South Alflc,1n Journa/ 01 Botany 2001 67 383- 389 Copynghl (:J N/$C Pry LId P"nred m South Afrrca - All rlg /l /S reserved SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY IS$N 0254-6299
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Restoration and management of mangrove systems - a lesson for and from the East African region
H u JG Kairo'· , F Dahd ouh~ Gueba s\ J Bosire > and N Koedam2
, Kenyan Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, PO Box 81651, Mombasa, Kenya
;> Laboratory of General Botany and Nature Management, Mangrove Management Group, Vrije Universiteit Brussels, Pleinlaan 2 , B- l050 Brussels, Belgium fdahdouh@vub,ac,be, nikoedam@vub,ac,be ~ Corresponding author. e-mail: [email protected]
Rece ived 2 February 2001, accepted in revised form 15 Apri l 2001
The restoration of mangroves has received a lot of use of mangrove areas. This paper outlines the activi attention world wide for several reasons. Firstly, the ties of mangrove restoration and management around long ignored ecological and environmental values of the world with particular emphasis on Eastern Africa. As mangrove forests have been documented for many noted here, extensive research has been carried out on mangrove areas in the world, Secondly, there is a high the ecology, structure and functioning of the mangrove subsistence dependence on natural resources from ecosystem. However, the findings have not been inter mangrove forests. In addition, large losses of man ~ preted in a management framework, thus mangrove groves have occurred throughout the world leading to forests around the world continue to be over~exploited , coastal erosion, decline of fishery resources and other converted to aquaculture ponds, and polluted. We environmental consequences, some of which in need of strongly argue that links between research and sustain ~ urgent attention. Finally, governments throughout the able management of mangrove ecosystems should be world are showing commitments towards sustainable established.
Introduction
Webster's English dictionary (1 998) defines restoration as (Morrison 1990), Other objectives are: landscape enhance 'an act of putting or bringing back into a former, normal, or ment, sustainable production of natural resou rces and protec unimpaired state or condition'. In terms of ecology, restora tion of coastal areas (Field 1996), Restoration provides an tion will seldom mean returning an ecosystem to its initial opportunity to improve or enhance the landscape and increase state but will more often mean bringing it back to a state of environmental quality, It is particularly useful in densely popu effectiveness. A practical definition of restoration is given by lated areas or in areas of industrial development where reha Morrison (1 990) : 'Restoration is the re-introduction and re bilitation can enhance the environment even jf no tan gible ben establishment of community-like groupings of native species efit may be obtained from such an exercise. In these cases, to sites which can reasonably be expected to sustain them, tile goal of restoration will be to preserve, enhance or maintain with the resultant vegeta tion demonstrating aesthetic and the original functioning of the system (Morrison 1990), or, at dynamic characteristics of the natural communities on which least, its conjectured original functioning. they are based.' Field (1998b) distinguished between reha bilitation - 'the partial or full replacement of Ihe ecosystem's Global conservation status of mangroves structural and functional characteristics', and restoration - 'the act of bringing an ecosystem back to its original condition'. Mangrove ecosystems or 'man gals' (MacNae 1968) occur The need to restore a particular ecosystem impli es that world wide on tropi cal and sub-tropical coastlines (Chapman sucll an ecosystem has been altered or degraded in a way 1976, Tom linson 1986) , For centuries, mangrove ecosys that confl icts with tile defined management or conservation tems have provided goods and services both on the com objectives. Before a restoration project is undertaken it is munity, as well as national and global levels (Hamilton and essential that goals be defined, Restoration goals and objec Snedaker 1984, Stafford-Deitsch 1996, Dahdouh-Gu ebas et tives may vary from region to region. The primary goal of many ai, 2000, Kairo and Kivyatu 2000, Dahdouh-Guebas and wetland restoration projects is tile re-establisllment of habitat Koedam 2001), Many of these services are still offered and and functions that have been or would otherwise be lost include collection of building materi als and fuel-wood, gath- 384 Kalro, Dahdouh-Guebas. BOSlre and Koedam
ering of shells to produce lime and wIld honey collection (1998) cites a proposal to convert 10 OOOha of Ihe riverine (Table 1). Mangroves also fil1er land run-oH (Thom 1967) mangroves of Rufiji (Tanzania) for shrimp farming. and control coastal erosion (Davis 1940). Understanding very well the ecological, social and environ Mangrove forests have been estimated to have occupied mental problems that are associated with industrial shrimp 75% of the tropical coasts world wide (McGill 1959, farm ing (e .g. Martosubroto and Naamin 1977. Kapetsky Chapman 1976), but anlhropogenic pressures have reduced 1987, Baird and Quarto 1994), such a proposed conversion Ihe global range of these foresls 10 less Ihan 50% of Ihe orig must be considered wit h a lot of precautions. The constru c inal total cover (Saenger et al. 1983. WCMC 1994. Spalding tion of shrimp pon ds wou ld result in the exposure of strong et al. 1997). These losses have largely been attributed 10 ly reducing, acid-sulphate. soils and a build up of salinily lev anthropogenic pressures such as over-harvesting for timber els, such that the su bsequent replanting of mangroves in and fuel-wood production (Walsh 1974, Hussein 1995, eventually abandoned ponds is difficult or even impossible Semesi 1998), reclamation lor aquacullure and salt-pond (Stevenson et al. 1999. Erfterneijer and Lewis 2000). construction (Terchunian et al. 1986, Primavera 1994), min ing , pollution and damming of rivers that alter water salinity History of mangrove restoration and management levels (Lewis 1990. Wolanski 1992). Oil spills have impacl ed mangroves dramalically in the Caribbean (Ellison and Mangrove planting and management has a long history in Farnsworth 1996), but little documentalion exists for other Southeast Asia (e.g. Watson 1928). Perhaps the longest parts of the world (Burns et al. 1994). recorded history of mangrove management for timber is in A major threat to mangrove wetlands is their conversion to the Sundarbans. The 6 OOO km' of mangrove foresls that areas of aquaculture. After the development of intensive cover the Sundarbans region of India and Bangladesh , we re sh rimp farming techniques in Taiwan in the 1970's, there was managed since 1769 and detailed work-plans prepared in a sudden rush into modern shrimp farming in Southeast Asia 1893- 1894 (Chowdhury and Ahmed 1994). A parallel exam (Phillips 1994). spreading to Ihe Caribbean and Latin America ple is given by the 40 OOOha mangroves of Malang (Ellison and Farnsworth 1996b). In the Indo-Western Pacific (Malaysia) that have been managed fo r fuel-wood produc region alone, 1.2 million hectares of mangroves had been lion since 1902 (Watson 1928). The operation provides sig converted to aquacullure ponds by 1991 (Primavera 1995). nificant employment to Ihe local people, and the use of man In easlern Africa. there are no up-to-date data available to grove wood products for timber and charcoal makes a sig give accu rate pictures of the cu rrent condition of its man nificant contribution to the economy of the west coast grove forests . However, variou s reports (e.g. Semesi 1991, Peninsular Malaysia (Chan 1996). Matang also provides Semesi 1998, Kairo 1992, Ferguson 1993. Dahdouh protection against coastal erosion, breeding grounds for fish , Guebas et al. 2000) have indicated that extensive bare fish slakes, firewood and building materials. lands resu lt ing from indiscrim inate cutting of the trees occur More recently mangroves have been managed for integrat all over the region. ed fish culture (Primavera 1995) and for eco-tourism (Bacon Travelling along the mangroves of the region . between 1987). Pl anting mangroves has also been applied for erosion 2"S and 27"S. one sees many examples of exploitation that control in Florida (Teas 1977), and for experimental analysis have ended in disaster. For instance, there are clear cut of mangrove biology in Panama and Kenya (Rabinowitz 1978, mangrove areas at Gazi Bay (Kenya) that will never recover Kairo 1995a). Beginning with Ihe realisation of ecological naturally withou t human intervention. In Tanga (Tanzania) roles of mangroves (Odum and Heald 1975) and the passage and Ngomeni (Kenya), salt work venlures have created of laws protecting them from destruction, many small plant wastelands. In addition, urban and coastal development ings for mitigating environmental damage have occurred for (e.g. in the Zambezi district of Mozambique) have removed example in Hawaii, Burma and Fiji (Hamilton and Snedaker large areas of mangrove forests, devastating far more land 1984). Mangroves have also been planled to restore a foresl than was actually required, and therefore aHecting the lives killed as a result of an oil spill (Duke 1995). of subsistence coastal dwellers quite unnecessarily (Semesi In East Africa, information on earlier mangrove plantation 1998, Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2000. Kairo 2001). practices is scanty. Reference is made to mangrove planting Shrimp farm ing represents a re latively new form of coastal in Lamu, Kenya, after the trees were clear-felled during the land use th at is becoming a threat in the region. Semesi First World War (1914-1918) by Smith and McKenzie
Table 1: Valuation of mangroves
Community level National level Global level Timber and firewood Timber production Conservation Fodder for anima ls Charcoal production Education Traditional mediCine Shrimp and crab industries Preservation of biodiversity Food Mangrove silviculture Indicator of cl imate change Local employment Trade Recreation Ecotourism Shell collection Education Erosion control Water quality management Protection from storm damage Coastal and estuary protection (Sources: Hamilton and Snedaker 1984, Stafford-Deitsch 1996, Dahdouh-Guebas et a/. 2000, Kairo 2001) South African Journal of Bofany 2001. 67: 383-389 385
Company (Rawlins 1957. Roberts and Ruara 1967). In ably resides. For example Sonneratia alba Sm. will occur on Tanzania, attempts to replant mangroves in the abandoned the seaward frin ge because it cannot tolerate wide fluctua· saltpans of Tanga district fai led probably because of envi tions in salt concentrations. while Ceriops lagal (Perr.) C. B. ronmental factors (e.g. soil salinity and acidification) as well Robinson and Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. can tolerate as poor species selection (Semesi and Howell 1992) . high salinity levels found on the landward side of the inter A review of the available lite ratu re on mangrove plantation tidal areas. For this reason, Sonneratia should be planted in establ ishments shows mixed successes of restoration low, muddy areas closer to the sea. In the marginal dry land efforts (Ellison 2000) , even though it has been said that ward side , species like Ceriops and Avicennia may be plant mangrove wetlands are easy to restore and create (e.g. FAO ed (Kairo 1995a. Kairo 2001) . 1994). Whereas the lost mangrove plant species can be Another essential factor in determining the success of a returned (Kairo 1995a), a restored forest mayor may not restoration project is the level of co-operation of the local function as the original pre-disturbed system (McKee and community and their leaders. The pressure of the local pop Faulkner 2000. Bosi re 1999, Bosire el a/. submitled a. b). ulation will influence the structure and fu nctions of mangrove This is especially true where there is no natural model, sim· systems that surrounds them (Kairo 1995b. Dahdouh pie or complex, on which to base the recreated mangrove Guebas et al. 2000). Environmental education can con sland (Field 1998a. Dahdouh-Guebas 2001). If a mangrove tribute to ac ti ve involvemen t and greater public participation forest is disturbed by logging it is unlikely that the forest will in issues related to mangrove conservation and manage regenerate to function as the pre· disturbed state, since the ment. When management decisions incorporate local inputs species mix, soil type , stocking rates and numbers of an i they will succeed. and political su pport will be greater when mals will certainly have changed. the public is satisfied that it has been heard and had an opportunity to become involved. Factors affecting restoration success Two approaches have been used in the restoration of degrad ed mangrove areas. These are natural and artificial regeneration . It was note above that mangrove forests are threatened ecosystems . The reasons for their destruction range from Natural generation human induced stresses such as over·exploitation of the resources, land recl amation for fish farm ing and pollution Th is approach uses naturally occurring mangrove propagules effects (cited above) . Mangroves have also died because of as the source for regeneration. The composition of the regen natural disasters (Jimenez 1985) . Freq uently the mangrove erated species depends on the species mix of the neighbour~ stands are permanently destroyed , but under some condi ing population . In Ihe family Rhizophoraceae. propagules fur tions the forests regenerate or can be restored . In very rare nished with pointed hypocotyls fall freely from the parent and cases, new areas can also be created for mangrove growth plant Ihemselves into the mud (La Rue and Muzik 1954). or (Saenger and Siddique 1993). When contemplating man they may be stranded and planted away from the parent plant grove rehabilitation, special attention must be paid to soil sta· (Rabinowitz 1978, Van Speybroeck 1992). Whether man bility and flooding regime (Pulver 1976). site elevation groves disperse through self-planting or stranding strategies (Hoffman el al. 1985). salinity and fresh water runoff (Jeminez will depend on the forest conditions (cut or not cut). tides, as 1990), tidal and wave energy (Lewis 1992. Field 1996). well as the stability of the soil s. Harvesting too many trees propagule availability (Loyche 1989. Kairo 1995a, 2001) , from Ihe forest diminishes stability of the soil, which causes propagule predation (Dahdouh-Guebas el al. 1997. 1998. the propagules and saplings to be washed away with the Dahdouh-Guebas 200 1). spacing and thinning of mangroves tides and makes natural regeneration impossible. (FAO 1985. Kairo 2001) . weed eradication (Saenger and In Malaysia. a country with a long history of mangrove Siddique 1993) , nursery techniques (Siddique el al. 1993), management, it is recommended that parental mangrove monitoring (Lewis 1990), community participation (Kairo trees (s tandards) be retained during harvesting operalion to 1995b) and 10tal cost of restoration measures (Field 1998a). act as seed bearers for the next generation in order to pro· It is difficult to generalise planting sites for successful man mote natural regeneration. The minimum number of stan grove restoration, as this will depend on local environmental dards is 12 trees/ha (Tang 1978, FAO 1994) and these condilions and the species to be planted. It is generally should be strategically retained in those areas that are poor agreed that the hydrologic regime is the single most important in regeneration. In Thailand, the use of standards has been overall site condition governing the survival and subsequent replaced by a strip clear-felling system wh ich has been growth of the mangrove seedlings (Field 1996. 1998b). It is found to allow adequate regeneration (FAO 1985). The pros important that mangrove plantings be carried out on low ener· and cons of natural regeneration versus artificial regenera gy areas where coastal erosion is minimal (Kairo 1995a). tion are listed in Table 2. Knowledge of mangrove species zonation is essential in determining suitable areas for different species. Rabinowitz Artificial regeneration (1978), whi le commenting on the distribution patterns of mangroves, noted that species zonation in mangroves was Artificial regeneration of mangroves involves hand planting as a res ult of environmental tolerance and physiological of desired propagules and saplings at the selected intertidal preferences of the individual species. Each species of man area. Planting of mangroves has successfully been done in grove has a specific range of to lerance of environmental Malaysia. India. Philippines and Vietnam (cited above). Most variables (e.g. salinities, tidal flooding. shading. elevation of planting work has been done using the fami li es the land etc.) that reslricts it 10 the zones in which il prefer- Rh izophoraceae, Aviceniaceae and Sonneratiaceae. 386 Kalro. OahdOuh-Guebas, BOSire and Ko edam
Techniques in artificial regeneration indude most com RhizoplJora propagules (Teas et al. 1976) and air-layering of monly the use of propagules, sometimes the use of saplings Rhizophora mangle L" Avicennia germinans (L.) Stearn and (of less than 12m high), and rarely the use of small trees (of Laguncularia racemosa Gaertn.!. (Calton and Moffler 1978). up to 6m high). Although these methods have remained vir Kairo (1995a) reported the potential of the air-layering tually unchanged since Watson (1928), they are continuous technology in providing stock plants for transplanting without ly being rediscovered world wide as the prerequisite to remov ing mangrove saplings from source area. The re was a restoration efforts (Kogo ef al. 1987, Qureshi 1990, Siddique significant difference (p
Table 3: Activities to be monitored after the establishment of mangrove plantation (Field 1995b)
Activities Remarks Monllor mangrove species Ihat develop Check correctness of anginal pmvenance of propagules and seed Monitor growth as a function of lime Common pa rameters are: density of saplings or trees, stem diameter, tree height and volume Annual increments should be determined Monitor growth characteristics Include determinatIon of stem structure, node production , phenology, fruiting and resistance to pests Record level of failure of saplings Provide a scientihc explanation of failure Record levels 01 rubbish accumulation Nole source 01 rubbish and steps taken to minimise the problem Adjust denSity of seedlings and saphngs to an op timum level Degree of thinning, replanting or natural reg eneration should be noted. Growth should be monitored Estimate cost of restoration project The estimation of costs should include all the undertakings including site preparation, propagule collection, nursery establishment, field transplantation etc Mom tor Impact of any harvesting project This should be part of any long-term record for restoration Monitor characterisllcs of the rehabilitated mangrove ecosystem This involves detailed measurement ol launa, lIora and physical environment of th e new mangrove ecosystem and comparison with similar undisturbed mangrove ecosystems
32 -- - -~--~ 90 1~100 1 '021i 70 80 ~ [T !J 60 50 "E14 l 1+ 40 ,I ji .s 1 I ' 30 ",,8 T Mean.. SD 'in ~ I Mean-SD r::::::: 1 10 r T ~ 2 0 0 C Mean .. SE - ~ Mean-SE 4 - - - - ·20 -10 , Naked Rei NAMal Naked Rei NalU~ 1 Naked Rei Natural Mean
Figure 1: The density (nr. of animals m 2) of sedimenl-infauna in a naked (cleared) system, a restored system and a natural system. left = R. mucronata, middle = S. alba and ri ght = A. marina stan ds (adapted from Bosire 1999 and Bosire et al. subm.b) plantation productivity has been shown to decline over many Clearly, integrated management of mangrove forestry and decades (e, g, Gong and Ong 1990, 1995), given the chance, fisheries is urgently required . In East Africa, where the aqua restored mangroves may develop into mature forests with culture and maricuiture operations are just beginning (cited many of the structural and functional characteristics of above) , there are real opportunities to develop mangrove mature mangrove system. In Vietnam for example, low diver friendly aquaculture that may be truly sustainable. sity planting has given way to higher diversity fo rests, provid ed the relorested area is not harvested (Twi lley et al. 2000). Acknowledgements - The authors are greatly indebted to the late The relationship between mangrove and fishery produc Prof. Adelaida Semesi (University of Dar Es Salaam), and we Ihank tivity has been documented for many areas (e.g. Lewis et al. Dr Mats Bjork and Jenny Degerholm, both al Stockholm University 1985, Twilley ef al. 1993, Primavera 1995, Ellison and (Botany), and Dr Salomao 0 Bandeira of Universidade Eduardo Mondlane (Biological Sciences) for organising a conference on Farnsworth 1996b, Baran and Hambrey 1988, Baran 1999, 'Marine Botany in Ihe Western Indian Ocean', 12-16 December It Naylor et al. 2000). is routine to hear that fish and shrimps 2000, in Maputo, Mozambique, where this paper was first presented. decline where mangroves have been removed Our special tribute is to the late Mama Semesi for all her work on (Martosubroto and Naamin 1977). Similar losses are assert marine botany of Eastern Africa, particularly her co-ordinating role in ed where mangroves are cleared for aquaculture, but quan the preparation of a management plan for the mangroves of main tification for these losses are scarce. Falke and Kautsky land Tanzania thai earned her name Mama Mkoko. This work is part (1998) have used th e ecological foot print concept ly supported by the Netherlands Wetland Program of the Kenya (Wacke mage I and Rees 1996) to quantify the ecosystem Wildlife Service (KWS), and by the Fund for Collective Fundamental support area that is required to support shrimp farming in Research (FKFO), Ihe Belgian National Science Foundation (FWO) mangroves. From these calculations they suggest that a and with a speciaHsation fellowship of the Institute for Ihe Promotion of Innovation by Science and Technology in Flanders (IWT). semi-intensive shrimp farm requires a mangrove area that is 35-190 times larger than the surface area of the pond. 388 Kalro. Oahdouh-Guebas, BOSire and Koedam
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