction as ‘systematic efforts to analyse and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events’. See Kelman and Gaillard (2008) for one discussion about similarities, differences, and linkages between disaster risk reduction and climate change. 2 The programme is supported by a consortium of donors including the Government of Norway and is led by UNEP/GRID-Arendal and the Center for International Climate and Environmental Research – Oslo (CICERO), for whom two of the authors work. MSV seeks to catalyse local action about climate change through capacity building, research, education, and outreach. See www.manystrongvoices.org for more details. 42 60 G Kelman, Mercer, and West

Figure 1: Map of PNG illustrating village locations Source: based on http://un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/papua.pdf Source:

change for centuries (CICERO and We then show how the framework could be UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2008). That assess- adapted to address climate change. ment provided the baseline for applying the disaster risk reduction work directly to DRR framework scope and method climate change as reported in this paper. The framework was originally developed We begin this paper by describing the with indigenous communities in Papua framework developed for addressing disas- New Guinea (PNG), one of the 52 SIDS. ter risk reduction (DRR), highlighting Subsistence agriculture is the main liveli- some of the participatory approaches used. hood for the majority of PNG’s population, Combining different knowledges:community-based climate change adaptation in small island developing states 43 which is 87% rural (PNG National Statis- disaster vulnerability and the use of tical Office, 2003). More than 400 crop indigenous and external scientific knowl- species are grown for food across the edge to reduce that vulnerability. Four country – mainly on land passed down steps were used (Mercer et al. 2009a, b), through families for generations – reflect- as described below. ing the country’s enormous environmental variations (Department of Lands and Step one: collecting background Physical Planning, 2005). Indigenous information knowledge and indigenous practices are Mercer collected background information being undermined by a combination of through participatory group work (Figures ‘modernisation’, national pressures includ- 3 and 4), identifying general community ing urbanisation, and global changes information, interests, and goals. Each including climate change. group session, and in the other steps too, Mercer carried out fieldwork in PNG in was attended by community representa- 2006-2007 in three rural villages, Singas, tives selected themselves and covering a Kumalu, and Baliau (Figure 1). Respec- variety of ages within the ethnically tively, these communities are affected by homogenous villages. Genders were gener- floods, floods and landslides, and an erupt- ally segregated and then brought together ing volcano. The villages were selected to present to each other (Figure 4), based principally on their previously because in PNG men usually dominate expressed interest in participating in discussions whereas this work sought disaster risk reduction activities after input from both genders. community members had approached The results from the group sessions PNG authorities for assistance. Through- were presented to the entire community at out the work, rapport and trust were built a community meeting to confirm or revise by participating in community tasks, information. Examples of the information including gardening, cooking, playing with gleaned were village history, hazard and children, and going to market to buy and event timelines, maps, and environmental sell goods. and social trends, with examples given in In each village, with the community Figure 5. members’ agreement, the fieldwork method used was ‘guided discovery’ in Step two: identifying underlying vulnerability which an external facilitator helps factors community members draw on past expe- With this baseline, communities identified riences and local knowledge to seek new underlying vulnerability factors, both relationships, connections, and ideas that external and internal. External factors are assist them to take action. Guided discov- those beyond a community’s control, such ery was supplemented with other partici- as storms and volcanic eruptions. Internal patory techniques, including mapping factors can be controlled by the community exercises, timelines, and matrix rankings to a large extent, such as changing crops or (see Mercer et al., 2008, 2009a, b). In each cropping patterns. context, these exercises must be selected Although climate change was not this in consultation with the population, espe- work’s focus, climate change was cially regarding literacy levels. mentioned as an external factor in all three As part of the guided discovery, villages. That is, through guided discovery, communities developed a process frame- the villagers – not outsiders – determined work (Figure 2). This helped guide that climate change was an important issue community members through an in-depth that should be addressed. This conclusion exploration of factors contributing to their was reached during discussions about the 44 60 G Kelman, Mercer, and West

Figure 2: The original process framework developed and used in PNG

STEP 1: STEP 2: STEP 3: COMMUNITY IDENTIFICATION IDENTIFICATION OF INDIGENOUS ENGAGEMENT OF VULNERABILITY AND SCIENTIFIC STRATEGIES FOR FACTORS VULNERABILITY REDUCTION

Indigenous strategies: Community Identification of • Past and present engagement: internal and external • Examples may include land use components planning, building methods, • Collaboration contributing to food strategies, social linkages, with community vulnerability. and environmental strategies and stakeholders Determined through: • Identification of community goals • Community situation • Establishing analysis Scientific strategies: rapport and trust • Identification of priorities • Past and present • Examples may include land use planning, building methods, food strategies, social linkages, and environmental strategies

Source: Mercer et al. (2009b) with some text adjusted. Photo: Jessica Mercer Jessica Photo:

Figure 3: An intense focus group discussion in Kumalu church where participants were discussing the impact of landslides and flooding upon Kumalu village. Combining different knowledges:community-based climate change adaptation in small island developing states 45

natural resources that sustain their livelihoods. Villagers in all three locations STEP 4: discussed weather patterns, raised the issue INTEGRATED STRATEGY of recently changing weather patterns, and connected those experiences to climate change. Whilst climate change was identified by the villagers as an external factor, it was not discussed in depth. Rather, the disaster risk reduction framework outlined here focused on the consequences of climate change internally and how these Integrated strategy: consequences could be addressed. The Reduced process highlighted the need to revise the • Addressing internal vulnerability components to framework to consider climate change, as hazards this paper does. • Dependent on effectiveness level Step three: identifying strategies for of each strategy identified vulnerability reduction Community members separated into groups to identify past and present indigenous and scientific strategies used to cope with the internal vulnerability factors identified. The distinction between ‘external’ science and Ongoing revision and evaluation ‘internal’ indigenous, traditional, or local knowledge(s) is not always straightforward. Photo: Jessica Mercer Jessica Photo: Figure 4: Men and women in Singas discussing maps drawn of the village and associated hazards. 46 60 G Kelman, Mercer, and West

Differences frequently highlighted are the context of external factors. However, whilst different methods used to investigate and applying and using the framework has interpret the surrounding world along with been described for disaster risk reduction, science’s attempts to separate knowledge follow-up work has yet to be completed for from context compared to indigenous evaluating outcomes and for measuring knowledge being deeply rooted in particu- over the long-term any discernible reduc- lar contexts. Community members them- tions in vulnerability. selves distinguished between the categories through identifying the knowledge, strate- Figure 5: Example of field results from gies, and resources available to them and implementing the framework for through determining the source of each. disaster risk reduction. Hazard timeline developed by Baliau community Once strategies for vulnerability reduction members, highlighting several climate- were identified, community members and non-climate-related events. scored the effectiveness of each strategy in reducing vulnerability. 2006 – Major eruption, ash fall. Step four: prioritising vulnerability reduction 2005 – Major eruption, ash fall. strategies Community members prioritised possible vulnerability reduction strategies, based on 2004 – Major eruption causes evacuation of whole Island including the scoring. The scores were seen as a guide Baliau Village. Chief of village rather than as being absolute. On occasion, returned after a month followed by a the scoring results led to qualitative discus- gradual return of villagers. Whilst sion that further revised the scoring to most of Baliau village have returned reflect community members’ views. Thus, a large part of the islanders still reside in care centres on the the process was iterative and factored in mainland. intangible, qualitative views rather than rigidly adhering to numbers – an important principle within the framework. Iden- 2002 – Landslide and flooding on the boundaries of Baliau village. tifying and prioritising the most effective strategies represented the integrated approach for reducing vulnerability by 2001 – Strong winds flattened crops. combining indigenous and scientific knowledge (Figures 5, 6 and 7). 1997 – Drought. Feedback from community members indicated that this approach enabled them 1996 – Major eruption, 13 people to identify strategies that they felt were died, evacuation. achievable using existing resources. The process also enabled them to identify 1992 – Lava flow destroys villages on varying stages and forms of vulnerability other side of island from Baliau. through time and how their own decisions, Baliau village only affected by ash such as changing land use practices and fall. building materials, could have contributed. Guided discovery through the frame- 1957 – Major eruption and work therefore focuses on the principle of evacuation of whole island. encouraging awareness and responsibility 2009ab). l., within the communities to address their 1937 – Major eruption. et a own vulnerabilities by themselves, espe-

cially the internal factors, but within the (Mercer Combining different knowledges:community-based climate change adaptation in small island developing states 47

Figure 6: Example of field results from implementing the framework for disaster risk reduction. Cause-effect vulnerability tree developed by Singas community members outlining what they considered to be ‘internal’ and ‘external’ vulnerability factors.

SINGAS

Loss of land/bush Vulnerable Erosion Increased houses – land building clearance House on ground for gardens Competition Location with nearby villages – gardens and population Sickness Changes in traditional values/ Loss of wildlife structure

Hunger

Decreased Death of cash education/loss crop –- buai of knowledge EFFECTS

Leads to CAUSES Introduction of Erosion increased new diseases vulnerability to floods Mosquitoes Land boundaries High population levels/growth Geographical Limited structure/natural education Hazard: environment: flooding • Soft soil • Situated between rivers • Drinking water Climate Globalisation: source change • Introduction of medicines – excess • Missionary influence (loss rainfall of old ways) • Change of diet, introduction to new vegetables • Increased access to outside community with roads • Interaction with outside community } • Marriage outside 48 60 G Kelman, Mercer, and West

Figure 7: Example of field results from implementing the framework for disaster risk reduction. Example of a pairwise ranking grid completed by Kumalu community members to prioritise pre-identified vulnerability factors.

Key: Priority list order Limited knowledge 1 Vulnerable housing

Construction of houses in dangerous places 2 Land loss

Lack of diversification of income sources 3 Land clearance

Minimal outside support 4 Construction of houses in dangerous places Land clearance (loss of bush/trees) 5 Garden accessibility No community planning 6 Hunger Land loss (gardens and coffee due to hazards) 7 Market access Vulnerable housing 8 Changes in farming practices Hunger 9 Lack of diversification of income sources Changes in farming practices (coffee, vegetables etc.) 10 No community planning Garden accessibility 11 Lack of knowledge Market access 12 Minimal outside support Notes: •After discussion, people from Kumalu decided that ‘limited knowledge’ was more important than previously identified and so the priority list order was changed to move ‘limited knowledge’ to number 5. •N/A (meaning ‘not applicable’) is used throughout the centre of a grid to avoid two of the same factors being compared against each other. Combining different knowledges:community-based climate change adaptation in small island developing states 49

Using the framework to address climate and vulnerabilities. External scientific infor- change mation indicating historical and potential The framework for disaster risk reduction future consequences of climate variability targeted mainly floods, storms, landslides, and change – for instance, satellite obser- and volcanic eruptions that the communi- vations and downscaled climate projections ties had previously experienced. Climate for short- and long-term scenarios – could change is likely to alter the timing, severity, be presented and discussed to connect to and frequency of some environmental internal vulnerability factors. For example, hazards along with affecting weather land use changes increased flood damage in seasonality. Consequently, the framework both Singas and Kumalu as an internal provides a useful entry point for discussing vulnerability factor and that can be how and why communities could be redressed locally in each place. Any changes vulnerable to, and could deal with, longer- must be done in the context of uncertainty term climate change. The framework has in how flood characteristics will change due not yet been applied in the field for only to climate change. The global situation climate change. analysis would identify both components Figure 8 shows how the framework could and describe how they are linked. Suggested be revised to address climate change. It incor- strategies for understanding the complete porates knowledge gained from the MSV situation analysis range from fully accept- assessment (CICERO and UNEP/GRID- ing responsibility, to specific internal Arendal, 2008) of climate change impacts, vulnerabilities, through to wider advocacy, vulnerability, and adaptation on SIDS. education, and awareness-raising strategies regarding climate change causes and Step one impacts, both in the community and Step one of the process remains unchanged, beyond the community. as it is important for determining commu- Rather than separating internal and nities’ own priorities and concerns. In our external factors as mutually exclusive cate- experience, climate change is a priority for gories, climate change reveals overlaps, as SIDS communities. SIDS communities are shown above for Singas and Kumalu. reporting climate change challenges.3 They Including climate change suggests that are actively seeking and supporting endeav- contingency and flexibility, rather than ours to address climate change, as shown by fixed strategies or rigid goals, should be MSV. However, this may not be the case for considered for flood risk reduction. communities elsewhere. If communities do not consider climate change to be a concern Step three yet scientific evidence suggests otherwise – When identifying indigenous strategies for an unlikely occurrence for SIDS – then reducing vulnerability to both environ- practitioners involved in using the frame- mental hazards and climate change, the work will need to decide ethically and prac- focus should be on determining how tically the appropriateness of trying to people have responded to longer-term introduce, or force, climate change onto the changes in the past. Examples of past community. responses that might be applicable under current local realities, as well as under Step two projected future changes, can be found In step two, a global situation analysis is within building construction methods: carried out, with global climate change building homes on stilts to avoid flooding causes and trends linked to local impacts as undertaken in Singas and the construc-

3 See e.g. www.climatefrontlines.org 50 60 G Kelman, Mercer, and West

Figure 8: The revised process framework, for introducing and addressing climate change

STEP 1: STEP 2: STEP 3: COMMUNITY IDENTIFICATION OF IDENTIFICATION OF INDIGENOUS ENGAGEMENT VULNERABILITY FACTORS AND SCIENTIFIC STRATEGIES FOR VULNERABILITY REDUCTION

Indigenous strategies: Identification of Community internal and external • Past and present, considering engagement: components both short-term and long-term contributing to changes • Collaboration vulnerability and their • Examples may include moving with community links. Determined buildings, migration, and a and stakeholders through: shift in crops grown • Identification of • Community and community goals global situation • Establishing analyses Scientific strategies: rapport and trust • Identification of priorities • Past and present • Examples may include: downscaled climate scenarios and coupling the climate models to hydrological models for the watershed

Source: Mercer et al. (2009b) with some text adjusted.

tion of steeply sloped roofs to avoid fire risk invasive species that could change the pest from volcanic ash and to ensure runoff or disease profile of local agricultural during heavy rainfall as in Baliau. systems. Partners outside the community One part of identifying scientific strate- may be needed to incorporate external gies should be requesting data that the scientific knowledge about climatology and community decides might be useful for ecology. long-term planning. Examples are down- As another example of a potential strat- scaled climate scenarios or regularly egy, MSV provides cases of indigenous SIDS updated remote sensed observations. This peoples gaining capacity for dealing with information could enable communities to climate change in international fora, such prepare in advance, through for example as the Conference of Parties (COP) negoti- identifying appropriate crops to plant given ations. Additionally, PNG is not currently the expected conditions, identifying appro- on the United Nations’ list of Least Devel- priate areas for gardens, and adjusting the oped Countries (LDCs), but it could agricultural growth cycle accordingly. nonetheless be useful to consider pursuing a National Adaptation Programme of Step four Action for climate change, as completed by Strategies should include measures for other SIDS that are LDCs, or to undertake addressing climate change, especially a similar process such as the Government beyond already experienced environmental of St. Lucia (2003) has done.4 hazards. One example is the potential for As such, the community could identify

4 See: http://unfccc.int/national_reports/napa/items/2719.php Combining different knowledges:community-based climate change adaptation in small island developing states 51

tion are supported simultaneously. The focus is on the community’s needs, not on STEP 4: climate change or disaster risk reduction as INTEGRATED STRATEGY the starting point. For example, all three villages in PNG identified increased vegetation burning as being a land use change that might exacerbate floods and erosion. The framework helps to consider how land use has changed, affecting community Integrated strategy: vulnerability, over past decades. By consid- • Addressing internal ering indigenous and non-indigenous and external strategies that improve land use and that strategies for Reduced reduce burning, flood and erosion vulner- vulnerability addressing climate ability is reduced, irrespective of climate change • Draw on resources change affecting those hazards. The outside the communities identified land use challenges communities and and improvements, automatically support- develop long-term ing climate change adaptation and disaster cooperative risk reduction simultaneously. partnerships with partners outside of The second point, emphasised in MSV, the community is that climate change and disaster risk reduction should be integrated within wider development contexts. The three Ongoing revision and evaluation PNG villages exemplify development challenges faced by many SIDS communities, irrespective of climate change. Meanwhile, strategies for addressing climate change through MSV, SIDS peoples express a need that go beyond the local level. The frame- for climate change research, policy, and work explicitly permits different levels of action that acknowledges wider develop- action that may be needed (e.g. local, ment contexts. district, national, international) while One possible idea to explore with permitting and identifying links amongst caution for the PNG villages, based on the those different levels. experience there, could be reversing land use changes to reduce flood and erosion Main lessons risk by expanding the crop profile. Crops The lesson to highlight from this work is could include local species with multiple the framework’s ability to relate local and uses, covering combinations of erosion global topics, especially by combining prevention, building materials, edibility, community knowledge and experiences and livestock fodder. The potential could with external scientific information and be explored for growing small amounts of approaches. Two main points are detailed crops for selling and trading alongside food here for emphasis when applying the crops. That could supplement income framework for climate change, based on while maintaining sufficient diversity in experience with the disaster risk reduction case of shifts in external markets and/or framework (Mercer et al., 2009a, b). environmental conditions. First, by identifying community goals If such livelihood adjustments were and priorities, and by connecting these to deemed to be appropriate, and if they were local and global situation analyses, climate accompanied by locally sensitive support change adaptation and disaster risk reduc- from external partners, the changes could 52 60 G Kelman, Mercer, and West

potentially bring livelihood benefits while commonalities between the original and reducing vulnerability. Indigenous knowl- revised frameworks are: edge would be needed regarding appropri- • the four-step structure; ate cropping patterns and land use. • community members identifying factors Non-indigenous local knowledge could that should be addressed to reduce vulner- assist in identifying suitable crops that ability; and might not have been grown before in the • the strategies combining indigenous and community. External scientific knowledge external scientific knowledge. might help in identifying potential climate Key differences are highlighted by scenarios. Figures 2 and 8. Caution is essential before implemen- An important strength of the frame- tation in order to fully analyse the poten- work is recognising indigenous and exter- tial positive and negative consequences. nal scientific knowledge as resources upon The uncertainties in future climate and which to build successful local strategies for market analyses must be weighed carefully vulnerability reduction. The ‘guided discov- against analysis of who may win and lose, ery’ method adheres to principles within in the short-term and long-term, when both disaster risk reduction and climate livelihood and land use systems are change endeavours, providing step-by-step adjusted. For instance, the introduction of guidelines for working with a community cash cropping for coffee in Kumalu in 1954 to move away from solely top-down was identified by the community as leading approaches. In describing the framework to later vulnerability. and suggesting its application, though, this This example highlights the challenges paper does not analyse the new frame- of ensuring that climate change concerns work’s implementation or evaluation. are addressed without causing or exacer- The main expected outcome of imple- bating other problems. MSV highlights menting the revised framework is reduced SIDS community concerns that climate community vulnerability through consider- change is only one of many major topics to ing disaster risk reduction and climate be considered, with others being liveli- change simultaneously. Both entail explic- hoods and disaster risk reduction. The itly recognising and acting on immediate framework enables communities to find and long-term challenges. A second solutions for adjusting and expanding outcome is establishing long-term coopera- livelihoods to tackle many challenges tive partnerships between communities and simultaneously. collaborators outside the community at regional, national, and international levels. Conclusion Those partnerships would be for exchang- The revised framework has the potential to ing and applying local and scientific knowl- demonstrate the usefulness of combining edge and expertise to design vulnerability disaster risk reduction and climate change reduction strategies that are locally contex- (see also Kelman and Gaillard, 2008). Key tual without neglecting wider contexts.

CONTACT DETAILS Ilan Kelman and Jennifer J. West Center for International Climate and Environmental Research – Oslo (CICERO) PO Box 1129, Blindern, Oslo, N-0318 Norway Tel: +47 2285 8566 www.ilankelman.org/contact.html www.cicero.uio.no/employees/homepage.aspx?person_id=716&lang=en Combining different knowledges:community-based climate change adaptation in small island developing states 53

Jessica Mercer CAFOD Romero Close London SW9 9TY UK Tel: +44 20 7733 7900

REFERENCES CICERO and UNEP/GRID-Arendal (2008). Many Strong Voices: Outline for an assessment project design. CICERO Report 2008:05. CICERO (Center for International Climate and Environmental Research, Oslo), Oslo, Norway and UNEP/GRID, Arendal, Norway. Online: www.cicero.uio.no/publications/detail.aspx?publication_ id=6359&lang=EN Department of Lands and Physical Planning (2005). Land Tenure System in Papua New Guinea. Department of Lands and Physical Planning, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. Online: www.lands.gov.pg/Services/Land_Administration/LA_Services/Land_ Acquisition/Land_Tenure.htm Government of Saint Lucia (2003). Saint Lucia National Climate Change Policy and Adaptation Plan. Ministry of Physical Development, Environment and Housing, Castries, St. Lucia. Online: www.climatechange.gov.lc/NCC_Policy- Adaptation_7April2003.pdf Kelman, I. and J.C. Gaillard (2008). ‘Placing climate change within disaster risk reduction.’ Disaster Advances 1(3): 3-5. Online: www.managein.org/manage/disas/Back_Issue/editorial/edit_03_0 html Mercer, J., I. Kelman, K. Lloyd, and S. Suchet-Pearson (2008). ‘Reflections on use of participatory research for disaster risk reduction.’ Area, 40(2): 172-183. Mercer, J., I. Kelman, L. Taranis, and S. Suchet (2009a). ‘Framework for integrating indigenous and scientific knowledge for disaster risk reduction.’ Disasters (forthcoming). Mercer, J., I. Kelman, S. Suchet-Pearson, and K. Lloyd (2009b). ‘Integrating indigenous and scientific knowledge bases for disaster risk reduction in Papua New Guinea.’ Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography, 91(2): 157-183. PNG National Statistical Office (2003). Census 2000: Population and Social Statistics. Government of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. Online: www.spc.int/prism/country/pg/stats/ Pop_Soc_%20Stats/popsoc.htm 54

Children’s participation in community-based disaster risk reduction 3 and adaptation to climate change

by THOMAS TANNER, MERCEDES GARCIA, JIMENA LAZCANO, FATIMA MOLINA, GRACE MOLINA, GONZALO RODRIGUEZ, BALTZ TRIBUNALO, and FRAN SEBALLOS

Introduction have emerged since 2005. These respond to the realities of climate-related impacts, I am worried for the future generation for which are adversely affecting people’s liveli- they might only see mangroves in the books hoods, particularly in poorer communities and that is what I fear will happen. in developing countries. Youth group member, Camotes, Philippines As an emerging field, reflection and learning on adaptation and disaster risk In the face of increasing disaster events and reduction (DRR) are crucial. However, the ongoing and future impacts of global there is a danger that a focus on ‘the climate change, a growing body of work is community’ fails to look within and under- emerging around community-based stand the community itself. Children under responses to preventing disasters and adapt- 18 are often considered the vulnerable, ing to a changing climate (known as ‘adap- passive victims of disaster events and in tation’). Initially, adaptation interventions need of protection by parents and adults in were commonly considered through top- the community, who in turn make deci- down assessments, with scientific models sions and take actions on their behalf. Yet projecting future change so that planning children have unique perceptions of the decisions and policy could be made accord- world in which they live, and they have the ingly. Recognising that individuals and capacity to act as agents of change. communities have been adapting to chang- In this article, we argue that widening ing climates for many years, community- community participation to include chil- based approaches to adaptation and the dren is crucial for successfully tackling related field of disaster risk reduction (DRR) development issues in a changing climate.1

1 We use the term ‘children’ here because the research has focused primarily on participants under 18 years of age, including those as young as three. During the research process, the term ‘youth’ is also used for teenage participants. Children’s participation in community-based disaster risk reduction and adaptation to climate change 55

Table 1: Child-led adaptation and DRR action research locations

Country Region Community

El Salvador Chalatenango El Coyolar, El Pepetón, La Montañona, Los Prados, Potrerillos

La Libertad Alvarez, El Matazano 1, San Isidro

San Salvador El Cipres II, Palo Grande

Philippines Camotes Lower Poblacion, Villa Hermosa, Teguis

Eastern Samar Cadian, Caga-ut, Barobo

Southern Leyte Catig, Guinsaugon, Pinut-an

Rizal Banaba

We show how child-friendly participatory The research links with these ongoing methodologies and processes can enable development projects to investigate how children to take an active role in commu- children perceive risks and how they nicating their perspectives to other communicate these risks and take action. members of the community, tackling Children’s groups are actively engaged with climate change impacts, and preventing the research process, including reflecting on disasters. design, methods, results, and analysis. Research ethics are a central consideration, Aims, location, and participants particularly regarding processes for The participatory action research informed consent and child protection.3 The presented here seeks to understand how continuing engagement of development children in developing countries can take agencies will ensure continuity, space for action within their communities to prevent discussion, and support for initiatives once disasters and adapt to climate change. We researchers have left the communities. worked with child-led development proj- The central actors in the process, which ects being implemented by Plan Interna- is ongoing in 20 communities in El tional in El Salvador and the Philippines.2 Salvador and Philippines (see Table 1), are These countries are among the most disas- children and children’s groups, although ter-prone in the world, with hazard the research process also works with adults burdens in many areas compounded by a in communities and in related institutions. high incidence of poverty and dependence on climate-sensitive natural resources. Research process and methods Plan’s DRR programme was stimulated by The research aims to both foster and study both experiences of disaster impacts on the dynamics of children’s participation in children and communities, and the poten- community development. In linking with tial for child-led initiatives demonstrated ongoing Plan projects, the research process by children’s groups in these areas. has been able provide an avenue for reflec-

2 The ongoing work is being led by the Institute of Development Studies (IDS), UK, in partnership with the University of El Salvador, the Center for Disaster Preparedness (CDP), Plan El Salvador, and Plan Philippines. The research is funded by Plan International and the UK Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) until October 2010. 3 Research ethics are carefully considered for this work, including processes of informed consent from children, parents/guardians and teachers, careful explanation of the voluntary nature of the work, the right to non-participation in any activity, strict checks and protocols on child protection, and guaranteed anonymity in data, analysis, and outputs. 56 60 GTanner, Garcia, Lazcano, Molina F, Molina G, Rodriguez, Tribunalo, and Seballos

tion and learning in both the communities Semi-structured interviews were carried and Plan offices alike. Researchers work out with children in leadership positions alongside Plan staff members, who have a and with small friendship groups, as well as long-term engagement in the case study with groups of adults from the community communities, providing both greater rapport including local disaster management with the children and longer-term sustain- committees, officials and parents, govern- ability of the action research process.4 To mental entities (local government, allow a comparative perspective, the research ministries of education and health), and engaged children’s groups at different stages NGOs in the area. In both adult- and child- of engagement in the Plan disaster risk oriented research, groups were separated by reduction and adaptation projects, including age and by gender where possible. those who had not yet participated. In the field, children are first introduced Research highlights to date: key to the researchers and the research aims messages using simple icebreaker techniques. Follow- Although ongoing, the research is revealing consent from parents and teachers, the ing important insights for the policy and children are asked for their informed practice of climate adaptation and disaster consent to participate in the process, and risk reduction (DRR) at community level. encouraged to leave if they are not enjoying It shows that children and young people it (‘methods should be fun’ was the motto). can participate in climate change and DRR Research methods were piloted in an early activities in a number of different ways: phase of the research to develop a toolkit of • as analysers of risk and risk reduction approaches that are both culturally appro- activities; priate and enjoyable. These include estab- • as designers and implementers of proj- lished activities for vulnerability and ects; capacity assessment such as hazard identi- • as communicators of risks and risk fication and ranking grids, mapping vulner- management options (especially commu- abilities and capacities in the community, nications to parents, other adults, or those stakeholder analysis and mapping, group outside the community); timelines, guided walks, and poems. • as mobilisers of resources and people; However, many of these were modified for and use with children. The research also devel- • as constructors of social networks and oped hybrid methods to capture risk capital. perception, risk communication, and The conditions for such participation action. These included short video ‘adverts’ are varied, but the research is investigating for adaptation and risk reduction projects, how the nature and mode of participation poems and songs, acting out hazards and is influenced by a combination of commu- risks in situ, drawings to represent motiva- nity and institutional dynamics, livelihoods tions for participation, information and strategies and living standards, and message flow diagrams, and local games cultural factors, as well as the hazard used to differentiate group characteristics burden facing the communities. or opinions (see Molina, Molina, and Tanner in the Tips for Trainers section of Children can conceptualise and analyse the this issue for descriptions of some of these risks affecting their lives methods, and how established methods The research demonstrates first and fore- were modified for use with children). most that children represent more than

4 The researchers are aware of the contradiction in using participatory research tools for processes that remain largely extractive. This is why they are working through the ongoing child-led community-based development programmes of Plan International. Children’s participation in community-based disaster risk reduction and adaptation to climate change 57

Table 2: Risks identified by children during research in Palo Grande, El Salvador

Natural hazards Hurricanes, earthquakes, windstorms, droughts, heavy rains, falling trees, rivers and gorges, rockfalls, landslides.

Human-induced risks Electricity posts, retention walls, poorly maintained housing, houses near ravines, burning waste, contaminated waste, winding and steep roads, rainy season water ponding, houses located in landslide/rockfall zones.

Social risks Speeding traffic on the main road through the community, gangs, drug and alcohol abuse, poverty, delinquency, unemployment. simply a passive, vulnerable group in within which they are situated, and reflect society who require protection through combinations of age, gender, educational decisions made by adults. Rather, they hold attainment, and occupation. Table 3 shows a valuable understanding of the risks facing how perceptions of types of hazard and risk their lives, not only those related to natural types in the Philippines were linked to hazards but also human-induced risks, and gender and age differences. societal risks (Table 2). This suggests that Similarly, motivations for participation interventions that focus on climate-related in group activities also showed marked risks alone are unlikely to reflect commu- gender differences. In El Salvador, for nity perceptions or priorities. example, both genders (46% of females Risk perceptions are related to the lived and 57% of males) stated learning as their experience of individuals as well as the main motivation. However, girls’ motiva- socio-economic and geographic context tions are more likely to concern others

Table 3: Gender and age differences in risk perceptions in the Philippines Hazard/risk type Identified predominantly by which age/gender group

‘Natural disasters’ All (based on personal experience) although ‘extreme weather’ is dominant among children as it prevents access to school or play.

Food and financial crisis Adults, as providers for the family (women, as household budget managers, stressed commodity prices).

Unemployment/livelihood Adults. opportunities

Agricultural hazards such as Men, as farmers. pests and drought

Social hazards (gambling, Women and children as witnesses of male perpetrators, and sometimes drugs, community conflict) as victims of drunken behaviour (wives).

Health and disease Women and children (community health workers and mothers, and those who are susceptible).

Environmentally unsound Mainly children, due to school-based learning. Although women are often livelihood practices aware too, men focus on meeting immediate needs of the family e.g. food, school allowance.

Poor waste management Mainly children, primarily due to school-based learning and Plan training.

Global environmental problems Children, primarily due to school-based learning. 58 60 GTanner, Garcia, Lazcano, Molina F, Molina G, Rodriguez, Tribunalo, and Seballos

Box 1: School safety mini-projects in El Salvador

In the community of Potrerillos in Chalatenango Department, El Salvador, analysis and prioritisation by a children’s group pinpointed risk to children from a ravine neighbouring the school. Enlisting the help of other community members, they led a process to create a supporting wall at the rear of the school and the construction of a concrete platform to stabilise the grounds and create a safe area which is now used for recreational activities.

Children mixing cement for school retaining wall, Potrerillos, El Salvador. Photo: Thomas Tanner Photo:

Box 2: Child-led mangrove restoration projects in the Philippines

Child-led mangrove restoration project, Camotes Islands, Philippines. Photo: Thomas Tanner Photo: Children in community groups in Teguis, on the Camotes Islands of the Philippines, have worked together to restore degraded mangrove ecosystems by assembling teams to collect and replant saplings in sanctuaries behind protective barriers. The groups combined knowledge from a range of sources including school textbooks, training sessions, discussion with parents, and the media. In doing so they identified the multiple benefits of restoration, including livelihoods gains through the provision of spawning grounds, biodiversity gains, disaster protection from typhoon winds and surges, adaptation to climate change impacts, and the removal of atmospheric greenhouse gases causing climate change. Notably, in the mangrove planting it is usually the girls who participate as the boys often go fishing with the fathers.

rather than the ‘self’, including helping Children can be the agents of change to other people and teamwork. Boys were tackle disasters and climate change more likely to be motivated by activities In many of the study communities, children which benefit them as individuals, such as were already taking community-based having fun and making new friends. Other action to reduce disaster risks. In some reasons for participating included the cases this was explicitly linked to adapting exchange of experiences, protecting the to the changing climate. In some areas, Plan environment, and the support of the group. support had enabled the development of Children’s participation in community-based disaster risk reduction and adaptation to climate change 59

Box 3: Mobilisation during emergencies in El Ciprés

During Hurricane Stan in 2005, the Youth Emergency Committee facilitated the process of evacuating seven families whose houses were at risk of collapsing. They established and managed an emergency camp in the community’s school building, and grouped together to request support from the mayor’s office and other institutions, constructing a support network for the affected families until they were donated safer and stronger houses several months later. Their actions gained the Youth Group strong recognition within the community. They continue to work on community projects, supported by NGOs, and the Community Development Association, which legally represents the community to the mayor’s office, has recognised their role and is looking to include them in the future.

Members of the Youth Emergency

Committee in El Ciprés, El Salvador. Jimena Lazcano Photo: mini-projects conceived, managed, and and have taken the initiative in developing implemented by the children’s groups, actions to mitigate risks, such as building based on risks prioritised during vulnera- live barriers, improving waste disposal bility and capacity assessments. containers, and trimming trees. Community-based projects have demonstrated children’s ability to work Children can act as risk communicators to together to tackle problems (Boxes 1, 2 and others in the community 3). They have given the participants valuable experiences in group decision-making, Children have voice – they are not just teamwork, project management, financial passive listeners, they can speak of the real accounting, and dissemination. They also situation. I can attest to that since during the create an awareness locally of children as death of my grandmother, I was able to share agents of change, often stimulating support what I’ve learnt about disaster risk reduction and cooperation from adults within the and climate change adaptation to my community. cousins, grandparents, and other relatives. In El Salvador, researchers found that Member, Young Environmental younger children tend to work more on Guardians of Poro, Camotes Islands, preventative measures, passing on infor- Philippines mation and understanding from training received from outside agencies to others. Our research suggests that children can play Older children have been able to further an important role in communicating about develop guidance from Plan training events risk and climate change within and beyond 60 60 GTanner, Garcia, Lazcano, Molina F, Molina G, Rodriguez, Tribunalo, and Seballos

Presenting results of child- led vulnerability and capacity assessment, Potrerillos, El Salvador. Children’s participation in community-based disaster risk reduction and adaptation to climate change 61 Photo: Thomas Tanner Photo: 62 60 GTanner, Garcia, Lazcano, Molina F, Molina G, Rodriguez, Tribunalo, and Seballos

Box 4: Communicating risks and responses through child-led theatre in the Rizal, Philippines

Communicating risk through children’s theatre in the

Philippines. Molina Grace Photo:

Buklod ng Kabataan (Children Bonded Together), a group of children and youth in Banaba, has become an effective advocate of DRR and adaptation through theatre performances. Using singing, dancing, and acting, they communicated their perceptions of local hazards such as flooding and river bank erosion, and the potentially destructive impacts of these hazards on people’s livelihoods, properties, and lives. The group also became dynamic communicators of risk reduction activities such as tree planting and solid waste management which can achieve a cleaner environment, fresh air, stabilise river banks and reduce river pollution, and reduce health risks. Through their advocacy, different sectors of the community and stakeholders up to the national scale were encouraged to take action.

the community (Box 4). Children concep- Children’s groups can effectively mobilise tualise and understand risks in their own people terms, often relating hazards and factors In the Philippines, child-led mobilisation driving vulnerability to their own experi- around environmental issues such as ences (such as localised landslides, polluted mining in Eastern Samar (see Box 5) and watercourses, or dangerous roads). They relocation of schools away from disaster combine their own understanding with zones in communities neighbouring Guin- technical information gained from external saugon, Southern Leyte demonstrate the information sources such as the media, potential of children’s groups to mobilise school curricula, and training sessions. Chil- others. Drawing in other members of the dren’s understanding of the implications of community and developing social wider-scale processes, such as global networks, they have mobilised constituen- climate change, for local livelihoods is often cies behind key issues affecting their more advanced than that of adults. communities. Children’s participation in community-based disaster risk reduction and adaptation to climate change 63

Box 5: Child-led anti-mining advocacy in Eastern Samar, Philippines

Participatory video shoot on chromite mining activity at Caga-ut, Eastern Samar, Philippines. Photo: Grace Molina Grace Photo: Children in the community of Caga-ut in Eastern Samar, the Philippines have been communicating a range of environmental, economic, and social risks posed by chromite mining to a wide audience. Children directly targeted miners, operators, and those licensing the mining, communicating their concerns through meetings and dialogue. Alongside this they have led dialogue with family, resident miners, and community members about the risks posed by the mining activities to present and future generations.

Future challenges: bringing children to changing climate. the fore in community-based adaptation Scaling up the participation of children and DRR in DRR and adaptation requires enhanced The research highlights the potential of efforts to incorporate children’s perspec- putting children at the heart of community- tives, knowledge, and potential for action based efforts to tackle climate change into regular community-driven develop- impacts. They form a central part of the ment programmes. Some of the participa- community yet their potential as agents of tory methods we share here and later in change has been largely overlooked by this issue will facilitate this. However, community-based adaptation programmes. scaling up also requires advocacy outside As the generation inheriting climate of communities to raise awareness of chil- impacts, they have a right to be included in dren’s contribution and to bring about decision-making affecting their future. This policy changes that enable children to research demonstrates that this moral participate in community DRR and adap- imperative is reinforced by their demon- tation processes. strated ability to conceptualise, analyse, The research also contributes to a communicate, and take action to improve growing awareness of the need to differen- their current and future wellbeing in a tiate DRR and adaptation activities and 64 60 GTanner, Garcia, Lazcano, Molina F, Molina G, Rodriguez, Tribunalo, and Seballos

processes by different groups within communities (Tanner and Mitchell, 2008). Within children’s groups there are differences in perceptions of risks and prioritisation of adaptation and risk reduction actions, depending on age and gender. There may also be differences between, for example, children not participating in schools or in established groups and those who do participate. At the same time, a holistic vision for child-led adaptation and DRR is required that includes both adults and children to provide wider and more consensual support for actions at the community level.

CONTACT DETAILS Thomas Tanner Research Fellow Institute of Development Studies University of Sussex Brighton UK Tel: + 44 1273 915766 Email: [email protected] Website: www.ids.ac.uk/climatechange

AUTHORS’ INSTITUTIONAL AFFILIATIONS Mercedes Garcia – Plan El Salvador. Fatima Molina, Grace Molina – Center for Disaster Preparedness (CDP), Philippines. Jimena Lazcano – Independent consultant. Gonzalo Rodriguez – National University of El Salvador. Thomas Tanner, Fran Seballos – Institute of Development Studies (IDS), UK. Baltz Tribunalo – Plan Philippines.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank all participants in the research and are grateful for logistical and financial support from Plan International and the UK Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC).

FURTHER INFORMATION For further information about work on children, disaster risk reduction, and climate change adaptation please visit: www.childreninachangingclimate.org. Children in a Changing Climate is a global action-research, advocacy, and learning programme, bringing together leading research and development organisations with a commitment to share knowledge, coordinate activities, and work with children as protagonists with a voice needing to be heard.

REFERENCES Tanner, T.M. and T. Mitchell (Eds.) (2008) ‘Poverty in a Changing Climate.’ IDS Bulletin 39 (4). Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex: UK 65

Katalysis: helping Andean farmers adapt to climate change 4

by STEPHEN SHERWOOD and JEFFERY BENTLEY

Introduction precarious situation. The Andes have daily (rather than Recent studies of global climate change seasonal) temperature extremes, unpre- paint a bleak picture for the Andes. The dictable weather from one year to the next, UN’s Inter-governmental Panel on Climate and a myriad of environmental niches scat- Change (IPCC) has shortened previous tered across the elevations. To survive in predictions for the melting of Andean such an adverse environment, highland glaciers from 30 to 15 years. Droughts and farming evolved to be robust, with complex flooding will become more common in the soil and water management, a rich diver- region, as will wind and cyclones, disease sity of crops and varieties, and planting and pests, soil erosion, and losses of soil schemes adapted to altitude. Much of the organic matter. Stream flow will decrease. work is done through collective labour and Researchers have proposed expert-led sharecropping. Spanish colonialism and solutions, such as improved climatic then the market-orientation of the last modelling and forecasting, and the breed- century privileged distant consumer ing of drought-tolerant crop varieties. demands and external knowledge and Climate models are most useful for deter- technology. As a result, local knowledge mining large-scale mean temperatures over and practice have been largely supplanted, relatively uniform geographies – not the and agriculture is based on fewer crops and Andes! General forecasts are of little help varieties and less sophisticated planting to farmers who are more interested in local, schemes. In addition, the arrival of indus- short-term predictions, especially of rain- trial-era technology, such as mechanised fall. For these sorts of predictions, rural tillage and agrochemicals, commonly has people are often at least as accurate as led to the degradation of soil, water, and meteorologists (Orlove et al., 2002). biological resources. Climate change is Instead, mountain people need greater likely to aggravate greatly this already ability to cope with weather fluctuations. 66 60 G Sherwood and Bentley Photo: Stephen Sherwood Photo: Figure 1: Ambuqui watershed in northern Ecuador, 2000 to 3100 metres above sea level.

Drought-tolerant varieties may be impor- US$60,000 from the Challenge Program tant in some regions, but in the Andes, on Water and Food, World Neighbors traditional crops and potato varieties are worked with several partner organisations, already adapted to a much wider range of especially the Ecuadorian Network for altitudes than previously suspected (de Community-based Natural Resource Haan, 2009). Maintaining the varieties Management (MACRENA) and the Boli- that farmers have and love may be as vian Programme for Integrated Develop- important as breeding new ones. ment of Potosí (PRODINPO).1 The work We believe that farmers need to shape involved communities in intensive, locally the research agenda according to local led learning-action on climate change and priorities, and that smallholders and resilience, including process design, researchers should learn together. These curriculum development, and subsequent are the aims of the Katalysis approach to follow-up visits to document learning and climate change adaptation described in this innovations. We named the approach paper. ‘Katalysis’ because of the catalytic changes it inspired. The pilot project worked at two Katalysis: an experiential learning- highland locations in Bolivia and Ecuador, action approach in the poorest regions of the Andes (Figures 1 and 2). Both sites are semi-arid, with Piloting the Katalysis approach marked dry seasons and average yearly During 2005 and 2006, with a grant of rainfall of between 300 and 600 mm.

1 See www.waterandfood.org Katalysis: helping Andean farmers adapt to climate change 67 Photo: Stephen Sherwood Photo: Figure 2: San Pedro watershed in northern Potosí, Bolivia, 2000 to 4000 metres above sea level.

During the pilot period we worked with Box 1: The educational roots of Katalysis: 107 families, selected according to criteria Farmer Field Schools established during community meetings. Partners subsequently incorporated parts Katalysis emerged from Farmer Field of the approach at new sites in Bolivia Schools (FFS) in South-East Asia and more recently the Andes (Pumisacho and (Potosí), Peru (Apurímac), and Ecuador Sherwood, 2005). Field Schools involve (Imbabura and Pichincha), enabling Katal- about 25 farmers who manage learning ysis to reach over 500 families. plots. Groups focus on Integrated Pest Katalysis builds on the ‘discovery learn- Management (IPM), meeting weekly to ing’ tradition of Farmer Field Schools conduct agroecological analyses and run experiments, such as insect zoos to learn (FFS), in which farmers share their experi- about the life cycles of pests. Through joint ence, strengthen their ecological literacy learning on potato IPM, Andean farmers through learning experiments, and identify were able to reduce their reliance on ways of improving agriculture through agrochemicals, saving money, time, and group problem-solving (Box 1). avoiding harm to their families and the environment. In Katalysis the focus is on enhancing In practice, the FFS method has local knowledge of climate change and broadened beyond IPM to a more holistic creating opportunities for coping with it. focus on plant and soil health. Over time, Katalysis starts with the experience and FFS participants fill knowledge gaps that priorities of participants (usually married prevent them from innovating, and discover new ways to improve their couples). Through problem-solving and agriculture. FFS ultimately aspires to action around priority interests, the focus catalyse the innovative capacity of farmers. shifts from concerns at the individual farm 68 60 G Sherwood and Bentley

Figure 3: Katalysis involves farmers in self-directed learning about climate change

level to those at community and watershed drip tape, and the creative use of plants and level (Figure 3). animals, transformed their farm from a ‘desert wasteland’ into an ‘oasis’ in just 18 The Katalysis process months. As don Alfonso said: In each location, we convened communi- Once I learnt where the water was, I could ties and asked them to select a group of grow that small plot of alfalfa. With the about 20 farmers willing to meet every two alfalfa, I could have cuy [guinea pig]. The weeks for six months for co-learning and cuy produced manure for my soil. We still action on climate change. Learning have a long way to go, but with just the methods included cross-learning between cuyes, we have already paid back our $200 families, visits to local farmers who are investment in materials. When I started we particularly innovative, discovery-based had no cuy. Today we have 300 cuyes that learning, and farmer-led experimentation. are worth about $5.00 each or $1,500 in all. That is much more than I used to earn Visits to local innovators in the city. Now I can stay home with my Early on we seek to inspire participants family. With the manure, I’ve planted 75 through a learning tour of outstanding mango and avocado trees. My farm has local innovators, to see new possibilities. become an oasis. Every year it will grow For example, in Ambuqui we visited the greener and greener. My farm used to be farm of two graduates from our first cycle, barren of plants. My biggest problem today Alfonso and Olga Juma, who through is that I’ve run out of land to plant. improving their management of organic matter and mulching and by making a rela- Recently Alfonso and Olga bought two tively small investment in tubing, a filter, more hectares of neighbouring land. Katal- Katalysis: helping Andean farmers adapt to climate change 69 Photo: Stephen Sherwood Photo: Figure 4: Margoth presents her ‘map of dreams’ – her project to transform her farm through water harvesting. ysis has helped dozens of families generate terrestrial bird eggs, or the migration such locally financed transformations. patterns of different animals) to predict the coming season. Dream maps We found that ‘ease of observation’ and After learning visits, we asked participants ‘perceived relevance’ influenced local to identify their goals for the future through knowledge on climate (Figure 5). Knowl- a ‘dream map’, which was then presented edge was ‘deepest’ for topics that were both to their colleagues for comments and important to local people and easy for them advice (Figure 4). The group then organ- to observe. This included local weather ised to help each participant advance prediction – will the rains come early or towards his or her dreams. will this be a cold or warm year? Local knowledge was largely missing for topics Co-learning about climate change that were both difficult to observe and of We adapted a participatory method devel- low perceived importance. For example, oped by the organisation Agrecol-Andes highland farmers knew little about sea to study local indicators of climate.2 surface temperatures and their relationship Through field visits and interactive work- to local weather patterns. There usually shops, participants explained how they were no local explanations for such topics. ‘read’ wind patterns, cloud formations, the Our priority was practicality, so we position of rainbows, the resolution of focused attention on helping people to stars, and animal behaviour (e.g. where overcome weaknesses in their knowledge. foxes deposited their faeces, location of This involved introducing new tools of

2 See www.agrecolandes.org 70 60 G Sherwood and Bentley

Figure 5: Strengths and weaknesses of rural technical knowledge associated with climate and agriculture (based on Bentley, 1991)

(-) Ease of observation (+) (influenced by size, time, and scale)

Gritty Deep • biological indicators of weather • water sources • lunar stages and water • drought tolerance of crops • wind patterns • phenology of food crops • varietal resistance to disease • reproduction of cattle • effect of trees/bushes on sub-surface water • lifecycle of bees • rainfall patterns

Empty Thin

(-) Importance (+) • evapotransportation • phenology of non-food crops • ocean temperatures • soil cover • lifecycle of soil pests • varietal resistance to disease

(perceived relevance and immediacy) (perceived relevance • disease cycles • predator insects (wasps) • parasitoids and entomopathogens • water harvesting • water capture in soils • soil erosion

observation and information, e.g. simple amounted to thousands of litres of water weather stations or rainfall data that could each rainfall. Then, we valued it, applying reveal historical weather trends. the local market price for bottled water (which in the Andes, is commonly more Co-learning about water management expensive than gasoline!). Participants It soon became clear in both Bolivia and learnt that they give away tens of thousands Ecuador that water management was of dollars of water each year. central for learning how to cope with We then explored ways of storing water. climate change. Communities were suffer- Participants often want to invest in expen- ing from both drought and floods at differ- sive water storage tanks, but we introduced ent times of year. The real challenge was learning experiments on less costly alter- better water management to help cope natives, such as the holding capacity of soil with drought and prevent flooding and organic matter (SOM). By weighing socks erosion of soils during heavy rains. With filled with organic matter before and after our partners, we developed over 30 activi- immersing them in a bucket of water, ties for discovery learning on four water farmers learnt that their fields hold management-related themes: water and millions of litres of water and that increas- the home; water on the farm; watershed ing SOM by 1% across a hectare could and the community; and water and the capture an additional 100,000 litres each world and global warming. rainfall. Participants then identified many We started with activities to help people ways of increasing the organic matter in see the value of the rain that fell on their soil to capture water, e.g. incorporating fields, homes, and roadways, which just crop residues, applying manure, reducing drained away. For example, we measured tillage, dead and live barriers, conservation the runoff of an ordinary rooftop, which ditches, and covering the soil through Katalysis: helping Andean farmers adapt to climate change 71 Photo: Stephen Sherwood Photo: Figure 6: New appreciation for the water-holding capacity of soils has led to heightened interest in cover crops. 72 60 G Sherwood and Bentley Photo: Stephen Sherwood Photo: Figure 7: A minga or work party helps a colleague install his first geomembrane tank.

mulches and cover crops. After evaluating work parties), during which participants options, the farmers found that cover crops worked together to design and install inno- were the most cost-effective way of increas- vations such as soil conservation and water ing SOM (Figure 6). catchments on different farms (Figure 7). Farmers also conducted studies on This usually included a training visit from alternative types of irrigation, comparing a more experienced farmer to guide the canal irrigation, tubing, sprinklers, and activity. We then supported follow-up visits drip tapes. Though more expensive, drip across farms to document and discuss tapes were found to be 20 times more effi- innovations at community or watershed cient than sprinklers, which led one partic- level, such as controlling goats and cattle, ipant to conclude, ‘A farmer can either the reforestation of a vulnerable hillside, or build his tank 20 times as large or use drip planting a windbreak. tapes’. As in the example of Alfonso and Olga Juma, early successes built self-confidence Individual and collective action in participants, stimulating enthusiasm Over time, the priority of Katalysis has and creative ideas. Participants began shifted from individual to collective action. more sophisticated activities and more Each individual took responsibility for ambitious tasks. For example, four collecting weather data, which was inte- communities living on the Ilalo Volcano in grated into a report and discussions on northern Ecuador began by addressing a local weather patterns. Some groups priority agenda around soil conservation decided to organise to measure the flow of and water harvesting for home consump- different streams in relation to rainfall tion and gardens. Through group learning, across the year. We held mingas (group cross-visits, and mingas, participants met Katalysis: helping Andean farmers adapt to climate change 73 Photo: Stephen Sherwood Photo: Figure 8: Three-dimensional map of watershed, Ilalo Volcano, northern Ecuador. one another and built friendships. This led Holt-Gimenez, 2006) and FFS (see van to a more ambitious agenda. They created den Berg and Jiggins, 2007). a three-dimensional map of their water- • Adds value to farming experience in shed, which identified water sources, communities, drawing on the experiences vulnerable areas, and conflict zones of both wealthier and poorer smallholders, (Figure 8). and involves families rather than individu- Subsequent field studies and discus- als to address gender concerns. sions led to a management plan, which the • Gives participants control over a flexible communities then turned into a project curriculum co-designed by the group and proposal that was later funded by the the facilitator. municipality. • Focuses on technologies already in use by Other groups have created their own local farmers. Sometimes introduces savings and loan funds to help finance outside technology, such as micro-irriga- investments in purchasing fencing materi- tion, but only after local alternatives have als to control animals, local weather been exhausted and after careful cost- stations, and water harvesting tanks or benefit analysis. micro-irrigation technology. • Quick, tangible successes are the primary source of motivation. No gift-giving or Why Katalysis works subsidies. Seed money is provided for local It is too early to think about long-term savings and credit groups, with loans paid impacts of Katalysis, but we feel its back through returns on investments. successes so far are due to the following: • Starts simple and diversifies with time. • Draws on time-proven approaches, such Early experiments require small invest- as ‘farmer-to-farmer’ (see Bunch, 1982 and ments and are of limited scale. Begins by 74 60 G Sherwood and Bentley

emphasising individual farm-level priori- response to the growing threat of climate ties and then works towards addressing change. concerns at social, community, and water- Katalysis builds on Farmer Field shed level. Schools and other flexible, knowledge- • Many farmers continue to invest in based approaches for improving agricul- changes well after the Katalysis experience. ture. Participants aim to enhance the environmental resilience of their farms and Constraints production systems through targeted As with other people-centred, community- learning and action about water, soils, based approaches, Katalysis faces some plants, and animals. They find better ways obstacles: of using local resources (e.g. cover crops), • Like FFS, Katalysis is in conflict with complemented by experiments with exter- dominant institutional designs (Schut and nal, but accessible, technologies (e.g. low- Sherwood, 2007). For example, the exter- cost weather stations, micro-irrigation nal agent ‘accompanies’ the learning-action equipment). process rather than providing heavy guid- Early results are promising. Katalysis ance. Outcomes depend on the creativity of has enabled people to discover hidden participants rather than on pre-deter- sources of water and to gain new appreci- mined calendars, budgets, and outputs. ation for the potential of plants and Katalysis depends on an open agenda, flex- animals. Participants have ‘greened’ previ- ible funding, and strong facilitation skills, ously dry and barren farms, increasing land which may lie outside the capabilities of cover and family wealth. common research and development proj- A sensitive appreciation of local knowl- ects. edge and creative adaptations, blended • The initial spark of Katalysis often came with scientific insights, is a realistic way to from visits to farms run by innovative fami- help farmers start addressing climate lies. While the visitors from other commu- change. But that is easier said than done. nities are impressed by the examples of Development practitioners need to be these extraordinary farms, sometimes the strong facilitators with flexible prospect of catching up seems overwhelm- programmes and funding to support opening. Farmers have to be helped to innovate ended learning-action, which goes against at their own pace, sometimes requiring the grain of standard pre-planned projects special attention, technical support, and and technology transfer. Donor and devel- encouragement over long periods of time. opment agencies must hand over more • Severe degradation of watersheds is now trust and responsibility to communities to characteristic of much of the Andes. design and implement their own agendas. Reversing this environmental damage can Local people and outsiders need to be free take years and demands investments in to learn from each other, and to learn as infrastructure beyond the capabilities of they go along. individuals and communities.

Conclusions From previous work on pest management (Bentley, 1989), we knew that farmers often missed opportunities for improving their agriculture because of knowledge gaps. Katalysis aims at helping rural people bridge those gaps so that they may creatively manage their own resources in Katalysis: helping Andean farmers adapt to climate change 75

CONTACT DETAILS Stephen Sherwood Rural Innovation Specialist EkoRural and Wageningen University Avenida Florencia 203 y Bramante Cumbaya Quito Ecuador Tel: +593 2 289 1669 Email: [email protected]

Jeffery Bentley Agricultural Anthropologist International Consultant Casilla 2695 Cochabamba Bolivia Tel: +591 7 938 9455 Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES Bentley, J.W. (1989). 'What farmers don't know can't help them: the strengths and weaknesses of indigenous technical knowledge in Honduras.' Agriculture and Human Values 6(3), pp. 25-31 Bentley, J.W. (1991). 'The epistemology of plant protection: Honduran campesinsos knowledge of pests and natural enemies.' Crop Protection for Resource-Poor Farmers. East Sussex, UK Bunch, R. (1982). Two Ears of Corn: a guide to people-centred agricultural development. World Neighbors: Oklahoma City, OK De Haan, S. (2009). Potato Diversity at Height: multiple dimensions of farmer-driven in-situ conservation in the Andes. PhD dissertation, Wageningen University: The Netherlands Holt-Gimenez (2006). Campesino a Campesino: Voices from Latin America's farmer-to-farmer movement for sustainable agriculture. Food First Books: Oakland, CA Magrin, G., C. Gay García, D. Cruz Choque, J. C. Giménez, A. R. Moreno, G. J. Nagy, C. Nobre and A. Villamizar (2007). ‘Latin America. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.’ Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson (Eds). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 581-615 Orlove, B. S., John C. H. Chiang and Mark A. Cane (2002). ‘Ethnoclimatology in the Andes.’ American Scientist, 90:428-435. Pumisacho, M. and S. Sherwood (Eds.) (2005). Guía Metodológica sobre ECAs: escuelas de campo de agricultores. FAO/CIP/INIAP/WN. Quito, Ecuador. 288 pp. See: www.farmerfieldschool.info Schut, M. and S. Sherwood (2007). ‘FFS in translation: scaling up in name, but not in meaning.’ LEISA Magazine on Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture, December, 24(4): 28-29 van den Berg, H. and J. Jiggins (2007). ‘Investing in farmers: the impacts of Farmer Field Schools in relation to IPM.’ World Development, 35(4): 663-686 76

Ethics and methods in research for community- based adaptation: reflections from rural 5 Vanuatu

by OLIVIA WARRICK

Introduction Pacific island Least Developed Country In this article I critically reflect on partici- (LDC). I discuss the strengths and limita- patory processes in vulnerability research tions of specific methods in the Vanuatu in the context of community-based adap- socio-cultural and climatic context and tation to climate change (CBA). CBA is an convey some lessons learnt from undertak- emerging form of bottom-up adaptation to ing participatory vulnerability research climate change. CBA is distinct in that it outside the context of a funded project. I focuses largely on empowerment or intend these observations to be useful for ‘helping people to help themselves’. practitioners working in the CBA sphere, Planned CBA aims to reduce vulnerability as vulnerability research is important for to climate change by addressing local prior- advancing knowledge for suitable adapta- ities and building on local knowledge and tion and is often an important precursor to capacity. Unequivocally, CBA is something planning and action in a project setting. done ‘with’ rather than ‘to’ communities. As such, participatory learning and action Vanuatu and climate change (PLA) methodologies have an important My research took place in three rural role. CBA-specific toolkits are emerging, communities in Vanuatu between 2006 based largely on methods established in the and 2008: Tangoa Island (Sanma disaster risk reduction (DRR) field. Province), Mangaliliu Village/Lelepa Here, I reflect on the application of Island (Shefa Province), and Mota Lava various participatory methods in the initial (Torba Province) (see Figure 1). research or scoping stages, where the goal Vanuatu is in the path of tropical is to establish the problem and reflect local cyclones (November to May). It is subject voices in knowledge creation. These reflec- to cycles of El Niño and La Niña, which, tions are based on my experiences conduct- respectively, increase the risks of droughts ing PhD research in rural Vanuatu, a and floods. Future climate change and sea- Ethics and methods in research for community-based adaptation: reflections from rural Vanuatu 77

Figure 1: Map of Vanuatu

Map prepared by Max Oulton, Department of Geography, Tourism and Environmental Planning, The University of Waikato. level rise threaten to exacerbate the risks Generally, the implications of climate already posed from current variability and change are not yet ‘obvious’ at the commu- extremes. These will be the most significant nity scale. Despite Vanuatu’s highly variable implications in the short to medium term. and often disruptive climate, communities 78 60 G Warrick

have been dealing with climate stress for nally facilitated follow-up activities in the generations and, accordingly, participants communities involved. There are few in my research did not always have strong organisations engaged in relevant and views on climate stress or climate change, ongoing community-based project work in and did not always consider these problems the outer islands of Vanuatu that I could as priority concerns in the community have successfully linked up with. Where context. there is no clear, tangible, or material Climate change was an issue about benefit for the community, the ethics of which most participants already had a basic such an approach may be questioned. knowledge via radio, school, or government However, similar concerns may relate to awareness programmes. In my introductory ongoing adaptation work that is not meeting in each community (and through- informed by a foundation of intensive, out the research process) I presented a detailed research. In this article, I will simple awareness talk aided by pictures and restrict discussion to the ethics and quality diagrams. There were many questions and of various participatory methods within people showed much interest. this ‘research only’ context, accepting that this, in itself, may be ethically questionable Research context and methodology in the CBA field. I spent approximately two months in each I used a mixture of participatory group community. My research – in response to and one-on-one methods to assess local gaps identified by the Vanuatu Meteorolog- perceptions and experiences of the: ical Service (VMS) – aimed to characterise • impacts of climate stress; local perceptions of vulnerability to climate • ability to deal with climate stress; and stress to help bridge the gap between local- • relationship of this to wider non-climate scale realities and higher scale decision- stresses and processes of change in the making processes for adaptation in Vanuatu community (‘multiple stressors’). and the wider Pacific. I worked via the VMS Methods were drawn from CBA and and the Vanuatu Cultural Centre (VCC). DRR toolkits (see Nakalevu, 2006, Field sites were chosen in response to VMS- McFadzien et al., 2005, International identified data gaps. In each community I Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent worked alongside a VCC fieldworker volun- Societies, 2007 and Vrolijks, 1998), and teer (or equivalent). The fieldworkers were trialled and modified during the gained an in-depth understanding of research. All methods were gender segre- climate change issues and community gated to suit local cultural situations. priorities which will enhance knowledge Group activities used existing community sharing and help to facilitate action past my groupings (usually church-related) to limit visits. The VMS will use the research results intrusiveness and difficulties with logistics. to assist in adaptation project development. Groups generally included five to 15 indi- Although Vanuatu currently lacks ongoing viduals. Some were age specific. For community adaptation projects the instance, historical timelines were under- research is intended to increase the knowl- taken with elders. All research activities edge base in Vanuatu to enable this to occur, were undertaken in Bislama (a Vanuatu particularly as part of the implementation dialect). of Vanuatu’s National Adaptation I ended each visit with an interactive Programme of Action (NAPA), completed community meeting, where knowledge was in 2007. shared and discussed. This also provided a As this was a PhD, my ‘on-the-ground’ good opportunity for triangulation. Discus- research was not linked to a specific project sions often continued well into the evening. or funding. There was no promise of exter- In addition, knowledge was documented in Ethics and methods in research for community-based adaptation: reflections from rural Vanuatu 79

Table 1: Strengths and limitations of participatory techniques employed in the research context

Method Strengths Limitations

Seasonal Highly beneficial to researcher for Limited learning outcomes for participants. calendar understanding relationships between The complex and time-consuming natural resource-based livelihoods, climate, construction of the calendar allowed little weather, and disasters. time for discussion. Would be better done in two sessions: one for construction, one for discussion. Participants were unfamiliar with a ‘calendar’ format and therefore reluctant to engage.

Community Beneficial to researcher and participants Maps generated superficial information as and resource for identifying locations at risk and access construction was time-consuming at the mapping to resources and services important to expense of discussion – participants livelihoods and coping with disaster. concentrated on drawing an accurate map. Best done in two sessions to allow for in- depth discussion.

Matrix rating Good for stimulating group discussion and Limited outcomes for researcher as the e.g. of interaction as the rating is impossible to do ratings tended to be ‘ad hoc’, disguising resource use, with one or two of the most vocal or complex contextual and temporal coping confident group members only. The differences. strategies concept is relatively straightforward and etc. the matrix grid can be prepared beforehand leaving more time for discussion.

Focus group Few. Shyness and overall reluctance to participate in the absence of a visual activity around which to focus discussion.

Transect walk Flexible, interactive, informal, enjoyable for Can be difficult to maintain focus as many participants, informative for researcher. issues are addressed. Limited participant Very useful for researcher orientation early learning outcomes as limited opportunity on in the research. for collective discussion about any one topic.

Historical Effective catalyst for discussion regarding Time-consuming, easy to get off track. timeline changes and trends over time in coping strategies etc. Effective tool for analysing the underlying drivers of vulnerability. Best done over multiple visits with a small group. Enjoyable for older participants.

Storian: Effective for building rapport enabling in- Little participant-participant collective Semi- depth participant-researcher knowledge knowledge exchange and consolidation. structured exchange and accurate representation of and informal concerns. Enables depth of discussion interview necessary for understanding underlying drivers of vulnerability. Less intrusive to daily life than group activities.

Observation Non-intrusive, effective for building Time-consuming for researcher and rapport, informal and enjoyable for unstructured. participants. 80 60 G Warrick Photo: Olivia Warrick Olivia Photo: A participant draws a trend line showing change over time in knowledge of traditional medicine, as part of a historical timeline activity.

short reports (in Bislama) and sent back on expected. This subsequently influenced the request to community leaders. They felt methods I decided to prioritise. ‘Interview- that having ‘formal’ documentation ing’ methods emphasising participant- increased legitimacy and pride in the researcher knowledge exchange were consolidated knowledge, increasing moti- generally more successful than larger- vation to address the issues highlighted by group activities aimed at collective partic- the community. ipant-participant knowledge sharing.

Limitations and strengths of Limitations participatory methods I began my research in Tangoa Island Table 1 summarises the specific participa- using predominantly group methods. At tory techniques used, and the main the conclusion of my research in Mota strengths and limitations of each in this Lava, I was using predominantly inter- particular research context. viewing methods. This was largely a result Using a participatory approach I of the research context. In a more practi- intended to maximise community benefits cally orientated project setting, group via the research process itself, even though methods may have been more effective. I was unable to provide material outcomes. Most limitations stemmed from the diffi- My intention was to facilitate community culties of being a single, independent learning and empowerment through researcher, from the low priority of climate collective discussion of problems, knowl- concerns in the communities, and from edge consolidation, opinion sharing, and the cultural specificities of Ni-Vanuatu realisation of existing capacities. In reality, society. However, I do not view this as a what I could achieve was less than ‘failure’ of participation. Rather, a flexible Ethics and methods in research for community-based adaptation: reflections from rural Vanuatu 81 Photo: Olivia Warrick Olivia Photo: A sample of participant illustrations from a seasonal calendar activity. and relatively non-time constrained Participant outcomes approach enabled a successful method – Although group activities often generated storian – to be developed, maximising a good participatory appraisal – rapidly local voices, accurately representing local reflecting information and opinions across priorities, and maximising learning within a range of stakeholders – collective knowl- this particular cultural, research, and edge creation, capacity realisation, and climatic context. facilitated learning was limited. Due to my 82 60 G Warrick

relative inexperience as a facilitator, my Research outcomes status as a community and cultural Group activities were beneficial to my outsider, and logistical problems as a single research, as they provided triangulation researcher, I felt unable to create the envi- and a range of information in a short time. ronment to achieve this. Group activities They also highlighted issues for further often felt forced and ‘unnatural’. Partici- follow-up. However, most information pants were reluctant to interact or engage generated was superficial due to time in the activity or discussion. I sensed that constraints and group size, with most time more educated participants found the and effort dedicated to completing the activities somewhat patronising, and less actual activity (i.e. map, seasonal calendar) educated or older participants were rather than to discussion. Often, the confused, shy, and unwilling to voice view- reasons behind the answers given were points. Finding a balance in the group most important. However, group situations setting was a challenge. were not always conducive to exploring A major limiting factor was that partic- these. ipants often expected me to lead the activ- Group activities generally generate ity. They were unaccustomed to interacting good information regarding direct climate- and discussing freely in a group. It was related problems, ways of coping with often difficult to convey that discussion and them, and the strengths and weaknesses of opinion sharing was the most important these. In the context of CBA however, it is part – not drawing an accurate map, for important to dig deeper, to understand the example. In the communities, organised indirect situational factors and processes group meetings and decision-making determining this over time. These will ulti- processes are usually led by a ‘chairman’ or mately shape the ability of a community to other leadership figure, with people generate their own solutions to climate contributing in turn. Another contributing stress and increased uncertainty in future. factor may be the nature of ‘awareness This required lengthy and in-depth discus- talks’ administered by NGOs, aid organi- sion difficult to achieve in the large group sations, and government in rural Vanuatu. activity setting. Successful instances were Local people said that these mainly consist facilitated by smaller groups and by of an ‘expert’ administering a lecture. So an approaching the exercise informally; ‘in-expert’ outsider (me) facilitating discus- generally starting with an informal discussion and interaction may be an unfamiliar sion with the actual activity as incidental. and ‘unnatural’ concept. The purpose of the group activities was Ethics somewhat unfulfilled. For example, in the I decided to limit the use of large-group seasonal calendar exercise participants activities, instead emphasising interview- requested that I ask questions which they ing techniques. Group activities can be then answered. Although this generated disruptive to daily subsistence and useful information for me, participant economic activities. Climate stress is not learning outcomes were not great. Similar generally viewed as a priority concern in situations arose when my local counterpart the community, so interest in the activities facilitated the activity. This type of activity was often low. Although participation was would probably work better in a planning voluntary, I felt that given the ‘research context. However, engaging in the activity only’ context, participants were not receiv- itself may have contributed to the process ing enough gain from group activities to of consolidating and clarifying knowledge justify this intrusiveness on their busy daily and viewpoints, despite seemingly reluc- lives. Perhaps in a project or decision- tant participants. making context with tangible benefits to Ethics and methods in research for community-based adaptation: reflections from rural Vanuatu 83

Box 1: Excerpt from a storian on Mota Lava, 2nd November 2008 (English translation)

I am talking to participants A and B about the impacts of tropical cyclones (hariken), whilst we work in B’s garden: Me: So when the hariken came in 1939 you must have been 10 – do you remember it? A: Yes! That’s how I know I was born in 1929! …Every tree went down, we were in Nerenigman [village] and we could see everyone at Totolag and Queremande as they made their cooking fires in the morning... there was a white man that had a small store on Ra island where my father worked and that day I went with him – and the big wind comes now! It came, it came, until it pulled off the roof belonging to the white man... the sea carried everything from the store right up into the middle of the island! We went and dug out tinned fish, soap – all things belonging to the store. B: Worst hariken – we can’t remember a worse one. Me: You had a hariken this year – can you tell me about that one? B: Food shortage now! Oh yes. First time is this year. Small, small hariken but... A: Plenty hariken have hit us but we have not had food shortage. But this year – we have a shortage! Me: So in 1939 do you remember a shortage? A: Small, small. But all the old people before, they had good gardens and they stored plenty of dried breadfruit... B: In 1972 it was the same. The gardens were strong. Me: So what’s different now? B: I can’t tell you straight – but I think it’s because of a lazy fashion now! Oh, yes, they’ll say they don’t have enough land now, but the real reason is they don’t want to work. There is enough land. We must plant something every day to make sure we have no shortage of anything – that was the fashion of the people before... A: Custom! Custom belonging to us... must plant banana, taro, cabbage or what – every day. B: That was the teaching belonging to our grandparents, that was the talk we used to hear in the Nakamal [meeting house], that was the talk we used to hear in the gardens with our parents. That was the talk before – before school came to Mota Lava. Plant plenty, plant a strong garden, then if disaster comes, you have food. A ...losing custom, that’s why it happens. Losing the custom fashion belonging to the old people before. follow, these participation limitations method, the central feature of storian is would have been less. building rapport with participants. Storian is essentially a Vanuatu-specific form of Strengths ‘Talanoa’: an established, culturally appro- One-on-one and small group interviews priate Pacific research methodology refer- successfully facilitated participant- ring to ‘a personal encounter where people researcher knowledge exchange, catalysing story their issues, their realities and aspi- further knowledge sharing between rations’ (Vaioleti, 1999-2003 cited in Vaio- community members. This was largely at leti, 2006:21). Box 1 provides an example the expense of extensive collective partici- of storian. pant knowledge sharing and exchange, but most beneficial to both participants and Participant outcomes researcher in the particular socio-cultural To ‘stori’ is culturally a central and normal and research context. I use the Bislama part of daily life. Knowledge is traditionally term storian – to ‘chat, yarn, swap stories’ disseminated orally in Ni-Vanuatu culture. (Crowley, 1995: 235) – to indicate this I found storian to be the most ‘natural’, approach rather than ‘interview’, as this non-threatening, and enjoyable research could be seen as an extractive and ‘Western’ method for participants. Many community method. Storian is an umbrella term indi- members enthusiastically volunteered for cating semi-structured interview, informal discussions, and were happy to dedicate interview, and opportunistic discussion as long periods of time to storian. Many part of observation. Irrespective of specific participants who were shy in group situa- 84 60 G Warrick Photo: Amanda Leathers Photo: A participant explains traditional methods of minimising erosion risk to me during storian.

tions – especially women and elderly ing food security after cyclones) and more participants – were more comfortable with general problems (such as loss of tradi- voicing their opinion in a more person- tional knowledge and ineffective commu- alised situation. Importantly, storian was nity governance) were clarified for generally less intrusive to daily commit- participants as well as researcher. In this ments than group activities. way, the research was interactive, not The approach was flexible – although extractive. guided to a degree by topic, discussions were led primarily by participant Research outcomes responses, enabling participants to high- One of the most significant benefits of light issues most significant to them. storian is that it allows people’s perspec- Importantly, knowledge generation was a tives to be more adequately reflected as two-way process. The relaxed and highly they talk around the topic in their own way. personal context of storian provided an As such, the relative priority of climate- opportunity for participants to ask ques- related problems in a context of multiple tions of me. In this way, storian became an stressors could be better represented. This important platform for raising awareness is fundamental to successful CBA as of climate change issues in the community. community-based initiatives or projects Furthermore, through the course of discus- need to directly address locally perceived sion and issue probing, links between needs. Storian often began with an exten- climate-related problems (such as decreas- sive discussion of general problems and Ethics and methods in research for community-based adaptation: reflections from rural Vanuatu 85 concerns in the community before address- often concluded with a lengthy discussion ing anything climate-related. Group activ- regarding the imagined implications of the ities were often either too climate most major climate event identified occur- stress-focused or too general to allow this ring today. Historical timelines were partic- relative priority to be accurately repre- ularly effective at characterising the sented. relationships between vulnerability to The storian technique built participant- climate stress, and the ‘everyday’ stresses researcher rapport. This was fundamental and opportunities shaping this. to the ‘accuracy’ of information created. In a project setting, concise participatory Additional challenges in integrating workshops are a good way of obtaining a climate change knowledge in PLA range of viewpoints in a relatively short Climate change adds an additional layer of amount of time, as a basis for planning and complexity in PLA. Many CBA toolkits are action (van Aalst et al., 2008). However, based on those intended for disaster risk this has limitations as well as strengths. reduction. The difference is that knowledge Based on experiences in Papua New of potential future changes in climate – and Guinea, Mercer et al. (2008) identify that therefore an understanding of the need for information gathered in initial scoping adaptation – is largely held by ‘outsiders’ research can be incomplete and skewed in and is ‘top-down’. This creates particular order to maximise assistance from external challenges. CBA is ostensibly a community- agencies. In my own experience I found driven process with local people, rather that information (in both group activities than outsiders, as the ‘experts’ in adapta- and storian) was often initially biased tion processes. In Vanuatu, addressing towards what participants believed I climate stress is not generally a community wanted to hear – this was their way of being priority. Although at times extremely polite to a ‘guest’. During the course of disruptive, cyclones, drought, and flooding storian, as personal relationships were are viewed largely as part of ‘normal’ life. built, discussions became far more frank. Furthermore, where the implications of This is important to stress because CBA climate change are not yet obvious, moti- initiatives built upon less intensive and vation for adaptation (even if this is merely detailed assessment may be skewed improved DRR) is likely to be external, at towards the known agenda of the imple- least early on. The nuances and challenges menting agency – and may not be inte- of integrating the concept of climate grated with true community priorities. This change into PLA warrants a paper in itself. is particularly important in communities Here, I address one aspect only: the way like the three I visited, where the implica- and extent in which I actually emphasised tions of climate change or climate stress are the notion of ‘climate change’ in storian not a local priority and a more pro-active and other activities. approach to adaptation is required. Often, CBA-focused PLA toolkits Storian was often used in conjunction emphasise ascertaining local observations with a participatory activity, for example, of changes to climate or weather and historical timelines with small groups of resultant problems as a basis for develop- community elders, developed over multi- ing adaptation strategies. I found that this ple sessions. A comprehensive historical approach usually over-emphasised shorter- picture was first built. I then focused term variability rather than identifying storian around memorable periods of longer-term trends (including increased climate stress such as major cyclones or irregularity and uncertainty) as the toolkits droughts, the impacts these had, and the intend. For example, participants in one ways in which people coped. The activity community claimed to be experiencing 86 60 G Warrick

increases in various monthly rainfalls, but Climate change mostly increases the impor- this perception was likely influenced by the tance of soundly dealing with current La Niña occurring at the time – local climate stresses rather than requiring signif- weather station data did not back up this icantly different responses at this scale. I perception. Mataki et al., (2007) experi- emphasise that this may not make sense in enced a similar issue in their work in Fiji. every climate change impacts context. The Vanuatu climate is highly variable and Again, the important lesson here is that this may risk attributing anthropogenic different contexts call for different climate change – a problem caused by approaches in participatory vulnerability developed countries – to problems that research – in both a cultural and climatic likely result (mainly) from ‘natural’ vari- sense. ability, in participants’ minds. In the Vanuatu community context, vulnerability Conclusion to climate change is primarily driven by In this paper I offer some reflections on the decreasing ability to deal with current ethics and quality of participatory climate stresses (due mainly to social and processes in the context of community- economic pressures) rather than by scale vulnerability research. In CBA, a ‘weather changes’ per se. In this situation, I ‘learning-by-doing’, action research found that this approach risked erro- approach is heavily advocated. Developing neously blaming climate change for practical solutions to problems via the decreases in adaptive capacity. The conse- research process itself is often emphasised, quences of this may be a sense of disem- and this is reflected in many participatory powerment amongst participants. toolkits. It is important however, that this Although climatic variability and extremes does not come at the expense of first have been locally dealt with for genera- adequately establishing the problem, and tions, I observed that many began to this is where intensive and detailed discuss these problems as stemming from research is important. Vulnerability to forces outside community control and climate change is complex and place- therefore, as requiring externally driven specific and a realistic understanding of solutions (by government, aid donors, and local perceptions is essential if resources NGOs). Creating a sense of ‘victimisation’ and funding are to meet community adap- is not particularly constructive in the tation needs. Climate change adds a further context of CBA in Vanuatu. layer of complexity to disaster risk reduc- Emphasising how people respond to tion in Vanuatu. Often, sustainable CBA climate stress and how this has changed initiatives will require finding creative ways over time aided in avoiding this unnecessary to address local priorities whilst being pro- misconception and sense of helplessness. I actively adaptive. Due to the ‘top-down’ found that maintaining focus on issues nature of climate change knowledge, which the community could potentially people will have little faith in an initiative address itself enabled participants to realise that does not address current local priori- and legitimise their own (fairly extensive) ties in some way. In this sense, locally capacities to deal with an uncertain climate. perceived climate problems and priorities In these specific community situations, must be well contextualised and under- vulnerability is constructed primarily by stood before planning and action takes declining adaptive and coping capacity as a place. result of social and economic pressures. The methods most suitable for Changes in climate play a somewhat maximising positive participant and secondary (although obviously important) research outcomes for CBA are likely to be role in vulnerability to climate change. very context specific – both in terms of local Ethics and methods in research for community-based adaptation: reflections from rural Vanuatu 87 socio-cultural situations and research more the focus. In my experience, tech- background and purpose. An important niques enabling depth of both information lesson learnt through my research is that gleaned and participant-researcher knowl- flexibility, openness, and innovation in the edge exchange were more effective in a research approach are most important to ‘research only’ context than techniques maximising learning and knowledge aimed at group, collective (or participant- consolidation, accurately representing local participant) knowledge sharing, and voices, and ensuring research is informed capacity realisation. These may be more by, and developed from, local priorities. beneficial in the ‘decision-making’ phases Participation may have somewhat of a project where the collective organisa- different objectives in the ‘research’ than tion, documentation, and clarification of in the ‘decision-making’ stages of the CBA knowledge can pave the way to action process, where planning and action is planning.

CONTACT DETAILS Olivia Warrick Department of Geography, Tourism and Environmental Planning The University of Waikato Private Bag 3105 Hamilton, 3240 New Zealand Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES Crowley, T. (1995). A new Bislama dictionary. University of the South Pacific: Suva, Fiji International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (2007). VCA toolbox with reference sheets. Author: Geneva, Switzerland Mataki, M., K. Koshy, and V. Nair (2007). ‘Top-down, bottom-up: Mainstreaming adaptation in Pacific island townships.’ In Leary, N. (Ed.) Climate change and adaptation (pp.264-277). Earthscan: London McFadzien, D., F. Areki, T. Biuvakadua, and M. Fiu (2005). Climate witness: community toolkit. World Wildlife Fund: Suva, Fiji Mercer, J., I. Kelman, K. Lloyd and S. Suchet-Pearson (2008). ‘Reflections on use of participatory research for disaster risk reduction.’ Area, 40(2) Nakalevu, T. (2006). CV&A: a guide to community vulnerability and adaptation assessment and action. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme: Apia, Samoa Vaioleti , M.T. (2006). ‘Talanoa research methodology: a developing position on Pacific research.’ Waikato Journal of Education 12 van Aalst, M.K., T. Cannon and I. Burton (2008). ‘Community level adaptation to climate change: the potential role of participatory community risk assessment.’ Global Environmental Change 18 Vrolijks, L. (1998). Guidelines for community vulnerability analysis: an approach for Pacific island countries. United Nations Development Programme: Suva, Fiji 88

Participatory rice variety selection in Sri Lanka 6

by RACHEL BERGER, with ROHANA WEREGODA and VARUNA RATHNABHARATHIE

Introduction Action’s south Asia office based in Hambantota District is a major paddy (rice) Colombo. Practical Action had funding to producing area in the southern coastal develop a pilot project. Its objective was to region of Sri Lanka. Communities here have increase the resilience of communities to been experiencing salt water intrusion into cope with the impacts of increased climate their rice fields, leading to reduced yields. variability in their localities.1 In Sri Lanka, This has been caused largely by seawater these were the likelihood of climate change contamination of irrigation systems. worsening existing problems of salinisation Farmers had been using saline-resistant and flooding. varieties developed at the rice research The project worked with 500 house- station, Ambalantota, but in badly affected holds in Godawaya and Walawa Grama areas these varieties were still failing. This Niladhari divisions in Hambantota district article focuses on work done to identify along the Walava river estuary. Most traditional rice varieties suitable for culti- people’s assets comprise physical capital: vation in the degraded paddies through a crop harvests, livestock, boats, and other process of participatory research. equipment. The villages were selected to participate Background for several reasons: The activities described here were part of a • The majority of people were relatively three-year project (2005 to 2007) carried poor – farmers owned typically less than out in four countries of south Asia by Prac- one hectare of paddy land. tical Action, a UK-based international • The site lay close to an area where Practi- development organisation. The work in Sri cal Action was involved in a post-tsunami Lanka was implemented by Practical reconstruction programme, so manage-

1 Funding was provided by the UK-based Allachy Trust. Participatory rice variety selection in Sri Lanka 89 Source: http://images.google.lk/images Source: Traditional paddy trial locations in Sri Lanka. ment and travel costs could be reduced. The spread as poorly maintained irrigation project site was sufficiently far inland not to channels become polluted from the saline have been directly impacted, though fisher- estuary. Coastal erosion also reduces the men’s livelihoods clearly were affected. availability of land and forests that are • The problems faced by the community increasingly – and illegally – used by local (coastal erosion, saline intrusion into people as the scarcity of productive farm- paddy fields) were typical of those likely to land increases across the district. be experienced by rural Sri Lankan In future, storm surges and rising sea communities under climate change, even if levels are likely to increase salt water the current problems cannot be directly contamination. Combined with intense attributable to climate change. rainfall these problems are anticipated to Paddy cultivation in Sri Lanka is largely increase under current climate change a smallholder activity. Rice growing is predictions. The main focus of the Rice important culturally for smallholder Research Institute in Sri Lanka is on farmers. So even when faced with problems larger-scale irrigated paddy cultivation. of salinity, farmers were reluctant to switch However, it has developed a few varieties to other crops. suitable for saline conditions faced by Salinisation and soil erosion have led to small-scale farmers, although without the the abandonment of paddy land along the involvement of farmers. In the experience river estuary. Salts drawn up from ground- of farmers in the project area, the varieties water are deposited on the surface, and only tolerate limited levels of salinity. 90 60 G Berger, Weregoda, and Rathnabharathie

Box 1: Community perceptions on changing climate There were no records of any kind held at the local level. Inhabitants’ memories were the only source of information. Groups were formed with participants of similar ages to enable discussions amongst individuals with similar knowledge. Participants were grouped into those over 60 years old, between 45 and 60 years, and the younger generation (below 45 years). Women were included, since their work of firewood collection, farming, and homestead vegetable gardening made them more aware of changes in resource availability and temperature than men.

While people had access to modern weather information, farmers still used a forecasting system known as ‘Litha’. Litha is a table prepared by an astrologist, using the phases of the moon and the positions of the stars and planets. A full moon, for instance, is associated with rain. The table indicates times when seeds will germinate, or the best time to plant crops so as to avoid pest attacks. However, whilst respondents reported the Litha as still in use, it was judged to have become less effective in recent years. This may suggest that climate change is undermining traditional techniques – or perhaps only that modern forecasts are increasingly reliable.

A variety of other traditional forecasting indicators were used (see table below). Their effectiveness was being debated within the community. It was also reported that traditional techniques are not being passed on to the younger generation, who prefer to rely on modern farming and forecasting practices.

Table 1: Traditional forecasting indicators Observation Prediction

Large termites start breeding during a dry period. Rain will come soon. . Ants appear with their eggs and move to a new Rain will start within 24 hours. nest.

Small termites start breeding during a rainy period. Rain will stop soon.

A noise is heard emanating from the sea. Rain will come within seven hours and last for seven days.

Off-season trees such as tamarind and wood apple Good future rainy season – farmers cultivate large give good yields. areas.

Dogs and cattle make unusual sounds. Destructive rainy season leading to disasters is anticipated.

Methods and processes Union for Conservation and Nature Understanding the situation faced by the (IUCN) reports on coastal recourses. This Hambantota communities was essential showed that the Ambalantota division of for designing project activities. Gathering Hambantota district was highly vulnerable sufficient information was critical. In the to floods, sea water intrusion, and natural first six months, we used a range of data resource depletion. gathering approaches: • Focus group discussions. These were • Secondary data. To select project sites, used to initiate discussions in the villages we used data from e.g. the Sri Lankan and collect background information to vali- census and statistics and International date the secondary data. We held two

2 The representatives were the Assistant Divisional Secretary (who reports to the District Secretary, a government appointee, via the Divisional Secretary), local government officials from the area, village farmer group leaders, and officers of the Rice Research Institute in the area. Participatory rice variety selection in Sri Lanka 91

Table 2: Summary of the data-gathering methods

Participatory method used Objective Information gathered

Key informant discussions To collect information on natural • Sources of livelihood resources, livelihoods, and social and • Use of natural resources institutional arrangements in the area. • Existing socio-economic systems

Focus group discussions To collect background information on • Vulnerabilities resource use, vulnerabilities, and • Livelihood system problems capacities to validate secondary information.

Community resource To identify the natural resource base • Vulnerabilities mapping and natural resource management • Availability and use of natural methods. resources • Area landscape

Risk mapping To identify risks to livelihoods within • Types and causes of risks and the area. threats • Extent of vulnerable areas

Field observation To further understand biophysical • Risks and threats in relation to resources, vulnerability, and existing biophysical resources problems affecting farmers' • Encroachments livelihoods. • Severity of problems identified

Transect walks To further understand biophysical • Linking upstream and resource vulnerability and existing downstream farmers problems affecting farmers' • Variation in vulnerability livelihoods. meetings with government representatives lands, home gardens, plantation lands, and non-governmental and community- settlements, and water bodies. based organisations to discuss problems • Risk mapping. The groups involved in relevant to livelihoods and to understand risk mapping included community office resource use and vulnerability.2 This led to bearers (such as the president of the village the selection of two paddy farming agricultural society) and members of communities (from Manajjawa and farmer organisations. Using the commu- Walawa) for further vulnerability assess- nity resource maps, the groups identified ment. One key issue discussed with focus areas at risk from salinisation and flooding, groups in the community was knowledge water-scarce areas, and irrigation canals. relating to weather and climate. This is The main issues identified were flooding, summarised in Box 1. salinity, conflicts between water resource • Community resource mapping. Follow- users, and risks due to changing land use ing the focus group discussions, we intro- patterns (the conversion of coastal forests duced resource and risk mapping to to paddy land). Participants were not asked identify the natural resource base and to rank risks. management approaches. Selected farmer • Field observations and transect walks. organisations and other community Practical Action project staff joined members drew maps of community community members in village visits to resources, illustrating natural resources complement the results of the focus group important for livelihoods such as paddy discussions and mapping exercises. 92 60 G Berger, Weregoda, and Rathnabharathie

Most families were members of the fish- seedlings and weed crops. Pesticides, when eries or farming society when the project used, are applied by men, and harvesting is began. Farmer organisations in each village women’s work. In most households, men act as the decision-making forum for issues traditionally make many of the farming such as the farming calendar, water distri- decisions, though there are women who bution, and seed selection. In preparing take on this role. Women’s time commit- paddy land for sowing, all farmers need to ment to household activities was an obsta- work the land together, since channels cle to attendance at meetings. The project between fields are interconnected. The team made efforts to accommodate women whole system will not operate until all fields by finding alternative meeting times, but and the dividing mud walls are ready. did not challenge the cultural norm of These farmer organisations are also linked male-dominated decision-making. with government agrarian services centres. The paddy farmer group consisted of 16 Farmers also reported being involved in farm families. They volunteered to set aside informal institutions such as the Yaya land in their own fields for the trials. The (field) groups and Seettu (community- farmers had some success with saline-resis- managed revolving fund) groups. In the tant varieties developed at the Ambalan- project villages, association members are tota Rice Research Institute. However, in primarily small-scale farmers. badly affected areas the resistant varieties The participatory process sought to were still failing. prioritise the main threats to people’s liveli- The farmer group agreed to trial some hoods that could be attributable to increas- traditional rice varieties alongside the ing climate variability. The community research station varieties. The trial was reached a consensus during the participa- supported by the National Federation for tory assessment process that floods Conservation of Traditional Seeds and (leading to crop losses) and salinisation Agricultural Resources (NFCTSAR), a (low yields and crop damage) are the main non-governmental organisation, which threats to livelihoods. They expressed a supplied farmers with traditional seeds.3 clear desire to reduce the risks of crop The Federation selected ten varieties that failure and unprofitable yields. it thought would tolerate the level of salin- After the survey, we developed a strat- ity present. The varieties had different egy to build capacity around resource use characteristics in terms of growth, yield, and management and, in particular, to and flavour. establish and replicate best practices in In the first year, both conventional and crop cultivation. The main vehicle for train- traditional varieties were grown. The ing was the paddy farmer group. The group conventional varieties were treated with was mobilised to adopt and develop chemical fertilisers and pesticides and the sustainable farming practices, such as traditional varieties with home-made compost making from rice husks. However, organic compost and neem oil.4 A further while farming activities are carried out by trial, in the next rice growing season, was men and women, the group trialling the of different varieties of traditional rice. rice varieties was dominated by men. In Each variety received the same treatment small-scale paddy farming in Sri Lanka, – neem oil and organic compost. The women and men carry out separate tasks: farmers planted up to 5kg of each variety men prepare the land, and the water in the saline affected areas of their paddy control mechanisms; women plant fields and continuously observed the

3 Local seed banks had fallen out of use following the introduction of high-yielding hybrids in the 1960s and 1970s. 4 Homemade neem oil is used as a pest-control. Participatory rice variety selection in Sri Lanka 93 Photo: Varuna Rathnabharathie Varuna Photo: Meetings with the community (Bundala). growth and changes in the plants up to to hybrid varieties. After seeing that some harvesting. Two farmers out of 16 culti- varieties performed well in saline soils the vated all 10 varieties while the rest culti- farmers developed confidence in their vated three or four varieties after seeing researching and selecting varieties. Prior to how the 10 varieties performed in the first developing this network the role of the insti- trials. tute was to provide seed to the farmers with Which varieties to grow on a larger little or no interaction. During the project, scale were chosen by scoring each variety the community were able to form good links from one to 10, based on the farmer’s pref- between the farmer organisations and the erence, where one was the best score. The government Rice Research Institute. The farmers chose the criteria e.g. plant height, project also facilitated contact with local duration of the crop, grain quality, grain government via the Grama Niladhari colour, saline tolerance, and yield. The (village-level administration) and the irri- selection process was supported by activi- gation department. This prompted impor- ties to help improve soil quality (much tant actions such as sluice gate renovation degraded in the saline-affected areas) and (to prevent seawater flowing into the paddy soil water retention, by using organic fields) and support in improving freshwa- mulches. Mulches reduce the amount of ter irrigation. The farmer groups also tilling required, which in turn reduces soil extended their network to other farmers in salinity caused by bringing salts up from the area. Farmer-to-farmer learning was a deeper soil levels. major development. Farmers testing traditional varieties shared their findings with Outcome of the field trials farmers from the adjacent village who faced The results clearly showed improved yields similar problems. This stimulated discus- from the trial varieties. The traditional rice sions between farmers on variety selection, varieties also carried a premium market increased the knowledge of neighbouring price of up to 50% per kilogram compared farmers on climate change issues, and 94 60 G Berger, Weregoda, and Rathnabharathie Photo: Varuna Rathnabharathie Varuna Photo:

‘Fertiliser pond’ in a paddy slot to provide liquid fertiliser (Bundala).

enabled the farmer groups to become this area. Evaluations of the organisation’s change agents at the community level. By work are generally very positive, but there is the end of the project a traditional paddy clearly room for improvement in the amount cultivator group had been established and and depth of information gathered during was formally attached to the seed conserva- the initial stages of project development. For tion organisation, providing a wider example, very little information was network of contacts and support for the collected on social class or power issues in Hambantota farmers and helping sustain the community, nor on land tenure – possi- the project developments once Practical bly because the situation was so typical of the Action withdrew. region, and so familiar to the project managers that it did not seem worth record- Lessons learnt, critical reflections, and ing. This was a small project, with limited analysis funds. The initial activities, including the baseline study and PRA were limited in Methodology for collecting information scope. It can certainly be argued that This article was written after the project improving rice yields under salinisation ended and after a change in project staff, would need to be part of a much broader resulting in some loss of institutional knowl- strategy for adaptation, for which the project edge. Writing it has highlighted some insti- funding was inadequate to develop. tutional weaknesses within Practical Action: while there is certainly a high commitment Value of the process to participatory processes, there is no formal Improved varieties are frequently intro- across-organisation manual for training in duced by research stations, but are not Participatory rice variety selection in Sri Lanka 95 Photo: Varuna Rathnabharathie Varuna Photo:

‘Pokkali’ a traditional rice variety grown in extremely saline conditions in Bundala. always suitable for use in different local concluding on the success of the approach, contexts. The formal research process fails or the sustainability of the varieties selected to address farmer needs, does not build by the farmers. The yield of traditional vari- their decision-making capacity, and ignores eties on average has proved slightly lower local knowledge in the selection process. than conventional varieties. However, Participatory variety selection aims to traditional varieties are more profitable address these shortcomings. In this small than conventional varieties. They are in trial, the process was successful. It built short supply, and are prized for consump- connections between farmers’groups and tion during festivals, for medicinal reasons, the Rice Research Institute. These connec- and for their taste and aroma. A simple tions should be sustainable, and may lead cost-benefit analysis shows that despite the to a more participatory approach within need for greater labour input (to make the Institute’s main research programme. compost and neem oil), it is cost effective, The trial was small-scale, due to limited because labour comes from family and resources. The method was weakened by neighbours. Women can also participate not having control plots where conven- more fully in the farming calendar where tional and traditional varieties both organic products are used. received either chemical or organic treat- A key contribution was in raising ment. This has since been rectified in awareness of local solutions to climate subsequent replication in areas also change threats. Forgotten varieties of affected by salinity, where the results have indigenous rice were shown to offer a solu- also been favourable. The methods and tion to the increasing soil salinity. There are process would need wider testing before around 2,000 traditional Sri Lankan rice 96 60 G Berger, Weregoda, and Rathnabharathie Photo: Varuna Rathnabharathie Varuna Photo: A woman farmer shows her flourishing trial plot of traditional rice varieties.

varieties, many with high nutritional value marginalised farmers and integrating local and medicinal properties, or resistant to knowledge into the selection process. particular diseases and pests. Cultivating them has helped a group of marginalised Replicability farmers to increase their harvests, whilst Other farmers who cultivated saline- the project’s collaborative approach has affected lands nearby were invited to visit had a positive impact on the attitude of the trials and discuss progress with the local agricultural institutions. The partici- farmers involved, and this led to wider patory approach to variety selection over- adoption. Following the trials, at a meeting came the limitations of the conventional in Hambantota, officials from the agricul- research system in meeting the needs of tural department and government Participatory rice variety selection in Sri Lanka 97 researchers shared findings and discussed Adaptation to climate change is highly these in the context of the impact of climate context specific. At present, salinity may not change on farming in the region. Video affect the majority of the area under rice documentaries have also been shown to cultivation. Nationally, there is no estimate agricultural extension officials at workshops of fields affected by salinity and salt water where ministry officials and Practical intrusion and the likely causes. At a local Action staff presented their different level however, the number of communities approaches. They have been shown to that have raised concerns with Practical farmer associations in each district, who Action project staff suggests this issue may have also taken part in visits to successful be seriously underestimated. Communities project sites. throughout a wide geographical area are Practical Action has since expanded the keen to experiment with saline-resistant approach to many other communities traditional varieties of rice. This attests to around Sri Lanka (see Map 1). Significantly, the relevance of this approach and technol- other communities have adopted it ogy – particularly to communities in autonomously, through word of mouth and marginal locations facing many social and observation. Traditional varieties are grown economic challenges, in addition to the by one farmer in a corner of a large field, added challenges of soil salinity and future cultivated by many small-scale farmers. The climate change. next year, many other farmers are observed growing the crops. Farmer societies contact Conclusion Practical Action to find out more, and are The participatory research approach referred to villages adopting the practice, adopted during this project demonstrates and organise their own visits. Staff have the importance of experimentation for been surprised by contact from people in adaptation. Participatory research provided distant places who have heard about the the farmers with a supportive environment trials. This autonomous replication of a with access to the resources necessary for successful practice is very encouraging, experimentation. It demonstrates the effi- though of course difficult to assess without ciency of locally informed and farmer-led independent evaluation. research. Farmers were able to assess Uptake is feasible, though farmers are threats to their livelihoods and define their probably not undertaking rigorous trials own response. Their capacity to experiment before adoption. The methodology is in finding solutions to their own problems however replicable, provided farmers’groups was strengthened. The network of relation- are adequately supported in understanding ships built up between the farmers, formal the need for a rigorous approach. Support research institutions, government extension could be provided by the national Rice services, and a national seed conservation Research Institute, but the mediation of a body will hopefully ensure continuity of non-governmental organisation experienced support for further research by the farmers. in participatory methods would increase the This project underlines the importance likelihood of success. of biodiversity for adaptation. The farmers A more farmer-focused agricultural of Hambantota could assess and select research agenda is crucial for farmers seeds able to survive in the degraded envi- successfully to adapt their food production ronment only through the preservation and to climate change. At present, research free availability of many seed varieties. As priorities are defined by national govern- climate change pressures mount, it will be ment or even multi-national corporations. crucial to ensure that agricultural biodiver- The likelihood for change on a large scale is sity is not sacrificed for short-term increases remote at present. in yield. 98 60 G Berger, Weregoda, and Rathnabharathie

CONTACT DETAILS Rachel Berger Climate Change Policy Adviser Practical Action Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development Bourton Hall Rugby CV23 9QZ UK Tel: + 44 1926 634400 Email: [email protected] Skype: rachelberger1 Website: www.practicalaction.org.uk

Rohana Weregoda 3/44, Brewery Lane Armidale NSW 2350 Australia Email: [email protected]

Varuna Rathnabharathie Project Manager, Organic Agriculture Practical Action 5 Lionel Edirisinghe Mawatha Kirulapone Colombo-5 Sri Lanka Tel: +94 11 2829412 ext: 19 or 67 Email: [email protected] www.practicalaction.org www.janathakshan.org

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This article is based on material prepared by Rohana Weregoda, formerly Project Manager with Practical Action’s south Asia office in Sri Lanka and Varuna Rathnabharathie, who is currently managing projects including traditional rice cultivation for Practical Action. 99

Lessons from a participatory transboundary water governance project in 7 West Africa

by SAM WONG

Introduction and learn from, local people, and enable Climate change brings about erratic communities to plan and implement adap- climatic variability. Scientists warn that this tation activities. will lead to increasing episodes of flood and The complexity of climate change, drought (IPCC, 2008). These changes will however, means that it is not enough to hit developing countries disproportionately focus on the community level. Some adap- since poor people rely heavily on natural tation policies can have spill-over effects, resources and agriculture for survival for example, one community’s decision to (Paavola and Adger, 2002). Research also build a dam to cope with drought will affect suggests that slight changes in the timing communities lower down the river. So of the arrival, duration, and intensity of coordination between communities is monsoon rains will affect the livelihoods of crucial to the success of some adaptation millions of people (UNDP, 2007). strategies. Poor countries and communities need This article draws on research I carried to strengthen their local capacities to adapt out Ghana and Burkina Faso to explore the to climate change. Climate change affects impact of a transboundary water gover- everyone. It is everyone’s intrinsic right to nance project on poor people’s livelihoods.1 participate in decision-making and in It examines how communities can identity taking action to adapt to climate change. climate change-related problems and solu- Participatory learning and action (PLA) tions in concert with others, including approaches can help outsiders work with, other communities. Unlike other trans-

1 Funded by the British Academy, I visited the Upper North Region of Ghana in April and August 2008, where I worked with the Water Resources Commission and a local NGO. I interviewed 19 men and seven women, including project coordinators, regional ministers, civil servants of the Ministries of Agriculture and Forestry, community representatives, and ordinary villagers. Because of time constraints, my research focused on two communities in Ghana, Mognori, and Sapaliga. 100 60 G Wong

boundary water governance arrangements, The PAE was consultative in nature. for example, in the Mekong or Nile river Local people were not involved in deciding basins, this project demonstrates an how the PAGEV was designed and imple- attempt to include community members in mented. The project governance structures the decision-making process. It also and the climate change adaptation policies insisted that both genders were repre- were subject to negotiation by the donors, sented on the transboundary water project coordinator, and the NGOs. Local committee. The article discusses the people were expected to engage with the successes and limitations of the participa- project by sending community representa- tory approach used to involve communities tives to the meetings and following the in transboundary water governance and agreed policies. climate change adaptation activities. The donors appointed a Ghanaian project coordinator based in the capital of Transboundary water governance Burkina Faso. They also selected two local project in Ghana and Burkina Faso NGOs (from north-east Ghana and the The IPCC report (2008) predicts that a 2°C south of Burkina Faso) to manage the increase in global temperature will make ground work. The NGOs selected eight South Ghana wetter and North Ghana and communities (four from each side), using South Burkina Faso drier. This has a far- the following criteria: reaching impact on the use of water and • adjacent to the White Volta River; land resources in the region. Ghana and • close relationships with the NGOs; Burkina Faso share 85% of the Volta River • scale of the problems; and Basin. How they manage water is crucial to • diversity of the region, in terms of the development of the region. language and faith.2 The World Conservation Union (WCU) If the project was successful, the aim and the Swedish International Develop- was to encourage more communities along ment Agency (SIDA) carried out a partici- the White Volta River to get involved. The patory appraisal exercise (PAE) with NGOs acted as a bridge between the trans- communities in North Ghana and South boundary water committee and the local Burkina Faso in 2003. During the exercise, communities. They negotiated with local Ghanaians raised concerns over the ‘widen- leaders about the activities implemented in ing and shallowing’ of the rivers, blaming their communities, monitored the project’s Burkina Faso for building dams in the progress, organised training workshops for upper course. People in Burkina Faso, in local representatives, and called local meet- contrast, expressed their worries over ings. higher occurrences of drought in summer Diagram 1 shows the participatory seasons (PAGEV Annual Report, 2007). governance structure of the project. A After the participatory exercise, the two Regional Transboundary Water Commit- donors initiated the Improving Water tee was established. This 14-member Governance in the Volta Basin Project committee, with equal representation from (PAGEV) in 2004. This three-year project each country, comprised regional minis- aimed to develop dialogue between Ghana ters, district chief executives, civil servants and Burkina Faso over the transboundary from forestry, agriculture and water use of water. It also intended to build ministries, NGOs, and two community resilience and strengthen the capacity of representatives. It provided a mechanism local communities to cope with climate for better coordination of water sharing change. between the two countries. It also had the

2 Source: interview with Water Resource Commission officer, 20th August 2009. Lessons from a participatory transboundary water governance project in West Africa 101

Diagram 1: Transboundary Water Governance Structure in Ghana and Burkina Faso

Regional Transboundary Water Governance Committee

Give advice and reflect Offer vision over better ministers’ and communities’ coordination of water use concerns between countries

Country Committee

24 local representatives sit in Implement climate change country committee to express the adaptation policies in the local needs of their communities communities

Eight local communities

Source: author’s own diagram, from interviews. ultimate power to decide what adaptation After discussions in both committees, a activities would be implemented on the series of climate change adaptation activi- ground. ties were carried out. A 10 metre-wide A country committee was also set up buffer zone was formed and trees planted with 30 members from Ghana and 31 from to stabilise the river bank, in order to Burkina Faso. It included eight regional reduce soil erosion and strengthen flood coordinators, six district coordinators, 15 protection. Farmers were asked to stop technical service staff (in charge of food farming within the buffer zone (Photo 1). and agriculture, forestry, and water), eight Most land in these communities was NGO representatives, and 24 members owned by chieftains and Tindana (reli- chosen from the eight participating gious leaders), so farmers had no choice but communities (eight women and 16 men). to give up the lands. Free mango seedlings This committee advised the Regional were offered to compensate for their loss. Transboundary Water Committee, but Organic farming was also introduced to possessed no decision-making powers. improve soil fertility. To dissuade poor The NGOs asked each community to people cutting down trees within the buffer nominate three people to represent their zone, fuelwood crops were cultivated at its communities. The NGOs set a number of edge. The project also tried to cater for criteria: the nominees should be ‘well- specific community needs. For example, respected’ in the community, ‘educated’, engineers helped the Sakom community ‘committed’, ‘willing to learn’ and, to repair a leaking reservoir while pumping promote gender equality, at least one of the facilities were provided to Sapeliga and three local representatives must be female. Mognori in the dry seasons (PAGEV These local representatives were expected Annual Report, 2007). to reflect their communities’ concerns To improve communication between during meetings and to monitor how the communities in Ghana and Burkina Faso, agreed policies were implemented at the workshops, training, and site visits were local level. organised. Community representatives met 102 60 G Wong

Farming along the White Volta River caused serious erosion. The buffer zone was built in order to stabilise the river banks. Photo: Sam Wong Sam Photo:

at least twice a year. They shared both owners from their Ghanaian partners. successes and frustrations in implementing The NGOs stressed that local partici- adaptation activities in their own commu- pation in the project was crucial to tackling nities. Ghanaians developed skills in mango climate change. Villagers needed to tree pruning from representatives of develop a sense of project ownership and a Burkina Faso while community members deeper understanding of the interdepend- from Burkina Faso learnt how to resolve ence of communities in water resource conflicts between farmers and animal management. Lessons from a participatory transboundary water governance project in West Africa 103

communities, embracing diversity, and gender inclusion.

Interdependence of communities The project was effective in making villagers aware that water-related problems in their own communities were not unique. Through intercommunity meetings and sharing, community representatives and participants had a deeper understanding of the interdependence of communities. The idea of sharing a ‘common fate’ was mentioned in interviews with local people. One Mognori representative said he had seen the river getting wider and shallower, but that he felt powerless to change the situation. To his surprise, during the country committee meetings, representatives from Sapaliga raised similar concerns. He then realised they shared similar problems. The sense of ‘togetherness’ was also generated by a constant comparison between communities over the project’s progress. During country meetings, the chairperson would report how many new trees had been planted in each community buffer zone. In order not be seen as ‘lazy’ or ‘not progressive enough’, one representative said she would ensure her community did not lag behind other communities. This gave a strong sense of self-motivation for rule enforcement. The project also offered a new channel for local people to express their concerns. Instead of waiting for chieftains or Tindana to resolve problems or to provide services, community members could now talk to their village representatives and hoped they would reflect their needs in the country meetings. Signs of success in resolving conflict between Ghana and Project successes Burkina Faso over water use have also Although the participation of local people boosted local people’s confidence in the in the project was limited, and determined institutional set-up. After a series of nego- by the project designers, the participatory tiations in 2007 and 2008, Burkina Faso governance structure set up by the project finally agreed to make an early warning did have a number of successes. My focus announcement to the Upper North Region here is on three aspects: promoting under- of Ghana before opening the dam gates to standing of the interdependence of release flood water. 104 60 G Wong

Embracing diversity decisions that she thought were Social differences of language and faith unfavourable to her community. can be seen as an obstacle to public participation. According to Putnam (2000), Limitations trust and cooperative norms are built more Despite these successes, the project paid easily within homogeneous – rather than inadequate attention to the issues of heterogeneous – groups. This project, poverty and power in developing and however, demonstrated that, with the right implementing adaptation policies. institutional designs and adequate support, embracing diversity can make Poverty insensitivity public participation in transboundary The project proposal suggested that the water governance more effective. For committees and NGOs should use partici- example in Ghana, three religions were patory approaches to understand the needs represented in the four selected commu- of each community and develop appropri- nities: Muslim, Christian, and Pagan. ate adaptation activities. However, in prac- While the ‘official’ languages in both tice the process was largely top-down and committees were English and French, insensitive to the needs of poorer farmers. languages such as Bisia, Kussasi, and The creation of buffer zones on the river Kussal were spoken in their communities. banks, for example, hit poor farmers To facilitate communication, interpreta- disproportionately because river banks are tion was provided during meetings. This usually fertile, and the river water makes made the meetings lengthy, but village free irrigation possible. Although the representatives welcomed this initiative project organisers provided pumping facil- since they felt they could engage in the ities to make long-distance irrigation possi- discussion. Christian and Muslim partici- ble, poorer farmers were often excluded pants were given equal opportunities to from the pumping groups because the open the meetings with prayers. These organisers thought they could not afford socially- and religiously-inclusive policies the fuel costs. helped build trust and good working rela- Free mango seedlings were also distrib- tionships in the committees. uted to provide an alternative farming practice. Cash crops such as mangoes have Gender inclusion a high market value, potentially boosting To ensure fair gender representation, each farmers’ incomes. The farmers, however, community was asked to select at least one complained in interviews that it would take woman as their representative. The male three years to get the first harvest. They project coordinator highlighted the role of also worried that when everyone switched women in water management: women are to growing mangoes, the price would drop responsible for fetching water and collect- and impact on profits. Although they had ing firewood in most communities. expressed their concerns to their commu- Successful adaptation policies needed to nity representatives, they had been ignored. recognise the contribution of women to, As a result, some farmers stopped partici- and involvement in, water management. In pating in local meetings, believing them to addition, the intrinsic rights of women to be of no benefit. make decisions affecting their lives were clearly underlined in the joint proposal by Reinforcing power inequalities WCU and SIDA (PAGEV proposal, 2003). The NGOs played a dominant role in One female representative said she felt organising the nomination of community empowered because she could raise ques- representatives. Whilst they did ensure tions during the meetings and challenge gender representation in choosing local Lessons from a participatory transboundary water governance project in West Africa 105 representatives, the NGOs failed to ensure heterogeneity with regard to gender, reli- the inclusion of poorer farmers. This was gion, and language. However, the partici- because the NGOs worked closely with patory space was so restricted that local chieftains and Tindana. They argued community members were largely ignored that the support and approval of these in developing strategies for climate change traditional authority figures was important adaptation and water management. to the success of the project. Also, since Although local people indicated their most land was owned by the chiefs or awareness of the changing climate and Tindana, their support would ensure a river flow, little effort was made to incor- smooth confiscation of land from farmers porate local knowledge into adaptation to create the buffer zone. strategies. Local people were expected to However, Laube’s research in Ghana adopt the policies they were told to. (2007) argues that the chieftains and Local people also had no say in the Tindana are blamed for causing poverty. institutional arrangements and the compo- He suggests, for example, that the chief- sition of the regional transboundary water tains prefer to lease land to less-poor and country committees. Heavy reliance on farmers because they own cattle and can the support of local chieftains, for the sake provide a free ploughing service. To safe- of efficiency, risked reinforcing power and guard their own interests in the transgender inequalities in communities, and boundary water project, the chiefs and marginalising poorer parts of the commu- Tindana influenced the process of select- nity in decision-making processes. ing community representatives, ensuring A preoccupation with setting up the that members of their family were chosen. ‘right’ kinds of institutional arrangements In this way, the project has helped consol- led to inadequate attention being paid to idate their authority, and the voices and analysing power and poverty when devis- interests of poorer farmers have been ing and implementing adaptation policies marginalised in the decision-making in communities. The confiscation of river- process (Wong, 2008). side farmlands and displacement of poor This case study offers a good example of farmers was caused by a lack of genuine the ‘paradoxes of participation’ identified farmer participation from the outset. This by Cleaver (2004). The project attempted raises concerns about the implicit prefer- to set up new institutions for participation, ence for long-term ecological sustainabil- but these new participatory spaces were ity over the short-term livelihood interests easily captured by local elites. of poor people. No matter how well- intended the adaptation policies may be, a Conclusions and policy implications focus on long-term ecological sustainability Climate change affects people both locally can pose a real threat to the livelihoods of and regionally, and participatory poor people, and worsen poverty. Finding approaches need to take a regional as well alternative sustainable livelihoods in order as local perspective, and provide for better to meet poor people’s current needs and to coordination between communities. protect long-term ecological sustainability Expanding the focus beyond an individual is a matter of urgency. community can create a common vision If adaptation polices build on – and between communities and help local help reinforce – existing unequal social people be more aware of the cross-border structures, poor people will become the impact of climate change. victims, rather than the beneficiaries, of The project described had some success adaptation efforts. We need to raise aware- in setting up transboundary water gover- ness of the potential dangers of working nance structures and embracing social through existing social and political hier- 106 60 G Wong

archies. Learning from the poor and providing them with sufficient support should be considered the first steps to achieving social justice.

CONTACT DETAILS Sam Wong Lecturer Division of Archaeological, Geographical, and Environmental Studies University of Bradford UK Email: [email protected]

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer would like to thank the British Academy for funding the research on which this article is based, and the Water Resource Commission and ZOVFA in Ghana for their support.

REFERENCES Cleaver, F. (2004). ‘The Social Embeddedness of Agency and Decision- making.’ In S. Hickey and G. Mohan (eds) Participation: from Tyranny to Transformation? Exploring New Approaches to Participation in Development. Zed Books: London. IPCC (Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change) (2008). Climate change and water. IPCC Technical Paper IV. Laube, W. (2007). Changing resource regimes in Northern Ghana: actors, structures and institutions. Lit: Berlin. Need to add reference: Paavola, J. and N. Adger (2002). 'Justice and Adaptation to Climate Change.' Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, Working Paper 23 Putnam, R. (2000). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. Simon and Schuster: London. UNDP (United Nations Development Programmes) (2007). Human Development Report 2007/8: Fighting climate change and human solidarity in a divided world. Wong, S. (2008). ‘Humanising the World Bank’s Sustainable Water Framework with “Pro-Poor” Principles of Governance.’ Social Alternatives, 27(3):15-20. 107 PART II Participatory tool-based case studies 108 60 109

Participatory three- dimensional mapping for disaster risk reduction 8

by JEAN-CHRISTOPHE GAILLARD and EMMANUEL A. MACEDA

Introduction NGO facilitators. To further enhance disas- Involving local communities is a prerequi- ter risk reduction, it is acknowledged that site to sustainable disaster risk reduction. CBDRR should integrate a larger array of Local communities are both the primary stakeholders, including local government, victims and the first to respond to emer- scientists, schools pupils, and faith groups. gencies when disasters strike. Nobody is The participation of scientists and local more interested in reducing disaster risk government in CBDRR is essential to inte- than the community whose survival and grate indigenous and scientific knowledge, well-being is at stake. Community-based as well as bottom-up and top-down disas- disaster risk reduction (CBDRR) fosters ter risk reduction measures. Yet scientists the participation of threatened communi- have often overlooked CBDRR, consider- ties in both the evaluation of risk (including ing it to be too subjective and removed hazards, vulnerability, and capacities) and from scientific methodologies and rigorous ways to reduce it. CBDRR should eventu- protocols, and local governments are often ally empower communities with self-devel- constrained by top-down, command-and- oped and culturally acceptable ways of control national disaster management coping with crises brought about by the frameworks which give them little freedom occurrence of natural hazards (e.g. Ander- for alternative initiatives. Integrating tradi- son and Woodrow, 1989). Practitioners tional and scientific knowledge, and often merge CBDRR with community- bottom-up and top-down risk reduction based adaptation to climate change (CBA) measures, requires methodologies and as the ability of people to face climate tools which provide common ground for changes shares root factors with the capac- dialogue between stakeholders. Such ity to cope with natural hazards. dialogue is crucial to build trust between Currently, most CBDRR initiatives are actors who seldom work together. confined to community beneficiaries and This paper focuses on participatory 110 60 G Gaillard and Maceda Photo: J-C. Gaillard J-C. Photo: Figure 1: Building a P3DM map in Divinubo, Eastern Samar, Philippines, August 2007.

three-dimensional mapping (P3DM) as a measures. Most participatory mapping way to facilitate the integration of both projects, however, rely on two-dimensional scientific and local knowledge and the sketch maps. These are usually limited in participation of a large array of stakehold- size, making it difficult to integrate a high ers in CBDRR. In this article, we first level of detail, especially at the household provide a short introduction to participa- level (number of people, vulnerable indi- tory mapping and CDBRR. Next, we viduals, livelihoods, etc.), which are crucial describe the methodological process for in disaster risk reduction. Furthermore, integrating P3DM into CBDRR. Finally, participatory maps are intelligible only to we explore its strengths and also review those who made the maps. It is difficult to some of the major limitations of P3DM for foster their use among non-participant CBDRR. stakeholders, especially at the authority level, to integrate top-down risk reduction Background: participatory mapping and measures, and as sketch maps are usually CBDRR not scaled, they may introduce distortions Maps are extensively used by both scien- which make it difficult to integrate scientists and participatory learning and action tific knowledge. facilitators as part of CBDRR activities. Participatory three-dimensional model- Participatory mapping enables communi- ling or mapping (P3DM) can help in ties to delineate areas they perceive as attempting to overcome these shortcom- vulnerable and prone to hazards, and to ings. It involves building stand-alone plot desired and useful risk reduction scaled relief maps made of locally available Participatory three-dimensional mapping for disaster risk reduction 111 materials (e.g. cartons, paper), with Step 1 consists of building the relief thematic layers of geographical informa- map as detailed in Rambaldi and Callosa- tion (Rambaldi and Callosa-Tarr, 2002). Tarr (2002) (Figure 1). Most P3DM proj- P3DM enables the plotting of landforms ects for natural resource management and and topographic landmarks, land cover land conflict resolution use scales ranging and use, and anthropogenic features, which from 1:5,000 to 1:10,000. In the three are depicted in push-pins (points), yarns projects described here, much bigger (lines), and paint (polygons).1 It is worth scales were used, ranging from 1:400 to mentioning that P3DM most frequently 1:2,700, to allow details of people’s vulner- stands for participatory three-dimensional ability and capacities at the household modelling. We here choose to replace level to be shown. In Masantol, however, ‘modelling’ by ‘mapping’ to avoid confusion the 1:2,700 scale proved to be too small to with technological devices such as plot the details desired by the different computer modelling. stakeholders. Step 2 is to plot land use and other geo- Methodological process for integrating referenced features (Figure 2). Commu- P3DM into CBDRR nity members identify features which they P3DM has recently been applied to depend on for their livelihoods, such as CBDRR through three projects conducted fishing and hunting grounds, agricultural in the Philippines between 2007 and early fields, settlements, and roads. Participants 2009, in Divinubo (Eastern Samar), then differentiate houses and public or Masantol (Pampanga), and Dagupan private buildings (e.g. schools, churches, (Pangasinan) (Table 1). In Divinubo, stores) according to their characteristics P3DM was planned after local officials and potential fragility (e.g. multi-storey identified a gap in the existing disaster risk cemented houses, one-storey cemented reduction programme. The project eventu- houses, wooden houses). Houses and ally involved the scientist facilitators, the buildings are plotted using pins of differ- local government, and a local people’s ent kinds which may be further divided by organisation (PO). In Masantol, P3DM size and colour to identify building mate- followed a request of the local government rials. It is also possible to note on the pins which helped to build a consortium of the number of people living in each house stakeholders made up of scientists, the and their major sources of income/liveli- local government, a local NGO, a PO, and hoods. Participants eventually identify and the local high school community. In locate the most vulnerable people in the Dagupan, P3DM was conducted in community (e.g. young children, elderly, Mangin as a late part of a large CBDRR pregnant women, individuals with disabil- project involving officials from local ities and long-term sickness) using government, a Manila-based NGO, scien- another sort of pin with different colours. tists, and members of the local community. It is then possible to plot local resources to P3DM for CBDRR follows a five-step face natural hazards (e.g. boats, vehicles, methodology which blends mapping activ- fire hydrants) using additional pushpins ities with other participatory tools for (Figure 3). assessing and reducing disaster risks (e.g. Step 3 is to delineate hazard-prone listing, ranking, calendars, transects, and areas based on participants’ own knowl- problem trees). edge and experience (Figure 4). In Divin-

1 Further information on building participatory three-dimensional maps is available from Rambaldi and Callosa-Tarr (2002) and the Integrated Approaches to Participatory Development (IAPAD) website: http://ppgis.iapad.org. See also Rambaldi et al., (2006). 112 60 G Gaillard and Maceda of a large CBDRR project household level overcoming technical shortcomings development planning bottom-up risk reduction actions Dagupan (Pangasinan) 2009 Dagupan (Pangasinan) Deltaic plain Multi-livelihood suburban community urban resources) aquaculture, (farming, river-related) • Flooding (pluvial, Tsunami • cyclone • Earthquake Tropical • P3DM requested by NGO partner as part • organisation • National NGO • People’s • Local government Scientists 1:500 for local government Yes, Insufficient time to plot data at the • Local community may be very creative in • • Importance of permanent updating Role of local leaders • for integrating CBDRR into Possibilities • Role of GIS in integrating top-down and • and the local government (livelihoods and resources to face hazards) from each village and thus insufficient knowledge of local households level planning Masantol (Pampanga) 2008–09 Masantol (Pampanga) Deltaic plain Aquaculture and fishing community river-related) pluvial, • Flooding (tidal, Tsunami • cyclone • Earthquake Tropical • CBDRR project requested by local community leaders • • P3DM suggested by scientists organisation • School community • People’s • Local NGO government Scientists 1:2,700 No Scale too small to plot details at the household level • not enough participants many villages covered, Too • of pushpins Availability • School pupils can be important participants • for integrating details at the household Possibilities • for integrating CBDRR into development Possibilities • Importance of P3DM in visualising risks • Importance of partnership with many stakeholders • scientists after identification by the local government of a gap in the disaster risk reduction framework updating of the map and ensure its sustainability relationships within the community territories hazards and risk reduction measures Divinubo (Eastern Samar) 2007 Small island Isolated fishing community cyclone • Storm surge Tropical • Tsunami • • Earthquake CBDRR and P3DM project proposed by • organisation • Local • People’s government • Scientists 1:400 for scientists Yes, regular Lack of local NGO to undertake • Importance of anticipating power • Importance of P3DM in visualising • Use of the third dimension in mapping • Environmental context Environmental Social context hazards Main natural Origin of the P3DM- CBDRR project Participants Scale of the map GIS component Main problems encountered Main lessons learnt Table 1: Summary of the three P3DM projects for CBDRR conducted in the Philippines between 2007 and 2009 P3DM projects Summary of the three 1: Table Participatory three-dimensional mapping for disaster risk reduction 113 Photo: J-C. Gaillard J-C. Photo: Figure 2: P3DM mapping of land cover and other features of the community of Divinubo, Easter Samar, Philippines, August 2007, emphasising indigenous knowledge. ubo, the neat divide between the island to cover the entire project area. They plateau and the low-lying villages plotted meeting points, safe evacuation surrounding it facilitated the definition of routes, and shelters (Figure 5). In Masan- hazard-prone areas. In Masantol, villagers tol, participants located the best places for decided to differentiate between three installing flood markers. They also identi- types of floods: river floods, rain-fed fied a weak point along a fishpond dike floods, and tidal floods. These three types which often collapses under the pressure of of floods and the different areas they cyclonic rains or tidal waters, leading to the affected had been totally overlooked in the long-term flooding of three upstream official map drawn by scientists. Once this villages. They decided to create a team with stage is completed, scientists can then members from the different villages to overlap their own spatial knowledge of monitor the dike, and reinforce it in times natural hazards. of very high tides and cyclones. Step 4 is to plan disaster risk reduction Step 5: data from the P3DM can be measures. Multi-stakeholder group discus- input into a Geographic Information sions take place using the map, and actions System (GIS) for use by local governments are identified. In Divinubo, people agreed or scientists. In Dagupan, the local govern- upon an agricultural field to be protected ment is digitising the map in order to get in the event of a typhoon. P3DM also up-to-date and detailed geo-referenced enabled them to define and plot measures and scaled information of its jurisdiction. to be taken in times of crisis. Using the In Divinubo, the P3DM also helped in a map, community members engaged in scientific study of people’s ability to cope discussions regarding warning signals able with coastal hazards. 114 60 G Gaillard and Maceda Photo: J-C. Gaillard J-C. Photo: Figure 3: P3DM in Dagupan, Pangasinan, Philippines, July 2009.

Strengths of P3DM in reducing disaster exact scale of P3DM allows scientists to risk delineate threatened areas as they would P3DM is cost-effective and fosters the use usually do on topographic maps or using of local materials. The methodology for computer-based tools. Exact scale is impor- building the map is also easy to set up and tant in locating disaster risk reduction to reproduce. P3DM can facilitate the measures according to hazard threats and participation of all sectors of the commu- community vulnerability. In Divinubo, the nity, even those often marginalised, such as exact scale of the map further proved to be children, elders, women, and the disabled, very useful in planning structural measures through their direct involvement in the (a sea wall) intended to protect tourist construction of a concrete, long-lasting tool cottages and a multi-purpose hall. for CBDRR. Vulnerability and risk are abstract Building the map in three dimensions concepts which usually materialise only and to an exact scale is crucial for the eval- when hazards strike. Showing hazard- uation and reduction of disaster risks. prone areas and community characteristics Vertical elevation is essential when the on the same map allows people to identify mapping and comprehension of hazard- high-risk areas in their immediate envi- prone areas requires topographic and ronment. In Masantol, for example, people elevation references, e.g. for flooding, quickly realised that in one village there tsunamis, and landslides. The vertical were many small coloured flags (repre- dimension is also critical for locating senting vulnerable people) and cylinder- refuges and evacuation areas on higher like pins (representing vulnerable houses) grounds. In the face of rare hazards such as within a flood-prone area. This prompted volcanic eruptions or earthquakes, which them to consider this as a high-risk prior- may be underestimated by local people, the ity area. P3DM can also be very useful Participatory three-dimensional mapping for disaster risk reduction 115 Photo: J-C. Gaillard J-C. Photo: Figure 4: Participants delineating flood-prone areas on a P3DM in Masantol, Pampanga, Philippines, August 2008. among marginalised communities, such as large range of stakeholders, and collabora- those living on small islands or in remote tion between scientists, government offi- rural areas, who are among the most cials, and local communities. It provides a vulnerable to natural hazards. In Divinubo, tangible tool around which the most except for a few men who were more famil- marginalised people, including the illiter- iar with the island for farming and fishing ate who may have a very poor understand- purposes, people did not have a complete ing of scientific concepts, can discuss and tangible appraisal of their territory. disaster risk reduction with scientists, who Most of the participants discovered the real on the other hand may have a poor under- shape, terrain, and land use of the island standing of the local context. All stake- when building the map. holders can contribute their knowledge P3DM fosters the participation of a using the same tool. P3DM is credible to 116 60 G Gaillard and Maceda Photo: J-C. Gaillard J-C. Photo: Figure 5: P3DM including disaster risk reduction measures in Divinubo, Eastern Samar, Philippines, August 2007.

both locals (including school pupils), who features such as the types of crop planted build the map and plot most of the infor- in a given area. Finally, P3DM can inte- mation, and scientists and local govern- grate disaster risk reduction into the larger ment representatives who can easily development framework. In Masantol, overlap their own data and plans. In the participants plan to use the map to locate process, NGO partners serve as facilitators the best place to construct a bridge linking and moderators. six isolated villages to the rest of the munic- The integration of bottom-up and top- ipality. The bridge will serve disaster risk- down actions is further facilitated when related needs (e.g. evacuation, rescue team P3DM data are integrated into GIS to access) but also the needs of the villagers valorise people’s indigenous knowledge who need daily access to public services beyond the community which built the and commercial places. The map will also map. This data may be particularly useful be used to settle conflicts between different for local governments in poor and margin- fishing communities over fishing grounds. alised regions who are not able to purchase In Dagupan, locals use the map for health expensive satellite images, and it is much surveys and feeding programmes. easier and less expensive to update on a regular basis. P3DM offers more informa- Limitations and perspectives tion than is usually provided by remote P3DM can be a powerful tool but it must sensing as it can also map underground be used with care. The initial consultation Participatory three-dimensional mapping for disaster risk reduction 117 phase with all potential partners is crucial than client-patron relationships, gender- in ensuring the participation of the largest related inequalities, and social networks. possible pool of stakeholders, including the Variation of vulnerability and capacities in marginalised, who are often less visible time (especially in the short term) accord- within the community. A good preliminary ing to population mobility, e.g. from home knowledge of the local community and a to work places, is another issue still to be cautious assessment of the needs and addressed on the maps. For these reasons, expectations of all potential participants P3DM needs to be combined with calen- are essential. Should these preliminary dars, profiles, transect walks, and other activities be carefully conducted, P3DM tools common to vulnerability and capaci- may help empower the most marginalised ties analysis (VCA) and participatory and – both by providing them with access to learning action approaches (e.g. Wisner, scientific knowledge and by demonstrating 2006). to scientists the credibility of local knowl- The usefulness of P3DM for CBDRR is edge. P3DM aims to level power differen- highly dependent on the scale chosen for tials between locals and scientists, one of the map and whether there is space avail- the main barriers to integrating local and able for storing it. The best scale for scientific knowledge. CBDRR seems to range from 1:500 to As with all participatory activities (see 1:1000, although the large size of such Chambers, 2008), P3DM raises ethical maps limits their use to a single commu- issues. For example, the data plotted on the nity. A very fine scale allows working at the map is not anonymous, so sensitive infor- household level but requires a sufficient mation such as the location of battered number of participants per community or wives must be excluded from the map. a series of sessions to be able to get enough Who does and who does not own the map data. Those maps are also intended to be is also crucial as it may eventually be used updated regularly as infrastructures and to gain funding or for political advance- social conditions change quickly. Better ment. It is important to anticipate poten- sustainability is achieved when monitoring tial turnovers in political leadership which and upgrading the map relies on the long- may lead, for example, to the abandoning term involvement of mapping facilitators of regular map updates or to a shift in the from local NGOs or governments. It is use and objectives of the map. therefore crucial that these stakeholders It is essential to remember that P3DM serve as leading convenors of the P3DM is not a stand-alone tool. It does not yet activities at the local level. encompass all dimensions of people’s More P3DM projects are planned in the vulnerability and capacities in the face of near future in the Philippines and also in natural and other hazards, particularly Indonesia, Comoros, and Cape Verde, and social vulnerability/capacities. It is easier to these experiences should help to refine and plot infrastructures, houses, and farm lands improve the methodology further.

CONTACT DETAILS Jean-Christophe Gaillard Maître de Conférences UMR 5194 Pacte CNRS Université de Grenoble 14 bis avenue Marie Reynoard 38100 Grenoble France 118 60 G Gaillard and Maceda

AND

Visiting Professor Department of Geography University of the Philippines Diliman Quezon City Philippines 1101 Email: [email protected]

Emmanuel A. Maceda MSc Candidate Department of Geography University of the Philippines Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES Anderson, M. & P. Woodrow (1989). Rising from the Ashes: development strategies in times of disasters. Westview Press: Boulder Chambers, R. (2008). Revolutions in Development Inquiry. Earthscan: London Rambaldi, G. & J. Callosa-Tarr (2002). Participatory 3-Dimensional Modelling: guiding principles and applications. ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC): Los Baños Rambaldi, G., S. Tuivanuavou, P. Namata, P. Vanualailai, S. Rupeni, and E. Rupeni (2006). 'Resource use, development planning, and safeguarding intangible cultural heritage: lessons from Fiji Islands.’ In Participatory Learning and Action 54 Mapping for Change: practice, technologies and communications. IIED: London and CTA: Wageningen. Online: www.planotes.org/pla_backissues/54.html Wisner, B. (2006). ‘Self-assessment of coping capacity: participatory, proactive and qualitative engagement of communities in their own risk management.’ In J. Birkmann (Ed.) Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazard: towards disaster-resilient societies. UNU-Press: Tokyo 119

Amplifying children’s voices on climate change: the role of participatory video 9

by TAMARA PLUSH

Overview create policies and programmes for climate change adaptation, children’s concerns are We would like to appeal to all the leaders rarely part of the discussion, even though who are making decisions about climate children will benefit most from increased change. We want to explain our problems: knowledge, resources, and funding. the children’s problems. We hope that the The motivation to amplify children’s adults will listen to our voices and act on voices around their adaptation needs what we have to say. formed the basis for a participatory video Vijay Giri, age 17, Bageshwari, Nepal action research project that took place in Nepal in 2008 as part of an Institute of Climate change is one of the most pressing Development Studies (IDS) Masters issues of our time with the greatest impacts research project.1 As the lead researcher, I being felt by poor and marginalised people had worked as a video professional for living in developing countries, and partic- more than 15 years, but had not previously ularly children. While children have done used video as a participatory tool. Partici- very little to cause the changing climate, patory video is an empowering process they will inherit its problems. This puts where video itself plays a role in transfor- them in the precarious situation of having mational social change. Kindon (2003) to cope with both current and future describes this as a process where commu- impacts from increasing climate shocks nity members ‘move forward in iterative and stresses. Yet when decision makers cycles of shooting-reviewing’ to ‘create

1 The project was a joint research initiative with Change with Children in a Changing Climate (CCC), the Institute of Development Studies (IDS), and ActionAid Nepal (AAN). Tamara Plush, the author, proposed the research as part of her Masters at the Institute of Development Studies in Participation, Power, and Social Change and served the role of action researcher, project coordinator, and participatory video facilitator with ActionAid Nepal during the year-long study. 120 60 G Plush

video narratives that communicate what family, and societal levels, and is followed those who participate in the process really up by them designing appropriate action want to communicate, in a way they think plans. The main motto of the process is that is appropriate.’ the communities know their own situa- The study took place through an tions best and so any analysis should be ActionAid Nepal (AAN) programme built on their knowledge of local conditions already working with children to build (Gautam, 2007). their resilience to disasters: the Disaster Risk Reduction through Schools (DRRS) The participatory video research project project.2 The video project focused on five took place in five DRRS villages from three villages in Nepal that had been previously different geo-climatic regions of Nepal: identified by government leaders as highly • Banke district (Terai plains); impacted by disasters due to flood, • Rawuwa district (the mountainous zone); drought, and landslides. The participatory and video research project explored if the • Kathmandu (the urban core). process of filmmaking – rather than tradi- Each regional study began with a five- tional approaches such as workshops or day participatory video workshop aimed at lectures – could better help children under- those already working with children stand climate change impacts, identify through DRRS. Workshop participants coping strategies, prioritise their adapta- included staff from AAN partner organisation needs, and advocate for change. tions and Disaster Management Commit- tee (DMC) members from the DRRS The methodology project locations. Each workshop included The research partners believed that imple- 12-18 women and men with a mix of educa- menting a participatory video project in tion levels. isolation would do little to help children The participatory video workshops had understand climate impacts and adapta- three learning goals: tion needs.3 Therefore, a short-term project • enhance the participant’s climate change would create little ownership of the solu- adaptation knowledge through locally tion. So they embedded the video research available learning tools (video and print within the three-year DRRS project that materials in Nepali) so they can pass the started in 2006. DRRS works to reduce knowledge to child groups in their villages; people’s vulnerabilities to disasters – • build their technical skills in using video including those associated with climate equipment so they can function as the change. The DRRS project uses Participa- video crew; and tory Vulnerability Analysis (PVA).4 This • build their skills in using participatory methodology was developed by ActionAid video for child-led awareness-raising and that builds on participatory approaches: advocacy so they can carry out the research project and use the skills for future proj- Participatory Vulnerability Analysis ects. (PVA) is different from previous partici- In the workshops and project, one of patory methodologies because it not only the challenges we found was that locally collects data, but also mobilises the people available education tools on climate change to assess the root causes of their vulnera- were often too technical or abstract for bilities and the effects at individual, teaching children. Many of the materials

2 The DRRS project is funded by the Department for International Development (DfID). 3 ActionAid Nepal, the Institute of Development Studies, and Children in a Changing Climate. 4 PVA manual: http://tinyurl.com/PVAmanual. Full URL: www.proventionconsortium.org/themes/default/pdfs/CRA/PVA_ActionAid2005_meth.pdf Amplifying children’s voices on climate change: the role of participatory video 121 also focused on an urban mitigation start with sustainability and local owner- message (such as replacing light bulbs and ship in mind. The equipment was selected recycling), rather than on practical adapta- carefully for cost-effectiveness and ease-of- tion solutions more relevant to agriculture- use both in shooting and editing on the driven communities with limited access to AAN partner’s existing computers. For energy sources. This is an area where more example, the project used hard drive video attention is needed both in Nepal and at an cameras that record content as video files international level. rather than onto a tape format. This After the workshops, the trained partic- digital-only approach was easy for people ipatory video facilitators used the following with little technical background to under- methodology in each DRRS community to stand, and also avoided the necessity of help the children articulate their climate video cards and fast computers for editing. change adaptation priorities in their own Each trained AAN partner received a video voice: kit so they could continue to use participa- • The PV facilitators present the project to tory video as they deem appropriate with the children and teachers for approval and the DRRS communities. input. • The PV facilitators and local teachers The approach: raise awareness for teach the children the science of climate action and advocate from the bottom up change. Both the ActionAid PVA approach and • With PV facilitators, the children create participatory video research methodology questions related to climate change and support the notion that individual and interview each other and their elders to political empowerment starts when people generate local knowledge on the topic. The undertake a process of understanding and children then watch the video footage and reflecting on their own situations. This is reflect on what they learnt. why, for example, the participatory video • With the PV facilitators, the children methodology was designed with space for work together to create a storyboard and reflection after the children interviewed script for their film, and to guide the each other and their elders in the commu- editing. The storyboard safeguards their nity, and before creating their final film. vision through the production process. Children learning about climate change • The children participate in making their and disasters at school have a strong role to film as actors and supportive crew play in raising community awareness. members. Their involvement in creating visual and • Led by the children and PV facilitators, oral messages can help as the literacy rate the film is shown to the community and in Nepal is just 48.6% (62.7% for men; decision makers who can address the chil- 34.9% for women).5 This figure drops in dren’s concerns. the rural areas of the video study, especially • The PV facilitators work with a local among women. The importance of chil- research team to build on the information dren in awareness-raising is why DRRS gathered through the filmmaking process operates through schools with the belief for a printed report. that children who are educated on disas- • The AAN partners, ActionAid, IDS, and ters and climate change will then educate CCC distribute the report and child films other children, their parents, and the to local, national, and international audi- community. This is similar to the concept ences. of people-centred advocacy that seeks to The project was also designed from the educate and influence decision makers

5 Nepal literacy rate of people 15 years or older, according to 2001 census. 122 60 G Plush

from the grassroots up in a way that landslides near Ramche in the Rasuwa ‘enables and empowers the marginalised to District have at their root deforestation by speak for themselves’ (Samuel, 2002). This both the local villagers and soldiers from dual role of child-led awareness and the nearby army barracks. Therefore, as the bottom-up advocacy led to the participa- rains become more frequent and intense, it tory video methodology. This allowed the exacerbates the landslide problem. children themselves to become action researchers to explore climate change The participatory video project in impacts and adaptations at the community action: a case study from Bageshwari, level. Nepal Through the report and filmmaking The children’s video study in Bageshwari process, we found that children and young gives a good overview of how the action people are already experiencing climate research project worked in practice. impacts particular to them in areas such as As a first step, Bageshwari DMC their health, education, mental and physi- members selected 15 children, aged cal well-being, and food security (Gautam between 12-17 and active in the DRRS and Oswald, 2008). In their video inter- project, to work with the PV facilitators on views and the follow up report, they the video research. This group would expressed how they are impacted: explore local climatic hazards and participate in making a film on the issues they It is difficult to go to school at the time of discover and prioritise. In Bageshwari, one flooding. A lot of children have lost their of the main areas they decided to explore lives in accidents. Many are now disabled. more deeply is flooding since it is one of the Vijay Giri, age 17, Bageshwari, Nepal most widespread climatic hazards impact- ing on local children, especially on their The winter is not regular and other seasons education. In a recent study with children, have also changed. The winter was very Gautam, Kathayat, and Yadav (2008) short this year. It has affected our crops. reported that: The snowfall helps crops like wheat, barley, and buckwheat grow well. But due to the … in the views of the students, there was no lack of snowfall last year, not enough food problem to cross the rivers a few years back was produced. Families faced food short- and they had never experienced the fullness ages as their crops were not enough. of the flooding in these torrents as of these Pham Maya Tamang, age 21, Sybru Besi, years. More erratic rains are experienced Nepal and the students are of the opinion that such patterns of rain cause the floods. We have had problems in finding food and water. The soil and rocks were swept away The next step was for the children to by the landslides. The animals did not get learn about the science behind climate enough food. And the plants have not been change through Nepali teaching materials, able to grow well. and finalise their video questions to ask Sarita Tamang, age 14, Ramche, Nepal each other and their elders. Due to the complexity of explaining climate change, It is important to point out that the stories the children and PV facilitators decided to of climate impacts that we heard during phrase their questions in relation to the the participatory video research are not weather. Here are a few examples of the isolated in their cause. They are organic questions they developed: and complex, and are often tied to other Children asked other children on video problems. For example, many of the recent (15 interviews): Amplifying children’s voices on climate change: the role of participatory video 123

Box 1: Bageshwari children’s video: crossing the Murgiya Nala River during flooding

Scene 1: Group of children with books, on a riverside

Girl child: ‘There isn’t much water today. I think we should cross the river and go to school today. We’ve already missed 3-4 days of school.’ Children in chorus: ‘Yes! Yes!! Yes friends!!! We’ve got to cross and go to school today!’

Children cross the river in water up to their waist. A boy looses his footing and starts to drown; another boy saves him from the river but he is unconscious.

Scene 2: Children sitting in a circle in front of their school

Boy child: ‘We should also talk to them about the problems we have with the bridge. Only our books are spoilt today but tomorrow we may drown and die. So we should discuss these problems with our village elders.’ Everyone: ‘Yes, we have to discuss these matters.’

The drama ends with the children presenting their problems to government officials (actors) who agree to help them in building a bridge.

• What problems do you face to go to school • How has the weather changed since I was in the rainy season? in my first year at school? • What do you need to change this situa- • What problems do we face from the tion? changing weather? Children asked their elders on video (15 • What should we do to overcome the prob- interviews): lems of weather change? • What was your occupation when I was Through the elder and child interviews born? in Bageshwari, the severity of climate • What difference do you find between past change and disaster impacts on the chil- and present farming? dren and their families emerged: Photo: Bageshwari, Nepal, child film still Nepal, Bageshwari, Photo: Children in Bageshwari, Nepal, use video to dramatise the challenges they face in reaching school during the monsoon floods, which are on the rise due to changes in the climate. 124 60 G Plush Photo: Matehiya, Nepal, child film still Nepal, Matehiya, Photo: A young boy in Matehiya, Nepal, interviews his grandfather about the weather changes he has seen in the last decade. The interview is part of a child-led research component on a participatory video looking at climate change impacts on children, and child-led solutions.

We used to get regular rainfall. Now, if we In reviewing the content of the commu- get rain, it is heavy. Otherwise, we don’t nity interviews, it was evident that the infor- have rain at all. This is what it’s like. mation gathered by video is similar to There is great change. In the past, produc- findings presented at climate change work- tion was large. Now it is getting low and shops and gleaned through traditional we don’t have any income at all. research methods for written reports (see Rudra Bahadur Oli, age 50, Bagesh- Mitchell, Tanner, and Lussier, 2007). One wari difference is how the children feel about the knowledge they gathered through their During the monsoon we have not been video research and their sense of ownership: able to attend school regularly. We’ve missed a lot of exams. Special workshops on climate change are Meena Bohara, age 14, Bageshwari only one-way communications. Using video is two-way communications. Hidden When I go to school there are floods. There things in the community become real. is a river very close. We get wet. Some- Raj Kumari Rokaya, age 15, Bageshwari times children are killed. Krishna Bahadur Oli, age 12, Bagesh- Participatory video allows you to capture wari what is fact. In other research, someone

6 The video was included in the Children in a Changing Climate/ActionAid Nepal report Child Voices: Children of Nepal Speak Out on Climate Change Adaptation, which built on the participatory video project in the DRRS communities. The video and report can be found at www.childreninachangingclimate.org/project_5.htm. Amplifying children’s voices on climate change: the role of participatory video 125

asks a question and people may express on using participatory video for climate information that may not be true or the change advocacy. real information may not be given. The Gopal Yogi, Executive Director, BEE video process helps us capture reality. Group Vijay Giri, age 17, Bageshwari, Nepal With the grant and DRRS funding, the Through watching the interviews and Bageshwari community agreed to spend discussing their problems, the Bageshwari the funds to construct a bridge over the children decided to make a video showing river Murgiya Nala. It was completed in the problems they experience crossing the mid-2009. Murgiya Nala River during flooding. Box 1 With permission from Bageshwari and presents a short extract from the 20- the other DRRS villages participating in minute film they made in the hopes of the study, the video interviews and footage getting a bridge. from the children’s final films were used to The Bageshwari children’s film was produce a report and video targeted at shown by the AAN partner – Bheri Envi- securing child rights for climate change ronmental Excellence (BEE) Group – to adaptation programmes and funding.6 the local School Management Committee, These materials were distributed at the UN teachers, community members, and Climate Change Conference (COP 14) in government officials. Many of them Poznań, Poland, in December 2008, and expressed their concern for the children’s continue to be used for national and inter- safety and for their education since they national advocacy by ActionAid and Chil- could see powerfully why children are dren in a Changing Climate. missing classes and exams during the The report and film were instrumental flooding period: in securing a promise to AAN staff by Nepal government officials to include child Most of the Village District Committee rights within its National Adaptation members were impressed because the video Programme of Action (NAPA). The NAPA provided a lot of information. They were lists Least Developed Countries’ urgent and very sensitive to the child voices and immediate needs for international funding became very serious when they were shown. consideration and is to be completed by The Ward members did not know these December 2009 in Nepal. problems so they were new learnings. Ram Raj Kathayat, DRRS Coordinator, The government has many issues to BEE Group prioritise. But we went through the video and report at COP 14 and showed them the Additional video showings created situation at the local level. We discussed the community support for building the bridge links to child rights. They agreed that in in Bageshwari; so BEE Group applied for the case of Nepal in the NAPA process, child funding: rights need to have priority. This is a great achievement. We applied for UNDP funding with a Nahakul Thapa, National Coordinator, proposal for a Community Based Disaster DRRS project, ActionAid Nepal Management Project and received a grant for a small construction project in the Banke district. We believe that the chil- Participatory video strengths dren’s video was the most important As the action research has shown, the component for UNDP to give us the grant participatory video initiative led to many because we mentioned our work experience positive results – the most important as a 126 60 G Plush Photo: BEE Group, Banke District BEE Group, Photo: Through the participatory video project, children showed that they have valid and unique concerns in adapting to climate change. By using video to show their difficulty in getting to school during the monsoon floods, UNDP and ActionAid worked with the local government to approve and build the Murgiyana Bridge in Bageshwari, Nepal, so the children could safely reach school.

catalyst for change since it provided a secure safe passage to school during flood- means for children to speak for themselves ing or landslides, livelihood support for the on the climate change adaptations issues family to ensure the children are able to important to them. The outcomes resulted complete their schooling, or better educa- from a strategic process in project design tional materials in the curriculum on disas- and implementation based on the values of ter preparedness and climate change working with children to identify and solve knowledge. their own problems. As well, the project resulted in a host of lessons learnt for using Integrating participatory video into an participatory video in the context of climate existing disaster and climate change risk change. reduction project can strengthen the use of video as a tool to educate, empower, and Using participatory video specifically with advocate children can be an empowering method to Many development projects fail to take into understand, validate, and amplify their account the important components of climate change concerns familiarity and trust. By working through If participatory video is used as a process of organisations with strong community ties research-reflection-action, it can generate and experience in DRR, the participatory local knowledge, raise the consciousness of video process can add value to ongoing those involved, and provide a powerful efforts to help children reduce their risk to mechanism to convey specific child disasters and climate change impacts. The concerns. Children experience a range of organisations have established links to climate impacts and have unique adapta- local, district, national, and international tion needs that are not always considered networks and decision makers. This can in climate change policy-making. Exam- also enhance advocacy efforts. It is easier ples include requests for infrastructure to for familiar groups to introduce video into Amplifying children’s voices on climate change: the role of participatory video 127 climate adaptation discussions that may creating tools to facilitate climate change have started prior to the video project, and education need to consider: will continue after the project’s end. • how people learn (perhaps by using more visual communications means such as Using participatory video as a tool for video, art, and drama); awareness-raising and people-centred • what information is relevant to them advocacy can strengthen links between (such as more emphasis on adaptation over scientific climate change data and local mitigation); and knowledge for more meaningful adaptation • what strategies are viable within their debates context (as long as they are provided as As climate scientists and decision makers guidance rather than as predetermined reach to the micro-level to deepen their activities). knowledge on community impacts, partic- Participatory video also cannot magi- ipatory video with children has the poten- cally change power relations within tial to not only provide data, but offer communities, and may even heighten or prioritised solutions in the voice of those reinforce them. Because video is an expen- most affected. This creates an alternative sive novelty in many communities, intro- to expert-driven reports and may have ducing it to a specific group can add to more impact if backed by people-centred tensions around who gets to use it and for advocacy efforts that effectively link chil- what purpose. The project should be struc- dren’s concerns to development issues. tured to recognise and respond to these issues. Using appropriate technology that is easy- Another limitation is that people share to-use, affordable, and fits with the quality experiences differently on camera than in needs for video distribution increases its other types of interactions. Realistic expec- sustainability tations need to be set for the information From its inception, project sustainability gathered through video versus other means requires an honest assessment of how to ensure it is the appropriate choice to people will use the equipment, where it will meet the project goals. be stored, who will have access, how it will Technology can also be a limitation and be maintained, who will coordinate and ongoing training and the capacity for pay for repairs or replacements, and how continued project management oversight the organisation will fund future projects. must be considered for long-term use. These should be determined up front and A final limitation is the intensity of time supported by necessary staff and resources. and energy needed to effectively use participatory video as a process for social change Participatory video limitations rather than a one-off video project involv- Understanding the limitations of partici- ing the community. This requires proper patory video is important for determining cultivation through the project design, if it is the appropriate development tool to implementation, and impact assessment. use within a climate change project. Using only participatory video to generate local Conclusion: participatory video as a climate knowledge has the danger of creat- catalyst for change ing fear of the unknown and needs the Taking the strengths and limitations into support of good adaptation learning tools. account, the project showed that participa- Too often, science information creates tory video can be an appropriate and viable anxiety or confusion that makes the tool to support children in their efforts to problem too abstract and hard to under- adapt to climate change. It can help demys- stand for practical application. People tify climate change as an incomprehensible 128 60 G Plush

scientific subject by linking it to the day-today challenges children face. When they can analyse their own situations, they learn and internalise the impacts and solutions. Mobilisation for adaptation support becomes their right and a cornerstone for advocacy, which they can address through filmmaking. The digital nature of video communications makes the concerns of children accessible across distances for stronger participation and influence in local, district, national, and international policy and planning decisions. As children continue to endure the impacts of a problem they did not create, every effort needs to be made to secure their right to climate change adaptation programmes and funding. If used appropriately and with integrity, participatory video can be a powerful tool to support these efforts. This is the essence of climate justice.

CONTACT DETAILS Tamara Plush Email: [email protected]

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Editing contributions by Katy Oswald, Research Officer, Institute of Development Studies, and Marion Khamis, Communications Officer, Institute of Development Studies. Additional contributions by Bimal Kumar Phnuyal, Country Director, ActionAid Nepal; Nahakul Thapa, National Coordinator for DRRS, ActionAid Nepal; Gopal Yogi, Director, Bheri Environmental Excellence Group; and Ram Raj Kathayat, Project Coordinator for DRRS, Bheri Environmental Excellence Group.

REFERENCES Gautam, D. (2007). Participatory Vulnerability Analysis (PVA) Process and Outputs. DRRSP Schools and Neighborhood Communities, ActionAid Nepal Gautam, D., R. Kathayat, and R. Yadav (2008). Impact of Climate Change on Students, Schools and Neighbourhoods: A Sociological Study from Matehiya and Bageshwori VDCs of Banke, Mid-Western Nepal. ActionAid Nepal Gautam, D. and K. Oswald (2008). Child Voices: Children of Nepal Speak Out on Climate Change Adaptation. Children in a Changing Climate Research Kindon, S. (2003). ‘Participatory Video in Geographic Research: A Feminist Practice of Looking?’ Area 35:2, pp. 142-153 Mitchell, T., T. Tanner, and K. Lussier (2007). We know what we need! South Asian women speak out on climate change adaptation. Institute of Development Studies: UK Samuel, J. (2002). ‘What is people-centred advocacy?’ PLA Notes 43 Advocacy and citizen participation. IIED: London. Online: www.planotes.org/pla_backissues/43.html#pla04302 129

Farmers become filmmakers: climate change adaptation in Malawi 10

by FERNANDA BAUMHARDT, RALPH LASAGE, PABLO SUAREZ, and CHARLES CHADZA

Introduction ingly become visible in different regions This article describes the experiences and around the world. The latest report of the some of the findings of a participatory video Intergovernmental Panel on Climate project. This pilot project investigated the Change states that rural communities in effectiveness of video for transferring Africa are amongst the most vulnerable community-based climate change adapta- (IPCC, 2007a). The IPCC also says that tion practices between vulnerable villages in climate change will lead to more extreme Salima District, rural Malawi. In collabora- climatic events, compromising crops, food tion with the Red Cross and the Meteoro- security, shelter, and livelihoods (IPCC, logical Services, subsistence farmers in one 2007b). Most subsistence farmers lack village learnt how to operate a video camera, access to useful and comprehensible infor- develop a script, and make a film showing mation about new scientific knowledge examples of adaptation practices they have about climate change, and while already been developing to adjust their livelihoods adapting to changing conditions they rarely to climate change. Mphunga’s ‘Adaptation to learn about possible adaptive measures Climate Change’ film was then shown in four developed in other places that could help neighbouring villages that have been suffer- reduce the negative impacts (Suarez et al., ing from similar climate impacts. The results 2008). show that participatory video can be a Malawi is already experiencing helpful communication tool in spreading increased climatic variability and more knowledge of climate change adaptation extreme events. Some of the worst impacts measures between villages. are poor crop yields and total crop failure due to droughts and floods, and loss of life Background: climate change in rural due to the consequent famine. The Malawi country’s low economic power and adap- The effects of climate change have increas- tive capacity puts pressure on the interna- 130 60 G Baumhardt, Lasage, Suarez, and Chadza

Location of the research areas in Malawi, • convene stakeholders; indicated as shaded circles North and • hold a series of workshops with subsis- East of Salima town. tence farmers to discuss climate change and what could be done about it; • support implementation of local adaptation measures; • produce video tools to disseminate adaptation practices; and • evaluate the effectiveness of these tools. Table 1 outlines the key steps of the project. This article reports on the evaluation of participatory video as a communication tool to promote climate change adaptation amongst farmer villagers in rural Malawi (Lunch and Lunch, 2006). This evaluation tional community to urgently fund inter- formed part of Baumhardt’s Masters thesis vention programmes to help the popula- at the Environment and Resources tion to cope and adapt. Rural communities Management programme, Vrije Univer- are amongst the most vulnerable groups siteit, Amsterdam. The hypothesis was that (NAPA Malawi, 2006). a film produced by the villagers with a local In this context, the Malawian Red Cross perspective, language, and approach could Society initiated a programme called be an effective way of disseminating Preparedness for Climate Change. This community-based adaptation. aimed to identify and address risks posed We worked in five rural villages in the by climate change to their humanitarian district of Salima in Malawi, Africa (see work. Building on findings of the analytical Map). Mphunga, Kasache, Pemba, components of this programme, the Malawi Mwanza, and Maganga were chosen Red Cross received a grant to develop video because of their high vulnerability to tools for promoting climate change adapta- climate change. The villagers’ livelihoods tion from the Advancing Capacity for are mainly based on smallholder farming, Climate Change Adaptation project with the staple crop being maize (a grain (ACCCA). The proposal was formulated that often fails due to excessive or insuffi- and implemented in collaboration with the cient rain). During participatory work- Red Cross/Red Crescent Climate Centre shops on climate risks, local people and the Malawi Meteorological Service.1 reported increased occurrence of flash The proposal’s main assumption was floods and droughts. The Malawian Red that audio-visual communications can play Cross Society was key in providing a plat- a stronger role in community-based form for local knowledge to be heard and climate change adaptation in two ways: acting as a gateway to communities. • to help transfer local adaptation experiences between vulnerable communities; The participatory video process and By June 2008, the Red Cross • to help bridge gaps between the scientific Malawi/ACCCA had worked collaboratively and the real world (Suarez et al., 2009). with farmers in understanding the threats Over a period of 18 months, this project posed by changing climate risks in central aimed to: Malawi, discussing key vulnerabilities of

1 See Kasamale (2006) for more information on the ACCCA project. See also: www.acccaproject.org Farmers become filmmakers: climate change adaptation in Malawi 131

Table 1: Outline of the Malawi project on video tools for adaptation to climate change Month Activity 1 Inception workshop for Red Cross, Meteorological Service, and other participating institutions

2-12 Series of participatory workshops at Mphunga on climate risks: • observed and projected impacts • exploration of possible adaptation measures

6-15 Series of participatory workshops at Mphunga on participatory video: • farmers learn to use camera equipment • farmers learn to formulate a script

9-15 Implementation of community-level adaptation measures

16 Participatory video work on climate adaptation measures: • selecting examples for video and formulating narrative • filming adaptation practices • video editing

16 Development of survey instruments to assess impact of video as dissemination tool

17 Screening in neighbouring villages and survey of participating farmers

17-18 • Screening and reporting of results at Mphunga • Questionnaire and video interviews of Mphunga filmmakers • Analysis and reporting

18 • Presentation at UN conference on climate change onwards • Submission to World Bank Micro-Documentary Film Contest

Mphunga, and identifying possible options The filmmakers were broadly representa- for adapting to observed and projected tive of the community, consisting of 60% climatic conditions. These built both on men and 40% women, with 43% between local knowledge and on lessons gathered by 20 and 30 years old, 37% between 31 and the Red Cross and other humanitarian 40, and a few older members. Women organisations outside Mphunga. A series of actively participated, with a preference for participatory video workshops had enabled filming instead of being in front of the several farmers in Mphunga to become camera. The 20 villagers sat in a circle and familiar with filmmaking equipment and shared their views and examples of adap- approaches, and they had produced a short tation. The facilitator noted the measures video describing the impacts of a changing and the group voted for the most important climate in their village.2 ones. There was no limitation in terms of In July 2008, the thesis sub-component how many or what type and all villagers of the project began: producing films about were free to make suggestions. They adaptation practices. In a participatory defined a list of six adaptation messages workshop, a group Mphunga villagers – the that were going to be turned into a short ‘Mphunga filmmakers’ – analysed what film to go on a ‘screening tour’ around the they had being doing differently as a result four other villages. These villages were on of their understanding of climate change. average 40 km apart and had no contact

2 ‘Mphunga Village, Malawi: Climate Change.’ Watch online: http://tinyurl.com/Mphunga-video Full URL: www.youtube.com/watch?v=FSquE0WKHuM 132 60 G Baumhardt, Lasage, Suarez, and Chadza Photo: Fernanda Baumhardt Fernanda Photo: Mphunga villagers filming ‘flood alert’ message.

with each other. Diversification of crops After a ‘refresher’ session on the use of Most farmers depended heavily on maize, the filming equipment, we began our activ- which was failing to produce good harvests ities in a circle setting. Every filmmaker when there was too much or too little rain. had the opportunity to ‘play’ with the By planting more land with rice, beans, camera, filming a friend and also speaking cassava, and other crops, farmers could to the camera. When the villagers felt confi- ensure that some food would be produced dent, we suggested they organise them- even with relatively unusual rainfall. selves into pairs: an on-camera reporter to deliver the adaptation message and a Irrigation farming camera operator to record it. The farmers Agricultural practices in Mphunga are were able express their knowledge, direct- entirely dependent on rainfall. Yet in the ing and filming absolutely everything neighbouring village of Kasache, simple according to their own perspectives. technology allows for irrigation farming through treadle pumps, providing water to The six climate change adaptation plants and increasing production. messages The measures defined by Mphunga film- Ducks versus chickens makers in their video are simple and easy When floods occur in the village, chickens to understand, as well as easy to replicate cannot swim and often drown, affecting in other villages experiencing similar prob- local food security. During a Red Cross lems.3 These were defined and filmed by workshop on climate change adaptation, the villagers. Mphunga farmers heard how women in

3 Video: 'Adaptation to Climate Change by Mphunga Villagers.’ Watch online: http://tinyurl.com/Mphunga-video2 Full URL: www.youtube.com/watch?v=2PcVn4oy3NI Farmers become filmmakers: climate change adaptation in Malawi 133 Photo: Fernanda Baumhardt Fernanda Photo: Mphunga filmmakers watching their own film.

Bangladesh decided to substitute chickens The film tour with ducks, which can float and are more The Red Cross organised screenings of the likely to survive floods. Now Mphunga sells video in neighbouring communities. ducks to neighbouring communities. Groups of around 20 villagers were selected by the village’s headman and gath- Storm drains and elephant grass ered at the village schools, to watch the During floods, running water causes erosion screenings. While gender issues were not and other damage. With the right measures, at the core of the project design, there was the negative impacts can be reduced. an attempt to ensure balance. Overall there were 60% men and 40% women partici- Storage of food pants. The villages of Maganga, Mwanza, Mphunga farmers used to store their and Kasache were better balanced while harvest in granaries. When flooded, the Pemba had approximately 80% men and harvest would spoil. Now farmers store 20% women. These events followed local grains in 50-kilogramme bags inside their traditions, beginning with welcoming huts, so that when the waters rise they can remarks and a group prayer. We explained take the food to higher ground. that videos had been created by other villagers like them to share messages. First Flood Alert we showed pictures of the villagers making Waters can rise relatively rapidly, and catch the film, which helped create an open households unprepared. Since the Red atmosphere. Cross supported the formation of local The film was screened on a laptop action teams, some community members computer placed so that all the villagers are responsible for alerting the village when could see well. When the audience saw waters rise by blowing a whistle. villagers like them delivering their experiences on film, the room was filled by a 134 60 G Baumhardt, Lasage, Suarez, and Chadza

Figure 1: Comparing perceptions of different livelihoods adaptation measures, both before and after watching the film.

100 Pre-film already doing % 90 Post-film willingness to do % 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Change Plant multiple Eat more rice Implement Store food Have ducks crops crops and less maize irrigation differently instead of chicken

respectful and curious attention. tion measures after watching the film. For To help us evaluate the method, partic- a more qualitative capture of their views, ipants answered two questionnaires, one four participants in each village were video before and one after the screening, to help interviewed (see Box 1).5 distinguish what they had learnt from the In the final stage of the project we went video. The Red Cross field coordinator and back to Mphunga, the filmmakers’ village. villager’s liaison helped define the ques- We showed their film to the whole group, tions to ensure they reflected and were and shared pictures and stories from the framed according to local reality. Any illit- four villages where their film had been erate villagers received help from a Red screened. We also interviewed the film- Cross member or from a fellow farmer makers on their perspectives of the process. when completing the questions. A group of Eighty eight percent of the filmmakers villagers were also interviewed on camera confirmed that they had enjoyed making before and after the film.4 Both before and the film, because it showed how much they after the screening, participants answered knew, because they felt empowered, and questions mainly about if and how they because it was good teamwork for the were experiencing climate change, whether group (Figure 2). They demonstrated that it had an impact on their livelihoods, overall, they had benefited from their expe- whether they were already adapting their rience. There were many remarks about livelihood practices as a consequence, and how much the villagers liked encouraging how open they were to exploring new ideas and teaching other villagers like themselves of ways of doing this. For each answer, about their experiences of adapting to villagers had the option to say ‘No’. Figure climate change (see Box 1). 1 compares the villagers’ responses both before and after watching the film. It shows Lessons learnt and next steps an overall increase of 55% in their willing- We learnt many lessons during this project. ness to adopt different livelihoods adapta- Firstly, more work is needed to develop

4 This component was designed by Fernanda Baumhardt to fulfill requirements of her Masters thesis. Fernanda is also the founder of Pro Planeta, an organisation committed to the creation of media content that has a positive impact on the development of humanitarian projects. 5 Baumhardt (2009) offers a more indepth analysis of the results. Farmers become filmmakers: climate change adaptation in Malawi 135

Figure 2: Mphunga filmmakers’ final perceptions about making the film

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0 I liked using I liked I liked to I can show It’s good I felt the camera speaking in decide the how much I teamwork empowered front of the messages that know for my camera are important village to tell other villagers

Box 1: Transcribed interviews from Mphunga filmmakers

Jamila Anusa The way I’ve seen the making of this film is very good because I’ve learnt about climate change exactly what it is in a way we can even teach our friends in the other villages.

Zainabu Nyaude In the video what I liked most is to encourage other villagers who don’t know about these things. I want to teach others so they can be encouraged.

A sample of these interviews6 can be watched online in the short documentary ‘Farmers Become Filmmakers’: http://tinyurl.com/farmer-filmmakers frameworks for design, implementation, representatives from the Mphunga film- and evaluation of participatory video as a makers could have participated in the film tool for transferring community-based tour. That would certainly have been a climate change adaptation practices. This valuable and additional step. However, the must take into account limited human and main goal of this part of the project was to financial resources as well as the magni- assess whether or not it was possible to tude of the task. Secondly, a substantial establish effective community-to- amount of energy was required to coordi- community knowledge and experience nate the participating actors – the Red transfer through video. The video itself was Cross national and international staff, produced by one community using partic- climate experts, film technicians, and local ipatory video techniques to be screened at villagers. To promote this interdisciplinar- four neighbouring communities. In this ity it is critical to build capacity among all context, the video was representing the stakeholders. Mphunga filmmakers and reflecting their Also, to an extent, this project could perspectives, and was ‘the messenger’ itself. have been more participatory. For example, Regarding the film production process,

6 Full URL: www.youtube.com/watch?v=MQYM3iRtABs 136 60 G Baumhardt, Lasage, Suarez, and Chadza Photo: Fernanda Baumhardt Fernanda Photo: Kasache villagers filming irrigation farming message.

there are practical and technical require- • screening the film ‘Adaptation to Climate ments that need to be considered. Firstly, Change by Mphunga’ in other impacted if the film is to be produced and edited in villages of Salima district; the local language, the project translator • expanding the participatory video must have good communication skills. In approach to more Malawi villages as well particular, during the editing session, the as other vulnerable countries; translator needs to be an effective interme- • developing new video tools aimed at diary between the village editors and the training Red Cross staff and volunteers technical editor. Secondly, electrical power about how to communicate and use infor- is an issue. Potential power cuts need to be mation for climate risk management; and planned for during the editing process. • equipping the Malawi Red Cross with This happened frequently during this mobile video projection units to show project. Allow extra time to cover the videos as part of other participatory resulting delays and constantly save your processes in remote communities. edited footage. In addition, if we had had a power generator, the film screenings could Conclusions have had far more impact if the film was The initiatives reported here constitute a projected onto a bigger screen connected first step in exploring the role of partici- to louder speakers. patory video to support the formulation A set of remaining project tasks is to and dissemination of information about follow up on levels of adoption of adapta- community-based climate adaptation in tion measures and their impact. These Malawi. Ideally, this approach would be include: embedded in a larger, more ambitious Farmers become filmmakers: climate change adaptation in Malawi 137 participatory process of learning and pilot project acts as the foundation of action also aimed at addressing the root future work. causes of vulnerability to climate risk in In the case of Burkina Faso and Mphunga and neighbouring villages. Senegal, a funding proposal has already However, such an approach would require been pre-approved by the Global Facility levels of experience and resources that are for Disaster Risk Reduction, which will beyond what is currently available to the also have a peer-to-peer learning process Malawi Red Cross. but will have more of an emphasis in the But even with its challenges and limi- integration of science-based climate tations, the results here show that partici- predictions at different timescales (not just patory video is a suitable tool for climate change but also imminent floods, transferring community-based knowledge seasonal drought forecasts, etc).7 In the on successful adaptive measures on case of Kenya and Tanzania, the proposal climate change between vulnerable submitted to the Rockefeller Foundation communities. It also shows that villagers also includes peer-to-peer learning but has in developing countries can easily learn a focus on health dimensions of urban how to make films telling their own stories flooding (such as water-borne diseases). according to their local perspectives. A video project ‘Farmer to farmer This participatory video approach, learning in a changing climate’ has also integrated with the work of a humanitar- started in Ethiopia with support from the ian organisation, has already helped some Spanish and the Netherlands Red Cross Malawian farmers to improve their food Societies.8 Farmers from the Legambo security in a changing climate. community explain what they are doing People can learn new skills to cope with about climate change via video, and then the negative impacts of climate change, the video is shared with another commu- when they have access to relevant infor- nity, Ibnat. The film documents this mation. Six months after the video made process and is aimed at encouraging by Mphunga farmers was screened, Alick potential donors to support strengthening Malunje from Kasache village told a Red participatory aspects of horizontal knowl- Cross member: edge transfer. At the same time, Pro Planeta is I have started keeping my maize in bags. searching for the right partner to support In January 2009 our village was affected the expansion of this method across simi- by flood. I was able to carry the bags to the larly vulnerable and impacted villages temporary shelter without difficulties. I around the world. Mphunga’s experience did not lose my food, however those who indicates that it is not too ambitious to keep their maize in granary lost the food. envision the development of a worldwide community-to-community linkage, Based on this experience, the Red enabled by participatory video, for the Cross/Red Crescent Climate Centre has exchange of local experiences and prac- worked with partners, including local tices, to help empower communities to communities, to submit similar proposals help each other adapt to climate change. for Senegal, Burkina Faso, Kenya, and The Himalayan shepherds and the Tanzania. Each new proposal has been Andean Quechuas might have a lot to say shaped in collaboration with national and amongst themselves. And, it only starts local stakeholders. As a result, the Malawi with one…

7 See: http://gfdrr.org 8 The first draft of the video can be seen at: http://tinyurl.com/farmer-learning. Full URL: www.youtube.com/watch?v=m4O1q4QTgQA 138 60 G Baumhardt, Lasage, Suarez, and Chadza

CONTACT DETAILS Fernanda Baumhardt Rua Cristiano Viana 1186 Jd. América São Paulo – SP CEP 05411-002 Brazil Email: [email protected]

Ralph Lasage Vrije Universiteit Institute for Environmental Studies (Instituut voor Milieustudies – IVM) De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam The Netherlands Email: [email protected]

Pablo Suarez Red Cross/Red Crescent Climate Centre PO Box 28120, 2502 KC The Hague The Netherlands Email: [email protected]

Charles Chadza Red Cross House Presidential Way Area 14, PO Box 30096 Lilongwe Malawi Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES Baumhardt, F. (2009). ‘Farmers as filmmakers: An evaluation of participatory video as a communication tool for transferring community-based climate change adaptation practices in rural Malawi.’ Masters thesis, Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit: Amsterdam IPCC (2007a). ‘Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report.’ Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC (2007b). ‘Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.’ Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Kasamale, L. (2006). ‘AudioVisual tools for community-based adaptation: bridging the Malawi Red Cross and Meteorological Services.’ Project proposal submitted to the programme Advancing Capacity to Support Climate Change Adaptation (ACCCA). More information available at: www.acccaproject.org Lunch, N. and C. Lunch (2006). Insights into participatory video: A handbook for the field. Insight: Oxford NAPA (2006). Malawi’s National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA). 1st edition, March 2006 Suarez, P., F. Ching, G. Ziervogel, I. Lemaire, D. Turnquest, J. Mendler de Suarez, and B. Wisner (2008). ‘Video-mediated approaches for community-level climate adaptation.’ IDS Bulletin 39 (4): 96-104 Suarez, P., J. Ribot and A.G. Patt (2009). ‘Climate information, equity and vulnerability reduction.’ In: M. Ruth and M.E. Ibarraran (eds). Distributional Impacts of Climate Change and Disasters: Concepts and Cases. Edward Elger: Cheltenham, UK 139 PART III Participatory tools 140 60

Articles in this section are shorter, step- by-step descriptions of how to facilitate a particular tool in a community, for example, rain calendars and mental models of the drivers and effects of climate change. 141

Developing a climate change analysis 11

extract adapted from CHRISTIAN AID ADAPTATION TOOLKIT

Introduction scientists in step 1, so an iterative process The basic approach to developing a climate to get maximum benefit from the science is change analysis is to obtain information needed. This is best done by bringing from two sources of climate expertise: climate scientists into direct contact with • Climate science: what meteorologi- communities, but this is often not possible cal/weather and climate modelling data (they are a scarce resource) so intermedi- says about the past, present, and future in aries such as agricultural extension or NGO terms of both weather/seasonal variability staff need to facilitate. and longer-term climate change trends. • Community or local knowledge of those Accessing climate science most directly affected by these processes. Useful scientific data for a climate change These can be used to develop a ‘most- analysis includes: likely scenario’ with communities, showing • Historical data from meteorological what climate trends are emerging and how departments, academic departments, they might affect livelihoods in the future. weather stations, etc. The analysis can feed into a participatory • Seasonal forecasts for the next year from vulnerability and capacity assessment meteorological departments and early (PVCA), which may focus on several prior- warning systems. ity factors increasing vulnerability, includ- • What longer-term climate science can ing climate change. This in turn could be say about future climate change from used as a basis for climate change adapta- climate change models. tion planning by communities. However, there are a number of chal- Figure 1 shows the process of develop- lenges in accessing climate science ing a climate change analysis. Community (Figure 2): feedback may well reveal climate factors • Gaps in the science: for example, at that were not investigated with climate present longer-term general circulation 142 60 G Christian Aid Adaptation Toolkit

Figure 1: Five steps to developing a climate change analysis.

models of climate change are not able to Using climate science provide predictions at the national level, or Even when scientific information is avail- even the regional level. able, it needs to be presented in a format • Structures: for example, meteorological that communities can understand, and to institutions are often poorly resourced, be locally verified where possible, to ensure understaffed, lack facilities for generating credibility with users. Participatory ways of climate data, and are not computerised, so presenting climate science, and combining that data is not easily accessible. it with local knowledge, are therefore • Awareness and communication: central to the process of developing a community understanding of the cause and climate change analysis. effect relationships within climate change The case studies below, drawn from may be poor, information on climate change Christian Aid and other valuable experi- is often expressed in probabilities and statis- ence, show some examples of how this can tics, which makes it difficult for communi- be done. ties to understand, and access to information about short-term weather and Case study one: integration of seasonal longer-term changes is limited, and such forecasting, Zimbabwe information is often not trusted by commu- Farmers in the research area plant a nities when it is available. mixture of short-season maize, sorghum, Given the challenges of accessing and millet as their staple crops. These climate science, practitioners may well communities already have access to the have to rely heavily on community knowl- seasonal rainfall forecasts developed at the edge of past changes and assessment of annual Southern African Regional Climate likely future changes. Outlook Forum (SARCOF). The SARCOF Developing a climate change analysis 143

Figure 2: Challenges in accessing climate science

forecasts are downscaled, interpreted, and women and half men, was selected by local disseminated by the Zimbabwe Depart- coordinators (extension staff, village chiefs, ment of Meteorological Services, with radio etc.). The following year, the coordinator being the most common medium for randomly invited half the participants from people to learn of them. The forecasts the previous year’s workshop and a new contain the rainfall estimates for the early random sample of 25 women and men. (October to December) and late (January The workshops took place in the village to March) parts of the growing season, in primary school, lasted three hours, and the form of probabilities for rainfall totals were conducted in the local language. falling in the ranges of: Each workshop was videoed to obtain a • below normal (compared to the 10 driest transcript of farmers’ questions and of the past 30 seasons); comments. • normal; and The workshops followed a common • above normal (compared to the 10 wettest format. of the past 30 seasons). • Firstly, farmers were asked to comment on the previous season’s rainfall data, and Participatory climate forecast workshops whether it agreed with their recollection of Beginning in September 2000, a series of the forecast. annual participatory climate forecast work- • Farmers were then asked to comment on shops were held in each village, designed to the success of their management practices help a group of 50 farmers better under- in the past year, given the rainfall that stand the forecast and be able to apply it in occurred. their farm management decisions. • They then offered their insights on the A random group of farmers, half coming year’s rainfall, based on their inter- 144 60 G Christian Aid Adaptation Toolkit

pretation of local, traditional rainfall indi- • assist farmers in observing climatic cators. parameters and their use in guiding farm • The forecast for the coming season was activities; and explained to farmers, in terms of the prob- • assist farmers to interpret climate (fore- abilities for below-normal, normal, and cast) information, in particular for plant- above-normal rainfall. ing decisions and cropping strategy. • The forecast was downscaled using CFS development followed a two stage farmers’ own historical data for local rain- process: fall quantities, to estimate likelihoods for • a ‘socialisation phase’ which lasted for ranges of actual rainfall. eight months and focused on increasing • The information used to generate the farmer knowledge on climate and the use forecast was explained in simple terms and of seasonal forecast information to develop questions were invited, including a discus- a cropping strategy; and sion of El Niño. • an ‘institutionalisation phase’, which • Finally, a discussion was facilitated covered a further 32 months and focused between the farmers and the local exten- on putting this strategy into operation and sion officer on farm management practices capacity-building farmer groups to inte- for the coming year, taking into account grate climate and forecast information the forecast, local indicators, and seed into their farming activities. availability. In order to prepare for the implemen- Farmers were able to take advantage of tation of these two stages, agricultural good conditions to produce higher yields, extension workers were trained by Mete- so it may be that forecasts are of most orology Department staff to act as inter- value to farmers in good years, in contrast mediaries/trainers and a number of to national-level planners who need to modules were developed and field tested, know about drought years, enabling them including: to prepare for food insecurity. • elements of weather and climate and the Source: Effects of seasonal climate difference between weather and climate; forecasts and participatory workshops • rain formation processes; among subsistence farmers in Zimbabwe • understanding terminology used in – Anthony Patt, Pablo Suarez, and seasonal forecasting; Chiedza Gwata (PNAS, August 2005) • understanding probability concepts; • use and calibration of non-standard Case study two: Climate Field Schools, weather/climate measurement tools; Indonesia • use of climate forecast information in Climate Field Schools (CFSs) were first planting strategies; developed in Indonesia, modelled on the • using water balance concepts to estimate Farmer Field School approach designed to irrigation requirements and flood risks; promote integrated pest management.1 and The basic objective was to develop an • quantifying the economic benefits of effective method for communicating using climate forecast information. climate forecast information to end-users. CFSs took a strongly participatory More specifically, CFSs intended to: ‘learning-by-doing’ approach, with • increase farmers’ knowledge on climate farmers putting module information into and their ability to anticipate extreme practice over the agricultural season and climate events; reflecting on their experience through a

1 Farmer Field Schools (FFS) are where farmers share their experience, strengthen their ecological literacy through learning experiments, and identify ways of improving agriculture through group problem-solving. See also Sherwood and Bentley, this issue. Developing a climate change analysis 145

Box 1: Climate timeline, Sudan

Atbara Partners Consortium members developed a climate timeline as part of a workshop to review a climate change awareness-raising project. The members determined the main climate features that affected their lives and livelihoods and discussed the trend over the past 30 years, but with a focus on the last 10 years as this was (a) easier to remember and (b) a time in which there was agreement that changes away from the normal variation had occurred. Also involved in the discussion were two staff from Atbara Meteorological Station, who questioned consortium members’ perceptions, corrected dates, and gave statistical evidence from their records. The notable disagreements centred on rainfall patterns, with meteorologists conceding that with limited rain stations and the localised nature of flash floods, these could be missed in the records. Increased average temperatures were not verified by the statistics but members’ perceptions could be linked to increased humidity (which feels hotter) and increased variation (hence the 2007 record high), which was suggested as an emerging pattern by the climate scientists. The challenges agreed by the consortium are to: • deepen the analysis to include differences in trend and variability; • continue the process to determine what the likely scenario for the next 10 years will be; • how this will affect the vulnerability of their livelihoods; and • what therefore the consortium should do in terms of project development and implementation.

Source: Review of the CC Innovation Fund 2007-8, Christian Aid continuous process of group discussions Documenting community knowledge of and analysis with extension staff to inform past and recent climate change subsequent action and strategy revision. Local communities, particularly those When the process was evaluated, 78% relying on natural resources, have devel- of farmers felt that their ability to integrate oped a high degree of local knowledge and climate and forecast information into their it is important to capture this. cropping strategies had increased signifi- This kind of knowledge can be captured cantly (7/10 or better). The key challenges through participatory tools such as identified were translating climate infor- community charts or timelines (see Box 1). mation into user-friendly language for Some tips for facilitating timelines: farmers and integrating this into effective • Try to cover extreme weather events over adaptation. the past 30 years, e.g. severe droughts and Source: Communicating Climate floods, as well as late onset of rains, Forecasts to Farmers through Climate increased occurrence of dry spells within Field Schools: the Indonesian Experi- rainy seasons, and their effects on liveli- ence – Rizaldi Boer, Kusnomo Tamkani, hoods. and A.R. Subbiah • Cover any of these events that are clearly 146 60 G Christian Aid Adaptation Toolkit

Table 1: Seasonal analysis chart, India

Season Timing Typical conditions Emerging conditions

Summer April/May Hot and dry, 30–40°C Summer tending to hotter temperatures (high rather than low 30s), curtailed abruptly by early rains in May

Early rains June Early planting rains which break When rains arrive, they arrive earlier the heat of the summer (April/May) and tend to be constant over 6/7 days with little respite, followed by Main monsoon July – 30–35°C, increased humidity, hot, humid dry spells and September main growing season

Harvest rains October/ Mainly showers, cloudy weather Harvest rains seem to have diminished November with vivid blue skies, lower humidity and temperature – November a ‘happy time’

Dew December – Cooling temperatures, dry but Dew season seems to be disappearing March with morning dew on plants

Winter March Cold dry weather, 10°C or lower Winter tends to be shorter and warmer, rarely dropping below 10°C

Spring Warming, dry weather Spring seems to be disappearing as winter passes rapidly into summer

Source: Climate Change Review of DRCSC – Richard Ewbank, Christian Aid.

outside existing experience or unprece- Case study three: seasonal analysis chart, dented. This will give an indication as to India whether the experienced change is really In Purulia (West Bengal), community climate change or part of a decadal cycle (a groups analysed the way in which seasons climate feature that cycles over a multi-year had changed over the past five to six years, period). Make sure the knowledge of older the agreed time over which group members members of the community are accessed as felt that changes in seasonality had they will be able to remember older events emerged. Farmers talked of a trend over and can confirm whether a more recent the last five to six years toward only three event really is unprecedented. seasons – winter, summer, and monsoon – • Include local responses associated with rather than the six they used to experience. these events, such as any temporary migra- This was something that even older tion (rural-urban, to other rural areas), community members highlighted as particular coping mechanisms used, unprecedented, citing problems with the members of the community most severely timing of traditional ceremonies in the affected, and why. These can provide harvest rains period (see Table 1). further information as to the relative sever- Changing conditions within the three ity of a particular event. main seasons – summer, monsoon rains, • For the most recent 10 years, increase the and winter – were also noted, such as level of detail and highlight good, average, warmer winters, hotter summers, and poor, and very poor seasons and significant extended hot spells within the monsoon climate features and note any interrela- season that caused visible heat stress in tionships. crops and other plants. In the past, the Developing a climate change analysis 147

Figure 3: Developing a climate change timeline

main monsoon rains tended to bring heavy • Prioritising the three to four (maximum) rain early in the day, which then subsided factors that are considered the highest to allow working in the paddy fields, with priority climate change threats to liveli- rain often resuming in the evening. The hoods i.e. those causing most damage to current trend is for constant rainfall for livelihoods. These can be identified by extended periods followed by hot, dry listing all climate factors affecting liveli- spells. This affects work patterns, making hoods identified with communities, and cultivation of supplementary crops (which pairwise ranking them.2 are an increasingly important adaptation • Using the assumption that the direction strategy) difficult. of change experienced over the past 10 In terms of livelihood response, the years will continue for the next 10 years, do community highlighted crop diversification this for both trend and variability but use (including increased cultivation of maize, any available long-term climate modelling groundnuts, cowpeas, and vegetables), information as a guide to whether this moving from hybrid 60-day to traditional assumption needs to be adjusted. 30-day rice varieties which are more • For each of the priority climate factors, drought tolerant, increased use of ponds allow for discussion amongst the commu- for supplementary irrigation, as well as fish nity members. This is not an exact process farming. but the analysis must be agreed to be credible. Projecting into the future • Follow the logic of Figure 3 above, but use Unlike probabilistic weather forecasts that a way of recording that the community can give a percentage likelihood of something easily understand – they will probably want happening, the community needs an to use less mathematical ways of repre- agreed ‘most-likely scenario’ with which to senting their view of past and future guide future adaptation. This can be climate (such as the seasonal analysis chart achieved by: or climate timeline).

2 For more information on pairwise ranking see e.g. ‘Pair wise ranking made easy,’ Tim Russell, in PLA Notes 28. Online: www.planotes.org/documents/plan_02806.PDF 148 60 G Christian Aid Adaptation Toolkit

• Where communities have already developed action plans, the analysis can be integrated into these plans. Detailing the likely impact on resources and features identified in community maps is a useful tool in this respect.3 • Given the focus on anthropogenic or man- made climate change, it is important to ensure that the most-likely scenarios are related as far as possible to climate change, rather than other factors that may have a livelihoods impact e.g. diversion of rivers reducing irrigation water resources rather than reduced rainfall.

Reporting back lessons learnt to climate scientists If possible, report the process back to climate scientists (primarily in meteorology departments/institutions, but also academic institutions or specialised climate/climate change organisations) so that they are aware of: • the results of the exercise; • the constraints and challenges encountered; and • the community priorities that future climate science could address. This will be important in developing or strengthening climate science–community linkages and highlighting the importance of increased resources for this. Source: adapted from Christian Aid (2009). ‘Module I: Framework and Approach.’ Christian Aid Adaptation Toolkit: Integrating adaptation to climate change into secure livelihoods. Christian Aid: UK. The manual (available from Christian Aid) gives fuller details of this process, including how to find and interpret scientific meteorological and climate change data.

CONTACT DETAILS Richard Ewbank Christian Aid 35 Lower Marsh London SE1 7RL UK Email: [email protected]

3 See e.g. Gaillard and Maceda, this issue, for more on community mapping tools. 149

Rain calendars: a tool for understanding changing rainfall patterns and effects 12 on livelihoods

by CYNTHIA AWUOR and ANNE HAMMILL

CARE and the International Institute for • In the same way, information on temper- Sustainable Development (IISD) collabo- ature level (normal, high, cold, very cold) rated to pilot the use of an innovative tool and timing is plotted for each year. for participatory analysis of changing rain- • Participants also describe the nature, fall patterns. The rain calendar tool is duration, distribution, and effects of rain- designed to gather community perceptions fall and temperature conditions experi- of rainfall patterns, to determine the enced on their livelihoods. parameters for good, average, and bad • Where meteorological weather records years in terms of rainfall, and to provide a and other relevant reports are available at platform for discussing risk management the local level, these are compared to the strategies to adapt to changing rainfall information provided by communities for patterns. validation.

How to facilitate the tool Case study: examining the vulnerability The tool essentially combines a historical of pastoralists to climate change in timeline with a seasonal calendar. Ethiopia • Participants are asked to plot rainfall and CARE, IISD, and Save the Children UK temperature conditions experienced over used the tool on a pilot basis in a collabo- five or more years. rative research project in May and June • They plot the timing, that is, the months 2009. The project examined the vulnera- or seasons (and where possible, the specific bility to climate change of pastoral commu- weeks) during which rain fell in their local- nities in the Somali and Borana regions of ity. They also plot the amount of rainfall Ethiopia. Approximately 24 focus groups received under the categories of disaggregated by gender and age were little/below normal, average/normal, or involved in developing rain calendars. heavy/above normal rainfall. In Kalabaydh village (Shinile district, 150 60 G Awuor and Hammill

Table 1: Rain calendar, Kalabaydh Village, Shinile District, Ethiopia, May and June 2009

MONTHS Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Rainy Seasons Gu Season Karan Season

YEARS

2009 R X X X X ** X

2008 R X X X ** ** X X X X

2007 R X X ** ** ** X ** ** ** X X X

2006 R X X XX XXX

2005 R X X X XXX

Key:

** Light rain showers X no rain normal rain heavy rain

normal temp. high temp. cold temp. very cold temp.

R = rain T = temperature

Somali zone), the rain calendar helped were the warmest experienced so far in the community groups to compare weather last five years. They also showed local vari- conditions (rainfall and temperature) in ations in rainfall: some locations within the terms of quantity, quality, and distribution area receive comparatively higher rainfall during the main seasons (Gu and Karan) than others in given seasons, and this across past years (Table 1). The calendars results in a higher concentration of live- showed that, in 2009, daytime tempera- stock in such areas and the potential for the tures in the Gu season (March to May) rapid spread of livestock diseases. The Rain calendars: a tool for understanding changing rainfall patterns and effects on livelihoods 151

Notes on rainfall and temperature

Two days of rain showers in the third week of May.

High temperatures. Temperatures were warmer than in 2008.

In the Gu season, the rains were near normal and were better than in 2009. In the Karan season, light rain showers fell for 1 to 2 days. However, some pocket areas received Karan rains for more than 2 days. The 2008 rains were insufficient. Most livestock were not returned to the area due to insufficient pasture. In pocket areas that received more rain, the community was advised not to concentrate livestock there due to the spread of diseases.

In January and February, days were very warm and nights were cold. Temperatures increased in March and April and were very high in May and June. Temperatures began to decrease in September. October was the coolest month.

The rain was of little quantity. It was poorly distributed and fell in a few areas in both the Gu and Karan seasons.

Between March and June, temperatures increased though they were cooler than in 2009. From July to September, temperatures were very warm during the day and the nights were windy. From October to December, temperatures were moderate. There were huge livestock deaths in 2007and 2006.

The rainfall was good in March and April. In August and September, the rains were normal. An unknown disease affected camels in August and September. Other livestock were also affected by a disease that led to miscarriages.

There was normal temperature all year.

There was very good rain in both the Gu and Karan seasons.

Temperatures were warmer than in the previous year (2004).

calendars also recorded other major events livestock on relief food, herd diversification, that affected the lives of communities purchase of grain, and the sale of firewood across the rain calendar years for example, and charcoal were also discussed. Commu- years when they experienced severe nities reflected on the sustainability and droughts as well as years when they had effectiveness of their coping strategies, and good rains, or huge losses of livestock due articulated their needs in terms of the types to diseases and drought. of support they require to help them adapt to The rain calendar was used to facilitate longer-term changes, and reduce the nega- discussions and reflections on: tive impacts of various coping strategies. For • Other factors that contribute to the prob- example, the Kalabaydh community noted lems communities experience, such as that the government should provide physical population growth and pressure on and financial resources for the construction resources. of water reservoirs, and tap the available • Current coping strategies such as feeding ground water and distribute it in the area. 152 60 G Awuor and Hammill

Strengths and limitations of rain Kalabaydh village noted that over the last calendars 10 years, it has been getting warmer and The rain calendar is a simple, user-friendly drier in the area. Consequently, livestock participatory tool. It takes a relatively short numbers and quantities of milk produced time to apply it, and it doesn’t require a have reduced over this time. The older high level of expertise to use. women mentioned that they constructed The rain calendar provides useful infor- semi-permanent houses in 2004 when mation that can be used to compare there was plenty of rain and abundant, good weather conditions for specific sites across quality grass. They also noted that 2007 was seasons and years. It helps document a bad year because it was very dry in both changes in the predictability of rainy and the Gu and Karan seasons, their family dry seasons, based on the onset and cessa- members had to migrate livestock to tion. It also clarifies the consequences of Oromiya, and they suffered loss of some the changes on livelihoods. However, it livestock due to camel-rustling in Oromiya. may not help in providing patterns of It is therefore important for the facili- weather conditions. tators to guide discussions in a way that Since the rain calendar is a tool that is will bring out precise information on useful at local level, it is important to accu- weather conditions separately from other rately translate information into and from conditions that affect communities. For local languages when applying the tool in example, based on the information the field. It is also important for facilitators provided by communities, facilitators to be clear on the specific types and param- should ask follow-up as well as guiding eters of information to gather, and use a questions that would bring out additional standard template (including symbols) for and specific information sought for the recording gathered information. This purposes of developing the rain calendar. makes it easier to understand conditions The rain calendar relies on participants’ experienced at a glance, and harmonise collective memory. It was noted that the such information. precision and accuracy of information The rain calendar provides qualitative provided diminishes after five years. There- weather information for specific locations. fore, the rain calendar cannot be used to It helps project practitioners and determine changes in trends of weather researchers to better understand how conditions for the specific locations in community members evaluate their which it is applied. weather conditions, and how changes in The information obtained through the these conditions affect their livelihoods. rain calendar can be augmented with From the pilot study, it was noted that larger-scale quantitative meteorological communities’ interpretation of good or bad data for project planning and implementa- seasons incorporates weather as well as tion. other conditions such as: • quantities of crop yields; • pasture availability; • livestock productivity; • occurrence of abnormal livestock and human diseases and mortality; • duration of migrations (which could be due to bad weather, political conflicts etc.); and • access to markets. For example, the group of older men in Rain calendars: a tool for understanding changing rainfall patterns and effects on livelihoods 153

CONTACT DETAILS Cynthia Awuor Regional Climate Change Focal Point, East and Central Africa CARE International in Kenya Mucai Road, Off Ngong Road PO Box 43864-00100 Nairobi Kenya Tel. + 254 20 2710069/ 2712374 Email: [email protected] Website: www.care.org

Anne Hammill Senior Researcher International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) 161 Portage Avenue East, 6th Floor Winnipeg Manitoba Canada R3B 0Y4 Tel: +1 204 958 7700 Email: [email protected] Website: www.iisd.ca 154

Mental models: understanding the causes and consequences of 13 climate change

by PETRA TSCHAKERT and REGINA SAGOE

Mental models and their purpose partner on the CCLONG project, were Climate change is a complex issue, and trained to construct and discuss such many lay people, not only those in the devel- mental models with community members, oping world, have difficulties grasping what agricultural extension agents, and district- exactly causes changes in the climate system level policy makers in Ghana. This partici- and what the consequences of these patory tool provides an opportunity to changes may be. Yet, understanding the make visible the connections between local basic dynamics is important for adaptation and global factors (drivers) that shape decision-making. In other words, if one changes in rainfall and temperature doesn’t understand what to adapt to, choos- patterns as they have been observed at the ing the most appropriate and timely pro- local level. At the same time, the concept active strategies and trade-offs becomes maps permit outside agencies such as problematic, if not impossible. researchers and NGOs to identify potential In the context of the USAID-funded knowledge gaps that then can be filled in collective Climate Change Learning and ways that enhance not only placed-based Observatory Network Ghana (CCLONG), understandings of complex processes but, we have used mental models as a visual tool ultimately, adaptive capacity. that allows various stakeholders to depict how they understand drivers and impacts The process of climatic changes.1 Four researchers, We have employed mental models with including three students, from the nine farming/fishing communities, 20 Regional Institute for Populations Studies agricultural extension agents, and 12 at the University of Ghana, the main governmental representatives at the level

1 Mental models are described as psychological representations of ‘problems’ in the form of conceptual maps of ideas. See Bostrom et al. (1992 and 1994 ) and Zaksek and Arvai (2004). Mental models: understanding the causes and consequences of climate change 155

Box 1: Expressions for climate change

In Ghana, there is no one expression in the local dialects of Twi, Ewes, Nafaara/Banda, or Kusaal that captures the notion of climate change; hence, a short descriptive term is needed. In Xedzodzoekope, we used XeXeame fe totro (Ewe dialect), in Bawku East, Tinga sameya (Kusaal dialect), in Tain District, Wangra chine (Nafaara/Banda dialect), in MemChemfre, Reyifi fe totro (also Ewes dialect but a slightly different notion of

Photo: Regina Sagoe Photo: climate change), and in Akyemfour, Ewuim Participants add a factor to their mental model, nsakraye (Twi dialect). Xedzodzoekope, Kwahu North, Ghana. of district assemblies in three project areas agreed with community members, may be in Ghana: needed (see Box 1). • Kwahu North (including the communities of MemChemfre, Xedzodzoekope, and Step two Akyemfour and the district capital Donko- Participants are then asked to identify all rkrom); factors and processes that they believe • Wenchi and Tain Districts (villages of cause climatic changes. Each factor is Buoku, Asuano, and Bofie, as well as the written or drawn onto a separate post-it town of Wenchi); and note, and placed on the left-hand side of • Bawku East (communities of Kaadi, the sheet. A chain of effects or processes Denugu, and Pusiga). can be identified by linking specific causes Between July 2007 and July 2008, a through arrows. We ask participants to total of 18 mental models were produced distinguish between factors and processes with: that are brought about by people and those • large groups of up to 30 people, both men that are outside of human control. and women, during community focus group discussions; and Step three • small groups, pairs, or individuals, espe- When all causes (drivers) are identified, cially in the case of policy makers and participants are encouraged to identify the extension agents. consequences of these changes, both for people and the environment, and add them Step one to the right-hand side of the sheet. These The activity starts with a brief conversation consequences or impacts may be positive or revisiting of previous discussions on and desirable or negative and harmful. climate change. Participants either draw a Again, each impact or effect is written or symbol to represent climate change or drawn on a separate post-it note. Addi- write in their local language on a large tional arrows should be added between post-it note. This central post-it note is factors that are related to each other. placed in the middle of a large sheet of paper and serves as the starting point for Step four the mental model activity. Since there is not Once the entire mental model is always an expression for ‘climate change’ in completed, the last step is to reflect upon the local language, a short description, strategies that people currently use or have 156 60 G Tschakert and Sagoe Photo: Regina Sagoe Photo: A pictorial mental model, Kaadi, Bawku East, Ghana.

used in the past to: • reduce the negative impacts of climatic changes; and • enhance the desirable consequences of change. Photo: Petra Tschakert Petra Photo: What do mental models tell us? The coordinating director at the district assembly working on a mental model, Donkorkrom, Kwahu Interestingly, most participants at the North, Ghana. community level first cited God or Allah as being responsible for changes in rainfall rooted in the old desertification discourse. patterns. These changes are typically Over the last 25 years, rural populations in believed to be connected to some sinful West Africa were told over and over again behaviour of humans. In the absence of that they were responsible for the devas- good communication and awareness- tating droughts in the 1970s and 1980s due raising tools and material on climate to poor land management practices, change, people in Ghana’s rural areas rely including the cutting of trees, bushfires, on their own frames of reference to justify and dwindling fallow periods. Many processes that they do not fully understand community-level participants are or that are beyond their control. The convinced that these practices have second most-often elicited causes were resulted in fewer and fewer trees. In their local deforestation due to industrial logging minds, fewer trees can no longer effectively and small-scale charcoal production, inten- ‘catch’ or trap the clouds through their sive cropping and land degradation, and high-reaching canopy, which causes short- bushfires. Only in rare cases could partici- ages in rainfall. Today’s environmental pants link locally observed changes in rain- villains mentioned during the mapping fall patterns with larger-scale drivers, such activity were charcoal producers, bush as emissions (referred to as ‘smoke’) from hunters, farmers during land preparation, cars and industries. However, most and herders setting fires for new pastures. community members believed that these While attempts to improve and enforce drivers were all home-grown and that environmental regulations at the local level emissions from factories and vehicles as far are both laudable and crucial for sustain- as Europe or the US could not possibly ability, repeated blaming of local misman- influence the climate in Ghana. agement distracts from much larger This overemphasis on local-level drivers problems, most of them originating in the of climatic changes, we believe, is largely North. Excessive fossil-fuel burning, large- Mental models: understanding the causes and consequences of climate change 157 Image: Regina Sagoe Image: Aggregate mental model from communities in Kwahu North, Wenchi/Tain, and Bawku East. scale industrialisation, and extensive trop- With respect to consequences of climate ical deforestation continue to remain change for people and the environment, all outside of rural people’s empirical radar. participants listed negative impacts first. Not surprisingly, we found that agricul- These were roughly evenly split between tural extension agents and governmental drier, wetter, and more unpredictable condi- officials were generally better informed tions for agricultural activities, resulting in about, and could more readily compre- lower crop yields, hunger, poor health, and hend, these global linkages. For instance, potentially death. On the positive side, there was a broader understanding of the people envisioned more fish and increased role of gases, pollution, and vehicle emis- availability of drinking water under wetter sions in global warming. Some knew about climatic conditions. Extension agents and greenhouse gases such as chlorofluorocar- governmental representatives also stressed bons in old refrigerators and methane from sea-level rise and flooding, migration, and livestock. Others cited volcanic eruptions species extinction. Surprisingly, the large as contributors to climate change. There majority of strategies that participants was, however, some confusion regarding proposed to deal with observed changes the difference between climate change and focused on planting trees, constructing ozone depletion. One agricultural exten- drainage systems and dams, storing food, sion agent was absolutely convinced that and preventing deforestation and bushfires. climate change was caused by spaceships What most participants did not mention, that drive holes into the ozone layer and not even extension folks and policy makers, hence allow more sun rays to reach the was the need for better climate forecasts. earth. Preparing for climatic extremes and 158 60 G Tschakert and Sagoe

embracing some of the uncertainty involved Such conceptual maps are also highly in projections is at the core of successful useful for facilitating the merging of differ- adaptation. Much more needs to be done to ent knowledge bases. While community increase awareness on this front. members and other local stakeholders lay out how they believe climatic changes occur, Advantages of mental models they typically request more detailed infor- Participatory mental modelling can be used mation from outside ‘experts’. Although in both literate and illiterate contexts. The extension agents and governmental colour post-it notes and markers keep track employees tend to know more about of every element that is mentioned and, climate change, their knowledge revealed hence, make the entire activity very trans- some major gaps as well. Hence, parent. At the same time, mistakes can be researchers or NGO staff carry a significant easily corrected by moving the post-it notes responsibility, especially if the level of on the paper. How much information community awareness is very low. The situ- emerges during the mapping and the delib- ation becomes tricky, however, when partic- eration depends on the skill of the facilita- ipants presume that a more detailed tor in terms of how well s/he encourages understanding of causes and consequences participants to identify specific reasons for of climatic changes will allow ‘experts’ to and links between empirical observations. predict when the next rainy season will start Depending on the detail of the discussion, and how long it will last, and whether or not the activity may last up to three hours. there will be a drought. This, of course, is The mental model has proven to be an not possible. What is crucial is that outside exceedingly helpful tool to make apparent researchers or facilitators admit where their the complexity of climatic changes. It not knowledge ends while complementing only allows local stakeholders to engage in and/or correcting community perceptions, sometimes heated discussions about who is without overwhelming less informed indi- responsible and accountable for these viduals with complex details. changes; it also encourages participants to While such conceptual mapping repre- think about the possible control and sents a tool that can be easily employed as predictability of the consequences. As long a stand-alone activity, we strongly recom- as people retain a fatalistic attitude – often mend that it be complemented by an because they lack access to appropriate awareness-raising exercise, during which information materials and wider commu- misconceptions can be addressed and nication channels and platforms about corrected. This is best achieved through climate change – community-based adap- collective learning activities such as work- tation will continue to be an enormous chal- shops, radio programmes on local FM lenge, especially among the most vulnerable stations, or hands-on experiments like populations. Even if subsistence farmers, simple rainfall monitoring that encourage herders, and fishermen have no control over community members to grapple with the most larger-scale driving forces (such as complexities of climate change and move emissions from cars and industries in the from observations to adaptive actions (see North), a better understanding of the mech- e.g. Awuor and Hammill, this issue). anisms behind these drivers of change can In the CCLONG project in Ghana, we enhance confidence in anticipating future have used the results from these mental changes. The maps developed by agricul- models to prepare Open Days on climate tural extension officers at district level are change in 2009 in two district capitals, proving useful in monthly trainings organ- Donkorkrom and Wenchi. Our aim was to ised for their field assistants who give tech- explain greenhouse gases, atmospheric nical assistance to farmers. circulation patterns, and climate projec- Mental models: understanding the causes and consequences of climate change 159 tions in a way that added to people’s conceptual maps and could boost their capacity for adaptation. So far, even seasonal climate forecasts are barely accessible to rural decision makers in Ghana. Much more needs to be done to effectively communicate content, interpretation, and limitation of short-term forecasts and longer-term, down-scaled projections. This also implies better collaboration between researchers, meteorological agencies, NGOs, media people, and rural extension services. The USAID-funded Open Days were a much-appreciated effort in the right direction.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We gratefully acknowledge funding from USAID (Global Climate Program) and participation in data collection by Gifty Ofori-Darko, Kirk Anderson, and Samuel Nii Codjoe.

CONTACT DETAILS Dr Petra Tschakert Assistant Professor Department of Geography Alliance for Earth Sciences Engineering and Development in Africa (AESEDA) 315 Walker Building Pennsylvania State University University Park PA 16802 USA Email: [email protected] Tel: +814 863 9399 www.geog.psu.edu/people/tschakert

Regina Sagoe PhD student, Regional Institute for Population Studies (RIPS) University of Ghana PO Box Lg 96, Legon Ghana Phone: +233 21 500274 Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES Bostrom, A., M.G. Morgan, B. Fischhoff., and D. Read (1994). ‘What do people know about global climate change? 1. Mental models.’ Risk Analysis 6, pp. 959-970 Bostrom, A., B. Fischhoff, and M.G. Morgan (1992). ‘Characterising mental models of hazardous processes: a methodology and an application to radon.’ Journal of Social Issues, 48, pp. 85-100 Zaksek, M. and J.L. Arvai (2004). ‘Toward improved communication about wildland fire: mental models research to identify information needs for natural resource management.’ Risk Analysis 24 (6), pp. 1503-1514 160

Child-friendly participatory research tools 14

by GRACE MOLINA, FATIMA MOLINA, THOMAS TANNER, and FRAN SEBALLOS

Introduction • Researcher intervention is limited to an Field-based action research on community- explanation of the tool or method. based adaptation to climate change needs • A mix of oral, visual, and written activities to engage with all different sections of is used. These help children to express their communities. Children form a significant perceptions, experiences, and ideas group that is often overlooked by research concerning hazards, vulnerabilities, and and practice at community level, in part capacities. because of a lack of appropriate action • Children also gain from the experience of research tools. In this short piece, we participating in the research. describe some tools for child-friendly participatory research that were used in the Using child-friendly tools Philippines.1 • Organise the children into small groups. In general, we found that child-friendly Whenever possible, group by gender and action research is most successful when: age to highlight differences between male • Cultural norms and the age range of and female, and older and younger chil- participants shape the research design. dren. • Research methods are focused on having • Facilitate icebreakers between sessions to fun. keep the group energetic, develop confi- • Activities are carried out in small groups, dence, and to introduce the tools and so that individual children feel confident methods. enough to participate. Some useful tools for working with chil- • Methods are iterative, allowing children dren are shown in Table 1. Whilst many of themselves to shape and change them. these will be familiar to practitioners, we

1 For more details of our work in the Philippines and El Salvador, see Tanner et al., this issue. Child-friendly participatory research tools 161

Table 1: Some participatory tools for working with children

Tool Application

Mapping Risks (hazards, vulnerabilities, capacities) Stakeholders Communication pathways

Ranking Risks, adaptation, and risk management actions

Drawing Visioning exercises for their future and that of the community Feelings Motivations for participation

Transect walks Risk identification Action plans

Acting and theatre Re-enacting impacts of disaster events and responses, as well as for advocating for behavioural and policy change by others

Pyramids Visual representation of pathway from problem to action

Races Rapid identification of benefits of different actions

Participatory video Research into problem, awareness-raising, advocacy process found that they often had to be adapted to approach is then used to represent the make them more child-friendly. Children power/influence of different ‘stakeholders’ were invited to invent and adapt tools and using larger or smaller circles. The location methods. of the circle on a ‘map’ reflects the degree of involvement each stakeholder has with the Icebreaker – typhoon massage group. The Venn diagram represents both Icebreakers can range from high energy parameters simultaneously by drawing the introductory games linking names and appropriately-sized circle at a representa- dance moves to topic-related exercises such tive location directly onto the map. as the ‘typhoon massage’. The group stands However, in the Camotes Islands, chil- in a circular line. As the leader calls out local dren had difficulties in understanding the geographies and different typhoon stages, linked concepts of ‘stakeholder’, ‘power’ and the group give and receive ‘typhoon ‘involvement’. This led to researchers intro- massages’ on each other’s backs. Different ducing a ‘Me/We map’ and developing a areas of the back represent the three areas of revised step-by-step approach to the the Philippines: Luzon in the north (shoul- mapping (see Figure 1). ders), the central Visayas (central back) and Mindanao in the south (lower back). The Figure 1: The ‘Me/We’ map massage ‘style’ is linked to typhoon devel- Home/ School opment phases:‘early rain’ (tapping fingers), neighbourhood ‘heavy rain’ (chopping motion), and ‘storm’ (drumming of knuckles). Me/We Stakeholder analysis and mapping Standard stakeholder mapping requires External/ outside the participants to first understand the concept Community community of what a stakeholder is. A Venn diagram 162 60 G Molina, G., Molina, F., Tanner, and Seballos Photo: Grace Molina Grace Photo: Regular icebreaker sessions keep the group energetic.

• Divide some paper into four quarters, with • Next, give each child three votes and ask a representation of the children’s group at to them vote individually for the hazards the centre. Label each quarter with a space they feel pose the greatest risk to them. of interaction such as the home, the • Finally, ask the children to list activities community, the school, and those beyond they have undertaken in response to the the community. Ask the children to record highlighted hazards. the people they interact with in these By generating this grid and list, children spaces, revealing all potential stakeholders. are able to consider the full range and • Using the map as a guide, children can impacts of their disaster risk reduction then represent the influence or power of (DRR) and adaptation activities, consider each stakeholder in relation to the group by their long-term plans, and discuss new recording them on to colour-coded cards. initiatives that might help in dealing with • Once completed, these cards can then be risks. We found the exercise particularly reallocated in a single line, with the prox- useful in highlighting activities where there imity to the individual or group (the were multiple risk reduction and adapta- Me/We) reflecting the degree of involve- tion benefits, for example, mangrove refor- ment of the stakeholder. estation.

Risk and activity ranking exercises Benefits races Ranking exercises allow children’s group ‘Benefits races’ allow small groups of chil- participants to identify their priority issues dren to rapidly develop ideas and generate which need to be addressed. research results. In the Philippines, a bene- • First, write down each hazard on separate fits race challenged children in different cards, e.g. landslides. teams to write down as many perceived • Then place these on a 3x3 grid that advantages of different adaptation and risk requires the children to consider both the reduction options as possible. Feedback impact of the hazard and the frequency of suggested this was among the favourites of its occurrence (each divided as high, the children because it was exciting and medium, and low). lively. Child-friendly participatory research tools 163 Photo: Grace Molina Grace Photo: Hazard and risk ranking exercises in Lower Poblacion, Philippines.

Identifying messages through visioning Following the drawing process, children A drawing activity aimed to highlight in Catig, Lilo-an, Southern Leyte recognised messages that children convey in order to that their coastal clean-up activities were enable adaptation and risk reduction aimed at increasing the fish population and actions. improving livelihood sustainability • Ask the children to draw their vision of the (message for fisherfolk associations and to future for their community and their own obtain local government support) but lives after they have successfully delivered required everyone in the community to their DRR activities. participate in proper waste management • Then ask them to identify what is differ- and segregation activities (message for ent in their picture to the current situation. family and the village council). • The drawing helps to stimulate creative thinking about what they are trying to Building pyramids and validating achieve, why it is important, and what else communication pathways needs to happen to help them deliver their During the second fieldwork phase, data future community. gathered from earlier visits was used to map • It enables the children to identify communications pathways from risks messages they want to raise with stake- through to actions, key messages needed to holders – from community to national levels promote change by other stakeholders, – who can provide support towards the real- through to forms and barriers of communi- isation of their envisioned community. cation. 164 60 G Molina, G., Molina, F., Tanner, and Seballos Photo: Fatima Molina Fatima Photo: Benefits race exercise, Villahermosa, Philippines.

One method used with child partici- dren are given an avenue to further think pants to illustrate this flow graphically was about information that might be missing. an iterative process to develop a pyramid This helps pave the way to determine clearly form. The pyramid was a means of repre- the communication pathways of children senting and verifying key messages related and youth by helping participants to recog- to child-led and child-friendly priority activ- nise: ities in each community. The pyramid • their sources of information and knowl- briefly showcases: edge relating to each cause, impact, or • the purpose of the endeavour through the benefit; and identification of the prioritised risk reduc- • the target recipients of their messages tion goal (single top level); which will differ according to whether they • the key causes of the risks: social, are communicating cause, impact, benefits economic, or natural (second level); of action, or a combination. • the identification of the key impacts of the The use of these tools helps to foster a risk e.g. increased habitat for mosquito two-way learning for the researchers and breeding or the benefits of achieving their young people in the field of DRR and adap- goal e.g. no habitat for mosquitoes to breed tation. Its participatory and interactive (third level); and nature allows each participant to share his • the DRR activities that groups already or her thoughts and at the same time gain undertake to achieve their goal (baseline). awareness from others’ experiences and Through the visual representation, chil- insights. It also provides space to explore Child-friendly participatory research tools 165 Photo: Fatima Molina Fatima Photo: Drawing for visioning exercises, Catig, Southern Leyte, Philippines. further opportunities to continuously These are areas that they now plan to strengthen and sustain efforts to improve address. safety, sustainability, and community resilience. Other tools for creative expression The research also facilitated a variety of Ranking enabling and limiting factors spaces for children to express their views One way to further support children in real- and ideas. In one exercise, sheets of paper ising their role as change agents is by iden- and drawing equipment were provided tifying and ranking factors that can enable and participants were asked to draw their or limit their capacity to act. motivation for participating in the youth • Phased research means common factors groups and their activities. Presenting can be identified from early phase outputs these pictures back to the group stimu- of multiple (single country) research sites. lated discussion as well as highlighting • During follow-up phases, children arrange the diversity of motivations for participa- the set of factors from the most significant tion. Researchers also joined in, drawing to the least. their motivation for undertaking the • Children must be given the freedom to research. remove factors which are not relevant to Similarly, children were invited to create their context or add those which have not songs or poems about their activities, and been included. act out different disaster impacts and • This allows children to see which issues they responses (see Tanner et al., this issue). Like need to address as well as what resources they participatory video activities (see Plush, this need to strengthen their ability to undertake issue), these provided a method both for development-oriented initiatives, including discussion and learning within the chil- disaster risk reduction (DRR). dren’s groups, but also a tool for advocating Common factors which limit Filipino change in others. Feedback from these children’s participation and engagement in activities suggests that the children gained development-oriented initiatives included as much from the process of such creative lack of finance, lack of confidence, and a expression as they do from the finished lack of adult understanding of their goals. product itself. 166 60 G Molina, G., Molina, F., Tanner, and Seballos

CONTACT DETAILS Fatima Molina and Grace Molina Center for Disaster Preparedness (CDP) CSWCD Bldg., R. Magsaysay Avenue University of the Philippines Campus Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines Telephone: +632 9266996 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cdp.org.ph

Thomas Tanner and Fran Seballos Institute of Development Studies (IDS) University of Sussex Brighton BN1 9RE UK Telephone: +44 1273 606261 Email: [email protected] Website: www.ids.ac.uk/climatechange

NOTES For further information about work on children, disaster risk reduction, and climate change adaptation, including an annotated bibliography, please visit: www.childreninachangingclimate.org Child Oriented Participatory Risk Assessment and Planning (COPRAP): A Toolkit. Center for Positive Future, Center for Disaster Preparedness, Philippines. Online: http://proventionconsortium.org/?pageid=43 Child-led Disaster Risk Reduction: A practical guide. Save the Children Alliance. Online: www.savethechildren.org/publications/ emergencies/Child-led-Disaster-Risk-Reduction.pdf Children on the Frontline: Children and Young People in Disaster Risk Reduction. Plan International and World Vision. Online: www.plan-uk.org/pdfs/childernonthefrontline.pdf

Participatory scenario development for climate change adaptation 15

by LIVIA BIZIKOVA, THEA DICKINSON, and LÁSZLÓ PINTÉR

Introduction descriptions of how the future might A growing number of studies on the develop, using current information and impacts of climate change and potential assumptions about future trends. They also adaptation options are becoming available. help to explore the differing outcomes that However, they commonly fall short on inte- might result if basic assumptions are grating climate change impacts and adap- changed (UNEP, 2002). In order to fully tation options into development choices explore opportunities from scenario and priorities, as well as lacking proper approaches, growing attention is being descriptions of the influences that different devoted not only to the developed scenar- development options might have on adap- ios, but also to the scenario development tation and adaptive capacities. Scenario process. This includes an increasing development methodologies provide a emphasis on stakeholders’ involvement in useful way of exploring future development developing scenarios – referred to as partic- choices and pathways and the impacts of ipatory scenario development (PSD). climate change and adaptation options, as Currently available studies show differ- well as the forms of policy or investment ing degrees of participation in scenario support needed to facilitate effective adap- development, varying from involving stake- tation. They provide a means for policy holders as reviewers of the scenarios devel- makers and service providers to take into oped by climate change ‘experts’ to having account local people’s priorities and knowl- stakeholders develop and assess the feasi- edge in their decision-making. bility of the scenarios. We found the most effective process to be one which brings Participatory scenario development together stakeholder and ‘expert’ knowl- Scenarios are neither predictions of socio- edge. This includes: economic development nor impacts of • involving stakeholders in creating locally changing climate; rather they are plausible relevant responses that are the combination 168 60 G Bizikova, Dickinson, and Pintér Photo: Livia Bizikova Photo: Figure 1: Scenarios created during PDS workshops in Hungary (Lake Balaton region), using collage technique.

of development choices, adaptation options, Defining the scope of the scenario and capacities; process: changing climate will affect • creating learning opportunities for stake- diverse areas and sectors in different ways holders about the impacts of a changing and the impacts will change with progres- climate and their implications at the local sive climate change. A key question there- level; and fore is: under available projections of • promoting collaboration between climate change, how might the community researchers and stakeholders to help adapt its plans and policies to make the balance the biophysical risks associated most of their potential future develop- with climate change and social risks and ment? issues, such as local well-being, access to Identifying key factors shaping local basic services, employment, and food secu- development: gathering information rity. about the current system will help to frame what measures are feasible in the short- Key steps in participatory scenario and long-term, and what the capacity gaps development are with regard to development and adap- Combining qualitative stakeholder and tation needs. Key factors shaping local quantitative scientific information (i.e., development could include key economic climate change projections and impacts) in sectors, population changes and migration, PSD offers a unique opportunity to mix access to basic services, poverty levels, and good data, scientific rigour, imagination, available infrastructure. and expertise from different perspectives Developing scenarios: based on (Volkery et al., 2008). The PSD consists of discussing how the identified factors will the following five steps: evolve in the future. This implies identify- Participatory scenario development for climate change adaptation 169 Photo: Livia Bizikova Photo: Figure 2: Impacts of climate change on local environment and human well-being, adaptation options, and future scenarios in Southern Ghana. ing a long-term target vision and options or trends in biophysical indicators such as that trigger movement towards this future rainfall patterns, sea-level rise, or moving target in a sequential fashion.1 changes in the number of consecutive hot Only internally consistent combinations, or cold days could be addressed within the i.e., those where developments in one scenarios. This included identifying the factor do not contradict developments in impacts of climate change on the local another, are considered. For the develop- environment and human well-being, and ment of scenarios, different techniques can then identifying adaptation options be used, such as collages or index cards (Figure 2). (Figure 1). Strategy building: if we want to be effec- Reviewing scenarios: the identified tive in reaching the long-term vision, scenarios should be carefully examined for short- and long-term actions need to be their potential to determine climate identified. This includes identifying poli- change impacts on the attainment of local cies needed to create an enabling environ- development visions. We used ‘what if’ ment for moving from scenarios and questions to determine whether changes identified adaptation measures to actions.

1 A vision refers to a moving target guiding the self-organising, innovative forces of a society, forces that otherwise would remain diffuse. It differs from a goal in that it is a tangible image of a future society without being subject to fierce arguments about exact definitions that characterise the operationalisation of goals (Jaeger et al., 2000). 170 60 G Bizikova, Dickinson, and Pintér

Case study: PSD in Lake Balaton, individual level, and the workshops Hungary provided opportunities to share the lessons This case study was co-led by the research learnt from this. In some cases, gaps and team and the local development agency – the barriers in standards and codes that Lake Balaton Development Coordination prohibited the use of local materials were Agency (LBDCA).2 The researchers provided identified, as well as complex approval information on climate impacts and adapta- procedures for measures that affected a tion, and guidance on the participatory number of sectors. The workshops also sessions and synthesising the outcomes. The highlighted a lack of technical expertise local development agency was responsible for that hinders putting potential solutions identifying and gathering practitioners for into action. We concluded these sessions the participatory activities, and communi- with a list of priorities for action on adap- cating the outcomes to local NGOs, council tation. members, and news channels. The PSD workshops Preparing for the PSD The PSD one-day workshops included Prior to the PSD session, we developed a approximately 80 participants from local series of participatory events to explore universities, high schools, local business climate change impacts and adaptation. organisations, farmers’ organisations, We started with an assessment of climate municipal officials, local NGOs, and other change impacts at 50 km2 resolution using community members. already published projections for the The objective of the PSD was to create country. This was followed by focus groups scenarios of potential development for key and brainstorming sessions to discuss what sectors of the local economy (including the local impacts could be. For example, agriculture and tourism) while protecting the effects of the predicted drop in summer biodiversity. Key factors that are important precipitation could lead to losses in agri- for the local economy and can contribute cultural production, decreases in water in developing adaptation actions and availability, and negative impacts on local capacities were identified through stake- biodiversity and on local business revenue. holder group consultations focusing on The participants helped to interpret down- economic, environmental, and social scaled model outputs and identified major issues. The key factors identified were: consequences of the impacts in relation to • water resources management focused on other vulnerabilities that the region is policies influencing water level in Lake facing. They drew on their own expertise Balaton; and knowledge of the region, evaluating • agricultural practices, including planted lessons learnt from past extreme weather species and available irrigation systems; events and sharing experiences about the • economic performance of the agricultural effectiveness of past responses. sector; After gaining an understanding of the • tourism development – represented by consequences of climate change at the local tourist nights per season, revenues, level, we held three participatory work- employment, and seasonality; shops in different locations in the area to • shoreline property development; and identify adaptation options. We discovered • biodiversity protection, including current that many adaptation options had already population of protected species and sizes of been implemented autonomously at the habitat.

2 Livia Bizikova and László Pintér were key members of the research team, which also included Dr. Anthony Lehmann from UNEP/DEWA GRID-Europe and University of Geneva, Dr. Karoly Kutics (K+KConsulting), Jill Jeager (SERI), and many others. Participatory scenario development for climate change adaptation 171

Current trends were then identified for • increased rainwater storage capacity to the factors by analysing collected statisti- respond to the droughts; cal data. • increased diversity of planted crop vari- Focusing on these key factors, groups of eties and species, including those tolerant stakeholders then developed future scenar- to heat and drought; ios that were desirable yet plausible future • increased emphasis on planting native pathways, attainable from the current and traditional species and varieties; conditions. The scenario process included • more widespread use of mulching and creating a vision for the future of the key permanent cover to increase moisture factors and identifying actions to reach retention in soils; these visions. Vision development was • introduction of shade-producing plants done in small groups of stakeholders of to create sun shelters during heat waves; diverse expertise and affiliations using a • increased efficiency of irrigation tech- collage technique (Figure 1). niques; and Some of the identified actions included: • adjusted planting schedules. • protecting agricultural land and sensitive Lastly, we followed up the scenario shoreline by limiting development; exercise with the development of policies • accelerating the use of local grape species and actions needed to support adaptation and diversification; to climate change while moving toward the • creating agricultural extension agencies community’s desired goals for the future. and incentives for local markets; and Short-term actions, for example, included • development of small and medium enter- increasing the efficiency of irrigation prises, especially in towns with less intense (including small-scale actions) and tourism. promoting local and traditional food We then reviewed the scenarios, using production. Examples of long-term actions ‘what if’ questions. For instance, can the included developing a local food security projected further reduction in summer strategy and making a long-term commit- precipitation and increasing temperatures ment to a restricted land-use policy to limit be addressed within the community’s visions shoreline development and protect agri- for the future? Local experts presented cultural land. climate change projections relevant for the region and then groups of stakeholders PSD policy influence indentified potential impacts and adapta- The outcomes of the workshops fed into tions and then, in small groups, assessed climate change adaptation policies in a whether these impacts and adaptations were number of different ways: included in the future scenarios. • some of the identified actions were Identified impacts included: included in the national climate change • changes in the volume, intensity, and strategy; timing of precipitation; • LBDCA changed its guidance for the eval- • decreased snowfall; uation of proposals for local development • critical water and heat stress on newly projects, so that any projects supported established vineyards; would fit with the short- and medium-term • increased erosion; actions identified; and • disturbances such as wildfire and insect • the workshop created additional pressure outbreaks; and to move ahead with actions which had • changes in vegetation growth. already been included in regional develop- A list of adaptation options in the ment plans but where implementation had context of regional agriculture were then been neglected, e.g. improving irrigation, added to the local scenarios: reforestation, protecting agricultural lands. 172 60 G Bizikova, Dickinson, and Pintér

Benefits and challenges of participatory edge that local community members scenario development possess about climate change impacts and Based on our experiences, PSD provides adaptation, even though those practices an opportunity to integrate development may not be explicitly recognised as helping priorities and plans with adaptation needs to reduce vulnerability to climate change. to address climate change and climate Building on this familiarity helps to variability. The key outcomes include: empower local communities and decision • Identification of development priorities makers to engage in their communities’ and actions that need to be accelerated, development, building resilience to because they also increase capacities for climate change. adaptation (e.g. improving healthcare Several challenges exist when using services in areas prone to diseases because PSD. One key challenge is to find ways of of changing climate). linking quantitative information about • Identification of on-going development current trends and climate projections programmes and actions dealing with with qualitative scenarios, and transform- current impacts that need to be intensified ing them into policies. Increased attention and applied to other regions facing similar needs to be paid to maintaining the impacts in the future (e.g. rainwater collec- dialogue between researchers and tion is often a small-scale initiative, but community groups on the challenges and could be expanded in areas where reduced uncertainties of climate change projec- rainfall is expected). tions and sharing information that can be • Encouraging thinking about the commu- used to advance adaptation and develop- nity’s future and eliciting valuable knowl- ment despite existing uncertainties.

CONTACT DETAILS Livia Bizikova and László Pintér International Institute for Sustainable development (IISD) 161 Portage Ave Winnipeg R3B 0Y4, MB Canada Tel: +1 204 958 7753 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Thea Dickinson Burton Dickinson Consulting Ltd 204-600 Kingston Rd Toronto Ontario M4E 1R1 Canada Tel: +1 416 347 0018 Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES Jaeger, C.C., B. Kasemir, S. Stoll-Kleemann, D. Schibli, and U. Dahinden (2000). ‘Climate change and the voice of the public,’ Integrated Assessment 1: 339–349 Volkery A., T. Ribeiro, T. Henrichs and Y. Hoogeveen (2008). ‘Scenario development on a European scale,’ Systemic Practice and Action Research 21: 459-477 UNEP (2002). Global Environment Outlook-3: past, present and future perspectives. Earthscan: London 173

Reflections on practical ethics for participatory community-based adaptation 16

extracts from ELKANAH ABSALOM et al., and GIACOMO RAMBALDI et al.

Foreword tion by Robert Chambers on participatory The following extracts come from two arti- ethics.2 Robert’s presentation became the cles previously published in Participatory basis for an article on practical ethics for Learning and Action. Both extracts contain participatory mapping practice (Rambaldi the same key message: that good partici- et al., 2006). Included here is an adapta- patory practice needs to be based on a solid tion of the ‘Who?’ and ‘Whose?’ questions foundation of practical ethics which focus from that article (see Box 1). on empowerment. As we move forward with community- The first extract is from an article in based adaptation to climate change, these PLA Notes 22, ‘Sharing our concerns and guiding principles provide a timely and looking to the future’ (Absalom et al., relevant reflection on good practice for 1994).1 Fifteen years ago, a group of Partic- participatory development. ipatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) practitioners shared with readers a set of key guiding Extract: Sharing our concerns and principles for participatory development looking to the future practice. We are an informal group of development The next extract is from an article practitioners, researchers, and trainers from published 12 years later. Here, we include South and North, using, supporting, and a series of photos taken during a presenta- developing participatory approaches, often

1 Interestingly, issue 22 was the first issue in the series to be published under the new name of ‘PLA Notes’ in 1994. The series had begun life in 1988 as ‘RRA Notes’ (Rapid Rural Appraisal). This change demonstrated the evolution from RRA and then PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal), through to the umbrella term Participatory Learning and Action (PLA), which encompasses a wide range of participatory approaches and methodologies. 2 Robert’s presentation was made at the Mapping for Change International Conference on Participatory Spatial Information Management and Communication, Nairobi, Kenya, September 2005. 174 60 G extracts from Absalom et al., and Rambaldi et al.

known as Participatory Rural Appraisal actors engaged in the development and (PRA). A working description of PRA is: spread of participatory thinking and practice; and, … a growing family of approaches and • the policies and practices of donors. methods to enable local people to share, We recognise that we are only a few enhance, and analyse their knowledge of among many around the world who are life and conditions, to plan and to act. striving to develop and facilitate the spread of participatory approaches. We offer this Used well, PRA can enable local people, statement of principles in the hope that rural or urban, to undertake their own others will share their experiences, views, appraisal, analysis, action, monitoring, and and values in the same spirit so that we can evaluation. It can empower women, poor all continue to learn from each other. We people, and disadvantaged people, giving welcome your responses. them more control over their lives. Elkanah Absalom, Robert Chambers, As part of a process of reflection, learn- Sheelu Francis, Bara Gueye, Irene Guijt, ing, and sharing we have reviewed our Sam Joseph, Deb Johnson, Charity experience and current developments. Kabutha, Mahmuda Rahman Khan, Many donors, government organisations, Robert Leurs, Jimmy Mascarenhas, Pat and NGOs are now requesting and requir- Norrish, Michel Pimbert, Jules Pretty, ing that PRA be used in their programmes Mallika Samaranayake, Ian Scoones, and projects. This brings opportunities and Meera Kaul Shah, Parmesh Shah, Devika dangers. The opportunities are to initiate Tamang, John Thompson, Ginni Tym, and sustain processes of change: empow- Alice Welbourn. ering disadvantaged people and communi- 20th May 1994 ties, transforming organisations, and reorienting individuals. The dangers come Personal and professional from demanding too much, in a top-down We strongly believe that, as PRA profes- mode, too fast, with too little understand- sionals, we bear a personal responsibility ing of participatory development and its to: implications. • Develop a self-critical attitude, recognis- PRA practitioners have come to stress ing that we are continually learning, and personal behaviour and attitudes, role welcome rigorous peer review. reversals, facilitating participation through • Be explicit about whether we are eliciting group processes and visualisation, critical information for external use, or are self-awareness, embracing error, and engaged in processes leading to community sharing without boundaries. We believe action. We should make this distinction that these principles and concepts must be clear to the people with whom we are inter- placed at the centre of all participatory acting and document this accordingly. development activities. Experience has led • Interact with others (colleagues, commu- us, and many others to recognise the impli- nity members, and other professionals) cations of participatory approaches, such with respect and empathy, transparency, as PRA, for: and support. • personal and professional values, norms, • Recognise the need to acquire both train- and behaviour; ing skills and ‘hands-on’ experience in • community issues; carrying out a PRA process in the field. • organisational structures, styles, and • Make a commitment to value equally the practices of management; contributions made by all partners (South, • approaches and methods in training; North, local, external) and respect the need • networking and sharing between all for diversity of others’ views and approaches. Reflections on practical ethics for participatory community-based adaptation 175

• Identify, in partnership with communi- Preconditions for engagement ties, appropriate forms of compensation • Be honest with the community about when we are eliciting information for exter- what is in it for them. nal use. • PRA activities should lead to direct • Ensure that credit and compensation are improvements in the community through: given where due. • Operational development on the • Strive towards a process of empowerment ground. of marginalised people, in which PRA • Changes in higher level institutions methods can play a part. (such as research, extension, and plan- • Attempt to link up with existing PRA ning) which have an impact at commu- networks and professionals in every nity level. context. • Shifts in policy, which have an impact • Equip ourselves with any necessary skills at community level. to recognise, acknowledge, and address the • We should also acknowledge that some existence of diversity of social relations in of these expected changes cannot be each context. guaranteed. These are all signs of personal and • There should be no one-off exercises in professional commitment to pursue devel- communities without explicitly defined opment processes which strive to improve outcomes as described above. the lives of those who are (relatively) marginalised. Practice • The process with the community should Community issues begin with explanations and seeking their permission. Ethics • Timing and pace should be governed by In relation to interactions with communi- local context of separate sections of the ties, we strive to: community. • achieve mutual respect, including a • Respect the fact that information is commitment to long-term partnerships; generated by local people and so ask their • be honest with ourselves about our own permission to document, remove, and use objectives; and information. When possible, ensure that • be open, honest, and transparent about original diagrams and copies of reports our objectives with all community sections. remain in the community.

Equity Local human resource support and We recognise that: development • Different groups, as defined locally by age, This involves a commitment to: gender, well-being, ethnicity, religion, • enhance capacity of local people, on an caste, language etc. have different perspec- individual as well as an institutional basis, tives. to be PRA practitioners and trainers in • There should be commitment by outside analysis and implementation of develop- organisations to understand different mental activities in their own and neigh- needs and multiple perspectives within bouring communities; communities. • ensure that PRA activities lead to • Responding to the needs of the vulner- strengthening of existing and/or formation able involves respect for all groups. This of new local institutions, in order to meet may mean challenging asymmetrical local needs; and, relationships via conflict resolution • ensure follow-up support for community methods. sections and their institutions. 176 60 G extracts from Absalom et al., and Rambaldi et al.

Institutional aspects Outward linkages • There is a need to develop effective link- Long-term commitment to process ages (e.g. training exchange, co-manage- • Top managers/decision makers need to ment of projects, information flows) commit themselves to a long-term process outside of institutions to help partners going ‘beyond projects’ to promote a (including donors) understand more and participatory development approach. strengthen participatory processes. These linkages must be based on mutual respect, Organisational environment and culture integrity, and trust. • The organisational culture should provide opportunities to enable learning Donors from experiences and mistakes, and Donors working with PRA should... should be flexible enough to allow experi- • focus on PRA as a process leading to mentation. change, not a product in and of itself (this means commitment to long-term develop- Institutional management and styles ment processes and follow-up activities • There should be a transition from and support); management styles based on hierarchy, • provide more flexible funding and move inhibited communications, and command towards more open-ended, event-focused and obedience relationships to more targets for disbursement and physical organic styles that encourage lateral achievement; communication, collegial authority, and • promote participatory monitoring and flexible roles and procedures. self-evaluation procedures which build in • Institutions should create conditions that reciprocal accountability (communities, encourage employees to be participatory in development organisations, donors); their work with each other, and not just • encourage and support organisations during ‘field visits’. which can move towards participatory training and learning to help other organ- Incentives/rewards isations change; • Incentives and rewards must encourage • encourage policies and programmes staff to be honest, work in the field with which offer a range of development communities, stay on as staff, and encour- options/choices based on locally-defined age joint action between institutions and criteria, needs, and priorities; villages. • encourage establishment of small, self- managed teams of practitioners and train- Organisational procedures and ers within development organisations – implementation where appropriate – with the freedom to • Organisational and programme manage- experiment, innovate, make and learn ment procedures should be changed so as from mistakes, and act; to enable linking PRA with programme • support pilot learning processes with management and implementation (e.g. gradual/phased scaling-up depending on decentralisation of funds management). local conditions; and, They should try to build PRA from the • avoid confusing and over-burdening start of the programme cycle. development organisations by harmonis- • PRA and related participatory processes ing funding approaches and accounting should be initially piloted on a small-scale and reporting procedures. and should be mainly implemented Source: PLA Notes (1995), Issue 22, through local institutions. pp. 5–10, IIED: London Reflections on practical ethics for participatory community-based adaptation 177

Extract: Practical ethics for PGIS practitioners, facilitators, technology intermediaries, and researchers Box 1: Compilation of ‘Who?’ and ‘Whose?’ Questions

Stage I: planning Who participates? Who decides on who should participate? Who participates in whose community-based adaptation process? … And who is left out? Who identifies the problem? Whose problems? Whose questions? Whose perspectives? … And whose problems, questions, and perspectives are left out? Stage II: the participatory process Whose voice counts? Who controls the process? Who decides on what is important?

Who decides, and who should decide, on what to document Verplanke Minnie/Jeroen Johan Photo: and make public? Work in progress: Robert Chambers’ Who has visual and tactile access? flipchart notes on behaviour and Who controls the use of information? attitudes. … And who is marginalised? Whose reality? And who understands? Whose reality is expressed? Whose knowledge, categories, perceptions? Whose truth and logic? Who is informed about what is being documented? (Transparency) Who understands the physical output? And who does not? … And whose reality is left out? Stage III: resulting information control, disclosure, and disposal Who owns the output? Who owns the resulting data? What is left with those who generated the information and shared their knowledge? Photo: Johan Minnie/Jeroen Verplanke Minnie/Jeroen Johan Photo: Who keeps the physical output and organises its regular Participatory mapping for good updating? change: notes from Robert Chambers’ … And who does not? presentation at the Mapping for Change conference, 2005.

(2006) Whose analysis and use? Who analyses the information collated? et al. et al. Who has access to the information and why? Who will use it and for what? … And who cannot access and use it? Ultimately … What has changed? Who benefits from the changes? At whose costs? Who gains and who loses? Who is empowered? … And who is disempowered? Source: adapted from Rambaldi adapted from Source: 178 60 G extracts from Absalom et al., and Rambaldi et al. Photos: Johan Minnie/Jeroen Verplanke Minnie/Jeroen Johan Photos: The ‘Who’ and ‘Whose’ questions presented by Building on the ‘Who’ and ‘Whose’ questions: Robert Chambers. discussion on participatory ethics.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER RESOURCES Absalom, E. et al., (1995). ‘Sharing our concerns and looking to the future.’ In PLA Notes 22, February 1995. IIED: London. Online: www.planotes.org/documents/plan_02201.PDF Chambers, R. (2004). ‘Reflections and directions: a personal note.’ In R. Chambers, N. Kenton, and H. Ashley (Eds) Participatory Learning and Action 50 Critical reflections, future directions. IIED: London. Online: www.planotes.org/documents/plan_05003.pdf Cornwall, A. and I. Guijt (2004). ‘Shifting perceptions, changing practices in PRA: from infinite innovation to the quest for quality.’ In R. Chambers, N. Kenton, and H. Ashley (Eds) Participatory Learning and Action 50 Critical reflections, future directions. IIED: London. Online: www.planotes.org/documents/plan_05017.pdf Rambaldi, G., R. Chambers, M. McCall and J. Fox (2006). ‘Practical ethics for PGIS practitioners, facilitators, technology intermediaries and researchers.’ In G. Rambaldi, J. Corbett, R. Olson, M. McCall, J. Muchemi, P.K. Kyem, D. Weiner and R. Chambers (Eds). Participatory Learning and Action 54 Mapping for Change: practice, technologies and communications. IIED: London. Online: www.planotes.org/pla_backissues/54.html ‘Dr. Robert Chambers elaborates on Participatory GIS (PGIS) practice.’ Online video interview: http://participatorygis.blogspot.com/2009/10/robert-chambers- elaborates-on.html 179 TIPS FOR TRAINERS 180

Communication maps: a participatory tool to understand communication 17 patterns and relationships

by SONAL ZAVERI

Introduction spontaneously communicated these Mapping relationships and communication messages to their friends, family, and are important for most development community and practiced healthy behaviour programmes. They teach us about who the in their daily life. The communication map participants are talking to, what they talk has also been used in other programmes about, and how important it is. Asking is one involving children and young people, in way of finding out either through an interview Africa and Asia, the most recent being a or a questionnaire, or through group discus- national Life Skills programme for children sions. But these methods have their limita- affected by HIV in India. It is a visual tool, tions. Not all relationships may be disclosed, easy to administer and children in different the interviewer/facilitator may not be skilled contexts and countries have used it. The tool in finding out information, and people may can be used at the beginning and at the end not feel like talking about it. When working of a programme, with an intervention and a with children and young people, it is even non-intervention group providing concrete more difficult to elicit responses verbally. and quantifiable evidence regarding Communication mapping is a participa- communication patterns. tory tool which is a simple and effective way to plot and understand how children Making communication maps communicate with the people in their lives. • Take half a sheet of chart paper (about 2 The tool was developed in Nepal while eval- feet by 18 inches) and different coloured uating a school health programme, where sketch pens. It is important to have large children were taught simple health thick paper because children like to draw messages using the active learning methods freely. Colourful sketch pens give expression of the Child-to-Child approach.1 Children to their feelings.

1 See www.child-to-child.org/about/approach.html Communication maps: a participatory tool to understand communication patterns and relationships 181

Figure 1: Map drawn by Janak, a Class IV student, Sindhupalchowk Nepal.

• Take the blank chart paper and with your dren to copy. These instructions enable chil- hand make a circle in the air in the middle dren to think unfettered and allow the free of the paper and say, ‘Draw yourself in the flow of their thoughts and expressions. I am middle here any way you like, you can write always amazed at the variety of maps chil- your name or draw yourself in the middle of dren make with these simple instructions. this paper.’ A word of caution – children like to look • Next, place your hand at different parts of over their shoulder at what their friends are the paper saying, ‘Draw or name all the doing and it is a good idea to have a large people in your life. If you talk to them a lot, room where children can spread out and draw three lines from you to that person. If work on their own. In many cultures, chil- you don’t talk much to them, draw one line dren are expected to follow rules and and if you talk somewhat, draw two lines behave in a defined way – that is why it is from you to that person. On the line, write particularly important to emphasise and what you talk about.’ repeat in the instructions – draw yourself I usually do not like to ‘show’ or demon- and others anyway you like. strate a communication map as children Most children get engrossed quite copy very easily. But by drawing in the air quickly in the activity and it is likely to take and using a blank paper, the instructions anywhere from 30 to 40 minutes. Once are easily understood without ‘priming’ chil- children have finished, they may share their 182 60 G Zaveri

Map drawn by Jyoti, a 13-year-old girl at Ankur Night Shelter, CCDT (India).

maps with the facilitator or their friends. had stopped communicating to those who Discussion and sharing illuminates much ‘used’ or exploited them. of what children have written, creating a Because the map provides several dimen- better understanding for later analysis. Two sions of study, one can plot changes in: of the most common comments I have • who children communicate with; received from facilitators are, ‘I can see the • how much they communicate (one line is child’s life like a picture in front of my eyes’ the least, and three lines is the most); and and, ‘I have known this child for so long but • what they communicate (topics and issues never knew about all these relationships’. can be identified). All these can be counted and quantified. Using the maps for evaluation purposes If you are using a before/after design or a The communication map has been used in randomised controlled trial, it will be neces- evaluation. In our study in Nepal, we learnt sary to store the maps safely for later that children were communicating about comparison with the maps drawn after the health to their parents and siblings and that intervention. there were gender differences. In other eval- Although this tool has been developed uations, a before/after design indicated that for children and young people, it has been children of sex workers were communicat- used extensively during the training of facil- ing about their studies and life goals, were itators and many field programmes have talking to neighbours without stigma, and used it with parents of the children as well.

CONTACT DETAILS Sonal Zaveri International Advisor Child-to-Child Trust, London Mumbai, India Email: [email protected] 183 Rivers of life 18 by ZIAD MOUSSA

Introduction Rivers of life is one of the most powerful tools I have experienced in my professional life as a trainer and facilitator, as it helps groups to ‘bond’ quickly. It allows participants to reflect on personal experiences and influences that have motivated them in their personal and professional life. Participants are invited to use the symbol of a river to reflect on key stages in their lives, positive experiences and influences, and difficult challenges.

Preparation As preparation, I suggest that you draw your own ‘river of life’. Do this exercise with someone else if possible and share your experiences. Ziad Moussa Photo: Participants drawing their ‘rivers’ at the RCPLA During the workshop, much depends workshop in Cairo, March 2008. on the space available. I have found that it is very useful to hang the flipcharts on the The time needed to share the results of wall and let participants draw. the exercise depends on what you expect to achieve and how much time you have in Time your workshop. Ideally, it is advisable to • 15 minutes to prepare the ‘rivers’ share the outcomes of the exercise in a • Sharing depends on the time available plenary session. 184 60 G Moussa Photo: Ziad Moussa Photo: Uttam Uprety from Nepal Participatory Action Network (NEPAN) presents his ‘river’ at the RCPLA workshop in Cairo, March 2008.

Apart from the 15 minutes needed to own personal lives. Explain that a river is a prepare the rivers, you need an average of meaningful symbol in many cultures and four to five minutes per participant to that people may find it quite natural and present them. So if the group size is 12-18 stimulating to think of their own lives in you can do it in plenary but you would terms of a river. need to ensure very strict time keeping. For groups of 18 or more, you can divide Step two them in smaller groups of 9-12 partici- Ask each person to take a piece of blank pants each. paper and a pen (or for a more creative approach, provide them with additional Materials materials). • Blank piece of paper and pen for each participant Step three • Flipchart On the flipchart write the following: • River of life: key stages in your life Optional • Tributaries: positive experiences and • Multicoloured paper influences • Coloured markers, crayons, pens • Rough waters: difficult challenges • Magazines, scissors, glue Step four Method Demonstrate how you might draw the river, tributaries, and rough waters and Step one then ask each person to draw their own. In this activity participants are invited to Various points on the river represent use the symbol of a river to reflect on their significant stages in one’s life: Rivers of life 185 Photo: Ziad Moussa Photo: Ziad Moussa Photo: A typical ‘river’, where the participant chose to An example of how a team has drawn their rivers in benchmark his river along key dates in his life. parallel to each other’s.

• Tributaries are drawn to indicate key images from magazines), allow more time influences (e.g. people, education, books, for cutting and pasting. Encourage the experiences, events, etc.) that have group to be creative, for example, use contributed directly or indirectly to their colours to express different moods at lives and work. different periods of their lives. I sometimes • Rough waters in the river illustrate times ask the participants to dig in their pockets when one has encountered difficult chal- and stick on the drawing pictures of them- lenges in life that have potentially been the selves and their families, business cards, source of valuable learning. souvenirs, etc. • The river can run straight or it can twist (e.g. on turning point moments in one’s Step seven life). It can also become narrow or widen, Discuss the rivers in plenary. Each partici- depending on the horizon perspective at a pant explains her/his river while standing particular moment in time. next to it and the other participants can move around the room as the rivers are Step five being presented. Encourage participants to be as self- disclosing in this exercise as they are Step eight comfortable with. Explain that they will be To close the activity, emphasise the wealth asked to share some of these experiences of experience that is gathered in the room. either in small groups, or in plenary. For example, you can ask the participants to highlight how many years of experiences Step six they have and sum them up collectively… Allow five to seven minutes for drawing they can add up to many centuries. You can the river. If using additional materials (e.g. also mark on a roughly drawn map of the 186 60 G Moussa

world the countries in which the participants have lived, studied, and worked. The result can be impressive too!

Variation Many people view their life as a ‘pathway’ or ‘roadway’ rather than a ‘river’. As facilitator, it is important to be flexible to see which metaphor works best for people. Also, some participants may not feel comfortable drawing. Have them write out their river of life rather than draw it. Another variation of the exercise when participants are part of a team, is to ask the team to draw their rivers in parallel and make the rivers meet when the participants came across each other.

CONTACT DETAILS Ziad Moussa Email: [email protected]

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Adapted from ‘River of Life’ exercise in Community Organizing curriculum published by New Mexico Department of Health, Public Health Division, 1994. 187 IN TOUCH 188 60

Welcome to the In Touch section of • Publications. Do you know of any key Participatory Learning and Action. publications on participatory Through these pages we hope to create a methodologies and their use? Have you more participatory resource for the (or has your organisation) produced any Participatory Learning and Action books, reports, or videos that you would audience, to put you, as a reader, in touch like other readers to know about? with other readers. We want this section • Electronic information. Do you know to be a key source of up-to-date of any electronic conferences or pages information on training, publications, on the Internet which exchange or and networks. Your help is vital in provide information on participatory keeping us all in touch about: methodologies? • Networks. Do you have links with • Other information. Perhaps you have recognised local, national or ideas about other types of information international networks for practitioners that would be useful for this section. If of participatory learning? If so, what so, please let us know. does this network provide – training? Please send your responses to: newsletters? resource material/library? Participatory Learning and Action, IIED, a forum for sharing experiences? Please 3 Endsleigh Street, London WC1H ODD, tell us about the network and provide UK. contact details for other readers. Fax: + 44 20 7388 2826; • Training. Do you know of any Email: [email protected] forthcoming training events or courses in participatory methodologies? Are you a trainer yourself? Are you aware of any key training materials that you would like to share with other trainers? 189

Book reviews

CLIMATE CHANGE Joto Afrika focuses on thematic areas around climate change adaptation and Tiempo – a development. It draws lessons, quarterly bulletin on experiences, and practical information climate and from across sub-Saharan Africa. Written development in a clear, easy-to-read style, it includes G IIED and SEI summaries of academic research on This quarterly bulletin on climate and climate change, case studies of development is published each quarter by community-based knowledge and action IIED and the Stockholm Environment in response to climate change, and Institute. It covers global warming, feedback from readers. It targets NGOs, climate change, sea-level rise, and issues government officials, researchers, related to climate change in the decision makers, planning departments, developing world. Articles are CBOs, and all individuals in Africa who contributed by writers from developing need to know about climate change countries. To download copies and for adaptation at the regional and local level. more information visit The first issue, edited by Victor Orindi www.tiempocyberclimate.org/portal/ from the International Development bulletin.htm Research Centre in Nairobi, Kenya, looks at For francophone readers, Tiempo climate change and African food security Afrique is now available in French and was produced in June this year. through ENDA Tiers Monde in Dakar, Visit ALIN’s website for more Senegal. This has a regional West African information: www.alin.net focus. Contact: [email protected] or visit the website: http://endaenergy.org/ Understanding Climate 2008/11/13/tiempo-afrique Change Adaptation: lessons from community- Joto Afrika based approaches G ALIN and IDS G Jonathan Ensor and Joto Afrika – Swahili for Rachel Berger ‘Africa is feeling the heat' – Practical Action is a new series of briefings Publishing, 2009 and online resources ISBN: 978 1 85339 683 0 about adapting to climate Co-authored by one of the guest editors of change in Africa. The this issue of Participatory Learning and journal is produced by the Arid Lands Action, this book is an important and Information Network (ALIN) in Kenya in timely contribution to the climate change partnership with AfricaAdapt and the adaptation debate, providing both Institute of Development Studies, UK. analysis and experience from practice. 190 60

The introduction locates community- and disaster risk; adaptation and based adaptation in the broader context development; and adaptation and climate of ongoing development challenges and change policy. international negotiations. Recommended for all who need a The main body comprises a series of solid grounding in all aspects of climate case studies of adaptation projects, which change adaptation. seek to clarify the meaning of adaptation Available from Earthscan: and draw lessons for practitioners and www.earthscan.co.uk policy makers. Each chapter has been prepared with the participation of one of Climate Change and the team members that undertook the Vulnerability project work. The chapters contain a G Edited by Neil Leary, section on lessons learnt to give a frank Cecilia Conde, Jyoti discussion of what worked well, as well as Kulkarni, Anthony Nyong, any weaknesses that emerged. and Juan Pulhin The concluding chapter examines the ISBN: 978 1 84407 688 8 relationship between reducing Earthscan, 2009 (paperback) vulnerability to climate change, building Together with Climate Change and adaptive capacity, and strengthening Adaptation, these two books are the resilience. It also addresses the challenges result of a research initiative proposed by of scaling up adaptation projects, noting the IPCC after its Third Assessment in the necessity of addressing existing 2001 and highlight the much needed policies, politics, and power relationships if investments required to reduce communities are to be empowered to vulnerability. identify and develop appropriate responses The case studies in the book are to the challenges of climate change. detailed and well researched, providing a Available from Practical Action deeper analysis of vulnerability to climate Publishing: change in different sectors and countries www.practicalactionpublishing.org in the developing world. The book is essential reading for those The Earthscan Reader on who wish to further their understanding Adaptation to Climate of how climate change affects people and Change their environment, and what they can do Edited by E. Lisa F. to reduce vulnerability. Schipper and Ian Burton Available from Earthscan: Earthscan, 2009 www.earthscan.co.uk ISBN 978 1 84407 531 7 This reader opens with a Climate Change in Africa chapter on the origins, concepts, practice, G Camilla Toulmin and policy of adaptation and continues African Arguments with contributions from many climate ISBN: 978 1 84813 015 9 experts exploring the theory of This book offers a adaptation, offering a collection of some comprehensive, succinct, of the most significant writings on and timely review of the adaptation to climate change from the challenges facing Africa in past two decades. the context of climate change. It opens The book is divided into five parts: with an overview of climate change science adaptation theory; adaptation, and the implications of the IPCC’s vulnerability, and resilience; adaptation assessment report of 2007 for different In Touch G Book reviews 191 regions of Africa, outlining the agreements, Urban growth can bring many institutions, and funding mechanisms set negative impacts on people’s health and up, and reviews performance in achieving the environment, as well as vulnerability cuts in greenhouse gas emissions. As in the context of climate change. Toulmin elsewhere in the developing world, the looks at the potential of cities to be part of climate change challenge for Africa is of the solution rather than the problem, finding ways to adapt. Adaptation needs through redesign which will need the close attention at many levels, and the book collaboration of local communities, emphasises the need to combine a focus on residents’ groups, town councils, and local building more resilient local food and government. water systems with national plans for food In a chapter on climate change and security and international management of conflict, Toulmin questions whether key resources. future conflict and resource wars could be Toulmin looks at the impact of climate attributed entirely to climate change. She change on the availability and access to examines the effect resource scarcity can natural resources, firstly looking at how have on migration patterns, which often water availability is affected. With some have a very significant impact on people’s areas becoming drier and others wetter as income. She also looks at the rise in a result of climate change, the very limited biofuel cultivation and the ‘land grabs’ investment in managing domestic water which are taking place in some regions. supplies in rural and urban settings needs Again, Toulmin suggests positive ways addressing, as well as the untapped forward to reduce the shifts in resource potential of dams to capture water for availability. energy generation and agricultural Overall, Toulmin focuses on the production. opportunities facing Africa, and how it The reliance of African countries on can gain from the new funding streams agriculture and natural resources means that will arise from the climate change that farmers are facing ever greater negotiations. Africa has a large part to challenges. Toulmin draws on success play in the new carbon economy, but it is stories which incorporate greater the voices of the poor and vulnerable – resilience into farming systems, who are most affected by climate change – particularly in the West African Sahel. which need to be heard as the policies and Forests are a huge source of income institutions for addressing climate change and provider of services, and the growth in are designed. carbon markets and Reduced Emissions Available from Zed Books: from Deforestation and Degradation www.zedbooks.co.uk (REDD) schemes bring potential benefits to Africa. Toulmin questions who has the Planning with rights to trees and who can claim Uncertainty: Using payments from a global fund. She Scenario Planning with emphasises the time and effort required to African Pastoralists clarify and enforce rights of access and use G SOS Sahel UK and over these resources, so as to best IIED, 2009 distribute the proceeds from these ISBN: 978 1 84369 743 5 schemes among local people, local This booklet illustrates how the idea of government, and national authorities. In scenario planning as a participatory tool is her view, a combination of local being used to help pastoralists in Africa empowerment and national support is manage uncertainty and change. It uses likely to work best. scenario planning in a constructive way to 192 60

imagining multiple futures and consider account by two development practitioners how they might be influenced. Pastoralists who have been frustrated with the are masters in the art of engaging with outcomes of their research not being uncertainty and turning it to their communicated effectively. advantage, since unpredictability is To quote from the book; “it is not characteristic of the ecological communication that makes good environments in which they operate. development but good development that The book is based on SOS Sahel UK’s contains good communication”. The book work with Boran and Somali pastoralists unravels this notion. It is divided into in Kenya and IIED’s work with WoDaaBe three parts – the first looking at the move pastoralists in Niger. It captures the early away from results-based approaches, at lessons from an approach which has communication for Another Development excited all those involved. and how development is more about After a brief introduction, the first exploring and enabling, rather than section looks at the three experiences from prescribing. It also explores why which this booklet is drawn – two in Kenya communicators have a hard time and one in Niger. The second section explaining what they do. discusses the role of the facilitator while The second part reflects on experience. the third describes the main elements of a It looks at early champions in the field and scenario planning process. The final uncovers principles which made them section offers some concluding reflections. successful communicators – these include The booklet is written with combining advocacy, educational and community development workers participatory communication functions. It primarily in mind – for those who may be also looks at new ways of working with interested in facilitating scenario established media. planning with communities and wish to The final part looks forward to how know more about it. It describes the things can be done differently, noting that process involved and discusses the even with new technologies, there are benefits, challenges, and implications of some hardy principles to adhere to. the approach. The booklet includes a The book is a must for all development DVD and is also available in French. professionals and shows clearly the To request a hard copy, please contact: opportunities arising from good [email protected] or download a deployment of communication processes. copy at: www.iied.org/pubs/display. Available from Zed Books php?o=12562IIED www.zedbooks.co.uk

GENERAL Speaking to Power – 27 Voice Tools Communication for Building bridges for Another Development: participatory learning, Listening Before Telling action and policy-making G Wendy Quarry and G Neela Mukherjee Ricardo Ramirez Foreword by Robert Zed Books, 2009 Chambers ISBN: 978 1 84813 009 8 Studies in Rural Participation Series No. 7 This is fun and Concept Publishing, 2009 entertaining book looking at the ISBN: 81-8069-588-3 challenges of communicating in the This book looks at the practical side of development sector. It is a lively, personal enabling ordinary people to ‘speak to In Touch G Book reviews 193 power’. Those whose voices are rarely In PLA 58, we announced Affirming Life heard include women, minority groups, and Diversity. Here, two reviewers give indigenous peoples, and the poor – and their thoughts on this multimedia making these people’s voice heard in publication. policy-making remains a serious issue. This book is based on the assumption Reviewed by Nick Lunch, Director and that if those in power do not listen to Co-founder, InsightShare ordinary people then the latter can use Affirming Life and Diversity celebrates their united power to try and influence local knowledge, innovation, self- them. The book provides tools and determination, and local action for mechanisms to organise people’s voices change. The compilation of 12 videos for transmission, thereby connecting the made by women filmmakers, who are all community voice at the local level with local farmers from Andhra Pradesh higher levels of policy-making. working with the DDS (Deccan As the title says, the book presents 27 Development Society) Community voice tools from practice. These are divided Media Trust, are a clear and outstanding into tools for participatory assessments result of community-led research, and tools for social accountability. The first guided by the International Society of set includes methodologies such as Ethnobiology’s Code of Ethics. participatory poverty assessments, Throughout eight years of work, DDS participatory monitoring and evaluation, and IIED have encouraged local and most significant change tools. The communities to undertake their own second set includes participatory research and make their own budgeting, citizens’ advisory boards, publications. This logic identifies the lobbying and advocacy, and people’s courts. local inhabitants as the best experts to The concluding chapters look at conduct research on biodiversity in their aspects of institutionalising community own communities. Using a tool that voice, including major gaps and equalises access to the results, the dalit weaknesses of the conventional policy women used community video and radio framework. to record systematically the variety of Available from Concept Publishing voices horizontally and vertically. Company, New Delhi: This project also clearly celebrates www.conceptpub.com action as a direct result from research. As Michel Pimbert acknowledges in his Strengthening Voices radio interview with Mark Sommer of the Excluded (A World of Possibilities, 2008), action Affirming Life and research provides space for direct Diversity, Rural democracy and cultural affirmation.1 The images and voices on videos produced in this long-term action Food Sovereignty in research project show collaboration, south India. production, and validation of common G The DDS knowledge with an active role of the Community Media community in its outputs. Trust, P.V. Satheesh (DDS) and Michel Affirming Life and Diversity sets a Pimbert (IIED), 2008 precedent in participatory and action ISBN: 978 1 843969 674 2 research showing how multimedia is a

1 Listen online: http://tinyurl.com/pimbert-interview Full URL: http://aworldofpossibilities.org/program/vanishing-and-re-emerging-reviving- biological-and-cultural-diversity 194 60

perfect tool for results dissemination and achieved farmers talking to farmers establishing equality in access, while locally and globally: creating outputs with a multiplicity of That is for me the power of community uses as advocacy tools. Besides, the long- video. term approach opened up a creative space The video-arguments articulated by for local capacity building and the women filmmakers include: strengthening farmer-led research • Explanation of the research project and instead of extracting information to process, presenting the stakeholders and provide knowledge for outsiders. the case. The community videos unpack a • Celebration about biodiversity events as reflective process, and make visible the a community forum for awareness and careful adherence to participatory decision-making, creating a privileged practices that have led to local space for sharing local knowledge and communities gaining autonomy in establishing an agenda on food decision-making as well as horizontal sovereignty. The process of filming and sharing from local to global spaces. The screening back to the community is exchange and mutual learning processes documented too. among farmers from India, Peru, Mali, • Concrete examples of successful Iran, Indonesia, and South Africa might advocacy using community video films, be shared also with many other farmers e.g. reversing the Public Distribution around the globe, thanks to the videos. System which had flooded local markets The final palpable outcome is a high with subsidised rice and has now become and advanced level of community the Community Grain Fund, promoting collaboration, both local and global, indigenous cereals like sorghum; or the involving political empowerment and wonderful case of banishing BT Cotton power over decision-making. The from the State of Andra Pradesh research findings are judged in terms of following a long-term video campaign by the degree to which communities set the Community Media Trust; or the research agendas and frame policies. It is controversial work of local citizen juries refreshing to learn of a long term who shamed DfiD and UK partners into participatory video intervention that has abandoning the green revolution tactics led to so many positive changes in local which supported the spread of GM seeds people’s lives. and export-led industrial agriculture. • Analysis of biodiversity (uncultivated The evidence of the process: an outline food), including a diversity of voices and of the community videos2 comparing traditional and scientific The 12 videos are carefully organised to knowledge. articulate an argument with a variety of • Sharing of local technology innovation voices: farmers, scientists, CSOs among local farmers. representatives, government officials, and • Analysis of markets and their influence international stakeholders. This result of in the communities of Andhra Pradesh. this participant-led research had put Presentation of issues and solutions, such everyone at a sangham shot level: that is, as community certification, alternatives to the eye level when you sit together in a established markets, development of sangham community group. As PV community action groups, creation of Sateesh commented to InsightShare in new local market institutions, education 2007 in a video interview, the process has campaigns, and inclusion of all the

2 See: www.insightshare.org/video_PVSateesh1.html In Touch G Book reviews 195 stakeholders in the process. and went from a variety of sangham • Review of the national learning group meetings, we chatted about participatory role on the action research project and video, we talked to the ladies at the their interaction with community Community Media Trust, shared videos, members. The video also documents the and agreed to work together to bring process of participatory video as a tool for other PV pioneers across the globe research and for opening new pathways: together and build a coherent movement ‘radio and video are our weapons’ (quote for community media. What struck me from a sangham filmmaker). most from that meeting with Satheesh • Documentation of the DDS progress was the dedication and life-long and the influence of the local sanghams commitment it takes to seed real change. in policy-making at local, regional, He lives and breathes what he preaches! national, and international level. On my return to UK, I also met with Evidence of the power of community Michel Pimbert, who since has remained video as a rigorous tool for research and a mentor and friend. advocacy. At InsightShare today we feel in mid- • A case of horizontal global exchange: stream of a powerful current. And we Indian-Peruvian farmers. It includes the continue to nurture long-term links with sharing of sustainable farming the wider work of IIED’s Food techniques, culture, market institutions, Sovereignty Programme partners, as well community videos, and participatory as other IIED initiatives focused on tools for biodiversity registration. This is community-based adaptation to climate the powerful, human, emotional, spiritual change. side of development we rarely see. We have carried out capacity building • Documentation of the process of doing for community video in many countries research through participatory video in since our beginnings in 1996. This has relation to BT cotton. The research was shown us there is no standard pathway, conducted throughout three years, but that a community hub (physical space filming once a month systematically. to come together and produce community Emphasis on stories and its impact on videos, similar to the DDS Community action and change. Media Trust) will need some form of • Global advocacy video: how to take the hands-on support, encouragement, and process beyond. The sangham filmmakers mentoring for two to three years decided to take the research to the Global minimum. What we have learnt from south, including farmers, scientists, and making mistakes is that we need to build other stakeholders from South Africa, relations at the most grassroots level to Indonesia, Thailand, and Mali, to record ensure we are contributing to positive experiences around GMOs and BT social change. We work less and less with cotton. development agencies and more directly with communities. Similar experiences and approaches There are huge advantages to from InsightShare anchoring the hub within an already I met PV Satheesh3 at his home in supportive and responsive network such Pashtapur in 2005. You may laugh, but it as The Christensen Fund’s regional was a bit like meeting my guru! Sitting programmes and the UNDP Global under a huge tree in a beautiful courtyard Environment Facility (GEF) Small Grant and sharing local food as farmers came Programme’s local partners, or the Land

3 See: www.insightshare.org/videos 196 60

is Life network of indigenous community media for cultural organisations, as we have been doing in affirmation, self-determination, capacity our Biocultural Diversity programme. building, and socio-political local and We call Year One the conception global change – led by and for the real phase, whilst Year Two is the birth of the development experts: community hub. Some community partners may members, farmers, indigenous peoples, choose not to host a permanent media and local inhabitants. It is a must-see for hub but many opt to go on developing a those in the development industry, truly community-led and long-term social development academia, and policy media hub. Year Three would see the makers. And it is an inspiration to fellow development of a more intensive strategy community media practitioners! for developing local sustainability For more information about strategies for the hubs, with less hands-on InsightShare, visit: www.insightshare.org involvement from InsightShare. Projects For more information and community would be almost entirely locally driven videos amplifying voices of indigenous afterwards. peoples on climate change visit: Our strategy to hand over the tool and www.conversationsearth.org connect the communities in a global network is palpable in the videos created Reviewed by Zoe Young, a Film Producer and by our first two hubs: Durban and Sian Sullivan, a Lecturer in Environment and London.3 This year, in a multimedia Development at Birkbeck College, University project called Conversations with the of London. Earth, we are working with six Smartly packaged and produced, this box indigenous communities to identify, train, set of films and text is an important and equip local videographers to enable document of community focused action them to record the impacts of, and research and media, exploring the food responses to, climate change at the local sovereignty of marginalised people in level. dryland areas of Andhra Pradesh, India. Sharing these video stories will enable It offers multi-vocal accounts of action indigenous peoples to present their own research on food, farming, ecology, and perspectives on the effects of climate livelihoods ‘by, with and for’ people who change to inform the global discourse and have tended to be treated by well- build capacity in community media for meaning elites as objects of research or of locally-driven processes. These six hubs pity, and as more-or-less passive are in Peru, Panama, Cameroon, Kenya, recipients of aid and agricultural Canadian Arctic, and Philippines. extension work. A particular contextual focus is the displacement of local I am convinced by the words of Djengui diversities (crops, technologies, farming (the Great Spirit of the forest) who has practices, exchange strategies, etc.) predicted a radiant future: I feel it is in our through the distribution of free or cheap hands and I am going to work for that. white rice produced in industrial Member of the Baka Community monocultures. This is a staple which Association in Eastern Cameroon requires little labour to prepare, but which is relatively low in nutrient value. Affirming Life and Diversity: Rural The films highlight some of problematic Images and Voices on Food Sovereignty in outcomes of this incidence of India’s south India is undeniable proof of the ‘Green Revolution’. Even more unlimited possibilities of combining importantly they document the processes participatory action research and engaged in by local people, and In Touch G Book reviews 197 particularly local women, to remember, dividing up benefits between villagers, reclaim, and share indigenous knowledge and documenting seed-keepers’ storage and diverse farming practices appropriate facilities. From these, the passion of to the relatively dry and remote (in terms speakers committed to this grassroots of urban market access) rural landscape approach to development and in which they dwell. conservation is clear. On a more technical Issues covered include alternative note, the film graphics are generally good strategies for distributing food to the and clear, and the sound mix mostly poorest, growing new and traditional works. There is some varied audio and crops for market, the use of natural light levels on a couple of films (e.g. Film fertilisers, the establishment of Three is very dark for some reason), and biodiversity festivals to celebrate local at times for us the repetitive and almost diversity, and the problems faced by local constant use of women singing, whatever farmers pressured to grow genetically is being said or is happening on screen, engineered cotton. A significant emphasis grated after a while. is on the ongoing work, networking, and More substantially, the total package organisational development of the slightly misses an opportunity to really Deccan Development Society (DDS) as a document and present the project as a highly progressive and effective potentially exemplary process of campaigning development NGO. A key participatory video making. The aspect of the initiative, and one which is accompanying booklet states: of particular relevance for IIED, for ‘Participatory video was an integral part ‘participatory development work’ in of this action research; the CMT [DDS general, and for this publication, has been Community Media Trust] documented the establishment of an ethical research the dynamics and outcomes of the protocol and practice between the Deccan research through the eyes of marginalised Development Society and IIED, and women farmers and other small farmers’ village sanghams. These are ‘voluntary (p. xii). But while the camera may directly associations of poor women… basically present what local women’s eyes were formed by dalit women, but not to the seeing, the soundtrack only rarely exclusion of poor women from a wide presents what their voices might be array of castes’ (p. 16). An Annex sets out saying. Film Seven (‘Learning from the comprehensive Code of Ethics, Grassroots’) does give more space to established and agreed by the women’s voices, including their views on International Society of Ethnobiology, the role and practice of participatory which has been drawn on in this project video in the process of co-inquiry, but for to guide good research practice in the the most part, women’s voices are heard new, ethically unarguable framework of primarily as untranslated background ‘farmer first’. group singing. Where they might be This is an innovative combination of telling their own stories, and interviewing locally-filmed and directed visual each other to give narrative shape to the material with an accompanying and well- films that we see, we are led instead by an produced text elaborating further on the authoritative male narration, scripted geographical and institutional setting of (according to the credits) by PV Satheesh, the research. The films contain moments the director of DDS. We wondered why of real beauty and excitement. High the women filmmakers themselves were points for us were sections where farmers not describing in their own words the speak among themselves, making significance of their local biodiversity matrices for local biodiversity registers, festivals, or sharing their experiences of 198 60

travelling to Peru to discuss local agro- protagonists speak directly of their own biodiversity issues with Andean farmers? views and experiences. Arguably, it is There is room here for a separate film through making possible these sorts of focusing on the participatory video felt and empathic connections with process itself in the context of this project, people in such different contexts and indicating, for example, how women’s experiencing such alien constraints that groups agreed on edits and storylines and the broader changes associated with including some clarification of their sustaining and celebrating diversity, both engagements with specialists in biological and cultural, might manifest. producing the final versions. Another With the sensitive use of translation and interesting option would be to hear PV subtitles, filmed media can provide Satheesh’s own personal and professional powerful vehicles via which such subtle experience as a key motivating force yet strong connections can be behind such a globally important and engendered. innovative social movement organisation. In sum, however, this is an exciting One of the films that does approach initiative and product with great this more successfully is the first film on educational value in terms of content, DVD 4 (themed as ‘Grassroots confront methodologies, and institutional setting. genetic engineering’), entitled ‘Why are We would love to see some sort of Warangal farmers angry with BT Cotton?’ distillation of the material here into a This film opens with clips of farmers single hour-long film that weaves the heatedly explaining that this modified connected issues together through a crop actually does not provide the return succinct juxtaposition of images, content, they need on their investment. For us, and narration. This should be possible, this opening grabbed our attention and and would constitute a product with great concern as viewers, because we were able pedagogical value for a wide range of to see and hear those immediately contexts. These could include the sharing affected voice their views and experiences of experiences between different localities directly. At the same time, and from a and rural peoples globally, as a resource professional filmmaker’s perspective that for ‘development professionals’ as well as understands the time and interest of a for social movements and campaigns viewer to be at a premium, some of the working with related issues, and in farmer accounts regarding what then university teaching for a range of courses went wrong with these introduced cash and degree programmes. Such an crops perhaps are allowed to run on too extension of this product would of course long, thereby losing the viewer’s attention encounter tensions in the interactions and concern. This is a common dilemma between the producers of content and for filmmakers desiring to give space for editorial choices. But we feel that these views and voices that often remain productive tensions would be worth unheard, while producing edits that also grappling with, so as to enhance the reach are attractive, coherent, and attention- and impact of the significant stories, grabbing for the viewing consumers of experiences and ‘developments’ the ‘product’. documented here. In general, however, we would have appreciated a few more glimpses of local people making and watching films together, as well as some more time given to permitting the emotional connection that can be made when hearing 199

Events and training

Fourth International Conference on (Spring Session I) Community-Based Adaptation IISD offers a series of related online G 21st–27th February 2010 courses on various aspects of community- Dar es Salaam, Tanzania based development designed for The Fourth International Conference on practitioners in the field, project CBA aims to share and consolidate the directors, funders, or anyone interested in latest developments in CBA planning and learning more about community-based practice in different sectors and countries development. IISD courses do not require amongst practitioners, policy makers, university admission. Courses are researchers, funders, and the intensive and provide practical tools for communities at risk. It will disseminate those working in the field. IISD offers a lessons learnt both at the conference and comprehensive development training through conference proceedings. This has programme covering 13 different subject become an annual event at which areas within the field of sustainable practitioners, policy makers and community-based development. researchers can share information on All courses are organised in a seminar methodologies for CBA, up-scaling CBA, format and last five weeks. Each course communicating CBA, CBA in different costs USD$360. All course materials are ecosystems, funding for CBA etc. The provided and can be downloaded from conferences involve field visits to CBA the course website after registration. projects in different ecosystems and Deadline to register is 15th January regions so people can see CBA activities 2010. on the ground. Ultimately the aim is to share knowledge and experiences to help Community-based health those most vulnerable to climate change. See: www.colostate.edu/Orgs/IISD/ For more information please contact: courses/Health.html Saleemul Huq or Hannah Reid, Using case studies and other readings, International Institute for Environment along with group discussion, this course and Development (IIED), 3 Endsleigh will explore the global, social, political, Street, London, WC1H 0DD, UK. Tel: +44 economic, and cultural factors that 20 7388 2117; Fax: +44 20 7388 2826; contribute to poor health. It will also look Email: [email protected] or at methods for empowering communities [email protected]. Website: www.iied.org/ who lack access to healthcare to create climate-change/key-issues/community- practical solutions that are relevant to based-adaptation/cba-conference their unique situations. Participatory research will be one of the key strategies Online courses: International Institute dealt with in this course due to its focus for Sustainable Development (IISD) on promoting change at the grassroots G 22nd January – 26th February 2010 level. 200 60

Approaches to community-based Community-based mapping development See: www.colostate.edu/Orgs/IISD/ See: www.colostate.edu/Orgs/IISD/ courses/Mapping.html courses/Approaches.html This course will explore theories, ethics, This course explores both the structure applications, and methods of community- and practice of community development based mapping and its role in around the world. Using case studies, participatory learning and action as well videos, readings, and online discussions, as larger processes of integrated participants in this course will engage in a community-based development. This critical analysis of different approaches to course, while drawing on many of the community development, their historical recent case studies, academic writings, development, and underlying and reports from the field, will be highly assumptions with the goal of distilling out interactive and will emphasise the sharing key structures and practices that will help of experiences, ideas, and insights from them be more effective on the ground. course participants. While not required, it is recommended that this course be taken prior to taking Participatory research and development other IISD online courses. www.colostate.edu/Orgs/IISD/courses/ Research.html Online certificate programme in This course stems from the emergence of community-based development participatory approaches especially Students who complete the ‘Approaches Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) to community-based development’ course pioneered by Robert Chambers in the along with three other elective courses 1990s. This course will cover the theory will receive a certificate in Community- behind participatory research and action Based Development from the methodologies used by academics and International Institute for Sustainable development professionals, as well as Development at Colorado State focus on practical tools to conduct University. research and evaluations that, through the research process itself, empower Community-based organising communities and local people. See: www.colostate.edu/Orgs/IISD/ Participants will examine the ethics of courses/Organizing.html research in marginalised communities Taking a practical ‘hands-on’ perspective, and also learn appropriate tools to this course will explore the theories, tools, conduct baseline studies, academic styles, and challenges of community- research, and monitoring and evaluation based organising. It will discuss practical reports. strategies for developing community All courses are organised in a seminar leadership and working with format and last five weeks. Each course is marginalised communities, exploring the $360 USD. All course materials are ideas and examples from Evo Morales, provided and can be downloaded from the Paulo Freire, Saul Alinsky, Sup- course website after registration. For more Comandante Marcos, the Bridge information visit the web pages above or Immigrant Rights experiment, and contact: Jamie Way, Training Coordinator. Martin Heidegger. By looking at ways of Email: [email protected]; Tel: +1 organising with intentionality, this course 970 491 5754. examines the impact that ordinary individuals can and have had on the Bond Network training courses world. Bond provides a range of learning and In Touch G Events and training 201 training services for NGOs working in also available in-house. For more international development. Bond cover information about in-house training visit: issues that matter to NGOs, sharing www.bond.org.uk/pages/in-house- practical, real world knowledge through a service.html range of learning methods. All training Download form (BOND members): courses: www.bond.org.uk/learning-and-training- • are open to non-members as well as booking.php?event_id=a0E40000003w members, although members receive a 38BEAQ discount; Download form (if you are not a • are competitively priced (prices start at BOND member): www.bond.org.uk/ just £69 for a one-day workshop); pages/how-to-book.html • focus on active learning and Post to: Learning and Training Events participation; Administrator, Bond, Regent’s Wharf, 8 • reflect the latest thinking, concepts and All Saints Street, London N1 9RL. Email: issues; and [email protected]; Fax: +44 20 7837 • are delivered by experienced facilitators 4220 with a thorough knowledge of their field. International Association for Public Examples of courses offered by Bond Participation training courses Courses offered in February 2010. See Monitoring and evaluation for website for future course dates. accountability 10th February 2010 Planning for Effective Public Aimed at people new to monitoring and Participation evaluation or who want an overview of 1st–2nd February 2010 monitoring and evaluation systems. If you Calgary, AB, Canada. See: are responsible for developing monitoring www.iap2.org/cde.cfm?event=281938 and evaluation systems, or need to Edinburgh, Scotland, UK. See: improve an existing system to record and www.iap2.org/cde.cfm?event=284113 analyse project information, this course This two-day module of the IAP2 will help you understand the purposes of Certificate Programme provides an monitoring and evaluation and how to set introduction to the foundations of up systems that satisfy multiple effective public participation stakeholders. programmes. The planning module focuses on defining the issues for which Introduction to advocacy public participation is required, 3rd March 2010 identifying stakeholders, and ensuring Aimed at people new to advocacy or their involvement throughout the process. looking for an overview of best practice. Using IAP2’s Spectrum for Public To plan effective campaigns and influence Participation, course participants decision makers to change policy you establish clear and achievable objectives need a clear understanding of the for public participation and a promise to advocacy process, its purpose and impact. the public. Participants learn how to This participative course will explore the prepare an organisation for conducting issues involved in policy work, lobbying public participation and to plan for the and public campaigning, and the skills timing, techniques, and resources needed and techniques you will draw on. to make public participation a success. All our open training events are Emphasis is placed on creating and using currently run in central London. They are continuous feedback and evaluation. 202 60

Note: Planning for Effective Public and techniques tested and used by public Participation is a prerequisite for all other participation practitioners around the IAP2 Public Participation Certificate globe. The course is suitable for beginning training. to intermediate level practitioners and those who want a review of basic group Communications for Effective Public process techniques. Interactive exercises Participation and practical tips are used to enliven the 3rd February 2010 basic theory and reference materials Calgary, AB, Canada. See: presented throughout the two-day session www.iap2.org/cde.cfm?event=281939 and reinforce skills that participants can Edinburgh, Scotland, UK. See: put to immediate use. www.iap2.org/cde.cfm?event=284116 Note: The Planning for Effective This one-day module in IAP2’s Certificate Public Participation module is a Program in Public Participation offers an prerequisite for this course overview of the communication skills For further information about used by public participation practitioners. Edinburgh courses please contact: Vikki The course provides an introduction to Hilton, Hilton Associates, 3 Priory Grove, communication skills and models. It South Queensferry, Scotland, EH30 9LZ, introduces the Principles of Authentic UK. Tel: +44 131 331 1523; Fax: +44 Communications and focuses on tools 1315101523; Email: used to prepare and present information [email protected] materials in a variety of forms, small and For further information about Calgary large group interaction models and courses please contact: Canadian Trainers facilitation essentials. Collective, c/o Gay Robinson Public This course is suitable for beginning to Relations, 163 Woodpark Circle SW intermediate level practitioners and those Calgary AB T2W 6G1, Canada. Email: who want a review of basic [email protected]; Fax: communication techniques. +403 281 8945. Note: Planning for Effective Public Participation is a prerequisite for this course. Call for applications: Training on Managing for Impact, January 2010 Techniques for Effective Public South Africa, 18 to 29 January 2010 Participation Managing for Impact (M4I) is a holistic 4th–5th February 2010 approach to managing development Calgary, AB, Canada. See: initiatives. It integrates a diverse range of www.iap2.org/cde.cfm?event=281940 existing processes, methodologies, and Edinburgh, Scotland, UK. See: tools to address common challenges and www.iap2.org/cde.cfm?event=284119 contribute to enhancing development This two-day module in IAP2’s Certificate effectiveness. M4I involves strengthening Programme in Public Participation capacities (skills, knowledge, systems etc.) provides an introduction to a range of and conditions (including formal and practical tools and techniques used at all informal policies, principles, values etc.). five levels of IAP2’s Public Participation The overall purpose of the workshop is Spectrum. It gives course participants an to continue to develop and strengthen the opportunity to try out or observe a capacity of individual service providers number of specific techniques including and practitioners within Eastern and World Cafe, Interviews, Samoan Circle, Southern Africa to support pro-poor Citizens Jury, and Advisory Group. It projects/programmes to effectively includes overviews of more than 20 tools manage toward impact. In Touch G Events and training 203

Deadline: 4th December 2009. • Understanding gender in society Cost: USD$ 2400 to cover training • Perspectives in participatory monitoring costs including accommodation, meals, and evaluation (IPPME) training materials and stationery, tuition, • Panchayati raj institutions in India local travel expenses, fieldwork costs, and (local-self governance) other related workshop expenses. • International dimensions of adult However, participants are expected to education and lifelong learning cover their travel expenses. • Perspectives on citizenship, democracy For more information see: and accountability http://tinyurl.com/m41-training • Urban local self governance in India Application form: (municipal governance) http://tinyurl.com/m41-training-app Each certificate programme lasts three Website: www.khanya-aicdd.org months and sessions start in April 2010. Please complete the application form For more information, contact: Ms. and participant profile if you wish to be Martha Farrell, Director, PRIA considered for the training workshop. Continuing Education and PRIA, 42 Return completed form to: Tughlakabad Institutional Area, New [email protected]; Fax: +27 Delhi 110062, India. Tel: +91 11 2996 51 430 8322. 0931/32/ 33; Fax: +91 11 2995 5183; Participants selected will be expected Email: [email protected]; Website: to have had basic training and at least six www.priaeducation.org months experience working with pro poor initiatives and facilitating participatory Mosaic.net International, Inc. training planning, monitoring, evaluation and courses learning processes. International workshop on results-based management, appreciative inquiry, and PRIA Education certificate courses, open space technology distance learning, from April 2010 12th–16th July 2010 The Society for Participatory Research in www.mosaic-net- Asia (PRIA) is an international centre for intl.ca/rbmworkshop.shtml learning and promotion of participation Rights-based management is shaping the and democratic governance. PRIA way Government, the private sector and Continuing Education (PCE), the Non-governmental organisations conduct academic wing of PRIA draws upon the business. Managers are increasingly being knowledge and resources of PRIA and asked to design, manage, and assess the repackages it into learning material. results and performance of their All certificate programmes invite organisation and projects. Appreciative applications from Indian as well as Inquiry has shifted traditional thinking International students. The minimum from a problem-focused approach to required qualification is Bachelor’s degree seeking out and building on what works: in any subject. The certificate programmes strengths, innovations, and achievements. are offered in a distance mode and include Open Space Technology is a process print materials, audio-visual CDs, guest where groups can self-organise around faculty, and immediate and engaged issues of importance to them. communication through a bulletin board. Courses include: International workshop on gender • International perspectives in training participatory research A joint collaboration involving Gender • Civil society building Equality Incorporated and Mosaic 204 60

International, Inc. 705 Roosevelt Avenue, Ottawa, 19th–23rd July 2010 Canada, K2A 2A8. Tel: +613 728 1439; www.mosaic-net-intl.ca/gender.shtml Fax: +613 728 1154; Email: The gender training workshop seeks to [email protected]; Website: provide workshop participants with core www.mosaic-net-intl.ca concepts, gender analytic frameworks, and gender strategies that can improve MA Participation, Power, and Social the effectiveness of your organisation, Change programmes, and projects in working University of Sussex, UK with vulnerable and marginalised women The MA in Participation, Power, and and men, boys, and girls. The workshop Social Change (MAP) is a unique 18- will move beyond theory to apply in month programme providing experienced practical and useful ways gender analysis development workers and social activists and gender sensitive strategies to your with the opportunity to critically reflect organisation and its programmes and on their practice and develop their projects to achieve greater social justice, knowledge and skills while continuing to development, and peace work or volunteer for most of this period. The MA combines academic study, Participatory monitoring and evaluation practical experience, and personal workshop with two-day community reflection. Students carry out an action practicum research project related to their work, 26th–31st July 2010 inquiring into the challenges of Ottawa, Canada participation and power relations, www.mosaic-net- reflecting on their actions and intl.ca/pmeworkshop.shtml assumptions, and exploring what it This is a practical, iterative and hands-on means to facilitate change. workshop. The format will vary between Students come from a wide range of small group work and discussion, plenary, professional backgrounds, including and practical community assignments to community organisations, NGOs, social encourage the sharing of knowledge and movements, governments, businesses, application of participatory concepts and and consultancies. They work on diverse tools to real life situations. Participants issues such as agriculture, health, HIV- will go out into the community on a daily AIDS, natural resources, climate change, basis to apply tools and to learn by doing. youth, gender, community development, The community practice assignments will governance, communication, planning, be in one of five different communities in evaluation, and policy-making, among and around Ottawa. Teams of others. participants will carry out a simulated A core component of MAP is the 12- participatory monitoring and evaluation month period of work-based learning in exercise, using the tools learnt in the which students examine issues in their workshop and defined by the host own practice and use the findings to organisation. Where appropriate, links benefit their organisation. Their will be made to existing community placements are based in countries in both groups and their issues. Evening meetings the global South and North, focused on a and on-going team-building exercises will wide variety of issues, sectors, and be part of this process. institutions. Students are supported by For more information, please contact: their employers, donor agencies and Françoise Coupal, Mosaic.net scholarships, or are self-funded. International, Inc. An acceptable first degree or In Touch G Events and training 205 equivalent academic qualification, and at least three years of voluntary or professional experience which should be in some way connected to the MA subject area. Minimum acceptable level of English language competence required. Cost: £12,500 for all students. University of Sussex paper application: www.sussex.ac.uk/study/pg/ applying/applications University of Sussex online application: www.sussex.ac.uk/ study/pg/applying For more information contact: Angela Dowman, Programme Administrator, University of Sussex, Brighton, BN1 9RE, UK. Tel: +44 1273 915644; Email: [email protected]; Website: www.ids.ac.uk/go/teaching For a hard copy of the prospectus and application pack, please use the link to order one: www.sussex.ac.uk/ studywithus/ug/orderprospectus 206

e-participation

Adaptation Learning Mechanism (ALM) Capacity Strengthening of LDCs for www.adaptationlearning.net Adaptation to Climate Change (CLACC) Shares guidance and tools for developing www.clacc.net and implementing adaptation initiatives, This is a group of fellows and including a list of materials available for international experts working on immediate download or online browsing. adaptation to climate change for least developed countries. Their aim is to Assessments of Impacts and strengthen the capacity of organisations Adaptations to Climate Change – Data, in poor countries and support their Methods, and Synthesis Activity (AIACC) initiatives in sustainable development http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/aiacc through the network of fellows in 15 Facilitates access to extensive data, countries in the South, 12 in Africa, and software, and bibliographic resources three in South Asia. related to climate impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability across multiple sectors. Climate Change and Agrobiodiversity Research Bangladesh Centre for Advanced www.agrobiodiversityplatform.org/blog/ Studies ?page_id=1016 www.bcas.net The Platform for Agrobiodiversity Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies Research project on climate change is is an independent, non-profit, non- collecting information about initiatives government, policy, research, and on adaptation to climate change that are implementation institute working on based on the use of agrobiodiversity. This sustainable development at local, tool intends to facilitate a learning national, regional, and global levels. dialogue between rural communities all BCAS addresses sustainable development over the world and build a knowledge through four interactive themes: base that can be used to increase environment and development recognition for the multitude of integration; good governance and adaptation practices communities engage people’s participation; poverty alleviation in. Compiling and synthesising these and sustainable livelihoods; and, practices will allow them to be validated economic growth and public-private in a rigorous way and used in advocating partnership. Established in 1986, it has stronger involvement for marginal groups grown to become a leading institute in in the climate change policy debate. the non-government sector in Bangladesh and South Asia. Many of their CBA-X publications are available as free http://community.eldis.org downloads. CBA-X is a shared online resource designed to bring together and grow the In Touch G e-participation 207

CBA community. It provides a website for project focused on understanding the the exchange of up-to-date information links between food security and global about community-based adaptation, environmental change. The GECAFS goal including news, events, case studies, tools, is to determine strategies to cope with the policy resources, and videos. Supported impacts of global environmental change by CARE, OXFAM, ActionAid, TearFund, on food systems and to assess the and WWF. environmental and socio-economic consequences of adaptive responses CRiSTAL (Community-based Risk aimed at improving food security. It Screening Tool – Adaptation & focuses specifically on Southern Africa, Livelihoods) the Indo-Gangetic Plain in South Asia, www.cristaltool.org and the Caribbean. Screening tool for existing livelihoods projects which enables project planners IDS Climate Change and Development and managers to (a) understand the links Centre between local livelihoods and climate; (b) www.ids.ac.uk/climatechange assess a project's impact on livelihood www.climategovernance.org resources important for climate Aims to drive forward collaborative adaptation; and (c) devise adjustments to research and policy analysis, building improve a project's impact on these key programmes, and delivering high quality livelihood resources. knowledge services, teaching, and training. Research themes include Famine Early Warning Systems Network climate change adaptation, low carbon (FEWSNET) development, international www.fews.net/Pages/default.aspx environmental law, development Provides information on food security economics, social protection, sustainable (including weekly climate and livelihoods, and migration. IDS have precipitation forecasts) for West, East, developed the ORCHID (Opportunities and Southern Africa, Central America, and Risks for Climate Change and the Caribbean, and Afghanistan. Disasters) adaptation tool for assessing development projects. GRAIN IDS also runs the Climate and www.grain.org Disaster Governance platform, which GRAIN is a small international non- aims to identify governance options profit organisation that works to support which could help reduce climate and small farmers and social movements in disaster risk to poor communities and their struggles for community-controlled keep development on track. and biodiversity-based food systems. Their website contains a number of International Institute for Environment downloadable resources concerned with and Development Climate Change climate change, the global food system, Programme and the potential role of smallholder www.iied.org/climate-change/home farms and farming communities in Focuses on improving the understanding mitigating the food and climate crises. of climate change impacts for poor developing countries, including both Global Environmental Change and Food policy makers and poor groups; Systems (GECAFS) improving the decision-making capacities www.gecafs.org/index.html of vulnerable developing countries to International, interdisciplinary research cope with impacts of climate change; 208 60

improving the negotiating capacities of transfer of long-standing coping poor developing countries in the climate strategies/mechanisms, knowledge, and change negotiations through analysis of experience from communities that have issues relevant to them; and improving had to adapt to specific hazards or the sustainable livelihoods opportunities climatic conditions to communities that of poor communities in developing may just be starting to experience such countries in light of possible climate conditions, as a result of climate change. change impacts. Most publications free to download. National Action Plans for Adaptation Database (NAPA) Indigenous Peoples’ Assessments of www.napa-pana.org Climate Change Provides information on all aspects of www.ipcca.net NAPAs and NAPA development, Indigenous peoples-led initiative, in including a useful risk assessment and partnership with IIED, the United Nations adaptation resources page with links to University, the Christensen Fund, and adaptation resources and guidelines. Novib-Oxfam. Particular focus on the impacts of climate change on food security, National Communications to the landscapes, and human well-being. This is UNFCCC a bottom-up process grounded in http://unfccc.int/national_reports/non-annex_ indigenous worldviews and knowledge i_natcom/items/2979.php systems. This multiregional project also Contains information on national seeks to inform policy and practice on circumstances, vulnerability assessment, responses to the food and climate crisis. financial resources, transfer of technology, and education, training, and public Intergovernmental Panel on Climate awareness. Change (IPCC) www.ipcc.ch Practical Action The IPCC website has download links for http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/technical_ enquiry_service.php the 4th IPCC Assessment Report (2007), Runs a technical enquiry service for a comprehensive assessment of the grassroots development workers, physical science basis (Working Group 1), community-based organisations, NGOs, impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability and other agencies using appropriate (Working Group 2), and mitigation of technologies to implement sustainable climate change (Working Group 3). development. Includes information on adaptation to climate change. The Nairobi Work Programme on impacts, vulnerability, and adaptation to Participatory Learning and Action climate change www.planotes.org http://unfccc.int/adaptation/sbsta_agenda_item_ adaptation/items/3633.php Back issues of Participatory Learning http://maindb.unfccc.int/public/adaptation and Action are free to download online Developed to help countries improve and contain a range of articles on their understanding of climate change participatory processes and methods that impacts and vulnerability and to increase are relevant to CBA practitioners. their ability to make informed decisions on how to adapt successfully. In Southsouthnorth particular, the database on local coping www.southsouthnorth.org strategies is intended to facilitate the A network of non-profit organisations working in the fields of climate change In Touch G e-participation 209 and social development, and seeking to Acknowledgement reduce poverty and promote sustainable Many of these websites were taken from development in Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, the resources section of Christian Aid’s and Latin America by building Southern Adaptation Toolkit: integrating capacity and delivering community-based adaptation to climate change into secure mitigation and adaptation projects. livelihoods, Module 2. Many thanks to Christian Aid for their work in gathering UNDP Climate Change Country Profiles this information together, and allowing us http://country-profiles.geog.ox.ac.uk to reproduce it. Fifty-two country-level climate data summaries intended to address the climate change information gap for developing countries by making use of existing climate data to generate a series of country-level studies of climate observations. Each report contains a set of maps and diagrams demonstrating the observed and projected climates of that country as country average time series, as well as maps depicting changes on a 2.5° grid and summary tables of the data. A narrative summarises the data in the figures, placing it in the context of the country's general climate. weADAPT – collaborating on climate adaptation www.weadapt.org/c03 weADAPT is an expanding collaboration that offers a wealth of experience, data, tools, and guidance to develop sound strategies and action on climate adaptation. weADAPT provides support for adapting to climate change, both on its own and as part of broader development processes, by pooling expertise from a wide range of organisations that contribute to adaptation science, practice, and policy. weADAPT espouses a principle of openness, encouraging contributions from a range of expertise across different disciplines. It aims to enable expertise and experience in vulnerability science and development practice to be coupled with climate science and modelling to create innovative thinking and integrated methods to support adaptation. Lots of resources available from the website. 210 60 211 RCPLA NETWORK

In this section, we update readers on Email: [email protected]; activities of the Resource Centres for [email protected]; Participatory Learning and Action Website: www.neareast.org/main/cds/ Network (RCPLA) Network default.aspx (www.rcpla.org) and its members. RCPLA is a diverse, international Asia Region: Tom Thomas, Director, network of national-level organisations, Institute for Participatory Practices which brings together development (Praxis), S-75 South Extension, Part II, practitioners from around the globe. It New Delhi, India 110 049. was formally established in 1997 to Tel/Fax: +91 11 5164 2348 to 51; promote the use of participatory Email: [email protected]; approaches to development. The network www.praxisindia.org is dedicated to capturing and Jayatissa Samaranayake, Institute for disseminating development perspectives Participatory Interaction in Development from the South. For more information (IPID), 591 Havelock Road, Colombo 06, please contact the RCPLA Network Sri Lanka. Tel: +94 1 555521; Steering Group: Tel/Fax: +94 1 587361; Email: [email protected] RCPLA Coordination and North Africa & Middle East Region: Ali West Africa Region: Awa Faly Ba Mokhtar, Near East Foundation – Middle Mbow, IED-Afrique, BP 5579 Dakar East Region, Center for Development Fann, Senegal. Services (CDS), 4 Ahmed Pasha Street, Tel: +221 33 867 10 58; 10th Floor, Garden City, Cairo, Egypt. Fax: +221 33 867 10 59; Tel: +20 2 795 7558; Email: [email protected] Fax: +20 2 794 7278; Website: www.iedafrique.org 212 60

European Region: Jane Stevens, East Africa Region: Eliud Wakwabubi, Participation, Power and Social Change Participatory Methodologies Forum of Group, Institute of Development Studies Kenya (PAMFORK), Jabavu Road, PCEA (IDS), University of Sussex, Brighton Jitegemea Flats, Flat No. D3, PO Box BN1 9RE, UK. 2645, KNH Post Office, Nairobi, Kenya. Tel: + 44 1273 678690; Tel/Fax: +254 2 716609; Fax: + 44 1273 21202; Email: [email protected]. Email: [email protected]; Website: www.ids.ac.uk/ids/particip

Participatory Learning and Action Editorial Team, International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), 3 Endsleigh Street, London WC1H 0DD, UK. Tel: +44 207 388 2117; Fax: +44 207 388 2826; Email: [email protected]; Website: www.planotes.org

Latin America Region: Jordi Surkin, Grupo Nacional de Trabajo para la Participación, PO Box 3371, Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Tel/Fax: +591 3 3376076; Email: [email protected]; Website: www.gntp.org In Touch G RCPLA Network 213

Integrating participation into climate develop and test methods and approaches change projects: experiences from the for determining optimum and feasible RCPLA adaptation options to sea-level rise in Egypt. Working in Ras El Bar-Gamasa as The New Land New Life Project: climate change a pilot study area, it integrates traditional impacts on water and health, Aswan, Egypt modelling approaches with multi- This two-year action research project stakeholder deliberation processes, to aims to derive and test possible relations reduce vulnerability and minimise the between climate change, water external costs of adaptation. management issues, and health The project is being implemented by conditions, for the benefit of the poor three Egyptian partners: the Coastal people in new resettlement communities Research Institute, Ministry of Water around Lake Nasser. Resources and Irrigation; the Institute for The Near East Foundation’s project Graduate Studies and Research, team has worked closely with community Alexandria University; and the Center for members to enhance the adoption of Development Services. This project uses a positive environmental actions and participatory approach with reduce climate change effects on water communities, involving them in all and health. Early in the project, the team project activities. It aims to involve all invested in building people’s trust, concerned stakeholders and gain their interest, and ownership. The focus was on support in the process of identifying and the community – not only as the project implementing appropriate adaptation beneficiary, but also as the main options. So far, a participatory socio- stakeholder. Settlers in the area were economic study has been conducted in involved in all steps of implementation. the pilot areas. The study has identified With guidance and support from the the basic social and economic patterns in research team, settlers designed their own the community, and the community’s experiments, implemented them, and basic knowledge about climate change participated in the analysis of results. and sea-level rise. We now plan to hold Importantly, decision makers were also meetings with different stakeholders to involved in the implementation. inform them about the research results, Throughout the project, the research receive their feedback, and consult with team acted as facilitators, trainers, and them on possible adaptation options. advisors. G For further information about these The community-based participatory projects please contact: research approach offered opportunities [email protected] for settlers to identify and assess their needs and strengthened cooperation with News from the RCPLA Network the research team. It resulted in technical Coordinator project gains, and yielded greater benefits Over the past few months, RCPLA to the settlers’ livelihoods. It also members have been active in promoting established policy dialogue between participatory approaches by organising researchers and decision makers, and workshops to introduce participation as between community members and an effective tool to bring about ‘social decision makers. change’ – adopting participation throughout the lifecycle of the projects Adaptation to the impacts of sea-level rise in they are implementing and documenting the Nile Delta coastal zone, Egypt their best practices to be disseminated This three-year research project aims to worldwide. 214 60

• A series of Training of Trainers (TOT) 09) – as announced in the last issue – was entitled ‘Building the Capacity of held in Kerala, India, 30th September – Programmes that Empower Participation 9th October 2009. Workshop 09 saw a and Child Rights’ was carried out by the diverse group of participants from sixteen Center for Development Services (CDS) countries and from several states of India. in Egypt. The training provides It was widely acknowledged by the group development practitioners with the that the experience was well worth the techniques required to transform their journey. Highlights included Robert role from resource transferors to Chamber’s presentation on attitude and becoming agents of social change in their behaviour changes (ABC’s) for own communities. The trainings participatory development and, within introduce the concept of participatory the workshop’s different modules, learning and action (PLA) and how it can exploring practical approaches to be integrated at the different levels of the effectively implement participation. For project cycle. more information, including photos and • The Participatory Methodologies Forum videos of the event visit: of Kenya (PAMFORK) have used www.theworkshop.in participatory action research (PAR) Also, in a UNICEF-funded project methodologies and PLA tools in their that requires the community to take the project ‘Determining the relationship initiative on the issue of maternal deaths between the status of water, sanitation, in India, Praxis is working on a design and hygiene in schools and the that will feature children as agents of performance of boys and girls’. For more change. The UN Convention on the information see News from the East Rights of the Child has clearly outlined Africa region in this section. the importance of child participation in • The RCPLA network is in the process of issues that concern their welfare.1 Yet a finalising its new publication ‘Deepening sense of apathy prevails on creating Participation for Social Change’. This adequate infrastructure to enable child publication presents conceptual participation to become a reality. reflections on participation in However, Praxis and UNICEF are development; analyses participation as an committed to the active role of children active process throughout the project within the programme. We hope that this cycle; and identifies the challenges faced marks the start of more child-centred in deepening the use of participatory projects in the near future. approaches. It also includes a series of Praxis continues its engagement with case studies from China, Egypt, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation’s Zimbabwe, and Nigeria, and will be (BMGF) Avahan project to ensure available online. effective participation of community Please visit the recently updated members.2 After conducting a RCPLA website. Interesting news and participatory data collection, Praxis resources are now available. Don’t miss worked with community-based groups the interview by Robert Chambers on consisting of female sex workers, PGIS! See: www.rcpla.org transgender groups, and men having sex with men, to use participatory ranking News from the Asia region and scoring tools to assign different The Annual Praxis Commune on weights to different indicators used in Participatory Development (Workshop assessing an empowered community-

1 See: www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm 2 See: www.gatesfoundation.org/avahan/Pages/overview.aspx In Touch G RCPLA Network 215 based group. The deliberations that develop and share knowledge to both emerged were rich in content, analysis, enhance awareness and stimulate and reasoning, leading Praxis to alter its investment in water development and initial weights and demonstrating the sanitation improvement. dynamic engagement between Praxis and The proposed action research is an the community. ideal convergence between water and G For more information visit: education sector issues. The project www.praxisindia.org objective is to support the forum in enhancing its coordination function and News from the East Africa region stimulate synergy and joint action by The Participatory Methodologies Forum stakeholders on specific strategic WASH- of Kenya (PAMFORK) and SNV- related issues. The first step was to Netherlands Development Organisation support the forum in a participatory Kenya’s South Rift Portfolio have agenda-setting process in July 2008. This partnered with the Kajiado Water, identified specific issues and challenges of Sanitation, and Hygiene (KWASH) the greater Kajiado district related to Forum to determine the relationship WASH. The poor state of water, between the status of water, sanitation, sanitation, and hygiene in schools was and hygiene (WASH) in schools related to identified as a key issues, especially the performance of boys and girls in because it requires the input of diverse national examinations. stakeholders. Taking immediate action at Kajiado is located in the southern the district scale was, however, a greater Rift Valley, Kenya. In this action challenge. There was not enough research partnership, PAMFORK is information on the magnitude of the promoting participation through the use problem. So 120 primary schools from the of participatory action research (PAR) greater Kajiado district were randomly methodologies and facilitating multi- selected and invited to participate in the stakeholder processes that deepen the WASH action research. Poor WASH in understanding of the relationship schools was identified as a major concern, between WASH and performance and due to: learning in schools. This helps to build • inadequate water in schools, including stakeholder capacity from the district to inappropriate technologies for harvesting implement WASH-related interventions. and supplying water in schools; and SNV Kenya seeks to contribute towards • poor sanitation and hygiene in schools increased access to safe drinking water and inadequate sanitation facilities and improved sanitation for the peri- (partly due to an inadequate emphasis on urban poor, for rural communities, and in sanitation in schools) and inappropriate schools. Their main clients are District technologies for sanitation and hygiene in Water and Sanitation Forums – multi- schools. stakeholder platforms to improve access PAR was used to ensure meaningful to water and sanitation. and informed participation of all The multi-stakeholder KWASH stakeholders, and to assess how WASH Forum developed a district WASH issues affected the learning and agenda in July 2008, facilitated by SNV performance of boys and girls in schools. South Rift Portfolio. The KWASH We used an interactive enquiry process to objective is to provide leadership, gather evidence, stimulate reflection, and direction, and to facilitate effective inform debate, so that stakeholders at coordination of WASH issues and various levels could take appropriate interventions. The forum also aims to action. Six PLA tools were created and 216 60

used in the process: research, events, and workshops. • School WASH mapping; In May 2009, Citizenship DRC • WASH scoring and analysis; contributed to a workshop called • WASH situation and relationship to Reconsidering human security: does it learning; work for the insecure?3 This looked at a • Institutional WASH response; framework for peace-building that moves • Future WASH mapping (to stimulate beyond the state-centred model, to one action); and where security is a collaborative project, • Transect walk (to stimulate action). involving and benefiting all parts of These tools were designed to ensure society. The team was also involved in a that the respondents were able to analyse symposium in Cape Town in September and assess their own WASH situation and 2009, focusing on how development deepen the understanding and analysis of could be done differently to really do the WASH issues from their own justice to the diversity of people’s social perspectives, in order to: and sexual identities. In addition, we • enable respondents to share experiences facilitated a workshop in Dublin for and demonstrate the value and relevance Trocaire on participatory and accountable of their existing knowledge about WASH governance, and took part in a Bond in schools, and stimulate them to take debate on the merits – or otherwise – of action; the logframe.4 We hosted a Visiting • involve respondents in self-directed Fellowship programme which received inquiry and compiling, tabulating, and over 100 applications and generated a interpreting data on WASH and rich exchange with the nine fellows who performance in schools; spent the summer with us, from • stimulate creative self-expression within Bangladesh, India, Kenya, Ethiopia, the group so that school WASH problems Nigeria, Uganda, South Africa, Pakistan, can be viewed from a new perspective, Colombia, and Chile. And in October, opening up new possibilities for students taking our MA in Participation, innovative solutions; Power, and Social Change arrived, • strengthen analytical and planning bringing with them a rich diversity of capabilities through tasks which involve experience and learning. We welcome comparative analysis, making choices and them and hope that they enjoy their time connections among alternatives, and here. planning logical courses of action; and Recent publications by our team • help respondents acquire and retain include the IDS Bulletin ‘Violence, Social new information, which can lead to better Action and Research’ by R. McGee and J. decision-making and achieving desired Pearce, and an IDS Practice Paper goals. ‘Changing the World by Changing G For more information visit: Ourselves: reflections from a bunch of www.rcpla.org BINGOs’ by Cathy Shutt. Another IDS Practice Paper ‘Going to Scale with News from the European Region Community-Led Total Sanitation: Members of the Participation, Power, and reflections on experience, issues and ways Social Change team at the Institute of forward,’ came out in the spring, and the Development Studies (IDS), UK have latest in a number of pastoralist-related continued their work on a broad range of publications was published last month:

3 The Development Research Centre on Citizenship, Participation, and Accountability (Citizen DRC), IDS. 4 Bond, formerly known as BOND (British Overseas NGOs for Development). In Touch G RCPLA Network 217

‘Raising Voice: Securing a Livelihood: the the FAO’s International Treaty on Plant role of diverse voices in developing secure Genetic Resources for Food and livelihoods in pastoralist areas of Ethiopia Agriculture. – a summary paper.’ An outcome of the workshop was the As a team we are entering a period of Declaration on Agrobiodiversity transition as funding for our core Conservation and Food Sovereignty, programme of work came to an end in signed by the participants. For more September this year. We are now in an information see: www.andes.org.pe interim phase, re-assessing our focus and putting together proposals for future Citizen deliberations on Democratising Food programmes. For more information, visit: and Agricultural Research www.ids.ac.uk A number of citizens’ deliberations are being facilitated as part of the IIED News from the Food and Agriculture multi-regional project on Democratising Team at IIED Food and Agricultural Research. This a bottom-up process whereby farmers and Declaration on Agrobiodiversity other citizens can decide what type of Conservation and Food Sovereignty agricultural research is needed to achieve From 20th–29th September 2009, a the right to food and food sovereignty – group of farmers and scientists from and also organise to collectively push for Ethiopia and Peru met in the Potato Park, change in policies and practice. Pisac, in the Department of Cusco, Peru The first in a series of citizens’ juries, to engage in cross-cultural and horizontal Raita Teerpu, will be held in the south learning about concepts and methods on Indian state of Karnataka on 1st–5th how to design, plan, implement, and December 2009. The process involves manage Agrobiodiversity Conservation several partners from Karnataka and Areas. This was organised by IIED’s other Indian States. For more details see partner Association ANDES and the the specially designed website: Association of Communities of the Potato www.raitateerpu.com Park. Thanks to a partnership with Indian Discussion covered a range of issues media, this unique event is also being related to the conservation and announced and explained through local sustainable use of native crops and radio programmes. We plan to do a live agrobiodiversity. This included the telecast of part of the jury hearings and Indigenous Biocultural Territory and the presentation of the final verdict and Agrobiodiversity Conservation Areas set of farmer recommendations on the approach, and continued with customary directions and governance of agricultural laws and governance structures for research in India. conservation of agrobiodiversity, resilience in managing climatic changes, indigenous knowledge, access to genetic resources, and intellectual property. Workshop participants considered possibilities for the implementation of national and key international legal frameworks for agrobiodiversity conservations such as the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and Guidelines for contributors Abstracts For a full set of guidelines, visit our website Please include a brief abstract with your article (circa. www.planotes.org 150-200 words).

Types of material accepted References • Articles: max. 2500 words plus illustrations – see below If references are mentioned, please include details. for guidelines. Participatory Learning and Action is intended to be • Feedback: letters to the editor, or longer pieces (max. informal, rather than academic, so references should be 1500 words) which respond in more detail to articles. kept to a minimum. • Tips for trainers: training exercises, tips on running workshops, reflections on behaviour and attitudes in Photographs and drawings training, etc., max. 1000 words. Please ensure that photos/drawings are scanned at a • In Touch: short pieces on forthcoming workshops and high enough resolution for print (300 dpi) and include events, publications, and online resources. a short caption and credit(s). We welcome accounts of recent experiences in the field (or in workshops) and current thinking around Submitting your contribution participation, and particularly encourage contributions Contributions can be sent to: The Editors, from practitioners in the South. Articles should be co- Participatory Learning and Action, IIED, authored by all those engaged in the research, project, or 3 Endsleigh Street, London WC1 0DD, UK. programme. Fax: +44 20 7388 2826; Email: [email protected] In an era in which participatory approaches have Website: www.planotes.org often been viewed as a panacea to development Resource Centres for Participatory Learning and Action problems or where acquiring funds for projects has (RCPLA) Network depended on the use of such methodologies, it is vital to Since June 2002, the IIED Resource Centre for pay attention to the quality of the methods and process Participatory Learning and Action has been housed by of participation. Whilst we will continue to publish the Institute of Development Studies, UK. Practical experiences of innovation in the field, we would like to information and support on participation in emphasise the need to analyse the limitations as well as development is also available from the various the successes of participation. Participatory Learning members of the RCPLA Network. and Action is still a series whose focus is methodological, This initiative is a global network of resource centres but it is important to give more importance to issues of for participatory learning and action, which brings power in the process and to the impact of participation, together organisations from Africa, Asia, South asking ourselves who sets the agenda for participatory America, and Europe and is committed to information practice. It is only with critical analysis that we can sharing and networking on participatory approaches. further develop our thinking around participatory More information, including regular updates on learning and action. RCPLA activities, can be found in the In Touch section We particularly favour articles which contain one or of Participatory Learning and Action, or by visiting more of the following www.rcpla.org, or contacting the network coordinator: elements: Ali Mokhtar, CDS, Near East Foundation, 4 Ahmed • an innovative angle to the concepts of participatory Pasha Street, 10th Floor, Garden City, Cairo, Egypt. approaches or their application; Tel: +20 2 795 7558; Fax: +2 2 794 7278; • critical reflections on the lessons learnt from the Email: [email protected] author’s experiences; new methods • an attempt to develop , or innovative Participation at IDS adaptations of existing ones; Participatory approaches and methodologies are also a • consideration of the processes involved in participatory focus for the Participation, Power and Social Change approaches; Group at the Institute of Development Studies, • an assessment of the impacts of a participatory process; University of Sussex, UK. This group of researchers and • potentials and limitations of scaling up and practitioners is involved in sharing knowledge, in institutionalising participatory approaches; and, strengthening capacity to support quality participatory • potentials and limitations of participatory policy- approaches, and in deepening understanding of making processes. participatory methods, principles, and ethics. For further information please contact: Jane Stevens, IDS, Language and style University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9RE, UK. Please try to keep contributions clear and accessible. Tel: +44 1273 678690 Sentences should be short and simple. Avoid jargon, Fax: +44 1273 621202 theoretical terminology, and overly academic language. Email: [email protected] Explain any specialist terms that you do use and spell Website: www.ids.ac.uk out acronyms in full. participatory learning and action 60 Scientists are clear that climate change is happening. Those likely to be worst affected are the world’s poorest countries – especially poor and marginalised communities. Industrialised countries accept that they have a responsibility to help these countries to adapt. Yet most adaptation efforts have been top-down, with little attention paid to communities’ experiences of climate change and their efforts to cope with their changing environments. This special issue focuses on recent approaches to climate change adaptation which are community-based and participatory. It highlights innovative participatory methods to help communities analyse the causes and effects of climate change, integrate scientific and community knowledge, and plan appropriate adaptation measures. Although CBA is a relatively new field, lessons and challenges are beginning to emerge, including the need to bring together disaster risk reduction, livelihoods, and climate change adaptation work, issues around the type and quality of participation in CBA, and the need for policies and institutions that support it.

Participatory Learning and Action is the world’s leading informal journal on participatory approaches and methods. It draws on the expertise of guest editors to provide up-to-the minute accounts of the development and use of participatory methods in specific fields. Since its first issue in 1987, Participatory Learning and Action has provided a forum for those engaged in participatory work – community workers, activists, and researchers – to share their experiences, conceptual reflections and methodological innovations with others, providing a genuine ‘voice from the field’. It is a vital resource for those working to enhance the participation of ordinary people in local, regional, national, and international decision- making, in both South and North.

ISBN: 978-1-84369-729-9 ISSN: 1357-938X

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