St. George's Anglican Church, Tunis

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St. George’s Anglican Church, Tunis

Christian Heritage, Carthage

Suggested Itinerary and Texts

Rt Rev Dr Bill Musk

Many of the archeological sites in the Carthage area of Tunis tell or reflect the story of the arrival of the Christian gospel in North Africa and its gradual transformation into “Church”. It is a costly and messy story! This article is designed to enhance your visit to these historic sites by explaining a little of that story. I am grateful to others for their stimulating input and help.1 Any errors or inaccuracies in what follows are mine alone. Your feedback to [email protected] is very welcome!

1 Rev Frank Bernardi has led several pilgrimages to Carthage sites on behalf of St George’s Anglican Church, Tunis and much of what follows in this article is based on his research and presentations. David Cater (Engaging Cultures Travel – Tunisia [+216.24.405.950]; [email protected]; www.engagingcultures.com) is experienced in organizing and leading pilgrimage groups.

The itinerary and texts offered in this article are intended to assist you in seeing significant archeological remains and to help you understand something of the history of the development of Christianity in this part of North Africa. Not all the sites of Carthage (not even all the Christian sites) are featured. I hope that those that are featured will whet your appetite. The photos included should help you to identify what you are looking at where!2

The Tophet of Salammbó Start your journey of discovery just south of the Punic port area at the Tophet of Salammbó. The word “Carthage” probably derives from the Phoenician Qart-ḥadašt meaning “New City”, implying that here was a new Tyre. The port and original town was founded by colonists from Tyre in the late 9th century BC. From this port, grain and olive oil was shipped to various Mediterranean destinations, including Rome.

Punic ports

The Tophet of Salammbó is testimony to the strong influence of Phoenician religion on its newest, African foundation. The supreme divine couple of that belief system was

2 All photos in this presentation, courtesy of Hilary Musk.

2 found in Baal Hammon and Tanit. “Tophet” is a term derived from the Bible, where it means “place of burning” and references a site near Jerusalem in which Canaanites sacrificed children to the god Molech (e.g. Jeremiah 7:31). The word is now used as a general term for all such sacred sites. The Tophet of Salammbó, when excavated, was found to be packed with carefully interred urns (more than 20,000!), often accompanied by rich grave goods and always marked with grave stelae dedicated to Baal Hammon and Tanit, the city’s patron deities. The majority of the urns date from the 4th to the 2nd centuries BC.

Baal Hammon … … and Tanit

The graves were exclusively those of young children. All this suggested a children’s graveyard, possibly of stillborn children? “Tophet”, however, has historically referred to an open area of sacrifice, and Roman sources indicate that here the Carthaginians sacrificed the children of their elite in times of trouble. The gods needed appeasing with appropriate victims. So the question remains: is the Tophet of Salammbó a site of former human sacrifice to the Carthaginian gods or a children’s graveyard – or both? Either way, this is a pretty weighty site and you might like to spend a few moments reflecting on the costliness of pagan belief and practice. Such (Punic) pagan belief and practice marks the underbelly or spiritual background to the arrival in North Africa of the Christian gospel during Roman times.

Acropolis Now, ascend to the top of Byrsa hill. From that ancient acropolis, much of Carthage is laid out in front of you.

Standing on the remains of the Library at the Acropolis, Byrsa Hill

Your vantage point at the top of Byrsa hill is provided by the long-standing grounds around l’Acropolium (previously the Roman Catholic Cathedral of St Louis), a Gothic extravaganza built by the French in 1884. There is space to gather a large group on the site of a former Roman Library, looking over its edge to a lower-level, Punic residential rd quarter that dates from the time of Hannibal (around the 3 century BC). Behind you, towards l’Acropolium – in fact much of it providing the enclosed courtyard to the modern-day museum – was the site of the Forum. A forum (Latin meaning “place outdoors”) was a public square or marketplace in a Roman city or town that was reserved primarily for the vending of goods. It could also function as a place for debates or for public trials.

Carthage lies just across the waters from Italy. From the time of General Scipio onwards, the Romans developed a hate/love relationship with Carthage. At first the new colonisers hated Carthage and boasted in their historical annals of how thoroughly they destroyed the city (in 146BC). They made Utica the capital of their African province until one century later (46BC) when Julius Caesar refounded Carthage. The city then grew to be the second largest of the Empire after Rome.

Of course, it was in Roman times that Christianity began to spread and become established. During the 2nd century, Christianity gained a following in North Africa. At various periods, and under various Roman emperors and other officials, Christianity was seen as destabilising the Roman status quo and so Christians came in for arrest and torture and execution.

The Scillitan Martyrs were a group of twelve North African Christians who were executed for their beliefs on 17th July, 180.3 The martyrs take their name from Scilla (or Scillium), a town in Tunisia. The Martyrs’ trial and execution took place in Carthage under the Pro-consul Vigellius Saturninus, whom Tertullian identifies as the first persecutor of Christians in Africa. Their murder was one of the last acts of persecution under the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, who himself died in the same year. The Acta of the Scillitan Martyrs are considered to be the earliest documents of the church of Africa and also the earliest specimen of Christian Latin.

Pause for thought Standing near the Forum on the acropolis, read the following dramatic account of some of the questioning of some of the Scillitan Martyrs at their trial.

When Praesens, for the second time, and Claudianus were the consuls, on the seventeenth day of July, at Carthage, there were set in the judgment-hall Speratus, Nartzalus, Cittinus, Donata, Secunda and Vestia.

Proconsul Saturninus: Ye can win the indulgence of our lord the Emperor, if ye return to a sound mind.

Speratus: We have never done ill, we have not lent ourselves to wrong, we have never spoken ill, but when ill-treated we have given thanks; because we pay heed to OUR EMPEROR.

Proconsul Saturninus: We too are religious, and our religion is simple, and we swear by the genius of our lord the Emperor, and pray for his welfare, as ye also ought to do.

Speratus: If thou wilt peaceably lend me thine ears, I can tell thee the mystery of simplicity.

Proconsul Saturninus: I will not lend mine ears to thee, when thou beginnest to speak evil things of our sacred rites; but rather swear thou by the genius of our lord the Emperor.

Speratus: The empire of this world I know not; but rather I serve that God, whom no man hath seen, nor with these eyes can see. I have committed no theft; but if I have bought anything I pay the tax; because I know my Lord, the King of kings and Emperor of all nations.

Proconsul Saturninus, to all: Cease to be of this persuasion.

Speratus: It is an ill persuasion to do murder, to speak false witness.

3 Commodus was emperor at this time (AD180-192).

Proconsul Saturninus: Be not partakers of this folly.

Cittinus: We have none other to fear, save only our Lord God, who is in heaven.

Donata: Honour to Caesar as Caesar: but fear to God.

Vestia: I am a Christian.

Secunda: What I am, that I wish to be.

Proconsul to Speratus: Dost thou persist in being a Christian?

Speratus: I am a Christian. And with him they all agreed.

Proconsul Saturninus: Will ye have a space to consider?

Speratus: In a matter so straightforward there is no considering.

Proconsul Saturninus: What are the things in your chest?

Speratus: Books and epistles of Paul, a just man.

Proconsul Saturninus: Have a delay of thirty days and bethink yourselves.

Speratus: I am a Christian. And with him they all agreed.

Proconsul Saturninus reading out the decree from the tablet: Speratus, Nartzalus, Cittinus, Donata, Vestia, Secunda and the rest having confessed that they live according to the Christian rite, since after opportunity offered them of returning to the custom of the Romans they have obstinately persisted, it is determined that they be put to the sword.

Speratus: We give thanks to God.

Nartzalus: To-day we are martyrs in heaven; thanks be to God.

Saturninus the proconsul ordered it to be declared by the herald: Speratus, Nartzalus, Cittinus, Veturius, Felix, Aquilinus, Laetantius, Januaria, Generosa, Vestia, Donata and Secunda, I have ordered to be executed.

All: Thanks be to God.

And so they all together were crowned with martyrdom; and they reign with the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost, for ever and ever. Amen.

Amphitheatre Descend the hill’s western side from the acropolis to the Roman amphitheatre.

In the arena of Carthage amphitheatre

This amphitheatre was once one of the largest in the Roman Empire (slightly larger than El Jem) with a capacity for seating 36,000 spectators. Not much is left today: you have to look at some of the mosques in Kairouan and other buildings around the region to see where the original materials have disappeared to! The overgrown oval of the arena, however, remains in place along with an exposed underground passage where victims for the savage games were made to wait. Perhaps there are also hints of the “Door of Life” and the “Door of Death” from which potential “players” were brought into and carried out of the arena. A small memorial plaque has recently been added to the site to commemorate the deaths there of two special women.

Place and plaque of remembrance for Perpetua and Felicitas, under the arena of the amphitheatre

Emperor Septimus Severus proclaimed an edict in AD202 forbidding any form of Jewish or Christian proselytism. That edict eventually caught up with Perpetua and Felicitas, plus their companions Revocatus, Saturus, Saturninus and Secundus who were martyred in this arena on 7th March, 203. Perpetua kept a diary of her experience of arrest, trial and prison, and others completed the record after her martyrdom.

Pause for thought4

LAST DREAM (before execution the next day)

The day before we were to fight with the beasts I saw the following vision. Pomponius the deacon came to the prison gates and began to knock violently. I went out and opened the gate for him. He was dressed in an unbelted white tunic, wearing elaborate sandals. And he said to me: ‘Perpetua, come; we are waiting for you.’

Then he took my hand and we began to walk through rough and broken country. At last we came to the amphitheatre out of breath, and he led me into the centre of the arena.

Then he told me: ‘Do not be afraid. I am here, struggling with you.’ Then he left.

I looked at the enormous crowd who watched in astonishment. I was surprised that no beasts were let loose on me; for I knew that I was condemned to die by the beasts. Then out came an Egyptian against me, of vicious appearance, together with his seconds, to fight with me. There also came up to me some handsome young men to be my seconds and assistants.

My clothes were stripped off, and suddenly I was a man. My seconds began to rub me down with oil (as they are wont to do before a contest). Then I saw the Egyptian on the other side rolling in the dust. Next there came forth a man of marvellous stature, such that he rose above the top of the amphitheatre. He was clad in a beltless purple tunic with two stripes (one on either side) running down the middle of his chest. He wore sandals that were wondrously made of gold and silver, and he carried a wand like an athletic trainer and a green branch on which there were golden apples.

And he asked for silence and said: ‘If this Egyptian defeats her he will slay her with the sword. But if she defeats him, she will receive this branch.’ Then he withdrew.

We drew close to one another and began to let our fists fly. My opponent tried to get hold of my feet, but I kept striking him in the face with the heels of my feet. Then I was raised up into the air and I began to pummel him without as it were touching the ground. Then when I noticed there was a lull, I put my two hands together linking the

4 from The Passion of the Holy Martyrs Perpetua and Felicitas (Passio Sanctarum Perpetuae et Felicitatis).

8 fingers of one hand with those of the other and thus I got hold of his head. He fell flat on his face and I stepped on his head.

The crowd began to shout and my assistants started to sing psalms. Then I walked up to the trainer and took the branch. He kissed me and said to me: ‘Peace be with you, my daughter!’ I began to walk in triumph towards the Gate of Life. Then I awoke. I realized that it was not with wild animals that I would fight but with the Devil, but I knew that I would win the victory.

So much for what I did up until the eve of the contest. About what happened at the contest itself, let him write of it who will.

THE MARTYRDOM

From the record of the martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas, we learn that on the night before their deaths the women and their companions held an agape feast. On the day itself, Perpetua insisted on having her hair pinned up, lest it look as if she was going to a funeral!

We are told: “The day of their victory dawned, and they marched from the prison to the amphitheatre joyfully as though they were going to heaven, with calm faces, trembling, if at all, with joy rather than fear. Perpetua went along with shining countenance and calm step, as the beloved of God, as a wife of Christ, putting down everyone's stare by her own intense gaze.”

With them also was Felicitas, glad that she had safely given birth so that now she could fight the beasts.

Perpetua insisted stubbornly that they not be made to wear the pagan robes in the arena, and the guards eventually let them go in their own clothes: “Perpetua then began to sing a psalm!”

Later, when a mad bull gored her side and ripped her dress, Perpetua was more concerned about her modesty than her pain.

The final suffering of the young friends was terrible. The women were stripped naked. Even the bloodthirsty crowds were shocked to see two very young, naked women brought in in a net, one obviously lactating from a very recent birth. They were taken away again and returned clothed. The wild beasts did their work and then, after passing the peace with a kiss, they were finished with the sword.

Had the writer of the Hebrews known these brave young people, he might have added,

“By faith Felicitas and Perpetua, young mothers, were gored by a mad bull, despising the riches and comfort of this world. Beating down Satan under their feet, they attained a much better place in heaven itself and ate of the sweet curd from the true Good Shepherd.”

The martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas speaks to us through the ages but was also a great witness at the time! The record states that the prison governor became a Christian! A guard named Pudens was so moved by their love for one another, he also gave his life to God.

Perpetua’s last words were to encourage the believers who were left behind to love one another. Evidently, there was disunity even then, in that very early church!

Let us, today, love one another, give respect to one another and encourage one another. Let us even celebrate our differences as followers of the one Christ!

Stained glass window in St George’s Anglican Church, Tunis commemorating the martyrdom of Felicitas and Perpetua

Roman Villas Make your way now to the “nicer part of town” where the aristocracy and wealthy of Carthage lived, on the higher slopes with breezes that were clean and from where the sea could be seen in the distance. This area is preserved under the title “Roman villas”. In this quarter, the houses were filled with sumptuous marble and mosaics. The reconstructed Villa of the Aviary sits today in prime position and exemplifies the kind of buildings found here. You can see the Tunisian Presidential Palace across the road from here – surprising?! Prior to the 4th century, Christians met in private houses like these, put at their disposal by wealthy converts. They also met in cemeteries that became established in the gardens belonging outside the city to such wealthy families.

The reconstructed Villa of the Aviary, at the Roman villas site

Roman road leading up to the villas.

Peacock for “Villa of the Aviary” or hint of Christian presence? Chi-Rho emblem outside the house

Here is a good place at which to be introduced to Tertullian.

Tertullian was born about AD160 in Carthage, the son of a highly placed pagan centurion. Tertullian’s early years were surrounded by the household gods or deities of Rome. Later he contended vehemently against paganism. Tertullian had a good education and was evidently a brilliant student. He studied rhetoric, the poets, and philosophy in Carthage and then went to Rome where he read law. His grasp of Stoicism remained a strong influence on him throughout life. After his conversion to Christ, Tertullian developed a negative attitude toward philosophy which he considered profane.

We do not know, for certain, what led Tertullian to Christianity. It was not unlikely that he was impressed by the example of the Christian martyrs and the impact of Christian community. Jerome tells us that soon after his conversion in about 195, Tertullian was ordained a presbyter. Tertullian himself, however, nowhere refers to his clerical status. Most scholars believe he remained a layman throughout his life.

When Tertullian was converted he turned his genius for debate and argument to the service of the church. He was a prolific writer, of immense learning, and a witty user of biting irony and sarcasm. On the persecution of Christians, Tertullian famously wrote: “But carry on, good officials. You will become much better in the eyes of the people if you will sacrifice the Christians for them. Torture us! Your iniquity is the proof of our innocence. For this reason God permits us to suffer these things... Yet your tortures accomplish nothing, though each is more refined than the last; rather they are an enticement to our religion. We become more every time we are hewn down by you: the blood of Christians is seed.” (Apology, 50, 12ff) Tertullian sometimes wrote in Latin and is regarded as the first of the Latin fathers. His writings may be categorized as apologetic, doctrinal and polemical, moral and practical.

Pause for thought

Here are some excerpts from Tertullian’s writing On Prayer.

Chapter 23. Of Kneeling:

... But who would hesitate every day to prostrate himself before God, at least in the first prayer with which we enter on the daylight?

At fasts, moreover, and stations, no prayer should be made without kneeling, and the remaining customary marks of humility; for (then) we are not only praying, but deprecating, and making satisfaction to God our Lord.

Touching times of prayer nothing at all has been prescribed, except clearly “to pray at every time and every place.”

Chapter 24. Of Place for Prayer:

But how “in every place,” since we are prohibited (from praying) in public?

In every place, he means, which opportunity or even necessity, may have rendered suitable: for that which was done by the apostles (who, in jail, in the audience of the prisoners, “began praying and singing to God”) is not considered to have been done contrary to the precept; nor yet that which was done by Paul, who in the ship, in presence of all, “made thanksgiving to God.”

Chapter 25. Of Time for Prayer:

Touching the time, however, the extrinsic observance of certain hours will not be unprofitable—those common hours, I mean, which mark the intervals of the day—the third, the sixth, the ninth—which we may find in the Scriptures to have been more solemn than the rest.

The first infusion of the Holy Spirit into the congregated disciples took place at “the third hour.” Peter, on the day on which he experienced the vision of Universal Community, (exhibited) in that small vessel, had ascended into the more lofty parts of the house, for prayer’s sake “at the sixth hour.” (Acts 10:9)

The same (apostle) was going into the temple, with John, “at the ninth hour,” when he restored the paralytic to his health.

Albeit these practices stand simply without any precept for their observance, still it may be granted a good thing to establish some definite presumption, which may both add stringency to the admonition to pray, and may, as it were by a law, tear us out from our businesses unto such a duty; so that—what we read to have been observed by Daniel also, in accordance (of course) with Israel’s discipline—we pray at least not less than thrice in the day, debtors as we are to Three—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit: of course, in addition to our regular prayers which are due, without any admonition, on the entrance of light and of night.

But, withal, it becomes believers not to take food, and not to go to the bath, before interposing a prayer; for the refreshments and nourishments of the spirit are to be held prior to those of the flesh, and things heavenly prior to things earthly.

Chapter 26. Of the Parting of Brethren:

You will not dismiss a brother who has entered your house without prayer. —”Have you seen,” says Scripture, “a brother? You have seen your Lord;” —especially “a stranger,” lest perhaps he be “an angel.”

But again, when received yourself by brethren, you will not make earthly refreshments prior to heavenly, for your faith will forthwith be judged. Or else how will you— according to the precept Luke 10:5—say, “Peace to this house,” unless you exchange mutual peace with them who are in the house?

Chapter 27. Of Subjoining a Psalm:

The more diligent in prayer are wont to subjoin in their prayers the “Hallelujah,” and such kind of psalms, in the closes of which the company respond...

St. Cyprian’s Basilica At the north-east end of Carthage, on the Sayda plateau and overlooking the sea, you will find the remains that are known as St Cyprian’s Basilica. The site would fit with that of a chapel in which Monica was left praying when her son, Augustine, embarked for Italy from the foot of the cliff at the end of the site. Sometimes the remains are therefore referred to as the Basilica of St Monica. It is likely, however, that the basilica is the one dedicated to St Cyprian on the site of his tomb. The church was built at the end of the 4th century, over a graveyard and incorporating an earlier chapel. Burials continued within the building until the beginning of the 7th century. The basilica was entered from the beach-side of the site, through a rectangular atrium.

St Cyprian’s Basilica, on the site of his tomb

Back to the Roman world! Persecutions of Christians continued, especially under Emperors Decius (249-251) and Valerian (257-259). During the latter’s rule, Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage was beheaded on 14th September, 258.

Thascious Caecilius Cyprianus was born in or near Carthage into a wealthy aristocratic family. He was given a good education and became a very successful and wealthy barrister. A career in the higher echelons of the civil service appeared to be opened to him. It seemed that Cyprian was quite familiar with constitutional law and a wide range of political ideas and when he became a Christian, he transferred this immense experience quite naturally to the sphere of his ecclesiastical activity in favour of the church.

How he was converted we do not know for certain. It is, however, generally believed that a presbyter named Caecilianus (or Caecilian) won Cyprian for Christ. It is also believed that Cyprian adopted the name Caecilius or Caecilianus because of his personal and spiritual relationship with this presbyter. He became a Christian in 246. He was baptized into the church the same year. After his conversion Cyprian disposed of most of his wealth and property and gave it to the poor. In 248, shortly after the death of the incumbent, Donatus of Carthage, Cyprian was rapidly appointed to the priestly office.

His meteoric rise to a position of such immense dignity and authority caused misgiving and doubt even among many older and senior members of the clergy in Carthage. Novatus, a senior presbyter, and other clergy like Deacon Felcissimus were opposed to Cyprian’s election. Unfortunately, before Cyprian had time to prove himself, the persecution of Emperor Decius (249- 251) fell upon the church. That persecution was directed against Christian leaders. The bishops of Rome, Antioch, and Jerusalem were all executed. Cyprian of Carthage and Dionysius of Alexandria only escaped by going into hiding. This persecution took the church by surprise: sadly, apostates were many and martyrs few. In the case of those who had been under suspicion of being Christians but who now conformed by offering sacrifice, a certificate of libellus was issued to prove their compliance.

The death of Decius was followed by two years of anarchy, a period which ended when Valerian (253-260) became emperor. For four years he left the church in peace, but in the continuing disturbances of his reign, he too, like Decius before him, considered that the Christians were a disturbing and even a treacherous element in society, and in 257 he introduced a policy of persecution.

At first Christian leaders alone were affected. They were required to make some act of acknowledgement of traditional Roman beliefs and ceremonies. The following year, however, Valerian launched a full-scale attack on the church. A carefully graduated scale of punishments was devised with the object of depriving the church of its clergy, its upper-class support, and its property. It was during this persecution that Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, was executed.

Throughout Cyprian’s ten years as bishop of Carthage, he was engaged in controversy concerning three problems which arose directly or indirectly as a result of persecution. The first problem was that of the lapsed – are they to be accepted back into the

15 church’s fold? The second problem was that of the baptism of heretics and schismatics – is it valid or should they be rebaptised? The third problem was that of authority within the church – who can say who is “in” the church and who “outside”? (Cyprian’s answer: the community of orthodox bishops).

St Cyprian’s Basilica

Plan of St Cyprian’s Basilica5

5 This, and other plans of buildings referred to in this article, are taken from Liliane Ennabli, Christian Carthage (l’APPC, Tunis, 2001).

Antonine Baths Travel southwest to the Antonine Baths complex, a large site by the seaside and a short walk for those who used to live in the Roman villas. Begun under Hadrian and completed in the 2nd century, this bath complex was the largest outside Rome and was supplied with water by the long Zaghouan aqueduct. Have a look around at your leisure! But first, climb uphill within the site to the northwest corner of the site (near the kilns). From there you can look down on the remains of the Dermech I Basilica.

The Dermech I Basilica on the Antonine Baths complex

Plan of the basilica by Gaukler & Sadoux

This comprises one of the best preserved churches of Carthage; it dates from the fourth century. It had five aisles and nine bays plus an apse at the east end. You can clearly see the annex containing the baptistry, plus the walls of an added chapel and other rooms.

Baptistry (bottom left) in the Dermech I Basilica

Another view of the stepped baptistry

Mosaics can still be discerned on the floor whilst the walls were evidently covered partly with marble and porphyry paneling and partly with stucco.

This church is situated in what was evidently a poor area of Carthage. It was a quarter where potters lived and worked, perhaps providing materials for the huge baths complex? Very close to this church a house was discovered that had a hidden cellar in which were stacked all kinds of idols and household gods. The question arises – so were local, poorer people, Christians, hedging their bets? Is it possible that, all along, some of the ancient indigenous, African converts to Christianity maintained a liaison with the Carthaginian gods whilst, in the meantime, joining their Roman overlords in worshipping as Christian believers?

At the beginning of the fourth century, the Edict of Toleration (311, by Emperor Galerius) and the Edict of Milan (313, by Emperors Constantine and Licinius) respectively allowed Christians to worship unimpeded and returned to them their property. How long would it be, once Christianity became the official religion of Empire, before that faith lost its internal purity and vigour?

The year 311 was famous for the Edict of Toleration. It also marked the beginning of a famous North African controversy. Donatism emerged within the Roman province of Africa out of the experience of persecution under Emperor Diocletian and flourished in the fourth and fifth centuries. The Donatists (named for the Berber Christian bishop Donatus Magnus) were members of a schismatic church not in communion with the churches of the Catholic tradition. The Donatists tended to be indigenous African by ethnicity. They were strong rigorists, holding that the church must be a church of “saints,” not “sinners,” and that sacraments, such as baptism, administered by traditores [people who had buckled under persecution and later recanted] were invalid.

In 311, a new bishop of Carthage (named Caecilian) was consecrated by someone who had allegedly been a traditor; his opponents consecrated a short-lived rival, who was succeeded by Donatus, after whom the schism was named.

In 313, a commission appointed by Pope Miltiades found against the Donatists, but they continued to exist, viewing themselves, and not the Catholic Church, as the “true Church,” the only one with “valid sacraments.” Indeed, the Donatists for many years boasted more bishops than the Caecilians. Eventually, partly because of their association with the more violent Circumcellions, they brought upon themselves repression by the imperial authorities. Nevertheless, for a long period the Donatist movement drew upon African regional sentiment, while the Caecilian (Catholic) party maintained the support of Rome. They were still a force at the time of Augustine of Hippo at the end of the fourth century, and part of that churchman’s legacy was to see to their humiliation.

Damous el-Karita Basilica Find your way to the penultimate site of your pilgrimage – that of a huge basilica that was once the largest church in Africa! The Damous el-Karita (from Latin domus caritatis, “house of charity”) Basilica comprised church, monastery and underground rotunda. Part of it dates from the late fourth century with additions added later.

The Damous el-Karita Basilica looking north-east towards the atrium

Plan of the Damous el-Karita Basilica

The rotunda may have comprised a rather wonderful baptistry or a resting place for the relics of saints – or both!

The underground Rotunda of the Damous el-Karita Basilica

Councils of representatives from dioceses in the Province of Africa took place on this site. The third Synod of Carthage met in 397. It affirmed the canon of Old and New Testament scripture. Actually, the first council to put in place our present New Testament canon was the Synod of Hippo Regius (393); however, the acts of that council are lost. A brief summary of those acts was read at, and accepted by, the third Synod of Carthage (397):

“Canon 24. Besides the canonical Scriptures, nothing shall be read in church under the name of divine Scriptures. Moreover, the canonical Scriptures are these: [then follows a list of Old Testament books]. The [books of the] New Testament: the Gospels, four books; the Acts of the Apostles, one book; the Epistles of Paul, thirteen; of the same to the Hebrews; one Epistle; of Peter, two; of John, apostle, three; of James, one; of Jude, one; the Revelation of John. Concerning the confirmation of this canon, the transmarine Church shall be consulted. On the anniversaries of martyrs, their acts shall also be read.”

Whilst visiting the Rotunda, consider the strict approach to baptism preparation that was taken by the early church in this region. Catechesis took three years!

Pause for thought

The underground baptistry certainly conjures up the strong Pauline imagery of a person dying to sin and finding him/herself alive in Christ. The disciple descends the steps to the depths, under the ground, and is immersed beneath the waters of baptism in a place of death. From there (s)he rises from the watery grave and ascends to the world, saved by Christ and raised to new life in Christ.

Here is a good place to pause and reaffirm your own faith in the words of the Apostles’ Creed, the historical form of public Christian witness at the time of baptism.

Do you believe and trust in God the Father? I believe in God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth.

Do you believe and trust in his Son Jesus Christ? I believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord, who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried; he descended to the dead. On the third day he rose again; he ascended into heaven,

21 he is seated at the right hand of the Father, and he will come to judge the living and the dead.

Do you believe and trust in the Holy Spirit? I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy catholic Church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. Amen.

Baths of Gargilius On the north side of Byrsa hill are the remains of the Baths of Gargilius. You can see them clearly from the large car park back up, and on the opposite side of, the road on which Damous el-Karita is found. This is your final destination.

The Baths of Gargilius

A Conference of Carthage was convened at the baths by the command of the Emperor Honorius in June, 411 with a view to terminating the century-old Donatist schism. Though not strictly a synod, this conference was one of the most important assemblies in the history of the African sees. It was presided over by Marcellinus, the Emperor’s Secretary of State, who (predictably!) found in favour of the Catholic party (referred to as Caecilians). The Conference began with bishops of Caecilianist and Donatist persuasion each registering their presence (that is, competing bishops from the same town or district, e.g. Aurelius of Carthage for the Caecilians and Primian of Carthage for the Donatists; Augustine of Hippo Regius for the Caecilians and Macrobius of Hippo Regius for the Donatists). Under Augustine’s sharp logic, the Caecilians were able to establish that the grounds on which the Donatists had originally rejected Caecilian as Bishop of Carthage in 311 were untenable. At the end of much wrangling debate, and late one night, Marcellinus decided in favour of the Caecilianists. We have no record of the details of his nocturnal pronouncement, but we do have the fuller edict he issued two weeks later. It ordered the Donatists to yield their churches and rejoin the Caecilianists. If they did not do so, they were barred from meeting, their property was to be conﬁscated, and the property of anyone who continued to harbour Circumcellions (a more extreme and violent, indigenous, anti-imperialist movement with which the Donatists sometimes had aligned themselves) was similarly at risk. If they submitted, however, the Donatists would be treated generously. In effect, the edict led to the violent suppression of the Donatists and the seizure of their property. Imperial power had been enlisted, especially by Augustine, to find for the Roman church against the mostly indigenous, North African church. At the very moment when a Punic-Berber contextualization of the gospel needed strong pastoral guidance, Augustine’s own Latin culture left him unable to see the possibilities.

Here is a sobering note on which to end your pilgrimage to the early Christian sites of Carthage, Tunisia. As you leave the area, please pray for the indigenous church currently developing in this nation, and remember all those struggling today with issues concerning the contextualization of the Gospel and the appropriate indigenisation of any resulting church in North Africa.

Bishop Bill

Additionally?

For those with the time, a visit to the site of the Paleo-Christian Museum (close to the Antonine Baths) is very rewarding. The small museum is established on the excavation site itself where in the 1970s and early 1980s the vestiges of one of the major buildings of the African metropolis during the Christian era were found: the Carthagena Basilica.

The Carthagena Basilica was built after 533, that is, after the recapture of Carthage from the Vandals by Byzantine troops. It was built on the site of a 4th century (probably Christian) monument. The probable Christian monument was most likely the Catholic cathedral of Carthage, known as Restituta, so-named because it was reclaimed by the Catholics from the Donatists.

Not much remains today in terms of the basilica itself. In the south-west corner, a few steps lead to the site of a baptistry. It is hard to imagine that this was once a major basilica sitting in the centre of Carthage. Its history as a Byzantine church built over a Catholic church reclaimed from the Donatists allows us to speak of those centuries between the arrival of the Vandals and the coming of Islam to North Africa.

Oil lamp with cross from site

The Carthagena Basilica

Artist’s impression of the Carthagena Basilica

Endgame!

Rome lost parts of Africa, including Tangier and environs, then Mauritania, then the northern lands to the east that included Hippo Regius (where Augustine died during the siege) and supremely Carthage, to the Vandals in the early 5th century. The Vandals – land-hungry tribes-people of east-Germanic origin – under their king Genseric (also known as Geiseric) – crossed from Spain to Africa in 429.6 Were they invited to North Africa or did the 80,000 invaders come anyway? With Carthage as his base, Genseric came to dominate the western Mediterranean – much as the Carthaginians once did. He

6 It is possible that the Arabic term for Spain – Iberia al-Andalus – may be derived from the Berber pronunciation of Vandal as “Wandal”.

25 annexed Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearic islands. Genseric eventually invaded Italy itself in 455, reaching and capturing Rome. His troops plundered systematically for two weeks, carrying off many treasures (including those which Emperor Titus had taken four centuries previously from the Temple in Jerusalem). The empress and her two daughters were taken as hostages.

The Vandal kingdom, a thorn in the side of Rome, lasted almost a century. The Vandals had earlier embraced an Arian expression of Christianity during the reign of Emperor Valens in the 360s.7 Differences between the Arian Vandals and their Trinitarian subjects (including both Catholics and Donatists) were a constant source of tension in the African state. Catholic bishops were exiled or killed by Genseric whilst laymen were excluded from office and frequently suffered confiscation of their property. Hilderic (523–530) was the Vandal king most tolerant towards the Catholic Church. He granted it religious freedom; consequently Catholic synods came once more to be held in North Africa.

After a century of Vandal rule, the expansionist energy of Justinian in Constantinople – and of his great general Belisarius in the field – brought back the whole of the North African coast under imperial rule for one final century. In 533 Belisarius defeated the Vandals in battle, captured their king and entered Carthage unopposed. As a result, Carthage regained its status as an important imperial city representing a region rich, especially, in grain.

The Byzantine Empire finally lost all control of Africa as the region fell to the Umayyad conquest of North Africa by the close of the 7th century. Surviving Catholic, Donatist and Vandal Christian communities quickly became eclipsed by the spread of Islam.

And in summary!

Churches galore existed in and around Carthage in its heyday!8

Here is a summary of the early Christian basilicas whose sites have been identified in the area.

Inside the ancient city, four major building complexes have been found, of which three can still be visited: the Carthagena basilica9, the Dermech I basilica10 and the circular

7 Arius (hence Arianism) denied that Jesus was of the same substance as God, holding instead that he was only the highest of created beings. 8 Written evidence, together with excavations, suggests that at least 24 churches have, over the centuries, existed in and around Carthage. 9 Details given above in the “extra time” section. 10 Details given above in the main itinerary section.

26 monument11 on the road leading to the Baths of Gargilius. The fourth can no longer be seen.12

Outside the city, in its suburbs, five basilicas used for burials have been excavated, though only three remain visible today: the basilicas of Damous el-Karita13, of the Maiorum at Mcidfa14 and of St Cyprian15. The two basilicas at Bir Ftouha and Bir el- Knissia are no longer visible. However, it is likely that the basilica at Bir Ftouha marked the place where bishop Cyprian was decapitated in September 258. It was built there in the late 4th or early 5th century. Today all that remains is a green space in the midst of a large building site!

Site of basilica at Bir Ftouha

The basilica at Bir el-Knissia was built at the end of the 5th century, that is, during the period of Vandal occupancy.

The following paragraphs offer a few details about the two basilica sites – not already covered in the main itinerary section or in the “extra time” section – that are still somewhat “visible”.

11 Details given below. 12 The site of the fourth basilica – a fortified Byzantine basilica that existed on Byrsa hill – has been identified in the park of the Carthage museum. 13 Details given above in the main itinerary section. 14 Details given below. 15 Details given above in the main itinerary section.

Circular monument The site of the circular monument betrays a large building that once stood on the site. This is thought to have been a memoria dating from the 4th century, with an adjoining church of which only the apse has been uncovered. It was destroyed by the Vandals and then restored during the Byzantine period.

Artist’s impression of the Circular Monument

Basilica Maiorum at Mcidfa The name (Maiorem or Ancestors, referring to the first martyrs) suggests that this area was one of the first Christian cemeteries. At the most ancient levels, graves from the 1st and 2nd centuries have been found. It is possible that the burial ground belonged to the Vibii family – that name has been found on certain tombstones. Perpetua was a member of this family – perhaps she and her companions were buried here after their martyrdom in 203? The writings of Victor of Vita, at the end of the 5th century, include an assertion that Perpetua and her companions had been laid to rest in the basilica Maiorem. During excavations of the site in 1907, an inscription was found that read: “Here lie the bodies of the martyrs Perpetua, Felicitas, Saturus, Saturninus, Rebocatus, Secundulus, martyred on March 7th, *203+.”

Memorial tablet to AD203 martyrs found at Mcidfa

The basilica was built at the beginning of the 4th century on the site where the early martyrs had been buried in order to preserve their memory. Early 6th century inscriptions, again mentioning the names of the martyrs, suggest that the Catholic Christians reclaimed the buildings after the takeover of this important religious site by the Vandals. Today, very little survives of this site.

Plan of Maiorum basilica at Mcidfa flipped through 180° to align with photograph

Suggested introductory bibliography

Fethi Chelbi, Utique la Splendide (Ministry of Culture: Tunis, 1996). Robin Daniel, This Holy Seed (Tamarisk: Harpenden, 1992). Francois Decret, Early Christianity in North Africa (James Clark: Cambridge, 2009). Lilian Ennabli, Christian Carthage (l’APPC: Tunis, 2001). Malcolm Lyon, The Bronze Ladder (Matador: Leicester, 2006). Thomas Oden, How Africa Shaped the Christian Mind (IVP: Leicester, 2007).