How Teachers Taught: Constancy and Change in American Classrooms, 1890-1980

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AUTHOR Cuban, Larry TITLE How Teachers Taught: Constancy and Change in American Classrooms, 1890-1980. 1st Edition. Research on Teaching Monograph Series. REPORT NO ISBN-0-582-28481-3 PUB DATE 84 NOTE 306p.; Photographs will not reproduce adequately. PUB TYPE Books (010) Historical Materials (060) Reports Research/Technical (143)

EDRS PRICE MFO1 /PC13 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Case Studies; Classroom Techniques; *Educational Change; Educational History; *Educational Practices; Elementary Secondary Education; Open Education; *Progressive Education; *Resistance to Change; Rural Education; Teacher Behavior; Teaching Methods; Urban Education IDENTIFIERS School Culture; *Teacher Centered Instruction; Virginia (Arlington)

ABSTRACT This book investigates teaching practices before, during, and after reform impulses in the 20th century aimed at changing what teachers routinely do. Patterns of stability and change over a 90-year period are developed from evidence from awide variety of sources, including classroom photographs, textbooks and tests used, student recollections, teacher reports of how they taught, and classroom observations by parents and administrators. A continuum stretching from teacher-centered instruction to student-centered instruction provides a tool to help map the intricate complexity of classroom practices. Part I covering 1890-1940 consists of three chapters: (1) a description' of teaching at the turn of the century, including progressive reforms of that era;(2) case studies of classroom practices in New York City, Denver, and Washington, D.C. during the 1920s and 1930s; and (3)a survey of teaching practices nationally during those 2 decades, particularly in rural schools. Part II summarizes case studies of informal and open education in Washington, D.C., New York City, and North Dakota during 1965-1975, and provides an intensive look into Arlington (Virginia) classrooms during 1969-1980. Part III examines five possible explanations for continuity/change in teaching during this century:(1) school as a form of social control and sorting;(2) constraints related to the organizational structure of school and classroom;(3) the culture of teaching;(4) individual and shared beliefs about child development, the role of school, and authority; and (5)the nature and effectiveness of reform implementation. This book contains over 300 references, many photographs, and an index. (SV)

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BEST COPY AVAILABLE Research on Teaching EDITORIAL BOARD Monograph Series Susan Florio-Ruane,Jere Michigan E. Brophy,Thomas Michigan L. Goad,David University Berliner, University State University State ofUniversity Arizonaof Missouri HOW Hugh VirginiaMehan, UniversityKoehler, National of Institute Robert Slavin, JohnsLee Hopkins S. Shulman, Stanford California, San Diego University Universityof Education TEACHERS Jane Stallings, Vanderbilt University AND CAROLYN M. EVERTSON, PUBLISHED TITLES Student Characteristics CONSTANCY AND TAUGHT CHANGE IN JERESUSAN E. BROPHY URMSTON PHILIPS, and Teaching The invisible Culture: the Warm Springs Indian Communication in Reservation AMERICAN CLASSROOMS HARRISTHOMAS M. COOPER L. GOOD, DOUGLAS Classroomin the Expectation and Community on AND Communication ProcessTHOMAS L. GOOD, GROUWS, AND PygmalionHOWARD Grows Up: EBMEIER, Studies Active 1890-1980 ROBERTLEONARD E. SLAVIN, S. CAHEN, MathematicsKYLE, ClassTeaching Size and Cooperative LearningNIKOLA FILBY, GAIL Instruction McCUTCHEON, AND DIANE W. LarrySTANFORD Cuban UNIVERSITY LARRYPHILIP A.CUBAN, CUSICK, How The Teachers Taught: EgalitarianConstancy Ideal and the American Highand School Change in American :?. 1 e:: GARY NATRIELLO Classrooms: 1890-1980 AND SANFORD M. DORNBUSCH, Teacher Evaluative .;5:3 . Standards and Student Efforts :i. 9 8 4 - i ..... '7 -4 PI PIIII PI 11nowI. 11IIII ,. 2- --: / vA New York & Lori on Longman 11.4,,. I Contents Foreword vii LongmanHow Teachers Inc., 1560Taught Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10036 AcknowledgmentsIntroduction xi Associatedthroughout companies, the world. branches, and representatives PART1 I. PROGRESSIVISM AND CLASSROOMTeaching at the PRACTICE, Turn of the Century: Tradition and Challenge1890-1940 17 Copyrightreproduced,Allin rights any © formreserved.1984 stored or by by Longmanin No any a retrievalpart means, of Inc. this system,electronic, publication or transmittedmechanical, may be PART32 II. OPEN CLASSROOMS ANDRuralBehind ALTERNATIVE and the Urban Classroom Schools, SCHOOLS:Door 1920-1940 in Three Cities, 1920-1940 112 41 permissionphotocopying,EditorialDevelopmental ofand the recording, Design publisher.Editor: Supervisor: Laneor otherwise, Akers Russell without Till the prior 54 ClassroomInformal Education, Practice in 1965-1975: a School District: New Wine in Old Bottles? PROGRESSIVISM REVISITED, 1965-1975 208147 LibraryProduction of Congress and Manufacturing Cataloging Supervisor: in Publication Ferne Data Y. Kawahara 6PART III. STABILITY AND CHANGEArlington, IN Virginia,CLASSROOMS, 1969-1980 1890-1980 237 Cuban, Larry. IncludesBibliography:How teachers index. taught.p. AppendixBibliography Explaining How They Taught: An Exploratory Analysis 274272 3.2. Teaching.ISBNLA2I6.C82EducationUnited 0-582-28481-3 StatesHistory-20th century.1. EducationUnited StatesHistory-19th century. 1984 I. Title. 370'.973 8317559 Index 287 9MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED8 STATES OF AMERICA 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 92 91 94/ 89 88 87 86 85 84 Foreword Those who conduct research on teaching rarely consider historical investigations elt esoteric,germane andto their of little work. import There to the concerns is a sense in which history is of practice and policy. In reading treated as arcane, conducted Anyhistoricalthisclassroomspolicy book, study makesinquiry1 ofam teachingstudied convinced two. may kinds werewell that that providerepresentativeofpurports claims. us to precisely the opposite is true. Carefully First, we must believewith the that most theprovide powerfulof guidance classrooms guides foravailable. future at large practice at the ortime particular the bearofinvestigation neverinterest sufficient exactly to wasus, resemblance atmimics conducted. a time the and to Second,past. placethose we mustCertainly it can be argued that the past Do we gain better advice from studiedtypically to different provide helpfulIron those insights. prefigures the future, but the presentfurther believe that the classrooms investigationsinvestigated, Aerial Classroom, Geography Lesson, Los Angeles Public Schools, 1927 Nbliccat Alarms curred;pluckednectingthrough ur out themarctime, of we the meaningfullyattempting better temporal informed explicitly and to othetcultural- to events unpublished essay, Leethrough Cronbach studies refers that to extend self-consciouslyexplain the phenomena described by con-ideological contextoccurring in which concutrently they oc- as well as to ed- w andletters,ucationalthose then that journals, aggregating researchhave preceded? newspaper and those evaluation In diverseaccounts, an as When we think of historical inquiry, we forms of personal"quantitatively or collectiveand assisted official history," documents of a given period often imagine a scholar reading the impressions CO orLaryinto ucationalpsychology, the Cuban, individual research,we hence can impression begin is a tothin see of one. howthe educational history from the mainstream Cuban makes use of classroomhistorian.the observation line As that we dividesread this history monograph from sociology by of empirical ed- ganizationaltivitiesrecordsofDenver, classrooms ofcollected the and changes Eight North whichover Year inDakota, many hethe Study; uses public decades among school many inventively to infer how teachingsystem-wide was conducted monitoring of curriculum and orfor diverse purposesthe evaluation ac- others;systems and of Newhundreds York, of photographs Washington, 7 BEST COPY AVAILABLE during those periods. Never is any one source of dataphotographs, personal 8 vu viii I Foreword concurrent events in similar districts. Quantitative and qualitative Foreword indicators are / Ix ordiaries, corroborativehistorianeven classroom his whoown insistsconsistency observations, on carefully as well as observationstaken as evidence by district reports and evaluations,juxtaposing data sources, searching provocative contradiction between itself. Cuban is a careful published articles, for both data highestreadhistory,used withwithout Cubanpraise profit fear I has bycan of all written combininggive ir embers a apiece Masterful the of of theincompatible. educational researchexample onresearchof While flexibleteaching undoubtedly is inquiry that community. it thatcontributed a workcan The be of schoolsources,the unique settings among background during different different brought to the Much of the richness communicated school sites during the same era, decades. enterprise by its author. Larry Cuban through this book is a consequence and among similar began of substantiallytrust it likewise to my for own many education, others in the How worlds Teachers of scholarship, Taught did policy, so for and me, practice. and I LEE S. SFIULMAN as directedreturnedina classroomthe school staffPeace teacher, development districts Corps volunteers of for a to spending fourteen years teachingCleveland, Ohio, and Washington, major program in the District of teach in inner-city schools and secondary social studies D.C. He trainedColumbia public subsequently Stanford. California schools.Chiefsmasterfulversity, Hisunder where dissertation inteiest Fire he studiedwasin historyon based the educational careersas on a that subjectof three area big-city finally superintendents. leddissertation. him to history under David Tyack and wrote a Stanford Uni- His School hisschoollington doctorate districts; County, in heeducational wasVirginia, committed Publichistory to But Cuban was not content to study Schools, a position he held for sevenhemaking was years appointedthat history Superintendent as well. Upon historically the administration of large completingof the Ar- until hethe returned failuresreform to ofof Stanford educationalschool reform.in 1981 institutions Despiteas a There are those who will read this memberthe the energy inSchool the anddirection of Educationrhetoric of that "progressive"volume has as a pessimistic assessment supportedin whichfaculty, ideals, of especiallydrawssubjectYork is areastudent-centered toof Denver,a ratherinstruction stable, from is instruction.North teacher-centeredcorrelated Dakota and to subtle than that. He findsin that activity-based Michigan,the from classroomsintegrated, 1900 to me 1980. pedagogygeneral But thepicture sustaining Cuban itself from Ncw portrait picturefailurestheis not elementary drawn monolithic. of reform by Cubanschool) he Some derives isare reformsfar more lessonsmore fertile groundtake for plannedbetter than change. others.sustained,for Some future but planning what was and right innovation. and settings (e.g., Even in the adaptiveHe asks nottanttheabout only veryprinciples thewhy stability traditional the regardingreforms of certain methods were notwhose the fundamental characterinstructional of forms, he asserts, we may resilience he documents so vividly. to improve the quality of school-based education learn impor- publicFrom education.principlespassionatetical concernthat "longcan ofguide view" the front-lineour of the future disciplined decision attemptsWe thus confront the dual perspectives maker. It scholaris a rare and blend, the impassioned whichof historian may and and prac- schoolman. the dis- occasionallyorder.arshipings Evidence blandmeticulously offend and for thedistant. each examined. sensibilities assertion Yet this Replications of is the are carefullyscholarship marshalled of the highest, and contradictory most meticulous historiographer who prefers his schol- sought in adjacent decades and/or find- 10 Acknowledgments deeplyTheIthe beganblend separation held ofthis belief practice study of that practice as with worthwhile a school teaching from superintendenttheory, knowledge and research of practitioners draws andat the completedfrom university from both researchers, worlds.it reaffirms Indeed, is as a professor. more my ducedexperienceoftenministering, than knowledge not in public apersuaded divorce of schools,much that me worth isthatshuttling more the but symbolicdaily thatback realitiesrequired and than forth of real.conceptual classroomsbetween My teaching frameworks and schools and ad- quarter-century of pro- to individualstudiedbetweenimprove helpedknowledge behaviormy understanding me greatly derivedin public in from ofgraspingschools. what experience those the thingsmeaning inThis schools I studyfaced of and both ofdaily thatclassroom organizational which researchersteaching over the last century is part of meant. The interplay my journey and anprocessIin taughtneeded trying administrator. offorto to teachingunderstand manydiscover yearsThe both answers the questions and incomplexity schoolsserved to some I askaswhere of a longstandingthe andschool Iprocess thetaught superintendent answers ofand questionschange those I found in where forschools.I had construct I served the seven years, about the Because as servedoftenofboundaries many means in kind the of individualstime schoolthis study.spent system's willingin libraries. Professional to share In theirNew Library Anytime York investigationand City, advice. Pauline Historical that takes eighteen months to complete requires the help was especially helpful in Pincus who research effortsNewCollegetracking1960s York in tookdown andNew City earlytime York, sourcesPublic to1970s, herintroduce Schools. I viewscould and some notofLillianme the findto persistent informal theirWeber elsewhere. newly gave educationissues acquiredRobert in schooling. Morris archives of me a morning to tell of her movement in the late Her insights Teachersfrom the 11 arrangedPublichelped Schoolsme visits to revise andfor meGlenn a number to eachMelvey, ofof assumptions.the Fargo schools AssistantGordon I had Superintendent requested. York, Assistant I appreciated Superintendent of the Grand Forks, North 12 of Instruction, Dakota the xiiquestions.patience of the principals and InI Denver, Ellengail Buehtel Acknowledgments teachers who put up with mywho directs !he district's professional library note-taking and John Rankinhelpedbasementfor me mein tothe locate useof Public the student a administrationnumber Information yearbooks, of sources building.Department wasclipping especially files, gracious and photographs that I had given up on ever finding. stored in thein arranging made easiertheingtonia Divisionby the Room. sources of Research In located the school were in system, Researching the Washington, D.C. especiallythe District helpful of in Columbia locating sourcesPublic Erika Robinsonschools and Maggiein two time Howard periods was Library's Wash- photographsand patient of Introduction ofwith Publicclassrooms my use Schools of takentheir and space.since Glenn theBill Melvey, Gordon. York, Assistant Superintendent mid-1960s.Webb in the Media Center let me see Fargo Assistantschools Superintendent I had requested. of I appreciate of the Grand Forks, North Dakota Instruction, patience I have worked as a public school teacher, administrator, and researcher in ofarranged closetheCarl principals reading. visits Kaestle, for Iand appreciated meJoseph teachers to each Kett, ofthe Marvinthe prompt Reviewers of the manuscript followed my who put up with my note-taking Lazerson, Kim Marshall, and and full responses from Elisabeth instructions to give it a tough, and questions. David Tyack. Hansot, fourmepersuasiveon school schoolingshare systemsa answer few arose of for eitherthese thata quarter-century. in my experience or questions that haveseemed troubled unanswerable me. or had, for me, no the last decade. When IOver watched the years basic inquestions the research literature. Let Theyin askedtheare finalabsolved Lee study. Shulman, of a colleague One reviewer deserves special responsibility for any errors in fact or His gentlewho and joined wise the touch Stanford helpedmention. University me The editorial board for judgment that persist this seriesfacultyelithinate in rememberedmemoryteachersa student inand secondaryand of swept theas ajunior teacher over schools and me. senior a flash high ofI haveschool been in many classrooms in in the mid 1950s. This acute sense of What I saw was almost exactly what I recognition jumped out of my classrooms that I sat in as recall about Nationalteachersome1982, confusionsto practices reviewInstitute the Ito of manuscript.their Education. logical He was I also want to acknowledge had created, and he urged me to pursue my conclusion.the help His insightsof Charles were Missar, Librarian especially gracious and patient with an argumentshelpful. about for the askedhowunderline teachers myself, the couldwere word, teachingteaching almost overoccurred unchanged? in manyLongtime union leader Albert Shanker a'forty-year period seem, and I mean to made a similar observationdifferent schools. How, I greatex-superintendentanwhich organizationdeal. they And funded NIE forunlimbering itself and from rustywhich research betting that a school superintendent deserves a brief acknowledgment for this book derived. I feel awkward muscles. I appreciated his help a could carry off a complex the original study thanking that only gave further weight to my question.teacherssystem as come a result from of retirement,all over the death, country. TheyTen represent thousand new teachers each year enter job turnover, and attrition. These new the New York City school all religions, races, historicalhavingwere involved investigation.confidence in making in Usually,this I thank Finally, as in every single writing venture practitioner-researcher.the decision to fund this research. individuals but a large number of people I have undertaken, my wife Barbara I thank them for providing His observation underscored the puzzlingpoliticaltheythat, afterreplaced.' persuasions, three weeks and in educational the classroom institutions. you can't question of apparent uniformity tell them from the Butteachers the amazing thing is support.hascannot helpedmost Thanks. say satisfying.at somewhat stageit hasIt scratched withamounted an to I have written a great deal over either the mechanics, proofreading,itch that had or been bothering me for a but,as for thisthe study, last twenty I can say years about education. I it was the number districts,in institutionsinstruction I have overso hadapparently time. to deal vulnerable with another to Duringchange the as last decade, serving as a decision-maker question that puzzled me: in door? These questions, I schools why do so few in two local school of years. 13 LARRY CUBAN instructionalbelieve, are reforms linked. Theget pastapparent the classroomuniformity in instruction irrespective of 14 2 / Introductionchange.time and place is related to the apparent invulnerability of classrooms to pedagogy.framework Byof t;-ieinvestigating previous reformteaching efforts practicesIn directed trying before, to at answer altering during, the classroomand question of how teachers taught, I will use Introduction I3 after the Ithechange(N1E), used curriculum theIand sought metaphorstability and answers their since of consequences toa these In a paper commissioned by 1870.2 In examininghurricane how various to distinguish forces between questions through a studythe of National Institute offor Educationclassrooms over the last century, curriculumcurriculum shaped varietybewilderingclassroomsroutinelyreform impulsesof do, instructional should variety a clearer in emerge. theof sense studenttwentieth practice But of and whatwhat andcentury teacher hastono look persistedsingle aimed behaviors? for study atin and changingclassrooms canwhatWhile do has whatjusticethere marked changed teachers is to a byrichthe in a unruffledthewindstheory, surface sweep courses calm. turbulent across of study, the waters sea materials, tossing swirl up twentyAs tricky as metaphors can be, I andcompared classroomwhile that instruction. hurricane on the ocean toHurricane any floornewly there foot waves; a fathom below is student-centereddescribingportionintricate ofcomplexity instructionthat complicated contains of as classroom a acontinuum limited topography teaching, but stretching useful is aavailable. setuseful from of indicators toolteacher-centered The for conceptrevealing describing to a of andtrumpetedencesadd con to argumentshost the curriculum bothflurry. skeptics on Books theory.a new are theory. Professional written students. Yet most publishersand advocates. continue Professors of education Letters to editorsand and reputations sharp rebuttals are made. Confer- journals, for example, echo pro producingteach the gicalexistedprovidesatimportant capturing terrain. decades a dimensionshandy the ago richnesswedge and of inwhatmapping, ofprying the teachers classroom, open in a didthepreliminary inclosed thistheir continuumdoors classrooms. fashion, of classrooms their Not pedago- aimed that nonetheless thisbytextsnewcontent, controversy, metaphor wisdomuntouched materials, to for slogans,theirby itsthat and, utility theory, journal most in important, impactand most upon teachersillustrating teachingarticles, use methodsor distinctions convention between programs. theory, I unmarkedbehavior. used centeredconditionsmeansteacher- that andinstruction within a student-centered teacher his are: or controls her classroom. instruction. what is Before Observabletaught, Teacher-centered proceeding when, measures further, instructionof teacher- let me state plainly what I mean by and under what teachingtextbookprofessionalexamine practices.content. primary ideologies But However, sources I did and not or vocabularies, I findresearchdid notIn anythis courses NIE paper I found that much evidence of significant changecurriculum insystematically theories did or comprehensivelyinfluenceschool districts. I used, for the of study, and some TeacherinstructionInstruction talk exceedsoccursoccurs frequentlyless student frequently. talk with during the whole instruction. class; small group or individual stubbornavailable.moststudent-centered.efforts part, continuity toBased secondary move upon classroom in sources thisthe initialcharacter practices review of and a few primary documents that were toward instructioninstruction that despite wasI found more intense evidence reform of a seemingly Student-centered instructionTheUseblackboard ofclassroom class means time with isthat usuallyis a determinedstudents teacher's arranged exercise desk by theintonearby. teacher.a rows substantial of desks or chairs facing a touchingteachingdecades practices students despite extensive seemedof diverse uncommonly teacher abilitiesDeepening the paradox further, the education. In dealing with this paradox they loosened.in differentSome stablewriterslimited settings at assert all evidence overlevels many ofsuggested schooling that student-centereddegreeand forof direction any movement instruction and responsibility within are: the for classroom. what is taught, Observable how it ismeasures learned, of thatresearchersCommonothers student-centeredhave argue done haveto allinthat tied writersclassrooms.; such teachingmore isclassroom knots severely than practices were embraced by teachers, changeslimited are evidence seldom about institutionalized. what teachers while moderatelyMosttalk.StudentStudents instruction talk helpsizedon learning chooseoccurs(7 to 12) tasks andeither groups organizeis individually,at least rather theequal than content to,in the ifsmall wholenotto be greater(2 learned.class.to 6 than,students) teacher or beginsneededThedrove fragments me that to toward betask.4 brought of askingknowledge together a fundamental about toScanty evidence about the stable or givewhat a cumulative teachers did clarity. in their This classrooms studyquestion:changing how did character teachers of teach? instruction canVariedbehaviorTeacherteaching use instructional them andpermits stations, penalties independently students materials and in activity classroom to are ordetermine, available centers.in small and how in groups, partially the they classroom aree.g., or enforced. wholly,interest so that centers,studentsrules of 4/ Introduction studentsUse of these for atmaterials least half is of the either scheduled by the teacher or academic time available. students to work determined by instruction,influence. These especially classroom when they indicators combine can to suggestcreate patterns. dominant forms of Introduction I5 Classroomdominanttogetheroccurs isor inpattern usually separatelyrealigning exists arranged and furniture and space. in small groups or in much movementin of a desks,manner tables, that permits individual work space; no and chairs 2.3.1. WhetherRatioArrangement of teachermost of instruction classroom to student occurs space talk individually, in small groups, or with the viewed as tools to help in determiningThese concepts of teacher- and student-centered what happened in classrooms. instruction should be As 5.4. Thepartentire presenceofdegree class the normal of of movement learning school or day studentsinterest centers are permitted that are usedwithout by studentsasking the as lackconceptualtion Further,precision. is used tools they as At athey simplifysynonymdifferent are complex for progressivelimited because practices times,they or are for arbitrary;example, classroom events. Nevertheless, even can help sort out, student-centered instruc- the open classroom. however crudely, they often with No judgments will be made about the effectivenessIn seeking of to teacher- describe or classroom student- practicesteacher° I had to narrow my scope. varioustheseagainstcontinuum.teachers shortcomings, teaching the simple haveOf patterns, even done these greater in especially conceptsclassrooms importance fact that there are so few over time. when these patterns are arrayed on is to weighstudies these that shortcomings have captured what a centeredtheseclassroomtices. issuesFinally, instruction, or are.the this relationship The norstudy willcentral will comparisons notbetweenresearch deal withadults beissue made the andfor emotional amongme childrenas is to teaching detet climate important mine prac- of how the as practiceatboth various ways moved placesregardless solely along of In using these constructs, thefrom way. reformers'teacher- Nor do to intentions.I student-centered;assume that Individual changes I do not assume that actual changesteachers in stopped traffic flowed in teaching tivemightystableHowever, value certain efforts of teacher-centeredthere teaching to move is little behaviorstoward point instruction student-centered in were determining decade in achieving after which instructionnot decade studentteaching in outcomes.the thebehaviors face rela- of often,behaviorparticular1929, as thiswere for practices studyexample, an all-or-nothing will they whoseshow, only found useful. An elementary teachersclassroom incorporated change into in years wasembrace to of an entireteaching approach. one in the front school teachertheir in repertoires of the room divide her Quite teachingproducethanreveal others improvedwhatacts persistatis "good"creating student over or positive time,"poor" performance which teachingclassroom have untilGiven or changed, climates. howresearchers these some limits, andthen teachers findwhy. whatan outobvious willare which bebetter questionthe arises: if this research will not whileclasstoteacherpractice enliven intothe restin twoto 1933 hisher groupsworked students' arsenal who forbeganat theirreading, study using of teaching methods. Or ofdesks the onFrench an assignment, Revolution.examples had from contemporary take a high school history added a newpolitical life knowledge,intoissuepractical the of merits theuse Iintersection ofanticipate ofthe applied research? broader between or basic This uses research researchis a of fair this question and orstudy. thepractice. valuebecause Withoutof incremental it raises getting the progressivewordingspace andfor practices,progressive labeled While pedagogical progressives suchteacher-centered changesalbeit selectively. as trivial, instruction these On a continuumas there of the time might have teachers had adopted there needs to be would be spacewinced at my thestableadministrators, seeming and what persistence teachers, has altered andof incertain citizen-advocatesteaching instructional Becauseover the about lastpractices so century,little what can has investigating illuminate remained is known by researchers, policymakers, school forprogressive thecorporated various reformers. typesinto their practices The various adaptations of progressive of student-centered instruction more are just as puzzling, pedagogy that teachers contained in this studyif not interesting, as familiar to in- ableandofboth isthe whatthetothe classroom reform. classroom,potential is transient, By since and simply citizens thewhatthe knowinglimitsturn isand openof to professionals the classroom more to century improvement about shouldchange. canthe comeinstructional reveal and Exploring towhat what have is thequarkis invulner-reasonable durable terrain that whattriesareascategorize was to describeignored. of classroom instructional Thea variety range patterns Despite individual teaching decision making over which of teaching behaviors.5 of teaching practice17differences,by careful observers attention can,to teachers have direct at least five visible I believe, still expectationssweepoutcomesheld accountable over offerabout public practical what schools. for teachers and directions what can is andfor beyond the cannot periodic their do, whatreach. surges schools Such of reform canmodest bethat 18 61 Introduction Since the late 1950s, reforms in curriculum (e.g. new math), govern- study of classroom instruction. PowerfulThere metaphors is also dominate another theless thinking direct, more subtle use that I see for this Introduction 17 toance studyingseemGuinnessalter (e.g. teacher to community havedirectly Book behavior been of howWorld control),incorporated teachersin Records the classroom. have taught, reliable clues instruction (e.g. onteam failed teaching) classroom haveinto reforms, tried teachers' for few repertoires. ever Perhaps in There should be a page in the will emerge that everylikewritesof practitioners, that facetthat of athe of machine, scLoolingcommon policymakers, reinfotces metaphor is a candidate and rational forscholars schools fordecision onplanned isschooling. themaking, factory.change. suggestingJ. M. ThisSwitch Stephens image, thatthe suggestchangeablerealistically,turning paths out in ifthat thenot classroomboth nextusefully. generation.teachers aids the and of professional teachers.Moreover, While educators establishing that which is enduring and reformers might pursue more formal teacher educa- responsiblethat forwhich is improveunderstandingaroundagriculturemetaphor the production. to sun,you farming, the climate,start durability with But he seeds, anyousays, ancient,and plants,cannot, andlimits schooling stableand heto whatthecontinues, process process, insects looks and ignore hearevery build argues, likely different.these your to you "olderdo.efforts can ByIn anyonebementslegislatorstion a politicallyis and one knowledgeable acrossmandating of several satisfying the country entry-level ways about response haveof the improving tests opted to popular for for new stiffeningclassroom unease complexity of classroom instruction teachers. While these may certificationwith public require- schools, instruction, state classroomthem.organictangible This forces teachers.'isconsequences a youfundamentally have little for whatdifferentcontrol can over." way andI believe of cannotYou viewing havethat be manydoneteachingto work withschool throughand and officials,has for policymakers, and researchers yearknowledgeness.knows in What that and such andout, is solutionsskillsdecade teachers after are marginaldecade. have used To in theiruncover in performing impact on classroom less marginal and more useful whatis tois changeabledetermine andwhat teacher effective- ingredients tasks inatdecisions.carry andtheturn, least,theseprofessionals suggest Historical potentialor similar directions mapsalike.for images determining forof I taketeaching the in persistent uptheir thesethe practices heads. accuracy points reforms Suchover againof undertakenthe thesepictures inlast themetaphors century shapefinal by citizens section.carry, their and, forwhattratorsknow a well-groundedis stablewhatand paths he isin to ablepersistent teaching pursue approachto perform in andoffers working to predictable oncewhat university withtheycandidates inenter teacher-educators teaching thefor classroom.the offers profession experienced teachers. school adminis- Similarly, to should Two specific questions guidecenteredafterDid this reform teacher-centered instruction?study: movements instructionthat had as onepersevere of their in targets public installing schools duringstudent- and theircenturyclassroomidentical, classrooms, ago practice. werecoped undeniably withand For adaptedsimilarteachers alike, situations, toto mayworkingbe reliably Theregive practitionersconditions isinformed a tangible thatthat, pride usefulness for teachers in this found solutions that worked in examination of colleaguesin how a their while not teacher classroom practices in three cities Inand order many to ruralanswer districts these during no,Ifquestions the to answerwhat Iextent haveis yes, diddrawn to instructionwhat historical extent changedid mapsit persist and of why? and why? If the answer is persistedFurthermore,professionpredecessorssuggest for tothat them over copedfor is afflicted teachersa basiscenturywith foradversitywith to while accuratelyknow self-doubts others thatand estimatingasome are clearand of classroomdiminished sensemore what ofrecent identity practicespublic origin esteem. havemay classroom changes with a betweenthetheto1965 1920s install early and 1975 and student-centered decades1975; and1930s; and1981. of inonethis Thetwo middle-sizedcentury teaching twocities periods andand practices the oneschool when more state werereformersdistrict recent, for the the in progressivebriefer decade trieda metropatan vigorously period between years when area in whatpersistedareforbeyond feasible, individualchange and their given whatin immediate teachersthe existing has classroom, changed did conditions. influence in theirschool,in American classrooms may and suggest community. sc000ls but to stemmed teacherswas Mostless fromproperoften due targets to Finally, understanding that what has instructional factors professionalsinformal learning and citizens. and open classrooms capturedTo determine the enthusiasm how teachers ofPhotographs both taught, I ofhave teachers used anda variety students of in sources: class preferencesaboutshovedreformsin classrooms the downward in history thebased last as of uponinto centurythey classroom thea are firm classroom. werepresently knowledge instruction generated organized.Were of perhaps teacherswhatoutside can they theto and bewould school cannotmore be voice theirandinformed were done TeacherStudentTextbooksadministrators.Reports recollectionsreports fromand tests personsof how teachers of theywhotheir visitedtaughtusedexperiences classrooms, in classrooms e.g. journalists, parents, and 8; Iniroduclion Student writings in school newspapers behavior in classrooms and yearbooks techniquespersisted that teachers incorporated into their in spite of determined reforms to alter them, or repertoires? introduction / 9 the new Historians have to cope with Researchplacement,Descriptions studies building of of classroom teacher plans, etc.architecture, the twin problems of selectivity size of rooms, desk design category) and the of evidence and EXPLANATIONSThere are a number FOR of explanations CONSTANCY for classroomAND CHANGEstability in the face of thebiases(i.e.differentmultiple "Newwhat of sources survivesEducation"). andsettingselementary varied (e.g. and isa sourcesTo counter over availablephotographer may be ina typical1900 posed of the and high school, urban and thesetwo perennial periods problems of time I students to illustrate in rural.a number Questions of have sought toreforms haveConsiderdescriptionsboth endured.theand range thechanges followingof and classroom that character werepossible practiceembraced. of explanations arguments unfold I raise infor the next that I willthem consider now toas alerttheclassroom readers practices that five chapters."' of similarmanyselectivity settings studies. will should still arise From these sources 1 have partially offset1890 tothe 1980. inherent These descriptions but the use of several sources gathered descriptions of over problems that accompany willat various be embedded times in, 1,200 class- socioeconomicorganized, the curriculum, system. Those and instructional teaching Schoolspractices practices are a that form of social control and sorting. mirror the norms of theThe ways schools are seek obedience,grades, home- otherandwithinroomstaught other classrooms. fora larger in sourcesthe order years set thattoInof giveaddition,data afrom context indirectly reveal teaching practices I includedeach district national including data studiesonfor the local practices that I in almost 6,000 how theteachers historicalof teachers, describe. argumentparticipationwork,uniformity,those and ends: is paying andthat in teaching a productivity certainbureaucratic attention the teaching whole to through, and the class corporateteacher for encourages example, prepare culture. tests, practices become functional to achieve children to vie forchildren the for effectiveConsistent with this didmapsscopic inoften Iclassrooms. mentioned whirlobscured that Anyone by it student isalthoughThe patterns of teaching earlier, represent only a tiny compliance and byfamiliar teacher-establishedpractice with a classroomdescribed inknows this study, its pace, intensity, and complexity are fraction of what teachers the kaleido- routines. teacher'sgoes,teacher'sfacingreward the athoseattention teacher's authoritypractices students and todesk encouraged control encourageswho produce respond the bybehavior a uniformwith the of correcttheappearance. class. answer; rows student-centered instructioncompetitiveness; ill-fit the teacher questions Thus, the argument reinforcing the of chairs humdrum,Topaleontologistwhirl the infrequent after even it has tedious.who observer, disappeared? carefully How, and The historian of classroom the classroom, after 30 then, can I capturesoftly only brushesteaching one away is the dust in the same bind as the minutes, may seem slice offrom this a jaw characteritsioninhospitable produces making, of the student arenasetc. society Teacher-centered forbehaviors childrensmall group expected would instruction,instruction, byenter the and expression, however,larger endured society. because classrooms became student deci- populationsmallfragmentdeal fragment with of that arean ofthe apparentphotographs the scientist skeleton: human wants and to theclassroom skeletonwritten anafter accounts evenancestor. it occurred tinier of The various is bone is an describe. The "bones" I have had to fractioninfinitesimally of the participants.similar, but intodividingtecture adopting of the theinstructional day classroom, into periods,practices compulsory the that Carnegie changedThe littleorganizationalUnit, over and structure of the school and attendance, age graded classes. classroom drove teachers othertime. structural The archi- notCapturingtrying identicalpainting, to what complete tocut thehappened it into an a puzzle in a with Historian David Fischer suggests paleontologist's search for relevantunconventional puzzle. Take a half of the rest.thousands The task of parts. of Throw out the corner another metaphor. History is evidencesJackSon Pollock putting it all like andorderlying:imperativesdecisions gettingfollow class. atheemergeddaily groupWithin directions about of afrom studentsclassroom what ofirresistible ato toteacher teach, 30acquire or impulses morehowwho knowledge tostudentsmust teach, inherent are in make overmaintaining a thousand a whilebuzzing maintaining an required to listen public school- pieces,togetheroverreconstructed. most the approximates lastof the century, In edges, a study what and of continuityPutting it all together also means an how I can explain the various historians do.' 21 and change in American effort to make sense of what practices that may have classrooms is createdconservedbut orderly resilient their calm, timeand and adaptable andhow energy to secure approaches to copestudentTied with to interestdealto structures over which they had little conflicting demands, They with many students in ain the tasks at hand.influence teachers 22 Introduction I II surveillance.small10 efficientI Introduction space use forTeaching of long valuable periods the entireteacher of time,class as a time so as to cover mandated Rows of desks permitted easy single group was simply an subject effortseffectivelyrooms to changed. modifyimplemented what Where teachersin classrooms.efforts did were were Whatsystematically determines executed, instructional practice is whether or not reforms were ill-conceived,According haphazardly to this adapted, argument, when class- matterconveyingLecturing,a practical while knowledgenumerousmonitoring pedagogy teacherand any to managingcope questions, a groupStudent-centered techniques that stress untowardwith a noise complex or movement classroom. in the room. and seatwork are simple waysinformal studentefficiently. seating, Teachers small invented of practice.sometivesand partially and frequency dreams implemented, ofwhen reformers. the classroomsideas Planned where changeremained in classroomsinsulated from occurred carefully designed and put into the direc- with generategroupstudents,theSuch teacherwork, a a noisier, andclassroom individual in toleratingmanaging messier would theirvaried be freedomout tasks, of step to move creativity, and learning centers classroom. Far more energy is constructing numerouswith existing materials classroom for and school and talk when they wish. around the room required from thechangeteacher-centered next may five havechapters. instructionoccurred. Consider and the theselastOfThe twothe various bookfiveexplain explanations, argumentsis dividedwhere classroom ininto thereading three first sections.three account Part forI covering the 1900-1940 durability of structures.change. the argument goes, The culture of teaching itself tilts This culture is shaped by the kinds and most difficult to install. toward stability and a reluctance to of people recruited into the ThistheconsistsDenver, turn description of threeColorado,the century ischapters. followed and including Chapter Washington, by a chapter the1 opens progressive ofD.C. withcase during astudies description reforms the on 1920s Newof of these Yorkteaching and years. City,1930s. at classroom,decadesaccordingthepractices school beforehow tosupporting thatthis newcomers entering theyexplanation, existingobserved their learn themselves approaches.own toin teachers that classrooms.survive, and theThey prevailing tend to usevalues those in watched teachers for Peoplealmost twowho become teachers, taught them. Whole class offersinformalincludingChapterD.C., an 3 Neweducation intensivesurveysrural York schools. teaching between City,look Part atand practices 1965-1975. classroom 11 North contains nationally Dakota Inteaching twoit, case are chapters.during studiessummarized.in one these Chapter ofschool twoWashington, decades,Chapter 4district treats 5 discussions,classesteacherstext,changes seatwork, of in supervised inthetheir practice teacherstests, own andschooling.suchstudy, they an as homework admired.small Such group occasional film were familiar methods to new techniques seemedinstruction,Rather to work planningthan in themake lessons fundamentalassignments with drawn from one chapter,employingdisciplinescentury. is anover to essay that one of onthousand the continuity thirteenth teachers and century change sinceEarlier cartographer 1975, in teachingI compared Part 111, trying during themy to final taskthismap to a that of fossil seekers. Let me shift students,theapproaches tenets and of andletting the introducing conservative the class occasional choose cultureTwo other explanations may account characteristicvariations would of what teaching.be consistent to do,for morerefin: with change g traditional than stability in Thisseascontainedhadnew been worldandstudy returned writtennumerous onis inthe the in basiswith books,traditionmistakes newof what and information yetof informedinformation that sea captainsthirteenth thatguesses. seafarers who century Theused maps themmapmaker. heexplored produced the reshaped subsequent maps. brought back, what practices.authority,teaching practices. and the place of subject matterIdeas about how children develop, the Those classrooms where teachers believed in instruction determine teachingrole of the school, classroom that a child's interest NOTES 1. "Interview with Albert Shanker," Principal, Vol. 53, No. 3, March/April, writing,in colleaguesthethe outdoors latterreading, who to needed andoccurbelieved math to only bethat constructed cultivatedafter work and very the former had been completed. This play were separateby activitiestying instruction with to science, different classrooms from 3.2. TheLarry writers Cuban, who "Determinants argue for stabilitylum 1970,"1974,of Issues Curriculum p.often in 48. Jon cite Schaffarzick ChangeJohn Goodlad's and and Stability,Gary study. Sykes These1870- (eds.) (Berkeley, Calif.: McCutchan Publishers, 1979). Value Conflicts and Curricu- child-centeredexplanationideas.setting shaped stresses progressivism, their that classrooms ideas informal shape and education, or a 23 behavior; teachers committedactivities to consistenta with those teacher-dominated Doorclassroomsresearchers indrew 67 schoolsconclusions across based the nation.upon observations See in the late(Worthington, 1960s of 158 Ohio: Charles A. Jones, 1974). Writers Looking Behind the Classroom whn aCsert that 24 12 I Introduction Transformationprogressive theories of the ha''e School penetrated the classroom (New York: Vintage, 1961) and Charles include Lawrence Cremin, Silber- 5. beganI can illustrate teaching this social important studies, point an observerby a personal conk, note. have 1(1 easily the late categorized 19511s me as Introduction / 13 when I man,mersinvestigatorsSystem did not haveget past asserted the that the instructional Crisis in the Classroom(Cambridge: Harvard University Press. classroom door, See David Tyack, (New York: Random Hoe practices1974) proposed and Theodoreby refor- Sizer, 7'he One1971). Best Other movablewhollyreports.teacher-led teacher chairs an occasionaldiscussions - withcentered. tablet debate interspersed Each arms; orweek classwe inwithcarried game class mini-lectures tomyon, break studentsmore the often from routine, sat inthanme, rows student not, of Over 90 thePlacesHopkinsPress, 1930s1920-1940," for 1973). wasLearning, Press, ArthurOne in writerLawrencePlaces Zilversmit, who for Stone, didJoy (ed.) 1976), pp. 252-61. What historians have investigate what I 1ppcned"The in schools Failure(Cambridge during of Progressive Mass,:Schooling Education. Harvard University and Society (Baltimore: John written about otherforsuchPercent varied techniques approaches of tasks,the instructional aspreparing that using could student-led timeinstructional be summedwith discussions,students materials up loosely wasBy dividing spenttothe asreplace early being with the 1960s the partclass wholetextbook. ofI into had the group.groups "new and begun to incorporate into my teaching practices student-centeredForin researchingchapter the nineteenth I. classrooms century penetrating Barbara teacher autobiographies, Finkelstein has done a signal serviceclassrooms by is takenstudent up in more schooldetail instruction. Other than the recollections, textbooks, socialmaterialtheseentire studies," stations 5(1 I hadminute atdeveloped least period once for going a theweek, teaching(min sonietimes one stations. teaching Bymore, Mostthe station depending early of the 1970sto weer., another. on one how however, class I much used of the live I taught daily would spend the teachingofjournal "Governinginvestigation1820-1880," manuals, articles thesheand has (Unpublished Young:has the interested publishedlike Teacherfor primary fewEd. based D,Behavior upon Dissertation, Teachersresearchers. College Columbia See Barbara Finkelstein, in Americanher doctoral Primary research, Schools, this line wasused,ofStudentsfor spent the particular howshoe in sat teacher-led timefixing in projects, a andhorseshoe my classroom discussions.desk student and arrangement thereports,space super blackboard. was vised mini-lectures,of allocated,desks study What and periods, was Ichairs decided.and studied, other groupwith approaches.thethe openmethods end meetings University,(which,happenedLorne I 1970).has suspect,in classroomspointed is out,a partial other "has thanexplanation).concentrated the onI cannot fully explain why so few researchers havedifficulty tried to recaptureor the tediousness what of the task learningThe rather typical than researcher, teaching andas Dan teachermypattern instruction ofchanged instruction certain some remained practicespractices, teacher-centered,not yet there did not it Again,decade necessarilyI offer yet ifearlier'. required thisI had substantially personal incorporated to make reference altera judgment a to illustrate about how the point1 taught, of how my dominantat least one into ofthehas Chicago realitiesgenerallyfacilities Press,of employed availablethe 1975),classroom." tomodels p.students 70, Danand and Lorne, used Consider that the major policy study of the techniques at some distance removed standardizedfrom test results as the basis forSchoolteacher mid-1960s concentrated upon (Chicago: University 7.6. TheJ, m rationale for using basictheseAppendix. teachingindicators is taken up in more detail in the Stephens. 71u, pattern. Process of Schooling (New York: 1 bolt, Rinehart and determiningviewColemanchanneling of schooling, Report,whether research nonetheless, schools practitioners' away were from had effective. aspirations classrooms.profound Far consequences for their students, andremoved initially from classrooms, the for both the public 9.8. Donald C. Johanson andWinston, HoutonEllwoodMaitland 1967),-kind Cubberlcy A. Edey,p. and Franklin Bobbin used both metaphors. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981). p. 11. David 'Tack pointed out to me that progressives Lucy: The Beginnings of 120. provingwhatundergoingobservational teachersone method important instrument have better done changes over thanin classrooms. another. now, another few WhileWhere research has dwelt on teaching, it investigators have examinedDavid(to exactlyno avail)Berliner, or promotingin a thoughtfulthosehas onetraditions been more of fascinated research are with 10. Elaborations of these explanationsDavid occurthere,134. 11. Fischer, Ihstorions' Fallacies (New York', Harper and Row, 197(1), p. in the final chapter and are cited comprehensivewhatinvestigatingBerliner,relating teacher teaching "Studying elementary behaviorreview behavior of fluctuates Instruction problemsclassrooms, to student and researchers in stressedhow the outcomes must Elementary Classroom,"and ... why it influctuates Robert over timethat "until we know more about need to be awareremain primitive."of in David growing(CambridgeDreebenwithhas appeared the bodyand post-1965 Mass.: Alan of over ethnographic ThomasBallinger the years. last decade.(eds.) Publishing literature I will onCo., cite some 25 The Analysis of Educational Productivity what happens in classrooms1980), that p. 202. There is also ofa these sources when I deal 26 ClassroomProgressivism Practice, and 1890-1940 Part I 27 Tradition and ChallengeTurn of the Century: Teaching at the 1 AtprintedtoWhile P.S. submit 8 he incontributions taught anNew article Yorkmany to City, subjects, fromNew William cityYork he teachers. enjoyedTeachers' Chatfield theA Monographs, glimpse teaching taught theof of howhistorysixth a journal Chatfield grade. enough that AmericanChatfieldcoveredwrotetaught thathis the described sixthhistorythe French course graders and howand of how historyIndianhestudy included he for taughtWarin 1900the thethrough secondthe emergesmain subject thepointssemester endfrom matter. of of his this ofthe description.the half-centuryWar sixth of 1812.grade He of outthis,the workthe and results. thento be to covered lead them and by to conversationsassign lessons The tofrom Adiscover generalpart the oftext themethod in reasonstime conformity haseach and been week think with to isfirst given furnish to oral the instruction pupils with and an atoutline the end of of drawnbook.showthe week what upon a writtenhe the has blackboard exercisegathered isand from required copied the oralof by each Maps thework, pupil.pupil. and his pictures UponInreading this these heare and attempts freely maps the used textare to to illustrate the work, the former being 29 "causesChatfield aiding pointed or preventingout how he certain connected results,"picturesmadeindicated the of climateand areevents the gatheredwhat movements whichand people fromgeography have ofdidmany madethe for opposingsources to certaina and placesforces; are distributedand and localities brief instatements the noted. class. The are 18 memorizedliving./ Progressivism Finally, andin chronologicalClassroom to "leave Practice, a lasting order."' 1890-1940 impression, the principal events are weeksyear olds a year and thanyoung their adults urban simultaneously. cousins. These Students schools, attended soon to school become the Teaching at the Turn of the Century / 19 fewer thousandslittleance,pened is squabbles in known of those colleagues ofclassrooms. over what acrossteachers Much the did city. is in FewI know little else about William schools, who taught and what was known aboutclassrooms. schoolChatfield district The or, fewgovern- for historians that matter, who his historians know what hap- taught, yet very increasedschoolswereobjectspent.5 the of still sites ato vigorous enrolled$26.13, where butmost campaign67 remainedpercent Americans forof well allimprovement were children; below taught the per the$45.74 through pupil basics. thatexpenditure consolidation, By city systems had 1910 rural publichaveworked,methods,from studied schools teacher i.e. visitors' practice classhave biographies, size,reconstructed impressions, prior room to student progressivearrangement, a and partial the recollections, popular textbooks on contextschool within pictureorganization, which reformers'of classroom teachers courses involvement activities of with recitedbetweenaminedteaching passagesalmost differ1820 one and byfrom thousandsetting? 1880, textbooks, teachers Accordingdescriptions worked talkedWhat to atof Barbara theiraelementary greatdid desks teachers deal.Finkelstein, onschool Studentsassignments, do classrooms in who these either ex- or urban and rural classrooms? Did study,222,000studentsin 1890 or school therein highelementary wereboard schools. 224,526 rules.2 (including Together school grades these buildingsPublic seven schools near the turn of the century were students constituted 69 percent housing almost 13and million eight)* schools, and diverse. For example, listenedwhenshoulddentsinstruction. boththey tosit, the inshouldwhen Teachers behaviorteacher they turn assigned andshould andtheir classmatesclasswork. heads...." stand, work when and TeachersStudents during expected they theshouldtoldoften timeuniformity students entered hang set asidetheir"when and from exitedcoats, for theystu- citiesschoolhousesof schoolthe of age 4,000movement 5-17 in or ruralpopulation. more had areas, people.' spread then Over acrossdefined asBy the 1890s over a half-century had 77 percent ofthe the growing children nation. attended Public schools,already passed since the commondistricts outside of towns and theand room, west, rose in ruraland sat,schools wrote as and well spokeas as urbanskillsachievement one. schools,"... in"North a particular designed she and concluded, south, tofashion. compel east Itstudents was a tofashion assimilateteachers dictated knowledge assigned by the and lessons,textbooks practice asked questions and created standards of Schoolwouldparticularlyschoolexpected be was education. familiar toin have cities,session to hadEach hadobservers ninesome teacherestablished months formal a hadcentury out traininga classroom organizations and practices thatof each year. later.Teachers Schools werebeyond were a graded. grammar or high to herself (by 1890, 65 hadschools. students The memorize."Intellectual The Overseer" "Drillmaster" assignedFinkelsteinusuallyand led studentswork, often found punished inwith unison three dogmatic errors throughpatterns determination.6and of teaching in these elementary percentducedfloorpercentmid-1930s.)4 facedof in of all the high a primary teacher'searly Coursesschool 1900s and deskstaffs of grammar studybut and were did blackboard.set notthe boundaries and female). Rows of desks bolted to the school teachersbecome were female;commonplace 60 until the (Movable desks were intro- expectations for what dozenclarifyterlessons of Culture,"descriptions ideasrequiring and she themexplain of found this to repeatcontent instructional only content occasionally. to children. pattern.?aloud.Documenting SheA Here third found the pattern, these lessteacher patterns, than "Interpre- would a half she provides richly detailed accounts of terrainbecomehadcentury to befamiliar standard earliertaught to featuresinand teachers urban when. ofclassrooms. andthe Report urbanstudents cards classroom rural school boardstoday spent had $13.23 been constructedand homework a had already in the 1890s. In brief, a werefollowersmonitorialmemorizedbefore routine inthe schoolsthe and teachertext 1820s, rural selections established onwhereone-room the in group recitation the inschools, few citiesrecitations minutes bench bywhere Joseph and they andindividual standardized hadLancasterraced with throughstudents the behaviorand teacher. hissattheir housesperschools,facilities pupil received while teacherswith city lessinsufficient with boardsof everything. little spent books, formal They supplies, educationBut were rural schools differed. By 1890, $28.87. In particular, one-room school- and equipment. In ungradedthemselveshoused in coped older, with makeshift five classrooms.Thebehaviorimpression," settings, she Norshefound she concluded,could writes,crossed she "that geographicalfindhad there littlemuch wasto Consistently,change do andlittle with organizational linearover what time. changeteachersFinkelstein "One inboundaries. did the gets in stressesconduct their the that the regularities in teaching thosecommonDistinctions with at grades this between time. 1-8. I primarywill use (gradesthe word 1-4) elementary and grammar to (grades 31 include both types of schools and 5-8) schools were somenotedof classrooms groupingthat there in bywas the ability, lessperiod corporal and from more 1820 punishment, grading to 1880." of morelevels Carl uniformity Kaestle,in these decaclei.8however, in texts, f 1,st ' Teaching at the Turn of the Century 121 4 It " 14 M I (.1 Is I r.

. Washington,Collection, D.C. Library Elementary of Congress). Classroom, Black School, 1900 (Frances B. Johnson JohnsonWashington, Collection, D.C., Library Elementary of Congress). Classroom, WhiteOther School, primary 1900 sources (Frances not B. included in her study support the existence geography,indetermined.identificationof 1900,the Overseer for andexample,Articles and arithmetic.and frequency written Drillmaster describe Theseby of New how occurrencepatterns. accounts York they Citytaught As reveal ingrammar with these composition, relianceFinkelstein's types school upon cannot science,teachers study, whole be topicsthenumberrepeatedlygroup text, instruction,for ofmodified studentsteachers in the teachers'lessons drill, whoto pursue, toldand to descriptions. howfit recitation; children's providing they used uniformityinterests,There evidence various were, andmaterials infor however, practicedeveloped the lnterpretorin addition turns special up toof a sizable ortechnologystudied.`'Culture more typeseconds of though the while period this film requiredis was two exposed.decades subjectsPhotographs Typically,after to remain the period theyof immobile elementary show Finkelstein rows twenty school of classrooms were posed since camera JohnsonWashington, Collection, D.C. Library Elementary of Congress). Classroom, White School, 1900 (Frances B. 33 BEST COPY AVAILABLE teacherchildrenD.C., standingphotographwith hands nearby. foldedshows Activities atop 27 children their appear desks sitting occasionally. staring at their into desks, the One Washington,cheeks puffed camera with a .34 22 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Teaching at the Turn of !hr. Century / Z3 theholdingup,the readycenter teacher, in for ofboth theattention; demonstrates hands. In the avast class. Exceptionsteacher's command could be to seen, blow on sometimes a student under the point at the blackboard, recites a majority of these photos the the pinwheel that they arehowever, in a series of watchful gaze of teacher is passage, educationalFinkelsteinCubberley.Oregon survey foundexperts The directedsurvey are of surveysthe team byday. Stanford visited ofTake, school 50for UniversityOther elementary conditionsexample, sources professor the classesconducted that 1913 support in EllwoodPortland, 9 byschools. the P. existence of the teaching types that show"Newposedor andreads groupsphotossquirrelsEducation." to the takenof for students inaIn lesson 1899almost working inon rodents, watchingWashington,300 prints a teacher ofD.C., elementary carve classrooms teachers, to portray with relief maps in geography,taking a trip to the zoo, and similar into a cow's nearly 30 rabbits the criticalExcept offor the teachers instruction in the they primary viewed. grades, Some excerpts:the observers wereextreme....Geography: The "All assignment the work observed for study ... and was the abstract questions, and almostbookish without in the highly activities.heart to show The theremaining parts of 90 an percent organ, of the prints show students sitting teacher's direction.") in exception,book." called for unreasoning memorization of the statements of the . rowsperiodcian-journalistpen at portraits their in 1892. desks of who Rice's observed articles Corroborating photographs and elementary classrooms drawn by doing tasks uniformly at the 1,200 teachersin ain popular 36 cities magazine during a painted teacher descriptions further are Joseph Rice, the pediatri- teaching in 6 month the grammarwhole,ArithmeticHistory: to behad and "There the littlegrammar: best was meaningteaching not" . the observed.for slightest most ofIt isevidencethe true children...." that ofmuch active of theinterest technical in the . the teaching of these subjects seemed on the ofurban sensitivityhis. schools Instruction to as children grim, was dreary, married as individuals, to As a self-proclaimed reformer, he memorization, and "busywork" studentsand mechanical, the latter a drill and sing-song recitations,Rice said.'' described in clear, if not minute favorite epithet lacking mind- Newton (Mass.) Superintendentmemory,subject; the the Frank onestatements purposeSpaulding of seemed the drafted assigned to bethe text....to report acquire, "" by sheer force of detail,beginninglessly the pursued deadening the lessonat the drill, teacher'swith a question: order. "With howthree many senses: senses sight, do hearing, we study and In Boston, Rice witnessed a teacher geography?" touch," answered the pupils. togradetermson not grammar-gradeelementary teachersathat single most remarkinstruction.toward fittingly rooms, ortheir describecomment I"Passive, work."heard thenot Exceptmade routine, attitudea single to for indicate clerical," ofonequestion principals lesson that he asked the"inwrote, and allpupil by grammarmy a pupil,had visits any "are the geographies,andwhenhad thenbeen the ran found teacherand their to each begin fingerssaid pupil "Start,"with down placed the the capes his map,pupils onThe children were now told to turn to forefinger upon "Cape Farewell,"calling out and thethe names mapsaid ofof in eachNorth concert, cape Americathe as "Capeeastern in Farewell," coast.their When the map therestudyreally isandvital a persistentquarterly interest in examinationsproblem the subject in interpreting matter."I5for suffocatingWhile thesethe survey imaginative survey report conclusions. teaching,blamed a "mechanical system" of courses of coastit wasnorthfingerswere of touched.... toldNorthto down south. to closeAmerica, the After cover their thebooks.and pupils named had from memory beginning at the north and ending at the south, When the books had been closed, they ran named all the capes on the eastern the capes in their order from theirthey see.istheOften to overwhelming disentangle it is impossible the majority, observers' to gauge or mostprecisely desires of the for whether Additionalclassrooms. improvement conclusions dataEven from buttressing more apply what difficult to they all, Finkelstein's reconstruction of teaching classroomtoIn theNew teacher's York, were Rice direction allowed spoke tofor with turn atheir "Two"How manysensestouch senses areand you hearing," using order. Asking her whether the children principal about unquestioned obedienceheads, the principal toldnow?" Rice: the "Whyteacheranswered asked. the chiklren.12 in one educatorspracticetheeffortsVivian recitationa cometoThayer's of make the from periodreformcurriculum The evidence Passing aboutintroduced child-centered, foundteachingof the initially inRecitation. variousmethods. histo improvebookarticles A Take, professor traces and instructiontofor the booksexample,involved history by itsinof shouldexceptaginativelater they forin methods,thislook a few chapter. behind cities and themthat textbook-bound when In 6 months of school visits he extolled. I will return to these 35Rice found untrained teachers,the unim- teacher is in front of instruction in most classrooms exceptionsthem."13 translatedusedecadesSchool in 1928 in adherentsby whenthe his 1860s followersthe of bookwere "object disseminatedwas at placesteaching" published. likeThayer throughoutwere the being Oswegopointed theaccused outcountry.(N.Y.) how of Training"mechaniz- Yetthe withinchild-centered ideas of Pestalozzi, as 36 24 /Frederiching Progressivism instruction." Herbart and Classroom Similarly, took hisPractice, description enthusiastic of 1890-1940 how Americanthe child's mindfollowers worked of andJohann someThatteachers class influence, organized size, prescribed however, their classrooms istexts obvious and for curriculum, in instruction teachers andpointing is difficultlack ofto trainingtheseto estimate. condi- had Teaching at the Turn althe Century 25 nest"methodbydevicesDetailed the knowledge, 1890s, of for lessoninstruction holding according move plans the inwhich included lockstep class'sto Thayer, requires attention precise fashion through five steps in learning."hadactions convertedthat children, toand be carefullytakenthese in the byideas acquisitioncraftedthe intoteacher, assignments. a of thesimilartions question as to factors those some affectingin elementarydemographic their schools?performance. information ToWere set might a highframework help. school classroomsfor answering at the beginning of the twentieth century intoThesecentered classroom planning even practice,techniques more attention, Thayer resulted if fromnot influence,After summarizingupon the ideas of major observed; in classrooms such techniques particularlyimplementing the recitation,nineteenth Herbart's Thayer theoriescentury pedagogical the teacher.I6 InHIGH 1890 SCHOOL just over 220,000CLASSROOMS students attended 2,526 high schools in the concludedthinkers and that their by impact the 1920s, upon practice, new... wine the into old bottles. We developments since Lancaster have led to teach different subjects and we have altered originated more economical devices for little more than pouring of the appearing519,251sectioncountry of for students theat an the country. average average in just A of decaderate over86 daysof 6,000 later,one a year,per enrollment high clay. although schools. Uncommon had attendance increasedNew asschools it sharplywasvaried werefor byto a contentskillfully.acquiringlearningsystem of old and whichButskill subjects. wewithal and Lancaster have information. we We profited have have not from We devised a little more than a century fundamentally reconstructed the recitation classifycareful and studies grade in our the pupils technique more of ago." teenagertentlyAndrepresenting17-year-old of outnumbered tothose graduate. to1who percent attend went Ofmales.2I aof theto high the school 200,000 total school, andpopulation, who receivedit was went even only diplomas,to high more11 percentschool unusualfemales ingraduated. 1890,forconsis- that workedtheclassroom discussion and theirpractices in training order that to isFinkelstein highlight oblique Different evidence drawn from the linkages betweenoutlined. what andI enter teachersoffers these less pointsdo, direct now support into for theconditions within which teachers these the percentschoolsgrammar182 hadbegan, high school done school 56 colleagues.some percent teachers work of beyondInthe in New 1914,teachers high England, 72 High school. werepercent schoolforcollege In hadexample, Buffalo teachersgraduatedgraduates (N.Y.) where had eitherand of high more the21 from training and education than their connectionsconditionssizeclassrooms at the under between turnwere which of constructed the context they century teach, and to are houseUrban classrooms had between 40 to practiceandrough later.their buttraining. suggest I will that return few desks 40to to 60were students. Estimates of class 48 desks per room. These collegetaughtschoolsteachers or the a enrolledwere formal entire called curriculum.teacherless uponthan training ato hundred Twenty-threeteach schoo1.22 many students,Additional subjects. of fifty-nine often schoolingSince one Connecticut halfor two beyond of theteachers high high school was often necessary since wouldmidwest.longticseach empty, playedsurvive year To whetherespeciallystaff aand large these stay. orrole crowdedinYetnot inthe theteaching appointments. teacher was an rapidly growing cities ofclassrooms, the northeast teachers had to be would be rehired. Political and family Moreover, the jobs demandedinsecure job. a Trustees decided found who and teachingHenryschoolsorganizedtic. King had botany, oneintoof Albany, or zoology,departments two instructors Missouri, Latin, by history the to early teachcite English, onetwentieth theIn case,complete etymology,city wascentury.23 high courseresponsible schools, and ofarithme- study. enrollments for were larger and faculties were Teachers,traininggreatof subjects expectedbeyond and their skills to cover own it comes grammarup to as ten no orWith a largely untrained corpsdeal offrom applicants who often surprise that textbooksteachers flourished. expected Byto teachhighsubjects a schoolvariety daily, education. often had limitedlacked advanced education. ogy.and56nineteenth percent English College century.took history, entrance algebra. In algebra, 1893,exams In 1900, 44 geometry,shaped percent most the ofstudentsThe Latin, course high curriculum earthschool enrolledof study science, students was inand English, gearedand activities took physiol- Latin;to U.S. prepare as students for college in the late student'stheweredetermined 1880s often maintextbooks studded for source teachers had with of already knowledge. whatpage become had to Exactly how powerful these working 37 listings from textbooks for each be taught and Alsowhen.the publishedteacher's These syllabi primary coursesconditions tool of studyand werethe in shaping how subject.'`' oftime,much classrooms noneas the has rhythm withyet examined row of the after school secondaryrow year.24of bolted-down Andones. teaching? Clues desks; do If appear few rooms historians in inpictures newly studied elementary classrooms at this 38 261 Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890,1940 Teaching at the Turn of the Century! 21 female).requiredassignments,wasEnglish, outlined Theycoursesand Commercial) taughtandin to what over 6 periods was800 covering studentsexpected daily (with 4 thereyears. of about the were Thestudents. 30 26studentscontent teachers To of inteach eacheach (38 percentover courseclass). 25 the principal's report including the textbooks used, eachdaily:subjects,Mr.Theseand Kincaid SeniorclassJuniorsixJunior Latinclasses in Greek.Latin, andthe seldom ClassicalGreek, JuniorGreek, Each meant heclassLatin, for Department,probably teaching exampleincludedhad Second different had the Year forfive same textsexample, differentGreek, lesson and in First the requirements.lessons taughtsix "Outlinetimes.Year onlyto Latin,Whileteach two ofAlso t GermanexpectedCourses demanded ofto Study"hold five the schooling"recitations notation beyond "(5)" per week,"which theTo grammarmeantteachlei botany, that grades. Mr. ph Kincaid jsiology, Fifty-fohr was geometry, Latin, Greek, and advalved 41-minuteschool.27attendedpercent of either periodSteele's normal surfaced faculty school inhad course orgraduated college; descriptionsTurning fromthe remainder college; thatto the teachers fifteenclassroom, had finished submittedpercent some highhad to hints of what occurred during the Washington,(Frances B. D.C. Johnson Western Collection, High School, Library of Congress),White, Chemistry Lesson, 1900 teachpaid(W.Va.)the principal. staff mythology college, ($1,500 English 8perto year third year)teacher veteran and described Charles foirth at Steele, yearthe Loos, methods students: andan 1869 one English ofgraduate the teachers three of Bethanyhighest us-d to builtmajor schools portion set asideof time for allotted to "recitation"; and master schedules this formal activity. Beyond with the these exercisesomitted or left in narration,to careless comparison,r e a d i n g . and description....The myths are This to bestudy studied is to atbe home and recited topically, none being , . . The myths must be reproduced as offerSincecontextualpractice. a the few major clues,Thefragments subjectfocus little isof deserves known evidencethis study about a full study. thatis mayin the suggest period afterawhat partial 1920happened picture in these classrooms. Ohio, in 1896. The city's only 1 can only of following: specialaccompaniedIn teaching emphasis by the constant upon novel, good exercise Loos sentence and in composition, otherstructure English and both pronunciation.' teachers written and planned oral, with the MalcolmhighconditionsSuperintendent school Booth or at "people's Steele at W.the andJ. end college"White, what of teachers Booth'swasConsider report Steele High School in Dayton, his first year as principal. the subject of a reporteddetailed reportthey did in classrooms. sketches out the teaching Submitted to by charactersstudiedin general.... and as show they appear, its connection show how with they what affect hasIn otherrecitation preceded; characters the to class discussand mustthe plotthe be prepared to give an outline of the part previous1895-1896,female). year. For an academictheThe first 1896 time year graduating the high Steele High School enrolled lasting 36 weeks, a month shorter school846 was students open from (60 8:30percent A.M. to class had 92 students (71 percent female) in than the 1:00 and appointed to Steele in 1893, wrote PhysicsinformalBooth that discussion and science botany and instruction teacher the reading August had aloud Foerste, ofThe certain recitation Harvard illustrative should Ph.D. passages.2' cover (1890), oral and written reports, rapid questioning, P.M.recessperiods instead between of 41 of minutes two 11:18 daily each, The curriculum contained four courses and 11:33.25 sessions.running The school hack day -to was-back except for a i.,-33 of study (Classical, Scientific, divided into 6 BEST COPY minute AVAILABLE improved with the Board of Education's recentpresence purchase of the class, of equipment. most of the experimentsWith mentioned this apparatus in the it was possible for the teacher to perform, in the book. The 40 28 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940pupils were required to make notes during the experiment, and then to wasthe time. brief, Of usually the 36 one percent word ofresponses talk that belongedor short sentences. to students; There much were of it Teaching at the Turn of the Century I 29 burglardo work alarm, individually a telegraph and create sounder projects andFoerstedescribe relay, such and urgeditas at "an alength the purchasein their note of book.3°more equipment so that telephone" so that electric bell and students could answeredhistoryOfexceptions. the 34 lesson, questions questions. Stevens the teacher asked found General in let2 oneof thepractice, the science students 100 accordingclassrooms class, use the25 to cametextbook she Stevens, observedfrom while students. was theunusual. to closeclass In a orderstudentsteacher's"are to not makedo wild." "practicalconcern them It is a not for applicationsuccess practicalessential of applicationfor physical the "pupil laws." of to educationally" (originalknowledge emphasis). beand This a projectsskilled mechanic inThese ideas, he said, submitted to betweenwherethe'drivers' text the and twoof "pupils putyouth to it three away insteadfollow questionsonce as of 'leaders,'thea body, teacher a minute, or" she dropbeganStevens' wrote. "we by asking thecommit writingWith wayside." questions.35 teachers reveals ourselves Toassigning a distasteask as for rapid-fire teacher questioning ontheworkedthat Frenchprincipal.31 "most on andby of individual Germanthe classes astudents concern in modern was languagesuniqueAlthough in theare Marie reportstoo Durst, at Steele for 8 years, included in her report for daily usage of language, she said large. The teacher "drillmastersrecitelesson,lessons answers for the instead fromnext theday, of pageseducators."36 students read, taking Stevens the concluded book home that to teachersmemorize were the the next day teachers telling students to close their books and hassufficientexpressinstruction no opportunity themselves vocabulary." is given for in inthegiving For that language grammar languageany individual to and be as taughttranslation,soon attention." asand "the Durst they have acquired a pupils areandAs led require to to method, theused dictation thatEducation's(N.Y.) report schools deals staff was withat completedthe high request schools. by of the the New ThreecityIn superintendent.York1914, years State Buffalo after Commissioner Stevens'had A 4 portion high study schools of was with published, 182 teachers. a survey "Inspectors," of Buffalo as strictestfrequentlymerit.and fluent "32attention." since speech "they Also, by train "memorizing she the added, ear to students andthe strangerecitingSuch learn selectionssounds reports correct reveal teacher intentions and, in various of high literarypronunciation portions, 25suggestteachersthe English members patterns and teachers reported of althoughthe who survey their were specific conclusions team each figureswerevisited called,in 3are narrativetimes missing visited for atform. in least classrooms the Some 15report. minutes excerpts Of of the allon classesavailable.describeunspecified and practice. A reporteddecade number No later,what of verification schools shein another saw in andofand city,what heard.around however, happened Romiett New aYork professor Stevensin City their classes isbetween 1907 stopwatchvisited andid sit in each occasion, the inspectors reported on theillustrativecomposed teaching sentences,largely of grammar: of such sele: work 'ing singleas copying, types composing,of Instructionconstructions and in grammarfromcorrecting sentences is short usually mur;h too detailed and formal. It is andsheShelanguage, 1911a followedstenographerrecorded to studyand ten the science classesthe number she use teachers observed throughof of questions questions eachthat 100 principalsperiodin English,that classrooms. theyof the had history,asked. day Using to In get a a a sense identified as superior. math,related foreign study, of the the inspectors observed that "the usual methodFortermsfrequently the was and 23 to toodefinitions, modern have easy one for language diagrammingthe pupil pupil, read teachers completing and (Spanish,parsing elliptical in routine French,sentences, fashion." and memorizing German), aggregatetotaledper minute; 395. impact Thethe of averagelowest teacher number number of questionsof Stevens she foundfound thatin her teachers asked an average of two to three questions questioning.33 questions that students faced daily observations poorlyconcludedthena paragraph, to delivered, ask that forthen assignments forms except to put and afor few fourexplanations were simple teachers often questions ambiguouswhom of syntax." tothey him andpraised. about The recitations surveythe "Usually part teamread,were the of ofmented,100 minutesfrom classrooms 100 "who has to has 200truly was acquired questions assumed 25; the the thehighest,and habit pace answers of 200.thatconducting kills."per"The classroom teacher,"Of recitations the 100 teachers at period of 45 she com- the rate she questions.teacheragain, sat was "3x uncomfortably the primary teaching behind her method. deskState andMost Departmentlet math the pupilsteachers, officials answer the observedreportthe 32 math teachers. Recitation, 20muchvisited, stenographic time 28 duringasked reports, aquestions lesson she was atfound thatdevoted thatpace.''' teachers toWith teacher teacher were and questioningtalking student 64 talk. percent dominant, Stevens calculated exactly 41 Using how of day.39insufficientInspectorsstated, "called criticizedattention on most mathto preparing of instruction the pupils students in for the some for four the highpart new schoolsof work the recitation."of for the giving next 42 301 Progressivism and Classroom Practice,1890-1940 Teaching at the Turn of the Century I 31 studentsof reportthatthe 15the workedsaid,teachers observers "of on wasslavish completing felt divided were following betweenadequate. exercises of laboratoryScience "There using teaching was impressed the inspectors. directions...." For recitations, the Student time in the classesequipmentand and recitations. facilities In labs,little evidence," their aofchangestions growing bureaucratic about occurring passion schools, efficiency, atfor children,the anything turn organizational of and theviewed learning century asuniformity,Embedded consistentscientificin the larger standardization,within werewith culture. prizedtheteacher-centered profound Notions in andthe instruction were a set of assump- and"questioningthetheyreports ability result reported. consumed to that wasapply In the well otherthe therecitation calculateddefinitions lesson.classes became"Thisstudent toand test responsibility aboth lecture the memory was appeared to be the habitual practice,"principles." In two classes, student punctuated by occasional less defined "with of a statement beliefs,childrenHarnessedofficialsrapidly expandingreinforced learnedand to anteachers infantbest industrialby thethrough sciencecame scientific and torepetition of corporateshare educational knowledge many and sector memorization, ofpsychology ofthethese the day economy.beliefs about that these learning,asbelieved School socialwell. enthusiasm."4"questions.""formalvers. Except andIn a mechanical"numberfor the minorityof classes because the work theyHistory was carried instruction on was also viewed favorably (number unspecified) whose teaching is limit themselves to the text, by the team of obser- with "splendid STUDENT-CENTEREDanchoredadministrators teacher-centered at the turn instructionINSTRUCTION of the century:* deeply in the minds of teachers and cutriculumuserequiredphotographs maps, readings field to makeis trips, piecemeal. and history discussions,notebook It"vivid is suggestive,work, and theSuch majority not evidence drawn from surveys, reports, debates, and other subjects ininteresting."'" the comprehensive. A completevisitors' impressions, and of "skillful" teachers due,sense,publicWhat in wereatheoretical, schoolslarge the part, atconcepts the to practical theturn conditions ofof student-centeredthe version century? existing appeared Two in instruction forms thosein rural settings.existed. one-room practiced AThe common- schoolslack in the of broadthestudypresented finer ofoutline high lines here. school teaching that go instruction into patterns a full would, emerge portrait I believe,fromWhen the elementary and high school instruction are of teaching. Yet even with this fill in the gaps and includeunorderly jigsaw pieces taken together, thestudentattention,teachermaterials, innovative producedmovement. useisolation, ofefforts contentclassrooms The group tried other drawn feelingin thatsmall,more from permitted engendered prominent mostly the community, cooperativeprivate, andby an theoretical schools. intuitively andwork, tolerance formindividual flexible were of similaritiestion,tiesinstructiondominated clustered and appear.the verbaloccurred class around Generally, expressionworking only teacher with on classes during textbook questionsthe teacher's were class assignments. taughtand time. permission. asStudent a group. movement explanations, student recita- Except for laboratory Classroom activi- Teacher talk during cantheAmericaas elaborated child,be found the not conversion in furtherthe the teacher work by ofeducationalof or theseEdward subject, reformers' Sheldon, reformers asThe the ideasoriginsproper Francis Froebel into focusof Parker, schoolsthis and for latter Pestalozzi. John instruction,that form Dewey,viewed can In be traced back to Rousseau's Emile workturnfacingreflected dore of thethe in in blackboardsciencecentury classroom classrooms,as today. andafter the classroomSubject teacher's uniformity matter There withdesk. in was rows were ofalso differences between the two levelsbehavior of instructionwas soughtstressed at and thefar more in the bolted-down desks child'sotherorthroughoutand the their than "Newlife earnest theinside the Education" conviction country. thedisciples classroom No that norwho one schools progressivism tospread definition the worldcould interpretations of dooutside student-centeredbound a far thebetter these of schoolhouse each job men ofman's instruction togetherlinking door.work a is,higher schoolsgenerallyaboutstudents than an were hourtraveledin would lower smaller at a spend fromgrades.time. than class Notthe Teachingin day sotoelementary atclass with the was to elementarythe meet schools same students. splintered in high schools, that with different andschoolteachers high where forschool the teachers teacher Classes in high followersinstructionand Dewey throughout were is practiced the late in nineteenthschools EdwardTheoperated and point early Sheldon, byof twentieth reviewing,these teacher men centuries. howeverand of theirorphans briefly, in "ragged"the work ofschools, Sheldon, secretary Parker, to establish that varied concepts of student-centered instruction,hadshouldinstances more comeschooling as of defined instruction as no than surpriseby thetheir that categories considering colleaguesappear inlistedTaking the in the above,evidence times. the similarities and differences together, 43 the lower grades. clearly dominatedI offered the here. This teacher-centered theirothers"Objectideas,and organizer perceptions, ascame teaching," translated to of be a andlabeled,publicas by Pestalozzian language the school concentratedEnglish insystem, principlesorder Home upontofervently anddevelop in the theColonial experience embracedhands in an Infantorderlyof Sheldon Pestalozzi'sof children,Society. manner and 44 their32 /teacher'sbooks; Progressivism powers how careful of and a reasoning.child Classroom direction developed Practice, A ofchild's instruction was experience to replace was to replace 1890-1940 courses of study;was supposed and to replace recitation.43 the nation?"46of that beginning was an event to be markedParker by went the on educators to serve ofas theprincipal of the Cook County Normal Teaching at the Turn of the Century 133 Thayer'snaturalelementarybooks, conferencesscience. phrase, level, especially"dismal on teaching, reportsObject teaching, according to two In classrooms, however, object teaching formalism."in arithmetic, Reprints of oral actual instruction, lessons geography, writers, penetratedand magazines, 'courses of study at the became, in reveal and Schoolinstructionalgraduatesserved1902. which as principal of eventually theand Oswegocurricular and directorbecame Normal techniques forpart School,almost of the that two Universitydeveloped implemented decades of furtherbefore Chicago. theIn theheideasColonel's died"Practice He and in School" Parker and his staff, many of whom were students,teachersclasses,Schoollesson. askingExamples andcontainedclear controlling instructions questions ofspecific lessons the aboutof points entireusedhow objects, toatthat pace, leadthe teachers Oswego addingstructure, were expected students to correct observations. If State Normal and Traininglittle knowledge to the and outcomes of the to make with ofwrittenprintingoften nearby quoted units, plant land physicalsentence: tothat provide became education "The classroom a childcenter equipment, is for thematerials nature Incenter manualthe study. andof alltraining, to Parkereducation."'" publish and believed teacherin 1880s the eight-grade school had a kindergarten, library, 20 acres anything.schoolindistinguishablement critics theseand expression instructionscondemned. from the underlying Nonetheless, dreary. object theWhile object teaching was still in evidence by resemble scripts." tedious recitations that Rice and other teachingideas hadabout had children's an impact. develop- 1900, it was often basicaimsandareas.intergrating being andskills Children achievements able through ("correlation" seeingto express integrated connections of these thewas content, school. theconnections between word andBeyond usedheavy science, became linkingthen) reliance art, theone subjects, math, uponvarious of the geographyexpression teachingprimary subject principalPerhapsindeed,"You," that offromParker the may the Cook wrote, explainperson County "touched John the Dewey every called Normalletter Sheldon School. received Francis inWayland 1886 from Parker. child in America." Strong praise, the "Father of Progressivism." the Civil War he served in the throughanyNormalpottery-making, overt art, School coercionmusic, in weaving, and students drama, gardening, did the what school practitionersandWhen also bookbinding." taughta veteran called cooking, school "busywork" sewing, superintendent in visited classrooms in the 1892 he went away impressed by how easily and without theColonelParker UnionOhio. had .45Army, His taught wife was diedin seriously country shortly wounded schools. thereafter. inDuring ReturningUsing a trust to teaching he soon became principal of a Normal School in the throat, and rose to rank of fund that a relative theandrapidly,fearpublic grades." rushesof schools.the without teacher'his In the job'Superintendent any upperin along. children.apparent grades. It is Noorder. theJ. Greenwood W.copying kindergarten GreenwoodEach occurred.student observed idea of "goes Kansas The carriedpractices workat it Cityup in thatwas through asaw hurry weredone no CominghadPresident left1.600 him,back students Charles heto wentAmerica in Francis 7 to schools Europe he Adamscould including to notstudy invited a both high Inhim philosophythe to years Quincy he served Quincy, a school system find a position until School Boardschool, Parker rapidly changed with 40 teachers and (Mass.).and pedagogy. chiefsimilarvisitorsments." was to includingfamiliarlaboratoryThe grim was the uniform work, absentperipatetic "each recitationfrom pediatrician keepingParker's with school. awhich recordJoseph theHe, Rice,of Kansas likehis went ownthousands City away experi- school quite of thesaying:asQuincy curriculum, one admirerbecame methods a of mecca Parker of for instruction, educators and called it. Parker disclaimed any innovation interested in the "New Education," materials. Within a few years Universitytaken with ofthe Chicago. Colonel's John achievements." Dewey spoke.When Parker died in Twenty-five years ago, in Quincy, Massachusetts the work he undertook 1002 memorial services wer_ held at the fromprincipleseverywhere them derived are except found directly in in school. the from development theI have I repeat that I am simply trying to apply well established principles. laws of introducedthe mind. The no newmethods method springing or detail. No of every child. They are used onlywasthetoday thetwenty-five country.5" objectalmost of asyears derision.... a matter ago; and of To course,yet many the things withouthe seemed for debate, which a faddist, hein allthen athe fanatic.stood best are schools It taken was of reached"DidPerhaps. you a But everpoint John hear in his Deweyof careera man, in twenty-fivewhoa speech startingexperiments on years as superintendent later have been tried, and It 5 there is no peculiar "Quincy System." Parker's work in Quincy asked: where the anniversary of schools had Thehis1894,Dewey next wife he year, knew beganenrolled Fred's Parker an his experimentalsister well. son, Evelyn Fred,When inattended school,Dewey the first movedtheythe grade school. took his of theirfamily theWhen Practice children toDewey Chicago School. outand ofin Parker's34 / school and Progressivism and Classroom entered them into thzir new Practice, 1890-1940 Laboratory School at the childthis who game could a few read times, it was the allowedsame sentences to run were andTeaching get the at cocoon. the Turn Afterof the Century135playingshown printed in large type, so with the script. They UniversityRatherinfluential than of Chicago. tryingtheorist to and recapture practitioner,Far more has been written aboutthe Dewey essence than of his Dewey'sa task others have done, I will mention SheldonDirector and Parker. of the ex- career as an thattheirseemed theyFor work. wouldolder very eager students,get the to readprinted the and same formdecided focus simultaneously upon 52 themselves to make a weekly record of active involvement, occupa- perimentalbrieflychildchildren, thedevelopment school.yearsteachers, into 1896-1903and whenIn parents the he Laboratory served implementing as classroom practice. School he worked directly his ideas of learning of study, teacher with and helpertions, group prevailed. discussion The typical and program Subject decision making with the teacher acting as a for nine- to twelve-year-oldsHours a day was: Hours a week Laboratoryreports, and School In reading through students' remembrances with its curriculum teacher recollections, courses reading and writing centeredit upon Man's occupationis easy to conclude learned through that the sciencetechniqueshistory andor (reading,geography writing, numbers) 11/21 1/2 21/2511/22 or 21/2 activitiesratherprogressiverather than than rather separate school.directed than subjects, through by upon That would be a mistake teachers, were simply isolated tasks, and group since in the 1890s there were features of just another activities guided cookingmusicarttextile or or shop 1 or 1/2 221/211/211/2 fewnew schoolsowncommunity curriculum sake in the but ties, country, group public toward larger goals. Asaround a private children's interest cooperation, and or private, that democratic practicesnot in adult work, family risked shaping an entirelyschool of 140 children for its and of gymnasiummodern languages 41/2 1/2 211/2 21/2 (1900)thatSchoolInstruction, would and was 23 become openlyand later experimental,familiar, Chicago teachers including Ella Flagg if not clichés,Superintendent a generation of Schools, advancing ideasof andschool trying for Group III, Young as Supervisor later.the Laboratory the six-year-innovations andschoolwiderooms, Dewey and to(forproject work debating ofcooperatively building and discussion) a clubhouseOpportunities to make decisions, use presented themselves, for example, clubs could meet. Mayhewmanualwhere skillswrote studentslearned inin class-the Camera in a planolds.for end for Dailythe the ofday's the theday, class workperiod, wouldwere another gather groupConsider the first few months "each child being encouraged decided upon and delegated by and reviewmeeting the previous summarized day's to contribute." The plans the pupils.andthe results Atbuilt the by of the work and performedfromundertakenthat this the "enpterprisemain a bydistinctly thebuilding school." ethicalwas "it theBecausedrew most together itthoroughly provided many a groups student Josephineand social Craneservice recalled ."53 what she consideredhome for one clubs ever away and ages and childrenworkoutfootrulers ofand largeincluded space suggestedto makeblocks, in athe theminiature twigsnew school model plans. yardto and soil. Plans were scale. This group alsofarm house,to plant barn winterand Projects determined discussed and drawn up usingwheat. As they proceeded cleaned up a five by tencultivated land made learned at the Laboratory School. Writingunderstandfacts in of 1930, nature very former muchwe more closely.... were given a chanceFirst to useas to our the eyes, Sciences, no matter how young we weretoo young to observe to makinghowthroughteacher to plant,bread.the wrote, school harvesting "they year, "When they talked about grains cooked cereals in the kitchen." the class discussed andplowing, using the grain to make flour,in the and classroom," thenMeasuringwhat seeds a and to other plant, withwheretrained my I learned ourhands. hands Ito tell use and them my fingers hands, it is because toand be how useful.... I was it is trainedSecondly, People to use themy activitiescarpentry, cooking, weaving, I so easily learn to do new things have oftenchance asked to meuse what I sewing,mind artall and hands producingusesdeveloped," of numbers the winter were easily During these first wheat.5Ifew months of school "an incorporated into building interest in reading also the farm model and observedandbooks.us eyes to see together.in what what architecture I I did. was trained really to observe is. andThird, given the a building of the clubhousethe real We got far more out of that than out of and practical workhelped table. Sentences were written on the All the things they had found in 47 their outdoorboard, such excursions as: "Find were a cocoon," placed on a and the BEST COPY AVAILABLE teach art for two months to a younger class....Fourth, I learned responsibility. When I was quite young, When I wentrinto the room for I was asked to 48 Teach. .tg at the Turn of the Century I 37 36 / Progressivist); and Classroom the first time I had to responsibilityrealize that finally I must doPractice, 1890-1940 realized.54 something! I learned how to teach roleenvironment education and must outlook, play in and a democracy." even more important, While most the of recognition the schools of they the schoolFulmer, in a Los teacher Angeles, at Forthat teachersway and thisas wellis as the Laboratoryrecalled School her two years students it was an who(1900-1902) excitingleft to direct place working a to be. under Grace similar andschoolsdescribegroupConcentrating two under work,Indianapolisare private, andSuperintendent on a themesclose thepublic Deweys fit schools, wherebetween William devote teachers one the Wirt,* much contentof which oneencourage space publicstudied served to schoolthestudent and Black Gary the in students.expression, (Indiana)Chicago immediate John Dewey. experiencepowers to somewas richer. Such It was Mr. Dewey's idea ultimate purpose through thatalso each was child his should own relation be to thq guidance of one free to develop his own the teachers in his whose definite"schoolsspreadingenvironment, educational are across growing the Deweys theideas.59 up nation. all described over "More the country anda movement more," that are John they trying Dewey believed to work wrote, was out The Dewey School, as andschool. yet 1 I knowalways there felt were free to it was oftenhe called accepted by an appointmentthings in my own work of work in my own.... teachers and friends, which he did not approve at Teachers College. lost its structionalthoughvariations, existed it wouldand what at be the reasonableimpulses turn of generated theto conclude century.Thus them that The variouscannot by extent 1915 easilyversions when of beeach, the determinedof Deweys' teacher-centeredtheir and student-centered in- namesakeColumbiapartially in University.551904 or thoroughly when Beyond the direct efforts otherimplemented enthusiasts the "New of these men, there were labeled it. Writers who Education" or "scientific public schools that cite Rice ing,clusterbookof instructionalstudent-centered appeared around teacher-centered the talk, dominant studentpatterns practice movement, appeared patterns in most in mostand furniture public classoften schools arrangement,activities.in small continued (less Variations group-than to 300 pedagogy"offor introduced schoolshis description as whereRice science and ofthe work, manual training in themindless instruction oftencurriculum was correlatedencouraged children's elementary schoo1.56 ignoreexpression his warm in writing and and where teachers portraits conceptionsdidstudents), exist), privateelementary of the (although school's schoolsfew, rolepublic and schools ifteaching any, Whileimplementing high were schoolsteacher-centeredness slowly these were being approachesdescribed. converted prevailed in most classrooms, different art,thatRice andthe unified quoted practiced"perfect the liberally lesson." curriculum. From St. Paul, Minneapolis, Indianapolis,Itfrom is "one student that work not In La Porte, for example, only andinterests described the child, teacher and La Porte (Indiana), he found instances of activities but one subjectandchildreninto practice.Washington, matter began was Challenges to best D.C.appear for These studentsto in the Quincy, challenges conventional and La how Porte, to teachers thewisdom Chicago, beliefs shouldof andthe New daypracticesdeal York on with whatCity, of that uses his energies to Already in the first school year From the start the pupils are the best advantage." making and recording the children begin to work encouraged to be helpful to observations of plants and together in groups each other. ducedteacher-centeredbetweennew classroomssets of the beliefs, values instructionwhere creating of teachers individual grew mixes triedin of thegrowth practices to decades be faithful and that thatgroup tomirrored thefollowed goals, traditional larger and scientific conflicts pro-and andsquareanimals, toperforming assist tables of each the around tasks windother inand in which the all At the group tables things are which the pupils sit, particularly weather....the members In the classrooms of the group are made with which the rooms are when doing busy work, take part.... found small decorated of student-centeredefficiency and creative teaching expression, practices educationThe decades and socialization. after 1900 saw an increase in efforts in public schools. By 1940, the to introduce Rice conceded that such theat the number bi-monthly work is done at festivals which have become a custom school districts were a the group tables.... minority in 1892. He found at La Porte. Much he differentimpulse,progressivism.Thepromoted Gary spacesWirt Schools bycreated journalistsMergingand activitiesduring student the and Wirt's communitieswithinimpulse reformers, tenure a building. toward swept outbecame ofeconomyCalled acrossschools a platoon showplace the throughwith nation schools,the scheduling child-centeredin of the pre-WorldWirt's decade studentsinnovations, following Warschool into 1 its 4 schoolrecitation-boundadvocated. systems Far ofmoreclassrooms, teachers Just over two decades the 36 he visited later John DeweyaTording and to Rice.57 stood and students sat implementing the principles his daughter Evelyn in conventional Flexner,askedimplementationintroduction a thefoundation survey in Gary.in Newteam to Becauseconduct Yorkinspccted City an of ineachimpartial the 1917, politicalof the thesurvey innovations Gary controversy of School its schools. including Board triggered Directed classroomand bySuperintendent byits instruction Abrahamabortive thevisitedgreater Deweys schools freedom documented embracing and. an identificationtheprogressive spread of ofpractices. schoolsthe A In with "tendencies towardSchools of Tomorrow, school life with his throughconclude,and produced high however, school, an eight that was volume classroom mechanical report. instruction and, Finding if anything. inmuch the academicmerit conventional.58 in the subjects. Gary Plan, primary Flexner grades did 50 38 / ProgressirLm and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Society for the Study of Education, The Textbook in Americdn Education, Teaching at the Turn of the Century 139 Part vocabularyadministrators.ventionalwisdom of educationalhad pedagogical become The next inof progressives urban the times and as chapter rural classrooms in the 1920s and 1930s. explores how conventionalexpressedhad rapidly by turned both intoteachers the con- and that 20. In Nancy Hoffman, teachersvariousII, (Bloomington, volumes describe ofhow Ill.: they Public use School syllabi. Publishing Co., 1931), p. 8; see New YorkWoman's Teachers "True" Monographs Profession (New York: McGraw-Hill, (1900-1904) in which Education also NOTES 21. Ed Krug, Harper(July,Association1981), 1896); seeand selection Row,in and 1904; 1964),selection fromselection pp. Margaret from 5, from 14, Myra 169; anHaley's anonymousKelly, Theodore speech Sizer,teacher to the National in The Shaping of the American High School, Little Citizens. SecondaryVol. I, (New Schools York: at Atlantic Monthly 2.1. LawrenceSidney Marsden Cremin, Fuerst (ed.),Tyack,Teachers Monographs, One Best System; Transformation of the School Vol. II (New York:Finkelstein, June, 1900), "Teacher pp. Behavior in "Methods in New York Schools," (New York: Vintage, 1961); American Primary 106-7. New York 22. Sizer, pp. 44, 46; Education Department53;thetion TurnTyack, of of ofthe the p.the State 576.Public Century of NewSchool York, System of the City of Buffalo (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964), pp. 5, 39, (Albany, N.Y.: Examina- 3. Report of the CommissionerSchools."(Washington,Government Printing D.C.:D.C.: GovernmentGovernmentOffice, 1894), Vol. 1, p. of Education, PrintingPrinting Office, Office, 1902), 1912), Vol. 1, Vol. p. xi; II, pp. 1890-1891,43 and Vol.(Washington, 2, p. 792; 1900-1901D.C.: 1911,xxvi, 25.24.23. Dayton,Sizer, p.pp. Ohio66; 45, David Annual53; see Tyack, alsoReport Buffalo"The of theHistoryUniversity Survey. BoardSocial of of SecondaryServices," Education,of the State StanfordSchools 1895-1896 of New inUniversity, DeliveringYork, 1916), June, p. 1978, 55. p. 3. (Dayton 4. Department of the Interior,xxviii.(Washington,BoardHenry Journal,Eastman D.C.: Bennett, Government "Fifty March, 1940, Vol. 100, pp. 41-3, Biennial Survey ofYears Education, ofPrinting School Office,Seating, 1924), Vol, I, pp. v, 125. American School 1920-1922, 2, 4; 27.26.28. ibid., ibid., p.pp. 250.pp. 13, 58-9. insert after p. 250, 274.Board of Education, 1896), pp. 13, 49, insert after p. 250. 6.5. 7.Finkelstein, Barbara Finkelstein, "Teacher Report"Thement of Printing the Commissioner Office, 1912), of Behavior, 1820-1880," pp. 22, 86. Vol. II, Moralp. xxix. DimensionsEducation, of Pedagogy," 1911, (Washington, D.C.: Govern- American 33.32.31.30.29. Romiettibid., p.pp. Stevens,65.64. 59-60.76-7. The Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction (New 8. 9.Finkelstein, Fuerst, pp. "Teacher 8, 132. Studies,Pillars of the Republic (Fall, 1974), pp. 81-2, 84. Behavior,(forthcoming). 1820-1880," pp. 174-5, 179; collection of photographs is lodged in Carl Kaestle, the 35.34. ibid., p.pp. 11. 11, 15-17. tion,York: No. Teachers 48. College, Columbia University, 1912), Contributions to Educa- 10.11. The Joseph Frances M. BenjaminRice, Johnson (Bloomington,andLibrary 0. L.of Davis,Congress; Ind.: Jr. Phiother "Schools Delta photos Kappa are The Public School System of the of the Past: A Treasury of reproducedEducational in Tyack, Foundation, 1976). United States One Best System Photographs"(New York: 37.36.40.39.38. Buffaloibid., ibid., p. Survey,p.25.pp. 134. 132-3.140-2. p. 127. 13.12.14. ibid., ibid., p.pp. pp.32. 139-40. 116, 118. Arno Press, 1969). 43.42.41. RaymondThayer, p. Callahan, 7. ofibid., Chicago Press, 1962), chapters 1-5; Tyack, pp. 39-59.p. 138. Education and the Cult of Efficiency The lswego Movement in American (Chicago: University 15.16. ibid.,18.17. V. Ibid., Johnp.T. 119.Thayer, Folgerp, 12. and Charles 1928), pp. 7, 9 12. The Passing of the Recitation Nam, Education of the American Population (Boston: D.C. Heath and Co., 44.46.45. Thayer, LeliaDearborn, E.pp. Patridge, 7-8; p. 97; see Cremin, Ned H. p.Dearborn, 129.159-69Education for thirteen lessons taken from Sheldon's (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1925), pp. The Quincy Methods (New York: E. L. Kellogg and Co., Elementary Instruction, 19. 58-9,(Washington,WilliamReport 76, of159-60. C.the D.C.:Bagley, Educational Government "The Commission Textbook Printing and it of the City of Chicago Methods of Teaching."Office, 1967), National pp. 84-5; Rice, (1898) cited in anParker1889). 1879 (Newp. report 657; York: Jackby Parker; Teachers Campbell, Ida College Heffron, Press, 1967), p. 78; Cremin, p. 130, citing The Children's Crusader.. Colonel Francis Francis W. Parker (Los Angeles: Ivan 52W. Practice, 1890-1940 40 / Progressivism47. Charles and Mailer, Classroom Deitch,(Stanford Sr, 1934), University p. 25. unpublished "Colonel Francis W. Parker; dissertation, Prophet of the 'New Education' 1965), p. 108; Campbell, " 49.48. MarMailer, ler, citingp. 179; a Campbell,report pp. p. 119.School in December, 1892." from J. M. Greenwood, "A 130-2. Visit toParker," Colonel June, Parker's 1902 in 2 50.51. John Katherine Dewey, Mayhew "In SchoolElementary1936), of the School pp. University 80-4. Teacher of Chicago and AnnaMemoriam, C. Edwards, Colonel The Wayland and Course of Study, Vol. (New York: D. Appleton-Century Dewey School: The Laboratory 11, pp. 704-8. Co., Behind the Classroom Door 53.52.55.54. ibid.,56. ibid., Rice, pp.pp. p. 228-32.84-5. 395.405.p. 184. in Three Cities, 1920-1940 57.58. ibid., See: pp. Abraham 207, 229. Flexile'. ofGeneral Wirt's Educationefforts, see Board, W. Lynn 1918), pp. and Frank Bachman, The McKinney and Ian Westbury, 77, 79, 80-3, 160; for long-term Gary Schools (New York: in William Reid"Stability and effects andIt was left. a largeThe window sunny roomsil held with potted ample plants, windows some letting of which in light had to begun the rear to 59. Evelyn Dewey and John andChange:Rout Decker ledge The Walker, Publicand Kegan Schools (eds.) Paul, Dewey, Schools of Tomorrowof Gary,1976).Case Indiana, Studies 1940-1970," in Curriculum also see Scott Nearing, The (New York:Change E. P.(London: New Education careful,"factors,"byHower. the children. Just neat "numerator," above script Doors the was andsill "denominator." pasted written:the ledges to SELF-CONTROL. the above window Above the glassblackboards the werefront On drawings oneblackboard held door placards: made was in (Chicago:DuttonEducation and Row, Co., (Institute Peterson, 1915), forpreface; and Public Co., 1915) and RainbowService, 1917). Promises of Progress in teacher'srows,bershipposted facing theof direction. the Declaration the American teacher's Fifteen of Junior Independence; bright desk Red children and Cross, ThisSELF-CONTROL, onfrom 1924.was another 4A Mrs. and oneSpencer's 27 wasdull awaiting onesthe fourth mem- from grade class. Forty-two children sat in the 4B,childrenFred,was according underway. Gertrude, arrayed to Mrs. themselves each Spencer, take intwo made groups children up of her three"Little who class. around needhelpers An arithmetic helping,"the to room. the board," Alesson"Begin dozen Mrs. at Spencer directed. "George, Edith, seats,pageAfterabout 101 begin awhile your in your at work." shepage book looked A115, and quiet examplestart at hum her with arose.much 4.the Yes, first Theand youexample. teacherannounced: may talk You moved to others, "Theone around another coachingin your the room helping individual students. periodand settledis over. back,To your Mrs. seats." Spencer As the went children to the scurried board and back wrote to their seats 371/2 A 53 rJ 41 42 / Progressivism and Classroom "Who can give me the weren't paying attention. Practice, 1890-1940least common denominator? Well, then, Sam, you Fanny? I called on tell us. TheoneFlynn's ofteacher theclass. stories. chose We shan't Let'sfour children.use our own They readers do the Mad Tea Party. Who Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 knew the lines by heart and acted today, but instead let's act out remembers it best?" I 43 Ten,youMrs.itwhat becauseteacher that's Spencer, do right. acceptedyouwe do Now,"there's next?" an answer a then, Sam, whatA long do girlpause. named A girl Sam." answers. Afrom another student. weoh, I hope you know long pause. Finally the "Keep your papers in "Oh, dear," says good,"outthe the class. partsMrs. TheasSpencer only game enthusiastic said. brought the "Now we'll have a drill game on the nine-year-oldsmorning could. "Fine. to a close.'You were all word 'bring,' " Mrs. Spencer told 1924 had received desk3,648."yourSpencer books.for Stephen, reasons asked Your thehimthat "The arithmetic period homework is examplewhat 2 on ispage wrong.nine-year-old sittingthe entiredirectly class knows, is over," she announced. fidgeted in his seat. Mrs.in front114: of 117,799 the teacher's divided by advocateAgneshercity-wide to beDeLima, ofannotice child-centeredexemplar andthe praisejournalist of progressive asschools a whoprogressive similarThe to school ones in which Mrs. Spencer observed this class, wasteaching a passionate in his building. Although taughtschool, in Her principal believed operated by Elizabeth thickhurt bench to go right to Mr. into Hazen's your room "She"Oh, keeps dear, sticking how dreadful! her and get the map bigof Europe strong back. I supposefeet into you mySuch back," little tiny feetand fetch me the map going righthe says. through a big from Miss Flynn."of Asia. As You're not? are too seriously wouldschools.conductedsympathetically.Irwin, dieFelix She if sincere placed Adler,believed Yet butwithin and she thatcolorless others,felt public progressive that sheMrs.imitationsschools. described Spencer classes Large class size, administrativeof the private experimentaland otherthis teachers fourth gradelikein herexperimental teacher schools Well,'Please,'if launched and you Mrs. by David, Spencera sling go "Polite,""Yes, always they responded. be polite, shot both boys were atsaid and turned to the it's worthwhile, you'll breath-out-that's better." the door. "Remember to sayclass," Always be find." Looking around centeredindifference"progressivism"schools?sives? classroomsMrs. The or Spencer'? hostility,problem. were would diverseHerandof kill course, buildinga suchgenerally and isefforts. ambiguous, inprincipal? the negative Who,word appealing Staff initself. the experimental The ideas nestedthen, in were theattitude progres- toward child- strongly to dis- the room, she said: "Henry,"Take"Class?""AsiaAsia," out what your is geographies Asia?" Henry "Stretch up-deep grasped for an answer. and turn to the map of Asia. Page 185." similaruishedmovement. reformers between Among in various the decadesthe educational educational bracketing streamsHistorians Lawrence Cremin, Michael Katz, reformers, for exams e, Tyack de- World WarTeachers I. within College's the larger George politicaland David Tyack disting- "Well,"Asia"Right,"AStephen continentis what a whencontinent," iscame the Iis talk hackthemeaning about with a largest division of land."they chorused.the map of Asia in continent,of what 'continent', do I mean? Elsie,?" hand and placed it expertly I mean land." veteranStrayer,scribedmachinery,ment superintendent)theto Stanford streamline administrative He distinguished Univetsity's the who school progressives used these Ellwood district's progressives (e.g. from the latest concepts in scientific manage- organizationalCubberley, and instructional Frank Spaulding, social reformers (e.g. atopto Everyonetheuse ledge a pointer. above up and straight Question"Time followedfor writing," question Mrs. Recess came and went.the blackboard. "Thank you, and tall and do your very Spencerwith said. occasional "Monitors children pass Stephen, it looks fine." best.going Write to the yourmap the papers. schoolsGeorgesubstantialKilpatrick)progressives Counts,as an whoinstrumentdifferences (e.g. John saw Francis Childs, the for existedchild Parker, national Willard central between, Flora regeneration, Beatty) to Cooke,the and school among, whoWilliam advocated Wirt, usingWilliam the H. experience. Althoughand the pedagogical the pedagogical names.clothestheveryshe upward Don't wrote: best.unbuttoned forgetstroke Wemountain, last or your camp, have only a week or two more to end with the time. It's just as bad as necktie off. WriteAugust, these glove, song, upstroke. Two or three forgot coming to school with your before thumb,promotion itself.words." day." "Do On your the board, about administrativeperiodreformers,to the and extent theythe progressives,efforts thatall drew they of thedeeplytried reconstructionists,pedagogical to from modify the reformers. Iwell will andof concentrate other on the changes in the existing classroom instruction. classroom in the interwar John Dewey's ideas.` I shall not deal with reformers except for a Threethetheir words,girls papers. sighed asking and certain Pens"Time scratched. for reading. Feet And we are covered their faces.shuffled. Paper crumpled.students to spell the words J J going to exchange readers Mrs. Spencer reviewed without looking of with Miss centeredchildren,common school antipathyand fixed advocates to furniture "fixed deer in and the sharp classroom."No differences uniformity marked these pedagogical reformers except grades in the schools, fixed rules for the Between these child- surfaced in curricu- 56 441 Progressivismartlum, and instruction, play and Classroomin the degrees classroom, Practice, of Given their strong, negative views of choice open to children, the role and extentand a host1890-1940 ofin otherthe practices issues.' they advocated, the public schools and despite the there of furtheredteachersadistrict unique with who program its over reputationwrote 45,000 of progressive changing as students, a laboratory curriculumconcepts became testing into athrough nationalcourses student-centered involving ofpacesetter study. hundredsDenver by concepts starting also of Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 / 45 children.diversityascurriculumremained thatoften permittedForof as doctrines a possiblethetailored core most consensuschildren toindividually partimplicit children's pedagogical more on whatinterests;or freedom they in small groups; they wanted programsconstituted a school reformersfocused upon wanted instructionand creativity and than existed in wanted instruction to occur theStudyexperimentwith program. its (1933-1941), participation to improve all in the ofthe Denver's high Progressive school junior curriculum. EducationAlthough and senior Association'sCalledWashington, high schoolsthe Eight D.C.national joined Year had a superintendent noted in profession- classroom;schools;curriculumlearning. they andThe wantedtheorists, theytangible schoolwanted psychologists, signs experiences children toand help practitioners shape of these impulses that bound philosophers, connected to activities outside the with abundant instructional the directiontogether of their were class- tionalperiod,al approacheshowcircles innovators. athe raciallyas schoolsan resemblingadministrative segregatedWhat were makes inconspicuous closely school progressivethe District systemwhat on ofNewwhose adopted theColumbia Yorknational tenure a numberCity worth spanned scene and examining of asDenver progressivethe instruc- entire ishad classroommaterials,roomsshouldtouched with haveactive cleavagesand movable in thewith school, larger childrenfurniture,over the community.the teacher'sinvolved project provisioned method, role in projects, and trafficThese between commonalitiesin the setting leave goals, un- the amount of how much freedom a child centuryatwo-decadeundertaken sense andof how periodandwhat muchwhat had of peak changedoccurredteaching interest in inhad classroom classroomsin remained and acceptanceBy in lookingasdistrictsstable a result. ofsince atrenowned progressive classroom the turn for ideas,of theirteaching the in these three districts during a suggesttimemagazinetaught, spent where onthe articles basic readersin the skills, written of and their about the like. Between the hundreds of thousands classroom to look for changes in practice. books,the theschools thousands they or of their newspaper followers directed, The commonalities, nonetheless, do of student; these professors and administrativeNew York City and instructionalSchools reforms may emerge. thechairs,ideas, hundredsdeclared,pronounced and their the of"escaped ideas coursesscoresit to beseemed ofits soof schoolinfluence."5 studyin 1938.to systemsand touch schools"No classroom," across the the nation. anonymous Time writer textbooks that incorporatedthat bought these movable desks and annualdistrictschools,The numbers reports boggles 36,000 staggerof the teachers,the mindsystem the ofimagination;and tried anyc 1,000,000 to ne capture west they children ofthe intimidate.the massiveness Hudson (1930) ImaginingRiver. in of one the Glossy school 683 ToCLASSROOMS what degree, if INat all, THE teachers CITY embraced these ideas and practiced them operationsuperintendentapart,Nashville,between they with1920 Tennessee. would comparisons: and visited 1921 stretch classroomsIf equaled you from the lined theincrease New for up number tenall York theminutesin of childrenchildren to students Toledo, each, inattending goingeight the Ohio. district, hoursto schoolOr a ifarms day, the in systemsCity,in placesabouttheir Denver, classrooms schoolingwere to observe acknowledgedand Washington,werecan what be to happened.seen be as implemented, in the following city case D.C.the In frontier the 1920s of innovation. and 1930s, cityIf new school ideas schools were the obvious studies of New York ethnic,sizeteacherfive shoulddays religious, once a week,not in threeobscurepolitical, he wouldyears.' the and richhave class history doneissuesSize nothing ofmirrored, alonetensions elsemade on and buta Newsmaller resolutionsobserve York's scale, each schools in unique. Yet the school district's as theinitiatingatstrong different largest leaders new public times programscommitted school in the thatsystem to two improving put in progressive theAll world, three districts had superintendents who decades, were recognized as leaders schools. New York and Denver, practicesthe superintendent into classrooms. launchedbuilt national reputations Inin citieslittlewhatnumbervaried across space.8teachers issues of historians.the did innation thein classrooms, school Iin will the not system'sfirst cover a halftopic the historyof to samethe which twentieth haveground. these been researchers Mycentury. described attention These devoted isby on a theparticipated) Activity Program, ever to the test single progressive largest experiment 57 ideas in classrooms. Denver, a school (about 75,000 students Cohen called the "ultimate triumph" in 1934Some when narrative, the Public however, Education is necessary to set the stage for what Sol a.)t- 46 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920 f 940 I 47 Associationofficialdom."9schoolinto child welfare(PEA), ainstitutions, reformist cadre saw dedicated to principles and procedures capture New York "its conception of progressivism in transforming schools City school constantwithovercrowded,sufficient the bickeringBoard funds old, of to withEstimate anddecrease outmoded the Mayor overclass adequateschools. oversize andkeepingMuch Intense resourcesprovide topof and Ettinger's schooladequate for prolonged the posts schoolsattention,housing free quarrels from and for however, was directed toward securing theThesalaries,ment;schools countrySetting sharply couldpositions, had onlyfourincreased and superintendentsadjust programs ethnic to, not resulting alter: to cope Between 1898 and 1940, the largest diversity; and, after 1930, cutbacks in massive growth fromin school the Depression enroll- and World with social changespublic schoolthat system in superintendency.partisanGradually,Having taint taught ledhe formovedto At hisalmost the contract through age twenty of not 60,the years, beinghenecessary wasLike he renewed was selectedEttinger, offices named in fromWilliam1924." onprincipal the among O'Shea'strek in tothe1906. the career began and ended in New York. reformerconsolidatedstaminaWar II. of who William organized5-borough Maxwell, a districtbureaucracy who forserved 20Enrollment asyears. growth and diversity taxed while retaining interest in the "New the first superintendent of thethe ingenuity, skills, andAs a pragmatic school copetrainedsors:fiveAssociates years withmore teachers differences ofbuildingson his the impartiallytenure Board with among continued of larger selected;Superintendents children. capacities the curriculum pattern to to houselaid follow expanded down students; Ettinger. by and his adequately revisedpredeces- The first to everyEducation,"curriculumaccomplishmentsimprove student the he and community.so had thatinstruction recognizedto thecope His with than tenacity,by such hishad contemporaries: basicever schools could reach out, through the vigor, and persistence left a string of before existed; more schoolsneeds toas providing a seat for greater uniformity in child, to trenchesschools,"institutionalizationreports of in O'Sheathe the school battle wroteof changessystem's for about health, made achievementselementary for over social aUsing quarter-century schools, well-being, that the reflectedvocabulary "are andearlier.the exactly front forof voguish"Thesemoral line the reformers, O'Shea produced annual housecome.Examiners)grams,with students, Combiningbroaderconcern that expanded curriculum,for would theclassroom indelibly social practice, services, mark Maxwell cast a administrative progressives' passion forand key administrative initiatives (e.g. Board organizational routines for years to after-school and summer pro- long shadow that few uniformity of curriculumreferenceslabeledadvancement.' "Progressive to materials. classroom Steps." More activities often,Occasionally or though,projects,District these"Progressive flexible superintendents reports schedules, wouldSteps" andincludewere for the required to submit reports with a section new seemedof hisintendent.ranks successors to as be.' teacher, In could the latterprincipal, escape, position, even district each superintendentThe became three asuperintendents who followed if they were so inclinedand none Maxwell came up through the member of the Board of and associate super- stressingeducation,servicesdistricts listedfor thrift, O'Shea children, new left testing andhis imprint changesprocedures, on in courses rules." howIf Ettingerchildren of study wereleft and his newgrouped, mark programs on the system by expanding vocational citizenship training, and character development. He new Superintendents,throughassumedprogram therecommendationsthe ranks.top a bodypost hadthat satadvised to in every the SuperintendentkeyWilliam Ettinger on served as superintendent for the Board of Education. Each person that chair in the system as he rose six years (1918-1924). personnel and schoolstheappearedexample,language PEA and intoless PEAproducedfor cityinterested his overclassrooms, reports. Elizabeth a indemand bringing The although Irwin's forstormy classroom a formalexperimentalhe relationshipwould practicesevaluation often school borrowbetween recommended of at the P.S. reformers' theprogram. 41, public forby aA district tofiftybeforeteacher follow. -six, joiningsuperintendency, and the Interested principal Board fellow of in associate forEducation vocational over a superintendents. quarter-centurychose him to succeed he worked for another decade in that training in elementary schools, Ettinger Shortly after, at the agebefore of being elevated to Maxwella hard act position conventionalof wichsupportO'Shea'sschool Village, andstaff lack instruction eventually ofand"The support PEA Little inthe appointees,was basicRed experiment evident. Schoolskills. recommended The The House."I4became evaluation PEA a pulled private committee,more out school itsformal financial in made Green- and up progressiveinitiativesdevelopeddirectionthe PEA thatprograms forofpractice ElizabethMaxwella school-within-a-school byin the personallyhad Irwin upper installed. in grades1922. approving He while demonstrated the use Jr 9 progressive experiment under the consolidating and polishing of a public school by his own interest in schoolsprogramsFewerment measuresoccurred teachers were inrippling cutwerethe back.midst allocatedthroughout ofThe the last Depression,to the schools.five schoolThe years departure system.yearsAfter-school of O'Shea'swhich Classof the saw size and onlytenure retrench- increased. summerformal were progressive experiment in the public GO 48 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 / 49 markedturnedAt the by toage earnest the of cabinet seventy, efforts of associateto O'Shea preserve retired.superintendents what hadTheHarold been Board Campbellfor done O'Shea'sof Educationin earlier had successor. graduated years. again from the Maxwell Training School in surprisewhatpresence teachers that penetrates the do. nineteenth-century Consider classrooms classroom daily uniformity,influencing architecture. inso largeIt highly should and prized small by ways the come as no andyearsreceiving1902 served later and his he beganin first wasthat appointmenta promotedposition career as and to a Associateasteacher that a highof inDeputy Superintendentbothschool elementary Superintendent principal for and in High 1920. high until schools, Four the Schools twentiethstandardizedCitythefirst design generationBoard century. of of classroom classroomEducation of Eachprogressives, classroom space, planbetween that C. including wasB.wasthe J. used1890sbuiltSnyder, Maxwell, aroundthroughout and architect the thebecame 1920s, seats the for firsttheembedded and created Newhalf desks ofYork the of the in 50.depressiondentsBoard Campbell for of theirEducation ever succeeded next facing school again the chief.O'Shea dippednation. After intoin 321934 the yearsCharacterized pool in inthe ofthe midstassociate system, asof atheat superinten-"conservative the worst age of educator" by both newspaper and deskforstudents grades made and 5 it andteacher: easier 6; and for48 40thepermanent for teacher grades desks to 7 and Rowsfor 8.16grades of desks 1 through bolted 4; to 45 the desks floor facing the blackboard and teacher's scan the classroom for actual or andincreaseasprofessional funds gifted servicespermitted, students. journal, to inchildren,CampbellThe trying pattern to and followedreduce laid differentiate out overcrowded his by predecessors' Maxwell programs schools, persisted, for policies, handicapped except insofar in expand and afterernizeorarrangementpotential project light instruction. and disorderactivitiesstaple ofheat, space Reformers toand activity-centereddiscouraged have items viewedstudents on student the movableclassrooms. progressives'work movement, onfurniture tasksFew smallagendaeducators uniformly. group to mod-work, The as a basic item, argued approvedhistorian."keyoneteaching area. landmark theInCampbell practices 1934, largest in justthe launchedexperimentcould atriumph few be months installeda "pedagogicaleverof progressivism," afteraimed in a becoming major at revolution"determining urban superintendent,according school that if progressive became system: to one he athe thissome,rowsthat structuralit of wastaxing immovable impossible the obstacle. ingenuity desks, to The implement but of problem,teacherssuch seating progressive inof figuring arrangements methodsout ways proved inof outflanking cumber- course, was money. Replacing rooms with CampbellSuperintendent'sActivity Program.15 petsonally decision. or anything Few citizenssubstantialAside or schoolabout from theprofessionals the decision PEA's support, he knew had there was little public reaction to the schoolCampbellNewstationary York system. in desksTimes 1930 with detailing movable all the ones progressive wasThe prohibitively official practices position costly. then of the Board of Superintendents in an article written by then Associate Superintendent was stated in The current in the made.FeworO'Shea, as Afterteachersa small, Ettinger, all, distantmostcould or Maxwell New havefigure York recognized on other a City stage than teachers speakingany in an of occasional themse',dom to thousands had saw theynewspaper Campbell, visitedof teachers. phototheir toandchairs forty special for pupils, the classes. traditional the scheme In most rows isclasses, ofnot seats, practical. however, The particularlyAs moving for the of when movablefurniture there isfurniture idea and the substitution of comfortable we adopted it long ago in kindergarten are thirty whichrevisedtionscameclassrooms. withinindirectlyinfluenced, courses which What from of to theyteachers study, someheadquarter's taught, degree,personnel did e.g.know whatdecisions class oftransfers, happenedtheir size, establishingsuperintendents' double-session evaluation in their workingclassrooms. ratingsall presence schools, condi- of The clincher argument he cited was the dangerconcentration.anotherof noise of teacherandfire. confusion. another One way. teacher Ease ismight not alwayswant the productive chairs of A building in which arranged one way, attention and creative theseworkplace,canContext be variables. attributedfor Classroomthe district In to trying their Teachingsetting todecisions, understand beyond the the teachinginfluence school, orpractice, of some the classroom ineffable I chose thosemix as ofa Within the classroom, what teachers do emptiedstudents inwere three obedient minutes. to order and marchroom filled with movable tables. Could it be done?Suppose the children were all reclining in easy chairs or wandering about a in straight lines could be requiredclassroomgenerallyfactors,are concrete often courses made space, labeled realities byof how study,others as manyover working district far which students removed conditions,tests, teachers andreport from whichare about thecards, seldom classroom.ones which supervisory consulted,enter decisions Designclass, rulesall yet arethe oftheir to600midstCampbell's the buildings ofreform the depression,answer: wasof teaching staggering. "Never. the practices. capital Yet "" the investmentCompromises issueThe persisted cost in ofstationary deskbecause replacement was never mentioned publicly. In the were strutkiBeginning desks for itover was central G2 50 / Progressh;ism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 bulletins and syllabi directing teachers' attention to what should be taught Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940151 elementaryofin fixedmovable1935-1936,Education desks. schooltables approved aIn year and1942,buildings afterchairs the the Campbell Superintendent's and one or more Board authorizedwill have more 35 fixedspace seats in rows moved into his new office, the workbenches to supplementrecommendation the that all new in thewith standard additional Board andEducationevaluators why.2' Paysonin 1924 Smith included on elementary a report by school MassachusettsA district-wide curriculum. Commissioner survey Smith's of report school of operations by a group of outside andclassroom, storage movable space for furniture, displays equipmentlonger just a place to study The Board of Education has recognized and recite. Itin is newnow schoolregarded buildings. as a workshop, for library and sciencethat corners, the standard classroom is no a scoredteachers"obsoletecurriculumgrowth the by existedcurriculum and "accretion," was often toovercrowded, determine triflingfor without its inflexibilitymaterial;" how heconcern muchwrote. no contentforand Tooguidelines correlation lack much should of overall timefor beof principals taughtwassubjects. aims, spent at itseach and on The stillKeeprooms.'' worked in mind with that children filling up rowlaboratory, a studio, and a place few buildings met the above to practice gracious living. after row of desks in crowded standard in 1942. Teachers War gradeconclusions.ate defenses level." of District current Superintendent courses of study Taylor toThe cautious formal attacked agreement responses Smith's withby assertions District Smith's Superintendents varied from passion- I, class size had been dropping While classes of 50 or more students were since that time. In 1930, average common around World class size in however, aboutteacher's the supposed freedom. inflexible course of study shrinking a classroom . classesmaskedelementarydramatically.kept stillsignificant around schools had Special 4525 differences.whileor more classes For example, hovered aboveother classes 38 students. in the same This building figure, for "dull"students. students Within or handicapped a school, the ones range 17 percent of all elementary would be well over varied were encedcannotateachers singlewhole.... inschool. affordsuch a Thetoway permit principalas to eachrealize isteacher thethere aims toto interpretwhichorganize, she the setsunify, course up forand of the inspirestudy school in the as a school with fifty or a hundred teachersmany of them inexperi- therehaving45.provide To was only a teacher aindividual 40public in a in classcommitment the 1890s facing attention to each child.'`' would have been a delight. By and philosophy that expected 75 students daily, the prospect the 1930s, however, teachers to Harold of grewwithAssociateYet DistrictSmith's haphazardly, Superintendent assessmentSuperintendent lacked that for coherence, elementarythe Stephen curriculum andBayne, schools, needed omitted who agreed, periodic wouldimportant albeit later guardedly,objectives, become revision.23 capabilityinevitableCampbellThe ideal a offeredthat teachersize withfor one canelementary more answergive than 35 pupilsGiven this tenet of progressive belief, but scantclassrooms attention of "normalto the children"in 1935. "It seems," he said, how large was too large? of varying personality and individual child." where one "almost employeesandO'Shea'sdone Methodology. earlier appointment were innot the Copyingpublished ofdecade, a Committee to the until some staff 1929, onextent wrote,Even the Smith's Revisionwhat though over Denver, acritique of 5the yearCourses 1924 Colorado periodtriggered surveyof Study (1925- had results and rebuttals from school teacherwasActivitystandard.students; 37.8 covers Program students. Byof all all1942, subjects forelementaryA largeelementarythe Activity is, he wrote, Program class at that time was definedclassrooms as being 41 over percent were large by schools began (1934) average had been declaredabout a success30 children. and When the class size that 40 pursuinglary1930), of 19progressive children's new courses reformersinterests.24 of study, on projectcomplete methods, Care,with thehowever, individual phrasing should attention,and vocabu-be exercised and in predicting classroom practice, 35.4percentextendedBrooklyn although of toall Tech.2() all the schools. range ranAverage Space and numbers classes labeled large. In high schools, average of children defined critical from 30.9 at Benjamin Franklin to class size was 34.4 children dimensions of the class size was with 1839.8 at classroomas DidorDiversityBayne could these observed, doordetermine inrevised practice closed "by syllabihow few theis assumedmuch principalswording produce teachers with of and changes a coursealmostused supervisors syllabi in of30,000 classrooms?study," theysaw teachers. whatknewrevised happenedClueslittle Onceor not.about. to the an tenexpectedteacher'scontentthereby syllabi dailyteachers explicitlyinitiallyand world.its and organizationprinted telling So did the coursewere. By their 63supervisor, the principal,teachers and to use principalsin thehow 1896 important by-laws particular of the Board of study. The Board of1924, Education there were 26 curricular of inEducation, classrooms supervisionanswerelementaryreceived, appear thatthe and inratingteachers juniorthe testssheets highreceived. students studentsused to were judgein composition,In given, 1925teachers, thefor andreportarithmetic,the thefirst cards character time spelling, they O'Shea of ordered the annual testing of 52 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940153 study.dealsilentgiven of reading,(In factual since high knowledge1878.)andschools vocabulary. By the andthe state 1930swere TheseRegents' linked city achievement academiceducators' closely to examinations tests theviews revised inclu. conflicted coursesJd had a great been over of 1926For1924Julia Richman High regulations.... Do not allow any interruptionsall elementary of a recitation. and secondary teachers in the Bronx: School: Organize classes according to cramming,certainteachersclassroom topics and impactand department in having courses of these a generally chairmen of annual study, exams.negative sawreinforcing these At impact least annual drill, halfon ' whatmemorization xamsof the teachers as high hardening school did and in PlaceDrillMakeSize the onyour a seatingstandingchildren daily plan,plan andand of yoursitting;assign thedown time class. seats....on noiselessly....schedule putting It helps onthe discipline.... the benches desk where and desks you can up theiroftoo classrooms.25High frequent School reference lohn Tildsley to these stated examinations," bluntlyWhile in 1925complaining Associate that these that tests in his"seem visits to classrooms he "hears entirely Superintendent 1930 Bush wick High School, Math Department:: Keep a strict accountrefer ofin tests, givingto them oral the work, frequently.... child and a justother mark data on that the will report aid card. theTheseto Percentagebe disposal necessary exams of took grades thisas a the Division,means placeand of of itchecking schoolis impossible inspectionuponItems theto give."26workon since report of with the cards "the alsoforce produce at clues of instructional practice. letters were given to students schools...."in subjects. 3.2.Plan1. for Geometry Period BlackboardPresentation,Assignment ofrecitations development, new homework on review and application of theorems.... of the new lesson spacesspelling,Citizenship1920s, set composition, foraside marks example, for werethe arithmetic, finallisted also grade, given.the history mid-term The andjunior and civics, highfinal and reportexam geography, cards in with the ;quired subjects of reading, grammar, marks. Space 1932John you;Straight!theRecitation room. get theFace Remember audience by the pupils Class! situation. should the Speak placard be Up!' clear Don'tposted and let easily in pupils heard talk in Adamsdirectly all parts High to of School, Latin Department: all rooms, 'Stand wasandthreehigh provided tentha school aweek semester. week for laterreport marks;grades theOne card, final highaton theletter effort,mark school end marks wasofconduct, handbook the to were fourteenthbe andentered.27 given for personal students week up to exams six prescribed times were a given year,fifth habits. On the 1939 All Economy in routine demandsreports,rising whenuniformity. etc. reciting, foreignPupils This shouldlanguagegoing is particularly to know theteachers: front what true of is the ofexpected room to ofgive them.... an oral judgmentbehaviors1935 ofwhen aand student's the attitudes report proficiency (e.g.card whetherwas prevailed revised theA similar child toin includeelementary works system a wellnumber schoolsof withletter of others,until gradesstudent in subjects based upon teacher's AOther few activities minutes shouldof testing,whetherboard be carried either work the onoral aimsis bybeing or pupilsof written, the done... lessonat their should have revealbeen achieved.... 28 , seats while consistentobeysformalment, courteously, and rules with fidelity alsorevisions hinted isto reliable, teacher then at classroom underway directionsplays well behavior.in In theregistered withaddition elementary Duringothers, strongly,to tests theschooletc.). interwar and explicitThis program. report wasperiod and cards signaling that content, achieve- departmentimplementedclass chairmen. by principals, A new first rating assistants, formOne districtofwas the introduced strongest superintendents,is signalsin 1921 toand teachers on whatthe they evaluation rating and the manner that supervision were to do in was to classroomsandprincipalsteaching executing and practices but supervisors lessons. they were. surely These circulated defined rules to whatdid teachers not supervisorsFor describe rules elementary for what believedmanaging andoccurred secondary"good" classes in school teachers in diverse subjects, Examinersreports"theeliminate lack of onthe inuniformity teachers manydetermining complaints from in ratingspromotions.29 principals raised and by the Williamthat both abuses were teachers O'Shea, stemming used and by thenprincipals the from AssociateBoard "secret of Superintendent, chaired the overtask regulations had a similar ring. A sampling: 1921Evander Childs High School: Thesufficient student clearness should stand to be erect,heard inwith all headparts ofup, the and room. speak with For oral work insist on clear speaking. areasdescribeUnsatisfactorytoforce label werethat performance instances drafted identified. was the of introduced. revisedandexceptional in its form. placeSpace service Eliminated a was two-point and provided weaknesses.were scale thefor oflettersthe Satisfactory supervisorFive A, teaching B, C, D orto 54 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, O'Shea wrote the explanation in the received copies of the handbook 1890 1940 handbook for each of the five explaining how "timid,about teaching easily frightened, infect supervision scared toand have make an teachers, opinion theof their writer own." declared, The Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920 -1940 / 55 areashisEducation."evaluationO'Shea todiscourse be rated; wrote. would Project on teachers "Theappropriate occur. methods greatest O'Shea's and possiblesuch participation success,"instruction. of he all said, the "cannot "We learn to do bypupil activity ran as themeslanguage throughout resonated with the children is the be attained doing," "New yearswrittenaccuracyrendering 1 assumerules, of ofthe teacher thatthe cases beliefsworking ratings, the that teacher conditions, andteachers supervisorydescribes theheldBy tools aboutdescribing is practices availableless supervisors.33 important classroom into teachers,the interwa,than architecture, andhis syllabi, class size, report cardr,, realessencelargely."3°where measureimprove the of old of supervision,instruction. success,type of individual and But supervisors wereAmong educators, supervision meant more according to New York City question and answer recitation also thanrequired filling toout judge a form. a The officials, was to is used too aconditions,howrelatedthe linkage explicit people to existswhat and expectationsdrive teacherswhatbetween if wegood havedo how ofdrivers daily. their somepeople Surely aresupervisors knowledge drive,expected something traffic todescribeof do trafficrules, can on the bea andsignals, context learnedroad, road because drivingcondi- thatabout is creatingteacher'ssurveyHartwell,principals a theperformance.dilemma Buffalo schools and each districtsuperintendent in timeThe superintendents atwo as 1924. saw the dilemma clearly on supervisor entered a classroom. Dr. andexpectations, one of the investigators then as now, clashed, they supervised and rated his visits with hired to Alfred progressives'whatclassroomsinstruction,tions. had Similarly, occurred across perhaps vocabulary certain the in New cityeven contextual sinceandYork reinforcing suggested the were conditionsturn changes of certain activitiesthe helpedcentury, in ones,syllabi for shape By that teachers.that the the prevailedincorporated early patterns But 1930s, the inof teacherssuperintendenttinguishable. in 16 schools He questioned described and 50 the one teaches visit to aHartwell saw that too often supervision classrooms.31 in front of the class on hershe had taken. He askedclassroom herand for inspection where became the district indis- pupils' Thevailingcards,connective Activity rules,teacher-centered tissue Program. evaluation of instructionclassroom practices.34 process, and supervisionhewed architecture, class closely size, toreport pre- Return now to 1934 when newly appointed Super- theattendancethen lessonvisited.notes told planL and to ridTeachers conduct hookwhatpromised whichprofessional observedthe the lessonhe by courses teacher to discuss them with her examined and found in Hartwellforgood the order. visitors. and supervisors The superintendent were the next time he ratedShe on was took directgressiveintendentthe Principal'sexamination practices Harold Association Campbellin of the teaching nation. toapproved acrossStephen In describing the Bayne,the Calledcity largest willthis who the sixunfold. effortActivityhad year just to experiment, beenProgram,try out appointed pro- the a experiment was initially proposed by variationWhile"personality,thatdistrict createdhe infoundsuperintendents styles control fear uniformity andamong of quantity class, practiced teachers at the very rumor of a in the "recording of ratings"self-control,of supervision. discipline, and Too manysupervision, he believed, in a manner supervisor coming principalshe sawscholarship." muchand Loftus,experimentto percentinstallinghead thea formerof Division was innovativeall elementaryapproved elementary of Elementaryprograms, at schools every principal was Schools.step.(69) tappedwith wereAssistant Going a chosen city-wideto direct Superintendentup onthe the the reputationhierarchy, program.basis of John theforbeing Ten thedentsto intheir district. Principalseach supervised rooms. class; Two Moreover,told officials aboutthey him made1,000 they that spent too little time was available.400 to 600 teachersvisits thehe in cited previous20 to spent 40 schools, twentybetween minutes 20 to to 25 a percent of District superinten- depending upon theirschool time year. in half hour thatparticipatedpractices.typical not for all their Overclasses in thedistrict 75,000 inActivity a andschool students for Program designatedhaving and positivefor 2,200 almostas experimental teachersattitudes 6 years. toward in Note,thewere progressive69 involved;however, schools classrooms.32catercolleagues so as oftento avoid feared his a principal or Over ten years later a enmity." He scored principals Brooklyn high school teacher wrote supervisor, as "someone to whom to for failingin the to reacheducational that his theacourseand total1940 2,700, numberofmemo the respectively.' experiment,from of students Loftus the andand essence J.teachers Wayne of in WhatWrightstonethe these massive was 69 the schools toeffort Activity J. Cayce was were Program?distilled Morrison, 90,000 in While the definition shifted over the 6 7thee.g.them."process ideal:and good spelling, Citing"the and penmanship, supervisortherefore instances and using canof flashcards, following the time schedule principalsisto superior,the with a sorthelp particular of teachers expert instructional in the dilemnas he describes how these peculiar minute, poetrythat confront passions, notions teamNewwere:According Yorkthat the State Boardto Assistantthe memo,of Education Commissioner major hired concepts toof evaluateEducation in the and experiment. head of the the Activity Program 63 56 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 activities.Children and teachers participate in selecting subject matter and in planning classrooms and described what they Beginning in the first year of the Activity Program observers Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 / 57 saw both in the experimental and went to fixedTimeTheTheLearning program periods.schedules formal is centers largelyrecitation are flexible, onexperimental. the is modifiedexceptneeds andfor by certaininterests conferences, activities of ... individuals and groups.excursions, research, which may have studentarts,lesstheregular investigators time dramatics, classrooms. on the conventional foundetc.)." In athat Yet 1941 pupils the academicstudy researchers in ofactivity 24 subjects classes alsoclassrooms in both crafts, and certain other enterprises (show-and-tell, and devote more time tonoted that the amount "spend somewhattypes of schools, discussion, Theties.dramatization,ity;Discipline teacher she enjoys is is encouragedconstruction self-control considerable to and rather exercise freedom sharing, than initiativein interpretingimposed connection and control.... towithand assume the course of study,evaluating activi- responsibil- groupscontrolwhatof time today classes."4()spentor together would on formal be as called an subjects entire social class.such studies They "isThe found observers that the recorded whether students as arithmetic, reading, spelling, and nearly the same in activity and worked on tasks in small regular classes Activity Program was a "revolt againstIn verbalism, a less sedate description,crafts.'timeEmphasis schedules, Loftus, is placed and speaking procedure. on instruction to and creative expression so-called 'textbookteachers, said the in the arts and quiteonefollowsthespent might different."a'activity these93 expectpercent figures classes in of trying view theirspent tooftime 84 explain the percent in fact the why thatwhole in thethe the difference "is not groupas large workingsame on manner. tasks while A paragraphprograms presumably are as mastery'generation"integrated"congenial and literalgroup"of curriculum" reformers).;' 'recitation.' or committee (correlated " Teaching was typical or unifiedwas of tailored activity curriculum to to an methods as was the foreach teachers. child. The In earlier expressinginpenedthrough 16 schoolsin Teachersclassrooms some (8 dismayactivity College by observing over and investigated, how8 regular) almost their instruments50 betweenA classes related study funded by the Works Progress among other things, what hap- andAdministration over1937 2,000 and children (WPA) 1939. While universities,bothsourcesElaborate regular were directions, andthe compiled, activityBoard syllabi,of schools, published,Education, classroom teachersThe and six suggestions,took the year Principals'courses experiment and stimulated staff development and distributed to teachers who ex- offered by localcommunity re- Association, by:the sharp"average" distinctions activity between class classrooms more outward appearance of pupil self-direction, was different from the "average" control one that they saw, they did find that failed to capture fully andpressedprogram.and regular administrators interest Teamselementary in theof answeredtrained Activity schools observers Program.questionnairestook batteriesDuring of about test.the life of the experiment students in matched pairs using specially designed instruments various aspects of the Children, teachers, of activity adistinguishedm.)reperiodsmore considerably diversityprojects of the f:om day.largerof and the the a display sort largerstudy that ofrange correlate isolatedthe pupil'sof (tasks), various handiwork.42 especially enterprises subject matter. during certain and skills as teachervisitedgraphswith finalregularbehaviors. spilled reports and over Activityfrom tables Activity and Program chairs, Schools. classrooms nearlyWhen Scrapbooks, filling the to experiment hisrecord reports, office. was over in 1941, Loftus's office was student andOne schooland photo-inundated sionsprincipals,in Commissionedtesting, of the evaluation, and study headquarter by were the and New based curriculum staff. York City The major evaluation of the entire They also tested children. TheBoard of Education,spent a national year interviewing teachers, six years occurred in conclu-experts 1940. sentstudentPoetry, most46 illustrated workcommittedart, songs, accompanied reports toweavings, the of informal theprojects, vases, reports.38 curriculum eachand hundredsBefore turning of to classroom practice, keep in mind that the (anotherweighing phrase about for Activity 10 pounus. other examples of teachers thebeenclassrooms staff part found: of in any 28 schoolsprevious (14 evaluations. activity; In analyzing the degree of implementation upon an intensive investigation of 19414 regular) of which 10 pairs had in 100 activity classrooms, not experimentaside,Program)the highat most, did mobility was not three spending follow ofhours students an one daily. activity hour between Another dailyschedule for compromise "drills the entire and struck day.skills" Teachers early because set 63 schools.39 in the of 42%program38%20% of ofclassroomsof classroomsclassrooms but still hadrequired where made activity substantialassistance. procedure a well-developed activity program.43 progress in developing an activity was confused and ineffective. '0 58 /In Progressivism 94 classrooms and Classroom in regular Practice, schools, 1890-1940 askeddifficult. the Aquestion: few years "To earlier, what extent then Associatehas the New Superintendent York City school Campbell, Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940159 system manyineffective."butOccasionally,due elements beto solack intermingled of some understandingthe elements with of the the activity activity procedure are observable but of objectives or uncertaintyregular as procedure to means. as to be disturbing or procedure may well be developed poorly practiced progressivemade use of educationists the so-called as 'new' exemplified educational byHis the techniquesevidence:answer: child-centered A andgreat ideas deal.school?" of the Theevaluators.could study implement confirmed the top best of administrators' beliefs that New York progressive practices, as defined that activity schools had been most byteachers these ficialsSomeStudentsPupils elementarymanaged revised clubscivics schools in textbooks high had schools miniature in eighteen municipal schools governments and of- attitudesencouragingsuccessfulorderly, toward courteous in student getting school, movement behavior." students teachers, into TeachersFinally, were the survey staff concluded classrooms,participate developing and positivecooperateand peers, in groups,as well as "purposeful, less successful in developing student 500100,000MoreclassThe schools socialized and and children conducthad more savings recitation project enrolled recitations banks workwas in practicallyhomemaking, was being universal; done cooking every pupils meals, take charge year and acquiring of the flexiblereportingActivity use toof Program parents.45classroom penetrated furniture, regular useWhat also materialized from the schools"had nearlyunintentionally. as muchstudy "Ourof the was the realizationof work benches that and tools, activityregular and the administrationitemsExcept were for two organizational itemsand implemented that dealt and withcurricular by instruction principals, changes in engineered housekeeping skills" all of whichthe classroom, were easily the other by central school,"evaluatorsprogramprogress the as final foundin two translating report of10 the percent observed, of regular The state team concluded that the activityactivity concepts schools selectedinto for intensive in teachingclassrooms knowledge had made and "appreciable practice."46 study. The skills, usedprojects.monitored in since they were observable. NotA decade later, Joseph Loftus estimated25 that activity percent of all city elementary schools "in some degree," he said. so for socialized recitation and methods were ascreative thathavior.""educatingeffective the work, Activity Pronouncingas childrenthe attitudes, use Program to theand think, experiment be a of conventional methods of behavior the Activityimproving Program pupils'extended attitudes throughout and social the school system success, Morrison teaching and superior in recommendedproved to be be- differentlytoallThe rooms, whatteachers estimate extent. project byto was ascertainboth Furthermore, nomethods, professionals more whether than even many such theand concepts wordmethods laymen. "progressive," about child-centered an informed guess since no one had visited were, indeed,Left practiced to the teacherand was a were interpreted class- graduallywasnation. launched and on in a thevoluntary An experiment involving over It received no additional midst of the worst economic basis.47 70,000 studentsfunds forfrom equipment, diverse settings furniture,cutbacks or in special teachers, while depression to hit the Givenworkrepertoire;classgreat dealelect onthese anything of officersanother obstacles,discretion they teacherwithout one for please selectivecan sets changing only and aside implementation,calls 2:30-3:00 that pursue hints or occasional indicators of any portion of her instructional an activity program, etc."each day for students to e.g. one tez.cher lets a supervisorsclassinstructional size increased. occurredprincipalsmaterials A and high experienced annual changed in 45 of the in carrying outturnover the effort, of students, of 69 schools. If school teachers, and making untouchedlarger impact by theover ideology a two decade of the period.progressiveSome schools, like islands in the midst of In 1942, an enormousmovement lake, andremained the Activity chickenofficialsfeelingWar saladfelt II,given Haroldsome out all of justifiablethe Campbell chicken difficulties pridefeathers, approved facingOn January 20, 1942, six weeks after the United States the gradual extensionthem. of theit SCCMS, in retrospect, a sensible entered World Activity foundgrade.theProgram. site classrooms,When for a the project support curriculum, to improve team from andboth time instruction for example, 3 Harlem schools with 6,000 pupils central headquarters arrived, they schedules for each subject. and curriculum in the first became ityProgram Program, to all were elementary AnRlemented schools. Determining the extent that progressive 71 in over 35,000 classrooms by practices, including the Activ- 1940 is languageelsewhereTeaching but practicesin thedemonstrated city. were First unmarked grade teachers by no evidence of modified classroom practice. any of thewere ferment familiar occurring with progressive ( n 60 sources,Over/ Progressivismlum, a usetwo and of and yearstaff time, Classroom developmentperiod, and Practice,instructional the Researchaltered Bureau's 1890-1940the traditional attention, classroom, modest curricu-re-practice sufficiently to make the target lessonchairmanHigh School was from the in railways 1940,three otherwitnessed of the high nation. byschools. a The teacher, 35 The students principal,subject had of andbeen the department 40assigned minute 2 Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940161 primaryexistelementary they classrooms did."schools activity-oriented. in the city were Consider also the sizable number of like these 3 in 1942, I cannot say. But How manyteachers of the who other were opposed for argument given by many 700 Ofpublishedpages the in 31 the for teacher text high and school entries, excerpts students.54 26 from were the questions, TheAmerican transcript manyObserver, carries married 96a newspaper entries, to long 31 for the teacher and 65 for students. teacherseitherpercentteacherprogram. philosophical was ofopinion The teachers the Morrison great after or in other theamount six activity yearsreasons of (a the common evaluation of activity and regular schools schoolsof extra preferred work theit took) regular to program; the activity experiment. They found that 36 sampled in teacherwholessontranscriptexplanations. copied included writing indicating the The class'sothera discussion 65 thatpoints responsesstudent ample onof responsesathe time tograph board.55a questionfor on expression wererailroad on paragraph the statistics, waschalkboard, permitted. length one andstudent in The the wholelackinggram.regularformat Agroup schoolsbecause considerablewere instruction, better 93 they percent, forbelieved them little unsurprisingly, and thatstudent classroom number of teachers, then, found their children. In comparing the movement, and question-answerfavored the conventional pro- activities concentrated on the experiment supposed socializedrevealingteacherteaching channeledrecitation, wasthe deft first touch concert withrate. ofstudent They ainto solid viewedleading participation professional,The questionsit asthree an dominating according exceptionalobservers and periodic to discourse.agreed the instance summaries, observers. that The itof was a an excellent lesson and that the benefitsrationality,High of Schoolsthe ifActivity not effectiveness, Program, these of conventional instruction.5I teachers remained convinced of the Theyfelt"Miss"questions, were with rather impressed one the another.5' extentthan withthe of student firstthe way name, talk, students and the Suchtheteacher rose comfort individual from calling their students on casesseats each help.toand student answer teacher Yet bymore descriptions of what teachers did Turninghighly1924, to touted 11the highhigh innovation, schoolsschool, therereportedcontract is evidence teachingthat some (theteachers Dalton inPlan). eachthat As school some early schoolswere as initiated a of diversifying the course rationaleclassroomsdatawould on add teacher for much lookingduring practice,to what theat classrooms isinterwar I currentlylocated period.the 152 available. way descriptions TheI do In andAppendix a small the and methods effort photographs contains to I increase used of my to ofusing handful.52Daltonandstudy. individual for TeachersPlan high for schoolcontracts theirsubmitted classrooms.teachers with articles students in theBut to assystem, a way on these referencesHigh Points, number the less journal than written a by how they modified the Tableinstructionalteachingcategorizedata. 2.1 describes pattern. practice Included Figures the inspecific Newthere 2.1 and Yorkare categories 2.2also City. consolidate someThe that datacautions were I thecollected included ondata using for from patternsthesefor 152 each data. classrooms of support the survey results, workstudentpercentteachers of into the ofthe 21 thebest observer New teachers teachers York visited. "teachingCity of any andBased suburban uponIn 1935, Teachers College professor from the textbook."subject." The remainder Principals selected the 104 theseThomas narratives, Briggs Briggssent a graduatefound 80 high schools to "observe the had classrooms.practices,lesserProgram.evidence fraction drawn No defined The more of,from dominant highbroadly,than contextual anschool mode extimated and conditions,ofteachers used instruction one them adoptedof and infour remained evaluationsvarying elementary progressive degrees of and,the teaching inActivity their a combination of even a andclassroomsmade. substantialspecificquestions About where directions by linkage65 the pupil percent teacher betweenparticipationfollowed of on the an current classes byassignment boar(' events in discussions and panelsused occurred"conventional procedurewith answers of by the pupilsseat or of work." In the use of and subject matter were teachersrepertoires,evidenceteacher - adopt centeredthat particularly teachers some and progressive mixedincorporated in elementary patterns. practices student-centered classrooms. Nonetheless,Why while did fewer a considerable there practices of theiris considerable colleagues into minority their of New York City elementary it."traditionaldemonstration recitation, lesson 80 inpercent an American of the Another example of high school 7 3 instruction is an actual transcriptHistoryi.L.tchers class of a at Washington were observed Irving practicing mentBoardpoint,in high letand ofschool meEducation directed suggest chose suchsomethatand Superintendentapproaches? plausible answers. Although Campbell An Iobvious endorsed the experi- it get underway in elementary schools. The can only speculate at this reason is that the 7 4 a)

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MISIONIEN 40 000000 n) 00 L., 0o0000 0 0 co co 4, 0 co co O6 8 sz, CO 0 (700 m r permissionteacher' seatleave withoutfreelymoveStudents desksfrom topermissionneedsStudent MOVEMENT timeoneatseats ENTSTUD away fivethanLess allatmovementNo -< fromawaystudentsmoreorSix students recitation/discuss.Teacher-led 0 etc.radio,tolisteningfilm, C) projects/centers test,takingStudents on watching rY workingStudents workcheckingTeacher 0 discussions/recitation etc.)class,toreading rn leadStudents givingexplaining, co groupssmallin behaviorsstudent-centered directions, (lecture,talkingTeacher ACTIVITIES work teacher-andbothindicate andindividually Students desksatworkingStudents CLASS groupssmallinClass thatactivitiesoffrequencyHigh and recitation/discussion individualswith talkinstructionalstudent teacherbothoffrequencyHigh Teacher-led orgroupsintalkingStudents talkingTeacher TALK recitation dramatizations reports, talkingclassinoneNo CLASSROOM ordiscussionStudent-led panels,debates, Student desksat rest student group individual.andsmall, worksclassof while activities smalland worksTeacher INSTRUCTION whole,grouping:variesTeacher individualwith individualinengagedStudents classWhole GROUP groupsintodividedClass groupssmallwithworksTeacher another. onefacingchairsanddesks rows atarrangedclassofhalftoUp blackboard No teacher'sfacing ARRANGEMENT one of etc.horse-shoe,hollow-square, /oranddesk another facingdesks rowsinchairsanddesksMovable CLASS clustersortablesatsitStudents inchairsanddesksMovable Mixed Teacher-Centered Student-Centered Pattern were and classroompatterns,Thecounted.andcoded follow:behaviorsspecific dimensions movement. specificweretheredimension,eachFor student If anddescriptionsinlocatedbecouldthatbehaviors was theyfound,photographs. grouparrangements, dimensions:fiveintodivided instructionClassroom andactivities,classtalk,classroominstruction, classroom DimensionsTeaching:ofPatterns2.1Table 64 / Progressivismi and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 administrative hierarchy, organizational machinery, and limited resources Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940165 schoolsThatheadquartersimportantwere the mobilizedoutsideActivity than permitted the Program theto venture implement simple advocates varied introduced fact thewithin thatat program 110 athe elements formal Livingston target in 10 stampschools of percent theStreet, of programand approval ofprincipals, that the regularschools.is lessfrom and N` 4 reveal,andwhatteachers high the since to Boardschool press there and forwardclassroom wasSuperintendent aknowing great practices deal that wanted. ofthat Buttheir ferment Ithe doefforts descriptionsnot in believe were high consistent schoolsthis and entirely graphs with explains the differences in elementary over reason,inforschoolintroducing classrooms city program highthen, student-centeredschool andone prior show-and-tellthat teachers, to is his less promotion. documented practices.obvious instances Issues butCampbell ofthe nonethelessteacher debatesof High had innovations. over Points, directed deserves progressivism the theAnother journal some high Activity Program in an Elementary School,4 1935 (New York City Public Schools, arelowertimeconsideration, taken spent ane, for upperwith granted is the students,grades. structural as permanentSuch and differences differencesdifferences features in are incontent of oftenexpectations the ignoredschoolstudied, terrain. becausebetweeninstructional they the 37th Annual Report, All the Children, 1934-1935, p. 12). school,especiallyvehiclereading, forand and ingetting certainly math the lower skills.at thosein thegrades. Content skills. secondary But Subjectis secondary in school, the matterChildren last notand yearis onlyrelativelyoften in or elementary soused of unimportant, elementary grades learn fundamental verbal, writing, are more sophisti- as a flexible ROI criticism,complexcated skills subjecthistorical required matter analysis, of students that solving in butand theseadvancedof itself skills mustmath are behookedproblems, learned. directly and Literary into quan- 4 potentmatter,andtatitive their organizersitanalysis applications.seems, indrives of chemistry classroom Highmethodology school all tasks require teachers in than the knowledgeAlso subjectclassroom. dispense in elementary matter. of knowledge;Skiiis complicated are schools, far subject facts student and teacher contact time differ more seesmoredominantsharplylimitations, 5 hours groups from form with thecapacities,of of the30 highdelivering studentssame school. and group. instruction. lessachievements The Theythan self-contained ansee Generally, hour far than more a day. classroom teachers of In a child'sterms spend remains ofstrengths, simplefive the a high school teacher who or antimeshehourscontact, important teaches) that a school the elementary elementary atvariable year; most, a colleagues 200 highin teacher considering hoursschool seesspendduring teacher a issues withclass the sees pupils.year of any 30grouping, children Contact providing nearlytime becomes indi- or about one-fifthone classof the (of the 5 he or a 1,000 NewInformation, York City LibraryElementary of Congress). School, Fourth Grade Class, 1943 (Office of War BES1 COPY MAILABLE vidualfurniture. attention, In elementary varying classroom schools, thetasks potential and activities, to make and changes rearranging in these 66/ Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 14 course,50-minutewithand other the an same areas period.entirely children; is presentWhether separate such just such issue, potentialbecause changes but the isthe occurabsent teacher structural in for thehas 30 lowerdifferencemore students grades,contact within in is,time of a Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 / 67 allocationCarnegiechoicesaccreditingstill apparent allowsare units, associations,missing. in for Collegethe possible upper In high Boards,college changesthree school entrancegrades Scholastic in classroom, elementaryFinally, (4-6), requirements, Aptitude inexternal elementarystrongclassrooms. tests, pressuresand classrooms, vocationalAdvanced from especially in the primary grades but seekhigherreadypressurestoPlacement, completejobs, for grades. and existthe certifying the takenext inSlack textbook elementary thegrade, agencies timeproper bythe is grades,June, availableandpressurescourses other drive particularly for inexternal seldom students elementarygraduation. constraints pinchthe to pressprepare schools. asWhile theyto push getfor similardo Flexible teachers childrenexams, in the Children,The Writing Lesson 1939-1940, p. 3). (New York City Public Schools, 42nd Annual Report, . All the matter,inanotherclassarrangements high can year,schools.contact include whileare time, Theseamore rangeuncommon, and evident. three of external ages structural occursGrades and pressuresmay performance. more can differencesemphasis be frequently combined; Retainingwell in account groupselementary a student withinfor whythan for a on subject 404, I Si* A IF "j; 75 schoolsschools.changes in occurred the 1920s with and more 1930s frequency became increasinglyin Relatedelementary to harnessed thisschools last thanpoint in are high two further speculations. Because high grades.57individualdirectlyand professional with development vocational careers, became elementary training. more Notionsschools acceptable,Also became of high play especially lessschools and pressured creativity in staffs at this time were predominately male and to vocationsthe primary to deal and I teacherschild,centeredelementary seemed progressivism,hired classrooms moreto prepare attuned weredrawing young to overwhelmingly women onmen nineteenth and and the staffedcenturylower grades byidealism about the women. Child- than to male percentaDenverteachers school andof districtadopted its Washington, students. 2,000 student-centered miles D.C. away in these from techniques twoThis New decades. issue York will of CityTurndifferencesarise with again less in thethan degree 5 that elementary and high school women for college and jobs.58 now to Denver, in both The Answer (Office of War Information, Library of Congress). grades,WhenDENVER Mira she bakedScott Frank'scookies, children wrote letters, went tomet school with andteachers moved and through theprincipo.!G, Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 / 69 68 I Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 tenuregraftedhebrought hired on onto theby after an formerBoard. unwilling he became highDenver orschool Denver'sunaware welcomed principal schoolsuperintendent with JesseIn district. gusto the Newlon years progressive Evenin 1920.afterand before the Newlon practicesyoung Frank's movedmen into his offices at Fourteenth and Tremont,Mountainnonewspaper,school historian Denversystem's News "Denverto blinknewspapers, growingand twiceLeads the Denver nationalsince Way businessmen, suchin Post. Progressivereputation. articles But and to were city see AEducation," headlineofficialscommonsuch an boosted articlefrominwould the aRocky in causelocalthe the anythingfoundappearanceducedTaxpayers' an enthusiasticbythat Newlonsuggests mightReview increase responsewere thatcomplete theadopted school evenideas with among quicklyexpenditures.of three Jesse citizens photographs, as Newlon a local Progressive normally andproduct!' was his vigilant aideassuccessors surprise. aboutintro- Its itschief.revisionthe continuity experiment What that, Frank inagain, intop neglectedfive leadership. Newlon Denver to had mention Betweenhigh introduced schools was 1920Frank's how to inand the hisfortunatememory 1940, cyclefirst fourterm ofDenver the curriculumsuperinten- as Eight school was Yearin Study was also accurate in linking Donald1940-1941,New YorkHealey (New p. Reciting 36). York inCity Latin Public Class Schools, at Fort 43rd Hamilton Annual Report,High AllSchool, the Children, Brooklyn, derdentsfirsthethan Stoddard, hiredserved Directortwo Threlkeldyears, the and of Denver Newton'sResearchCharles as assistantschools: Greene. ininfluence 1923. superintendentJesse ExceptThrelkeld extended Newlon, for succeeded Stoddard over A.in L.1921 the Threlkeld, entire whoNewlonand Greeneserved period, andAlexan- lessservedas since the motherschairedFrank parent wasdo as elected meetings,they serveto the and inBoard local worked of and Education at district a score and served 12 years. Since the leadershipof posts. tasks Inthat 1939 active PTA professionals. At the continuityholdingStudyassistanta decade; in thesuperintendent the afterin post leadershipDenver Stoddard's until schools,1947. sincethat brief theThe 1933 assumedterm,city chronology and schools Greene, who the had enjoyed superintendencyis who headeduseful had as in upitbeen underscoringmoved the Threlkeld's Eight in through Year a 1939, ValverdeDenverabout1920s, a Schoolsheforschor,l itshad progressivededication systemworked that with in practices. hadthe parents Springcome andunderof 1951, school Over the years, because Denver's system had been attack from groups outside she spoke passionately recognized as an educatedtwoIndianaadministrator decades in high Indiana, of school. boom, in 1905Newlon Movingdepression, when taught through he highbecameand principalshipsschoola secondSuperintendent principal an worldc: began in:If Illinoiswar. the hisJesse Charlestown, career and Newlon Nebras-as an was an outsider. Born, reared, and criticismnationaloutstandinganform importation of studiesof propaganda. lateone, leveled foritfrom has the outside.Denver's been atimprovement so-called chosen True, educational "progressive as ofone education. ofsystem the education." few in 1934, we participated in the Eight Year is its own. It has never been There has citiesbeen tomuch participate in This has been a superintendentthreebecameka with years timesuperintendent there out in to threehe earn was smallaof master'sappointed the Missouri Lincoln, degree to townsDenver's Threlkeld,Nebraska, (1914) for from atop decadewhoschools post. Teachers served before in 1917. Collegeas Newlon Newlon's After he assistant and deputy, worked as accurate: no school provrams and directionsStudy,whatthingBoard sponsored wasweredone unsatisfactorymember in that by study the Frank's Progressive was was originated defensediscarded Education ofin some Denver.Denver's years What progressive was 81 Association.... But every-ago.'forcibly or even subtly good we retained; practices was ingtaineddeparturealsoasked certain earned himthe directions to to elementsa headmaster'scome Teachers to laidas degreeDenver. the down Depression College'sat byWhile Teachers his colleague,assistant Lincolnbuffeted College superintendent, School, elaboratingthe in 1923.Denver Threlkeld After andschools. Threlkeld Newton'samplify- main- His 82 701that10-year Progressivism spanned superintendency and the Classroom turn of Practice, wasthe century.the 1890-1940 longest since Aaron Gove's 30 year stint left5 junior for Newhigh and York 3 senior City. highBefore schools the fullhad beenforce built of the by Depressionthe time Newlon hit, Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 I 71 socialofteacherprogressivism having efficiency in flexible,instructional andwith scientificactivity-centered clear and pedagogical curricular management. schools decision viewsBoth They that New onmaking blended linkedthe lon pivotal andand Threlkeld believed in the progressive daily life to what the importanceadministrative roledoctrine of the of alsoofschoolsThrelkeld betweennew brought buildingsand saw 19203 movableof 12 5 and moresenior expansion1931 furniture, elementary highs over were of lunchrooms,half the andconstructed. of junior 2 the junior elementary, high libraries, Thishigh program massivebuildings gymnagiums, 7 of construction8 junior and high over a decade go up. So studentsteachernationalorganizationally1920 learned. toparticipation pacesetter over For45,000 a school two for in in decadesmakingcity 1937.system school More these instructionalthat systems grewimportant,two men from indecisions. built curriculumalmostthey helped 33,000 both physically and make Denver a revision and students in schools.62amplelargedefinition outdoor (over of 40) classes recreation had emerged.that werespace Bysmall for that both(below year,New elementary 6030),classrooms percent medium and of were (30all secondary elementary tobuilt 40), to and hold 38 students although by 1923 a peerssiondayin but of1925 when the also curriculum, andNewton implemented when was Threlkeldand elected efficientprogressive National became schoolTheir school President management,stature practices as ofschool was the leaders who not only used the buzzwords Education Association President continuous revi-Departmentnoted of by their of the elementarysurprisingly,classespercent.But by were 1934, Thus classes 27 between percentlarge64 percent below classes 30 of andall of30 hadelementaryall students40 classes jumpedstudents; hadwere classes from 13shrunk between percent13 had percent from less 30 had than and27 to 40 3330 students. students. At over percent40 and,percent to 3 and Superintendenceschoolanother.as a result system The of decisionsusualin is 1936.61limited help aimed in that Denver. historiansat IfContinuity New get York from in City topprevious leadership is one thing; what happened in improving instruction and curriculum is schools intimidate studies of aclassrooms classeshadthreeclassthe juniormore mostlysizehigh inthanand school thein senior 40nonacademic middle students.63classes high range. school,with areas They less headquarter (e.g. succeededthan music, 30 students; administrators andart, physical 20 education) tried even saw one of every percent of the to keep wellpractitionersJudd,evaluatedresearchers within Elwood the repeatedly. with graspstudied Cubberley, their of mosttheBut size schools. andnot historians. and Denvera flockcomplexity, A quarter-century ofInwhere professors,1916 the atFranklin leastscale, graduate laterit a was city Bobbitt, Charleswhen the Eightsurveyedstudents,of 250,000, and and is betweennialthansize issue maycomparably school bein Newdue officials,to sizedYork Denver's systemsCity, parents, positionfailed elsewhere. andto insurface teachers.64 Thathaving Class fewin smallerDenver size,administrators which classes and teachers complained publicly about class as an abrasive item was a peren- at all levels teacherThisincludedYear restrictsStudy's practice. because resultsthe theyevidence were had joined released,that can the beexperimentall gained Denver from assecondary a group.external sources on Nothingschools wereelse. review the simple,concepts1916Newlon clear,paper brought he andheexecuted wrote potentially to Denver fivewhen years andeffective he wastranslated later serving in in Noraltering Denver. into were teacher courses behavior. of study a target for discontent. The ideas Jesse as a principal, he anlaid ongoing out program were In a interlockingcontextualand analyze conditions experiments the data within I collected that which stretched from teachersIn 133over order worked,Denver the to entire determine classrooms.describe interwar what two period, occurred in classrooms, I will major committee,investigations,curriculum) and during has in fact,debated a period Ly meetings,the of issues two andor three has finallyyears,When evolvedhas a carriedgroup and of teachers has worked pro and con in departmental meetings, in upon this problem (making on a series of TheNewlon District came Setting to Denver less than two years after the Armistice revealed old, overcrowded schools and four Teacherandoffered,of curriculums, sympathy that participation group than and of they hasteachers couldin determined curriculum will ever teach otherwise upon betterrevision the teach.°and character with of more understanding coursesadopted to be a set yearscampaignforwithand afternew cramped, judicious thebuildings to 1916 pass dimly tnig survey. a or majorif litrenovations money classrooms. That bond insurvey referendumthe were annualBecause authorized. operating succeeded. of the war, By budget, 1922 Withfew83 17 a elementary, expendituresthese funds concerted centralguidelinespracticeteachers. office in forNewAfter administrators content Yorkthe course Cityselection and ofwith study elsewhere some was help completed, from perhaps or actual subject matter, designed by was to state goals, including a fewwas carefully uncommon. chosen The even reviewed 72 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 initiating shrewd implementation procedures to spread new ideas through- Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 / 73 withdeliveredbydocuments.thereafter another principals to group eachthe Sometimes, principalto principal of explain teachers, was afterfor the expecteduse anew in to see the documentnuhiber was of revised, years, the printed, syllabus would the school. Supervisorsarithmetic might or geography meet course; that teachers used the new and be chiefsdentsout a schoolseek did, both butsystem. broad seldom and can intense mobilize teacherThe the involvement, applauseresources would asto Denver's transform be due school for the two reasons. First, some superinten- reviewedthat:nvolvement such and participation updated; in determining sometimes produced what not.Newlon proceedt.'! differently. He better trained teachersshould far morebe taught able because he believed wanted widespread,is "more active natural, teacher more vital, and and (376tokenandintention independence.teachers) participation. into a served carefully TeacherSecond, on designedcurriculum involvementDenver's framework committees. Inleadership 1927-1928is athat good They gives avoided example there were teachers weredistributed symbolic of time, this.1,400 aid, asorDenver teachers, of whom 27 percent havemoreenthusiasticmore, added:meaningful important tomore conduct to as the the a courseclassroom thatThe process that teachers went progressive.66 students than it has ever been." Also, of study in its final version. Anyway, Denver through, he believed, was just as, if not he might follows: 42%48%10% of ofjunior allsenior elementary high high school school teachers teachers teachers' anadministratorsprocesscurriculumshort inadequate time had revised syllabusrevisionareasoned, fair chance again, be if ateachers sincecontinuous, both not a it would be quickly identifiedof as succeeding, such apart from the novelty and the specialistsNewlon they andhired Threlkeld designed directed that onetime, process. That the and within a of letting theseAll secondary groups. Also, principals by 1927, and fiveone-third years Inofafter thiselementary the process, entire principals eacheffort school had werebegun, had in at least one teacher on a committee. teachersofupgradewas elementaryeducation due participate toteacher a factoramongstaffs performance in that haddeveloping Denver four or teachers.through more the years neither top executive mentioned in their ideascurriculum they were revision:expectedofBy college 1931, the to teach,high education;54 level percent in of compara- Denver effort to 626curriculum30teachers teachers and 40 had revision.percent had retired, served of died, the on orentire committees. left theinstructional system,That Assuming processa rough staff includedhadestimatethat participateda number ofthe between following: of in bleYorkFor size senior citiesCity, high onlyelsewhere school 69 percent onlyteachers 22 had percent 95 earned percentBetween were 1920 and 1930, Newton and Threlkeld supervised the work oftheir hadbachelor's a similar degree.`'' level of schooling. college graduates; in New led by Teachersofficethe daysadministrators chairedworked they were subjectduring served. at matterthe day;administration committees substitutes on building.were which hired principals to replace and them central on overout."Inteachers. lum Newton's700 By keptteachers 1927,These thewords, a committeespromise novel,and curriculum widescale Newton revised and 35 courses principals organized into 37 committees made.68 involvement ofinstruction teachers making "must growcurricu- from the inside of study at all school levels. tionalEachcamepractitioners,University committee tomethods, Denver curriculum at theincluding toprepared workcenter specialists with ofquestionsobjectives, a nationalteachers. worked to selected ask,networkwith and teachers; content, ofsuggested progressive over designed 30varied scholars reformers, projectsinstruc- and theirmorerooms fellowthan set milesaside teachers. stillfor them Unlike their For those teachers who revised courses separated what they produced from the classrooms in the new downtownunusual administration amount of thought to implementation colleagues in other districts, however, of study in the large, airy building, of fromCommitteesandDepartmentCommittc,;s materials teachers, revised that ofand reviewed Measurements their extended syllabi colleagues curriculum after use initialforin mightclassrooms. each test classroom coursewishitems to thatof use.trials, study.?" were further developed comments by the toporganizationalof Denver offorteacher-designed syllabi changing officials by mechanismsteachersteacher gave syllabi. anpractices. was that an They effective, would Newlon were turn inexpensiveand Threlkeld way felt of that increasing the planning theirespecially keencurriculum on developing revision into a tool study.wereinvolving expected Teachers teachers to were report asked who to their wereto complete principal not on ancommittees. andIn assessment addition,staff on theCommittee thereform revised towere critique course membersa number the of of specific procedures targeted on knowledgepiesent-dayprofession, and i.e. superintental bringing progressive them wouldpractice. in touch applaud Looking with the current thinking of the the Denver schoolback chiefs over for a half century, a theirsyllabus course after of they study. had After used giving it. Committees students the used curriculum these replies tests, to teachers revise uLI 86 74 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 specific items to the Department committees contained no explicit directions as to what goals or methods to Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 I75 submittedof cumbersome(1925)Measurements. suggestions Department as changing and of concerns Curriculum clothes over Coordinating this complex implementation was underRevision. water, the While various all of this sounds as the newly established spoke,procedures and Threlkeldattention.whatpursue. was But Requestsspokein onethe toairdidn't national forthose thehave years. newgroups to becourses ofan professionals educational ofBy study 1927, poured weathermandescribingthe Denver in. New the curriculum to lonDenver know and revision effort had gained national contactsexchangedproducedcommon andoverlapping informationto aa senselarge school ofnetworks with onesystem. Finally, principals were charged to collegiality while greatly reducing another,of staff members thereby increasing who saw, install the new course of study. the isolationprofessional )professorcopied,experience.comparingA. E. inWinship,George their City them own Strayer, aftereditor to fashion, Horace city, ofnationally the including whatMann's Journal Denver known Fifth New of Education, did. Annualexpert York "A andconstantly scientificReport. called Washington, Teachers masterpiece,"the in demandnew D.C.,Collegesyllabi, ingandEach thethen committee syllabus principals toand the held its school. specialists meetings The message withbriefed their principals faculties, on gradually the revised course the principal must be the leader in from headquarters was direct: introduc- his curriculum."74to ingD.C.,direct contributions insurveys the 1940s), of school to educationdeclared systems that in (he America "Denver studied through hasNew made York the one anddevelopment of Washington, the outstand- of its assumedtheschool....into new classroom course that The if principalbefore a principaluse ithe is must willready takes beconduct to ablean go to a programIn the installation of new courses unusuallyinto the long classrooms timegive to goodget of a his reasonsnew school.... course for such of study and discussion of delay.71 It is Denvertion'sincluding Commission join curriculum their national on revision. the Relationexperiment In 1932 ofThrelkeld Schooltheto reformProgressive and succeeded curricula. College Education Newlon requestedThe Superin- Associa- in 1927that and pursued the same practices madewereto basisprogressive neverto ofstaff. relevance far Content beliefsfrom theto andfor "life courses situations," ofSeldom an made explicit in the entire process directions and suggestionsteaching that practices. top Yet the ideas and study was chosen, for example, on ambiguous phrase that produced was a formal commitment administrators pedagogy the Commissionrevisiontendent and effort. Boardagreed.75 to Toinclude readily the request all agreed for since one it high fit neatly school, into Denver their continuous asked the five high schools in the experiment. The committeemanycriticalacademicteaching tortuous and studiedtechniques areas, connected discussions thecontent activities linked to whatwasamong to girlsselected studentsthose teachers.didactivities. Inat home andSimilarly,economics, chose experienced contentin theeachthat ofteachers the or would believed face. Latin,was both and TheschoolsIn EightSeptember with Year one 1933Study class the of Eight 40 students Year Study who volunteered began in each (parental of the consent 5 high madefor example, the leap a indifficult the 1929 subject Senior at gives a clearer understanding of much in newspapers,It gives power in getting the meaning first Highglance School to link Courses to "life ofsituations," Study: of new words; aids in spelling; and magazines, and litera- thesuchaccordingwasbody life required),an ofexperiment.enrolled tothe their experiment were injunior Eachthe average program.high succeeding no counselors,school or above A hadlateryear averagehadover anothergeneration the 30 capacity inpercentclass achievement, would was ofto added. profitthe call student such fromOverand, an contenttive,those imaginative waslinks, connected their schoolinterest to currentwork. would A belater generationNewture in lon, general.72 Threlkeld, and advocates of and future situations,captured and students and channeledsaw into produc- progressivism believed that if would call it relevance?' education"AlthoughEnglish;innovation one theaclasses, mini-school.social program asstudies) they differed were who labeled,alsoin each servedTo remainedhigh teach as school,counselors the together experimental the for"progressive between the classes, group. one principals chose two teachers (one makingsayapproach1919, "implicitly" was many includedthe activity elementary because secondary and projectschool social subjects,method. scienceAnother courses, progressive so approach implicitly 87 the charge given to all of the subject matter and literature courses of study. I For content and method, this embraced in curriculum labeled as early as classmatesin.to eachthree For highthe hours elsewhererest school, per of daytheir provided in depending thedaily schoo1.76 time schedule, onfor whatkey students piecesThe year schedule of of took the the program experiment.subjects for the theyhandfulwith While were their of no classes usually located in a wing of 88 morestwo7611938 Progressivism high enrolled represented schools and in had Classroomthese the identical generalclasses. Practice, programs, format 1890-1940 and sequence (See Table 2.2.) East High School's schedule for of activities for sopho- coordinatingcatchgroups themselves. of students basic concepts Byand 1936, teachers that the were in instructional each believed school to staffstumble, be held began in innovate, common the task and forof Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940177 Period Table 2.2 Monday East HighTuesday School's Schedule, 1938 Wednesday Thursday Friday operatinghigh schools. principles A handbook and r .ethods circulated to be used to staff by teachers. in that year listedfieldsCore teachersthe "insofar are as (they)expected are to consistent teach the withbasic teacher-pupil knowledge and goals." skills of their 432 1 (classes in rest of school) TeachersCore"newhelping teachers drives must them replacearefor see learning."responsible relationships the existing for in systemexpanding all their of work." grades student and interests punishment "and with for 65 groups*interestspecial readingfree CORE groupsinterestspecial counselinggroup interest COURSES** specialgroups UsualPupilsproblemsIn choosing subjectand and teachers subject matterin the together meetingmatter,lines "may plan onlyof the be the content ignored."needs work. ofthat pupils" "assists is appropriate. in the solving of 7 conferenceteachers'dismissed;pupils lab lab counselingindividual lab*** TeamHandbookin the planning, community, gave free guidancetime no letter for students grades, to new toand and pursue more experienced interests,operating study principlesteachers and work inin the joinedCoredramatics,pursueBased courses, laterupon reading, writing. by students' art,initially music, science, wereinterests crafts, homeEnglish in economics, core and content, social and studies he industrial or sheteachers can arts art, current events, science, wereplanned;experiment.79 not. some After were eight not. years Some there new was courses littleCourses weredoubt trendy that taken substantial shifts by the in experimentaltitle; curricu- most classes varied. Many were jointly teachers.science,them.groupsLaboratories For time art, example, to English, set meet up with ain orstudent each socialthe core room workingstudies teachers offered labs.'"on abest individuals project could or smallgo to qualified to help separatelumteachers revision courses c"ose in content in four English, areas had Americantooccurred. concentrate andConsider World upon: History, the core etc. program Instead the at East High School. Gone were the example,mainedin the program;a there minority were at (butNorto12 out an High of important 42 there (29 percent) were one)The also numberon teachers 12 the teachers faculty. of at teachersManual but In this directly staff was involved with the experiment re- 1939, forTraining EconomicSocial-civicImmediatePersonal living relationshipspersonal-social relationships relationships theselargerindependencelished teachers (80) by and the had that PEA and also meant imaginationsought taken only topart 15enliven indespite percent previous the the Whatparticipated. high stricturescurriculum wasschool the that Also,curriculum purposerevision college a of this experiment? The Commission number of work.79require-and stir estab- ofA were:andsamplingcurrent pupils orientation scene; of that units exploring were to planned the suggested school; vocational and understandingpreviously for useinterests; at developedtenth one'sstudying through self; by Denver; becomingboth twelfth teachers under- grades aware schoolsmajormentsincluded. universities,placed in which Participating upon Denver,the Commissionexisting schools Des curriculum. Moines, werechose told: 30and public forget Tulsa and collegehigh private schools requirements; secondary were With the endorsement of most and ingenuity of your stated,theemployment;standing experiment did democracy as exploring wellwas declared in and college, problems the a Americansuccess. and of often living Students heritage;In better in1940, thein thesethanthestudyingmodern first aclasses, matched evaluationfamily.' problems the reportset report ofof of the Eight Year Study appeared; what(andstudentsreconstruct theto reviseandten your juniorstaff. or curriculum what high methods schools and tap thatto the use, joined imagination theBecause thefirst experiment threeno central years directionin saw 89was given to the five Denver high 1938) on schools small curriculumstudentsissuesinterests thatwho werehad they had been used would completed revised; to faceexplore asstudents a adults. conventionalnon-traditional helped reshape program. content courses closely As intended, and linked their to 78 /conspicuous, widespread activityProgressivism occurring andReturning Classroom at toPractice, the hurricane 1890-1940 metaphor, language, content in coursesthere of is notable evidence of headquarters producing Percent 100 90 Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, El[2 MixedTeacher,-instruction centered 1920-1940179 study,impressivehurricaneprograms teacher changeswithin whipped professional five in up higheducators' the surfacegrowth, use and andof schools between 1933 and 1940. The stirred the waters deeply. Did the the creation of experimental educational 8070 71 82 (S ) NumberStudentinstruction -centeredof classes turbulence touch the ocean floor? 5060 57 46 38 53 The dataClassroom are limited for Denver. I located elementary schools133 classroom there are photographs 34 and 4030 24 19 32 classeswrittenFigurethese ofdescriptions 2.3which categories, shows only theforcertain see numberthe Table period.ones 2.1ofprovided classes Foron page 62 for eachinformation category. for(To). the Becausereview categories. the direction of 2010 0 M 4 rt13 5 16 15 supplementedintiltedDenver's high toward schools. curriculum the by secondaryData an examinationrevision on 83 level,* high and of schoolI specific experimentation in the willinterwar concentrate period on what teachers did classes (see Figure 2.4) will be schools. 19% of all desks were stationery. Arrangement Class(79) * Instruction Group (76) Classroom Talk(74) MovementStudent (74) ClassroomActivities (74) oftenclassroomand thanquestions not, activities. instructing controlling Even the mostthough whole of classrooms the groupThe dominant teaching pattern within verbal exchanges with students andhigh school was a teacher, morecontainedwith his or movable her explanations desks and Figure 2.3 Percent 100 Patterns of Instruction in Denver High School Classrooms, 1920-1940 125 Teacher-centered instruction 94 andchairs,that blackboard.tasks hadthe and furnitureextensive projects, Also, was student there and often werefreedom involvement arranged classes, of inmovement. rows in lessgroup than work, 20 percent pupil choiceof the total, of facing the teacher's desk 809070 (E]3 MixedStudent -centered) Number of classesinstruction substantialmovement percentageaway from ofa strictclasses where Comparedstudent to the classroom portrait drawn at teacher-centered approach is evident in a particular categories reveal teachers movement occurred. Alsothe turn of the century, 5060 52 47 50 showasusingin the practiceshighercomparisonMixed percentagesPattern that is, involved note of instruction of studentsteacher-centered also that in all the categories high school actively in classroom work. Limited classrooms, precisely the same and lower percentages of classes 402030 38 25 38 20 33 40 student-centeredpatterndescriptions, as New behavior studentYork City. accounts, than elementary and teacherBy reports,examining a more particular high schools using the available classroom complete map 10 0 Class 10 6 of wereteachingHence, more behaviorwhat than "progressive one-third can be drawn. education" Recall of the staff involved in the Eight Year teachers did in their classes located that in no Denver High School Study. Analysis37% of all of desks sources were that stationery. produced this percentage revealedArrangement that they were either photos (8) * Instruction Group (21) Classroom Talk (15) MovementStudent (10) 0 004, (16) ClassroomActivities principalRecalllevel. that prior Newlon to Denver; and Threlkeld also the werebulk 91 of curriculumhigh school revision teachers; occurred Newlon at was the a high BEST COPY AVAILABLE secondary school Fimire 7 4 centeredsuchfrom localphotos activities. newspapers be taken. thatThis school percentage, officials then, had providedprobably oroverstates had suggested frequency to reporters of student- that PAtterng of Tnctrtirtinn in rtnnvpr FIPmont9n, C1nccrnnmc 1o/n_1040 Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 / 81 80 /elsewherein Progressivism one wing in of the the high building school. may or may not and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 I located 20 written descriptions and be what their peers did pictures,House,' andwe hadthe aother class was discussion a picture on oftopics gang concerningOn life Thursday among the the seventh hour is used as a laboratory period. Most of the boys. Afterfilms.... the photographsdebates,teachers1939. I whopupil-teacher(70 estimate of percent)experimentaltaught that experimental reportedtheseplanning, classes 20 orclasses and inwere represent classes during these years.* Fourteenother techniquesthe 5 schools associated shownbetween with using 1934 panel and discussions, about one-quarter of the tablesstatistics.:coveringworklaboratory on of ourart,statistics. .. Onehistory, projectson interpretationgirl She humanselected is t;sednow relations, several donea ofsubject these in periodsthesesocial whichtables. periods.studies, in required getting English, help There are six of them,interpretation of long and sciencefrom and the math configurationThestudent-centeredanRead, rest article disclosesfor example,for even Denver patternslittle though what movement of Ralph theyinstruction wereawayPutnam, part teachers in the initial year of the from the familiarimpliedEast teacher-centeredin the High Eight Latin. Year teacher Study. wrote inof the experimental classes. experiment: intheNine the student-written photos Eight Year of students Study narrative. comesworking fromNo at teachers differentsurveysAnother appearin classroom two piece in of evidence on teaching behavior of those high schools completed the photographs.82activities flesh out participating ourattempted. primeHow, objective.We then, are herehe asked, to learn didLatin work and the with masteryI wish to emphasize ... that nothing very 40 "progressive education" radical is being or will be of Latin will always be andwithtopercentin 1933"not evaluation. students at ofand all" the 1940. in orparticipating Byselecting "some") In1940, the what1933 53to teachers describepercent tosurvey, study, chosechecked the theclass degree first activities, "much," year of of althoughthe the word "much" (as opposed joint planning they did individual projects, experiment, 16 it is likely studentsworksthreadpossible"Moreover, differon of the in the froma Helvetian specialstory far other andmore group, Latin War,thus attention enablesto classesPutnam feel the canthe be vitalitypupils and vigor to said,follow of thehe "the moretaught?narrative.given more readily toIn rapid thereading the studyreading, Caesar's of English schools.Study,eightthat there years.83 visited He was met turnovereach teachers, of the among students, innovative the teachersand Finally,programs headquarter in inthe inearly experiment Denver'sadministrators. 1938, Wilford over Aiken, Director of the Eight five high Year Histhe depthlargerderivativeswritten blocksseemed by and tenth of to extra time have graders readingin been class. during inbecause Putnam's the the first the twoAnother semesters view of the core program at East comes minority.81 view of coveringclass more of material 40 had in"extra time," i.e. they movedfrom through a 1938 report communityhadreportappearingclassrooms. occurred. concluded hadfrom Substantial Moreover, increasingly thatthe classroom.""a real pupil-teacher"many breakbecome of In withthe some a planningsubjectold the cases, recitation of took however, investigation place.techniques the report in are core said traditional subject matter" Life in the dis- writtenthetheirstudentsa coreprogram teachersby classes, 8moved students with plannedlabs, through235 in special diary units, the form,interest dailyhow they class schedule groups, etc. students, 6 teachers, 3 periods a day. As the membersdescribed chose activities, what it was pursued like to be in they described how they and A project planned and 235 thatreportmisinformation."put:is "thebeing "in socializedconfirmed conductedsome classes discussion thatGenerallywithout discussion curricular proper that complimentary had consistsregardand been teaching for substituted study toward practices and for research."the the program, the primarily of the pooling of had, indeed, recitation Bluntly andtheir went interests into independentlythe community in on core numerous labs,OctoberWe still 3, consider1938 our class very interesting, but we (second semester of first year in core program). worked in groups onfield projects, trips. have discovered that it is changed."aimsinvolvedpractices, of the in effort. thea situation Eight But Year not similar all Study could to the taught drop resultsThese thein a disclosedbaggage manner fragments ofconsistentin teacher-centeredthe of formalevidence with evalua- the suggest that a majority of teachers ownalsowork.... quite reports,methods a bit motion ofand work. means pictures, We of must study; or finddiscussions useour ourreferencesThe sixth hour is our regular core period during of topics related to our community own initiative throughout our by ourselves,which outline we have our lectures, dent,intendenttionhigh of approved Newschools Charles York theby Greene, City'smandatingexpansion Activity who ofa hadthree-year the Program. led core the programAfter coursestudy the as ofto EightAssistant studyall junior Year and Superinten- andStudytwo senioryears final of evaluation appeared in 1941, Super- Based uoon actual counts taken filmsstudy.in yearbooks wereFor example, shown and master in during our classroom. our study of One crime was and a cut 93 schedule of three high schools.juvenile delinquency, two from the picture 'Big theunitsGeneral previous that Education had eight been years, developedas a requirementhigh school and polished sophomoresfor graduation. by high spent school Using oge7.third teachersinstructional of overtheir 94 classestime82 I Progressivism in decreasedGeneral and Education Classroom to one period Practice, classes; a 1890-1940 day the when amount they of became student seniors.85 time in these growth).from the Since classroom, the venture recognition lasted well by over the aSchool decade, Board: a substantial professional portion Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 / 83 facultyNorthafter,the five GeneralHigh of high 80 School, schoolsassigned Education forgiven to instance,General thewas option transformedEducation had to between designBy classes 1943, into their15 andbetweenthecounseling own graduathn26 programs. teachers 1940 programs. and requirement outShortly 1943; of a was reduced to one year, with varyingpractices.of intothe stafftheir degrees, A wereclassrooms. considerable sufficientlymixes of existingminority touched and of to The teachers, newconsider evidence practices. however,introducing reveals Thus, did that athese topadopt, most downideas inteachers continued teacher-centered byassignmentgradeSocial such1944 classes whencourseLiving. for localteachersas required At Diagnostic optionEast disappeared Highof was allEnglish, School, permitted,students. from Instructional General the TheGeneral master class Education Communication,Education schedule,stressed became asschool replaced a class aand tenth and againcraftedsupporteddesign more ofplan curricularby in ofthe elementary teacher School and involvement,Board instructional than andhigh superintendents, school influencedchange,Yet settings. even endorsed classroom inwedded the and high to generouslyinstruction aschools, carefully the Eight Year Study in Denver was Boardthecounselor.Sbvocational late of 1940s Education guidance. and early member The 1950s, General whom a furor Education1 quotedthatFollowing angered at teacherthe the Mirabeginning heated was Scott controversy also ofFrank, thisthe over progressivism in the schools in theseNewalthoughsomeunique. Yorkprogressiveclassrooms For such City those practices high techniques teachersto student-centeredschools, seldom who were reasons weregot put past intoinvolved, forpractices their practice the seemingcolleagues' a minorityin dozens invulnerability doors. on of eachclassrooms As staff, with of section,partScott of leftGeneral a nationalthe Board.87 Education reaction as to a an course intense wasThe barrage abandoned demise of ofcriticism threeDenver's years targeted General after on Education courses in the 1950s was mostlyofsubjectteachstructural persons a day,mattermale, conditions who meeting etc.). and enter prepare withwithin high 200 students school which or more classroomsteachersfor studertsjobs and worked daily,(trained college, (5expectations or inetc.); subject-matter. may be found in the more classes to or the kinds to cover obscurepublicCoursesoccurredthese schools critics.the of since classroom study, thatThe Jesse had abolitiontextbooks, Newreputationschanges lon of and inGeneralcame curriculumforcertain beingto Education,Denver teaching progressive, and in instructionthe approacheshowever, Summer as defined shouldthat changed, of had1920. by not revealingsimilargicalthem changesnow. themes some Denver in uniqueidentifiedsome high classrooms. toschools the in nation'sboth did The introduceNew capital. Washington, WhateverYork to City the D.C.and reasons, Denver and while it is premature to concentrate a limited extent pedago- story contains on any of wasclassrooms.althoughtwomuch a fardecades. slower, themore Althoughchanges systematic very happeneduneven such and changes pace, insistent differently under had edge occurred New in toelementary lonthese in and Newalterations his and Yorksuccessors high Cityover school atthe there a WASHINGTON, D.C. importanceleadershipclassroomsorganizational that is of the sharedthechanges remarkable teacherseasoned faith that in touchedbothcontinuity progressive liberally a substantialinOne superintendent of pedagogyby the the numberreasons daily and leadership; realities theforof Denver pivotalthe differences of a in the pace and intensity of oneSuperintendentsknew of that the themost administration difficultof other citiessuperintendencies of toldthe schoolhim that system itinEducationalWhen the involved United the present progressStates.... superintendent in Washington of schools is slew took because office under the was considered by schoolmen on July 1, 1920,many he difficulties. present schools.muchhisprocedures. successors thoughtThese beliefs to Theinto the thecurriculumshapeddesign 1940s. andthe Moreover,general implementationrevision direction program these of toptaken effortsestablished administrators by toNew alter alon patternexisting and gave of formentsystem and areof relief educationalallowed then to comesbecome control altogether acute and financialbefore too consideration slowly.... supportFailureprogressive the on is needs thegiven part of the of schoolthe appropriation educational activities makes power to providean money to improve- thetionusualteacher top of for teachersleadership,involvement its time, to progressiveincentivesthe in processsystem-wide were pedagogy. emerged embedded policymaking asBecause a into potent, the itfor was effort informalthe highly classroom. (released introduc-prized timeUn- by accomodations,housesmediocreunprogressive.... means teachers overcrowded and Failureand such ineffective conditions to classes, provide education. make portables, money impossible Failure for and adequate poorly the best teachino....88 96to build enough schooleducational adaptedsalaries rented means system 84 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890 -1940 Board of Education split its authority (but not responsibility) with three appointed Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 /85 yearsEducationHousesauthority of his of by appointment ofCongress their a Board new that of Superintendent,Ballou producedEducation, bluntly the DistrictThese city's Frank statementsreputation Commissioners, W. Ballou. as were a made to the District of Columbia and concisely scored the divided graveyard forWithin two and two chaseindependentschooltrolledDistrict of equipment,all Commissionersland expenditures, authorityand the supplies, construction in who securingallocated etc. revised In of oreffect, school and thespending auditedBoard's the buildings. Board funds, budgetfunds, ofBad includingEducation andestimates,as this purchased was the had con- frompur- no or(1920-1943),superintendents. fromsince. a state the teacher longest Ballou training tenure went schoolof on any to WashingtonandserveBorn taught inalmost 1879 in superintendent rural anda quarter-century raised schools in rural upstate New York, Ballou graduated between before betweenlinefirst"reviews,appropriateda superintendent's inthe revises, the two everyHouse Houses andperspective, pennyof reduces" differed,Representatives, going itthe abecame conference toschool the then worseDistrict), budget committeein whenthe item Senate.in Congress Ballou'sby settled item, If the the linewords,(which totals final by Teachersthreeappointedmaster's1897 years.and College degree principal1899. Switching Byatand ofthe 1904 decidedthe toUniversity University'sthe he collegehad to movecompleted of Technical classroom,Cincinnati. to Ohio, a Schoolbachelor's hewhere While became and he there, directeddegree an earned aassistanthe was itfrom for guage,amountDistrict.insiders detailed that familiarIn went his all 1921-1922to thewith the road schools.the blocksbyzantine annual he report, and processThe the Ballou, horrorBoard of securing hadusingstories to restrainedaovercome ofbudget delay, in lan-toneglect, the and confusion were legion to professortheheenrolled receivedstudied Department ofat how educationHarvardhis degree,teachers of Educational where andthe were Boston taughthe appointed earned Investigation school for a three PhDin superintendent urban years.inand 1914. school Measurement, Returning For systems.asked his dissertation,him east, one to The year of the head he practicallysuperintendentbehalfUnitedimprove ofStates ,..chool the impotent, DistrictCommissioner is conditions. so asfettered schools I see it. Toup of in makewith Education the overheadfinal his case pages John stronger,organizations J.of Tigerthis report:Ballou to testifythat drafted"... he the inis progressivebatteriesdepartmentfewwithin school classesof districts practiceadministered,intelligence and with inacross testing a andresearch analyzed, curricula achievementand bureauthe foundand use in reportedof Frank thetests. tests nation, BallouforThe results grouping For cutting at threefrom the edgerightstudentsyears various place his of Educationorganizationeducation"times the mincedsalary." prepared of the no Ballou Districtwords:by "leading then of Columbiaturned American to anschools educators," "authoritative The toCyclopedia describe work onthe of I would not take the job at two or three organizationthenextandWashington, time. three In years 1917 helpedjuniorD.C. he was position highorganize promoted school. and and to wasAt assistantdevelop the named age thesuperintendent, of superintendent. newest 41, he applied and forLike the his form of school for the besystemview,undertaking made are is amongtobehind realize and thethat will worstthat of givecities it to beto elsewhere foundthe Board in anyof of equal cityEducationEducational in size.... the Union, the Until conditions power andCongress theand schoolin control canWashington, from an administrative point of is incompetent properly to administer such an contractDenverlocallymind colleague,in as and the a determined, committedsummer Jesse of tofrank,1920.89Newlon, scientific first-rate Ballou management administratorWithin began the hisas first a unafraidinitial tool decade in three solving to of speak yearhis school tenure,his Ballou had established himself Inwhich positionstonfora word theisshould generally District much in belong the ofloved regardedUnited Columbia. to it by there States.' superintendents, as isTheone little superintendencyof thehope most of Washingtona difficultgood, of modern the and schools schools most school ofundesirable wereWashing-system a WashingtontheThatbyproblems. electing progress year heNationally, him hegaveof Presidentaneeded science an address his every ofpeersof theeducation at bit demonstratedDepartmentthe of Indianapolis scientific since of thetheir knowledgeSuperintendence meetingturn esteem of the of forand thecentury. his talent inNEA talents 1925. heInon traveledachievementsmaneuveredhischallenge. administration, in Byimproving through 1940,he defined whenthehe a waslabyrinth.segregated asBallou importantquite formallyThe proudschool conditions in in1940 systemtallied listing suggest he upin facedchanges the theinterwarachievements in roads1920 that period.andBallouhe hadthe of appointedjoinedpossessed.country.law, a passed growing toUnlike administer by chorus Congress, other of thebig criticism created largestcity school against asegregated Whennine boards,the member Ballou Organic school the railed Board DistrictAct system at (1906). ofthe Education city's in This the Rube Goldberg governance, his voice 97 Board of nization,changestedreport, to the in 94and Board administration, pages improved of dealt Education with supervision new streamlining inbuildings, 1941, and categorizedadministration,instruction."School improvements Achievements hisOut new successesin of school abuildings, 125 in Twentyorga-page into and Years," a document Ballou submit- 86 /promotions).improved teaching Twenty-five conditions pagesProgressivism (e.g. (20 salaries, andpercent) Classroom retirement, Practice, 1890 -1940 traced improvements in appointments and of a given grade is in one building and another Repeatedsmall class examples of colored are children found throughout where a class of white children Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 I 87 appeared,orduresincurriculuminstruction any concerted that although revision,and order. supervision. effort Noa expanded major tomention introduce change Of testing theseof teachinghadprogressive programs, pages, been methods,most andpractices space ne .7project wasgrouping activities, proce- announced in 1938 with the into classrooms devoted to Classtogether....92inof excessth?, sizesame of grademost citiesis in a where nearby white building.... and Thecolored same children causes explain attend in school part the employment of a number of teachers is one instance of the impact of segregated schooling. likeandcurriculuminChild numerous ait description Developmenthad beenrevision places: lifted of whatbetweenProgram. thefrom a formal modern a 1938 courseProgressive statement andschool description 1940 shouldlanguage, (printedof philosophy beat Teacherslike, however,twice sounding in produced popped byup theCollege.91 report) almost policyalmostimportantFigures(about 1,200was reported equally differences to elementary allocate distributed by the in40 schor1classes, classstudents between size.district 29 perpercent whiteIn wereclass1927-1928, and contained averages;"as black far schools).foras 40 averagespracticable." example,or more School studentsconceal out BoardFor of intoshoalsreorganizingDistrict dragging of schools. Washington to the administer Defining system and into congressional theschools majorthe twentieth efficiently, issues politics,The as century.point the Ballou need of allA for plowed manthis more is to buildings, underscore Ballou's aims in administering and navigating the shifting who believed his energies the classesencesdifferenceshadthose betweenwith classeswere less markedbetween containing than31 and 30 for blackstudents, 39 elementary white students. and there students).white classrooms: wereStill, classes. 18 Thus,even percent In 53these just percent (with one figures 85decade, of percent the mask classesdiffer- of the theprogressivesschooling,deeply century. in the he whoOnscience was instructional redesigned cutof education from school issues, the and samesystems histhe interestsnecessity throughout cloth as those administrative forinclined using it moreto improve toward the first decades of 1922Year White34.3 Class Size Black versionstudentsexpansionCampbellMaxwell, ofefficiently ofcurriculum Ettinger,of the New junior York,and revision.high O'Shea Ballou program, thanCloser left Denver's hisusing in spirit tests Newlon toas into appropriate groups, and a tightly controlled marks on the organization. On toolsandNew to Threlkeld Yorkdistribute City's and Fifteen19321927 years later when Professor George Strayer completed the first 34.930.8 37.937.336.1 instruction,The Setting his fingerprintsfor Classroom were Instruction less apparent. afterbetweenwhitecomprehensive the classes; 8:30major and 39.0 rebuildingsurvey 2:30 for dailyblack.93 of District campaign changed schools, substantially BallouThe the buildingsand gap theover had Board the andwidened: ofrooms Education 32.0 these for students and teachers worked in years. Yet even schoolSuperintendenttwoA blackcentral separate system schools fact school ofsegregated Alexander schooling separate systems. by Stuart infrom law.In the his DistrictWithdescribedwhites, 1911 32 report of percentcosts, someColumbia to he of pointedthe was out, ofthe the Board effects of Education,of having a students attending that there were would be containedtheGeorgeroomsmaneuvered elementary remained Strayer's long through schoolsrows words,in farof Congress were stationarytoo "adequate manybuilt in before desksbuildings1925, instruction 1925.which overcrowded, across Until accommodatedimpossible." thethe 1940s, antiquatedcity, Over making, classrooms40 half class- inof pupils. inevitably higher in a dual school system.of deputythe size superintendents, of Washington would two normal consider schools, it necessaryIt two is obvious expensive or wise that to were it not for the exactions of the race question no city manual training maintain two launchedthatsmallelementary"Today the and (1948) "modern in a school,"1938, great with "requiresChildmany a Strayer recommended Developmentof informalthemwrote, are "manymaximum groupings crowded... Program" of these class of children, ." whichclassrooms enrollment the floor District areof 30 still in had toothe Bluntly, Strayer said schoolsmergedsamethe white (attendance into and one colored largik area) children which, two under smaller other buildingsA study ofhave the beenlocation of school buildings shows that to meet u building at greatly reduced cost.... conditions, would have been erected in the the needs of theconstructivetwo-thirds newer buildings activities,of the desks existing cupboards, bolted to storagefloorsAs had classroom been in use space since changed the turn slowly, of the so did furniture. In 1920, almost space was inadequate, according to Strayer." 100 space for supplies... . " Evenspace in for 881 Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 aamount daily schedule of time they sliced had the to timespend into on equal each segmentssubject. At of the 40 secondaryto 50 minutes school for Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 I 89 colleagues,each subject. had Note to thatteach: in 1927 elementaryhandwriting teachers, unlike their geography secondary historyarithmeticreadingspellinglanguage and and (composition civics wordliterature analysis and grammar) elementaryphysicalmusicdrawing educationscience lessonsFor the last once four every subjects three in weeks." the second column,For each special of these teachers subjects would a standardgive time schedule set the expectation grades,timeminutesgrade,for each schedule falling increasing dailygrade to in was level.21/2 the toadopted firsthours Geographya half-hourgrade daily by andthe in wasin Boardsixth11/2 the to hoursgrade.fourth.be of taughtEducation InArithmetic 1936,10 minutes that another variedwas daily set formalthe infor timefirst 35 per day in third and fourth I 7".41111111 Washington,Library of D.C.Congress). Black Elementary School, 1942. (Office of War Information, 4 5' 200 desks had been replaced. In rfi III 141 century.conversionportable1930,elementary Between theones, drastically.first schools 7,0001920 year andwerehadof When a 1929,installed5 replaced. year Strayer's only program movable The team depressionto desks replace surveyed stationary classrooms, and chairs.95 slowed down the desks with all juniorandmovable high Dunbar schools furniture high and schools,had 4 beenof 9 constructedhigh introduced schools)Not inthroughout single 1916,so for pedestal thebolted-down thesecondary 1930s. desks Forschools. sat For those built since 1925 (13 desks and other Central of 19 in tion.classroomsrows, For class years, afteroften teacher class, depended receivedyear afterupon copies year.how teachersofWhile weekly the allocatedschedules type of deskstime mandating for were of some importance, what occurred in 101 instruc- the BEST COPY AVAILABLE (OfficeWashington, of D.C. Woodrow Wilson High School, White, Algebra Lesson, 1943. War Information, Library of Congress). 102 90 / Progressivismallotments and slightly. Classroom When Practice, the Strayer team adopted1890-1940 12 years earlier was still being visited schools in 1948, they memberBa llou in of 1925 the NEA's and carried Department forward, of Superintendence,fitfully, into the 1930s. Ballou As served a noted on Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920 -1940 / 91 followed,foundmeancalled that that for although the teachersdifferent time the schedule amounts Child Development of time Just because a time schedule was followed in lock-step the expected for clustersapproved of subjects.97by a school board did not Program, initiated in 1938, standards. Many did estimate, Educationofandelementaryits Superintendence.curriculum teachers. sciencethat This commission year." was course The published course of and study inchairedof thewrittenstudy 1926 the was by Yearbookcommittee Washingtonapproved of that bythe administrators the Departmentrevised Board the of not.theintent Adailyinformal schedule number upon schedule installingclassrooms. ofsimply teachers read: becauseactivity From programsit a first and principals, how many I cannot straitjacketed the flexibility essentialgrade for classroom, the teacherprintedin their classrooms, departed from tees,andmajorreading Threlkeld District organizational and administratorsliterature, in approach. differences English, First, chaired whileseparatedand these geography teachers groupsIn Ballou the were sameuntil courses. from assigned theyear, Denver's late At Ballou 1930stoleast commit- Newton appointed threewhen committees to revise arithmetic, 2. 3.1.Let's Let'sLook go readandfor aseeour story ournew ride. trailer. story. The Our Big Plan Today boys made it. tonothean committeesspecialistsoccasional committees were teacher onbegan howhired wastheir toto writechosenhelp work the objectives after to committees direct 3:00, a oron committee's a northe course wasteacher's any of work. study."training time. Second, Third, given 6.5.4. HaveLet's playbeyou happy." donehot potato. a reading card? flexible schedules and departed from ofteachersreferencesexisted, this somehow ofincreased. tocourse. activity occurred TeachersNetworks methods in did ofstuddeda slow-motion like-mindedparticipate. theSimilarities syllabi. professionalsProgressive fashion, In-service with unlike vocabularythe developed. education thecurriculum Denver and Allfor development efforts in Denver Whilegeographydifferedtheas approvedsuch reasonable. primaryin but how one, most Afterclassrooms much such diverged approaches time usedwithin they awerespent range on all, the organizational signals to teachers uncommon. Teachers,that wasindeed, implicitly recognized reading, arithmetic, and and princi- 3:00-5:00overexperience.Nonetheless,Because years. since the Finally,Delays byworkother 1940, inteachers occurredcities the 7 elementaryproduction provided began after toschoolsubstitutes coursesofobject courses hours toof tocommitteestudy, ofrelievethe study process(19 staff werein work the fromstretched common.junior between work. high, out dulepalsthisand wereplansavailable teacherweekly plain.to "know inschedule,"to The theeach that Superintendent'selementary teacher each and teacherprincipals is were schoolsleft shall little consider to interpretation: himself governed "Every observing the distribution ofwords time...." accompanying the time sche- expected to inspect teachers' officer by blackteachers4 in vocational classrooms wereteach? expected Howschools, from extensive to Anacostia anduse them.21 were in to Didsenior progressiveGeorgetown?This they? highs)question 102 practices were Therefocuses published, conditions in white attention andde- on the classroom. How did District thanFurthermore,curriculumwhich, most I districtssuspect, byDistrict following ofgenerated comparableteachers' the pressure prescribed uponThe point is that an outdated instructional day was a half-hoursize shorter (5 hours comparedBoard-approved to 51/2 hours) time scheduletime was allotments,99 teachers to cover the crowded scribedpupil-teacherOfmoreYork, course, soobstacles but far less thesuggest planning,thanphysical some opportunitiesin Denver, environment crudeactivity boundariesclassroom forunits, teachers didn't and forspace prevent project toa fewuse and answers.progressive usework, furniture of smallbut As presentedfor practices.in groups, Newthose producingill-fittedprobably,tasks.teachers, Such for a theflexible a alessnew existencemixup adventurous program,classroom suggests, of mixed especially where than at feelings worst, some one a teachers and pupils jointlycolleagues plannedtoward who the leaped newbureaucratic effort. upon Classroom the oversight, or more that was directed toward incentiveshavesometeachersmaterials, discouraged furniture, barely to andwork willingin tothem additionin beg small fromto for experiment, togroupsmaterials, trying. difficulties andAlso werethe with with inlack dulled.securingindividuals, over of space 35 supplies,students and to prepare the inmay cumber- a class, extrawell uponprogressiveventure.superintendent, a revised bandwagon, time especially would if their Mixed signals also marked the schedule, given the shorter day and directives103 probably thinkprincipal twice lacked before enthusiasm embarking curriculumfor the new revision efforts begun by of the andopeninginstructional recess, exercises and day add in (Biblewhich teacher sevenreading, concern to tencollecting for subjects coveringAnother money, were the constraint to prescribed takingbe taught. attendance)was subjects,Subtract time. Already mentioned was the five hour 104 92 /particularly Progressivism and in Classroomview of an Practice, 1890-1940unexpected principal visit, and the results are poiatcrs but no direct evidence drawn from classrooms. Let us turn now to Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 I 93 sharpersupportedrevision limits diffusionprocess upon introducing helped, of progressive especially new asAnother line of reasoning is to professionals. While the District's teaching practices. Clearly,ask a whatit wasinstructionalorganizational wired into practices. amechanisms local and curriculum organiza-national teachersIn the inClassroom classrooms. onetionalnetworkpedagogicalwould would linkages of have similarlyreasonably werebeenprogressivism hardlyinclinedcaptured expect as or,by systematicthat or carefullya numberalreadythe crafted ofchild-centered converted,teachers as and found notions enough embedded green Denver's,principals in ThatwasandSuperintendentis undeniable.black Measurementdesigned and white and A Garnet group forimplementedteachers Divisions Wilkinson of usedblack 10-13,inprogressive administrators ato 5 create monthconsisting methodsthe experiment Department appointedof all to thevarying at black Mottbyof ResearchAssistantdegrees schools,School lightsvariedsionalsadministrators from topics.to headquarterslecture Throughout and staff teachers, (blacks to move the broughtAlso teacher institutes, funded meeting at Dunbar1920s and teachers whites heard at from W. ahead on theirin own. part by privatelocally contributions 2nd nationally known profes- W. ChartersCentral) on from testingandwas students.anto compareunnamedof students, The the"traditional" new effectsnew approaches textbooks, of schoolprogressive used inadditional in1924. the education 8The grade materials, aim schoolupon of the bothand included experiment movableteachers the schools,(Teachers(Johns(Universityreading Hopkins Laura College)programs. of ZirbeChicago) University) on (LincolnInorganizing addition, on on curriculum revision,School, Florence Teachersteacherssocial College)met activitiesmonthly, onclassroom for again junior in efficiency,separateand Elbert progressiveBambergersenior high Fretwell terestsproducedapprovedformalfurniture in course forprojects superiorthe grades experiment,of superiorstudy results1 through into towith according usualprojects.4. Teacherstheir school students; Mottto were worka survey: teachers encouraged 94%.1(6 found74% overwhelmingly tosaid students' convert projects thein- compulsoryaschools, gueststudy or to the studyprojects, meetings current and included issues. the Another important condition assistant superintendent delivering like, 1'3 theOften activity done inmethod, a lecture adapting format coursessupporting the spread of progressive the talk, topics in these with either of Association,thirdBruceschools, and School corroborated fourth a publication reported grades interestin ofwrittena 1925Horace in issuebyprogressive Mann,and theOccasional for details a black Newschooling. of educatorsYork her articles two MaymeCity day in progressive visitDistrictthe Lewis Journalto the of of the Columbian Educational wasideasacquiredof that moderninto the classrooms with,higher trends therefore, in was education, the a greater the level of formal schooling, teacher's level of education. Theparticularly suggestsif the schooling these assumptions was are open willingness to alter one's teaching the greater the awareness assumption recently to privateofsmall-groupwithan indirectadjunct theirschool student-teachers, evidenceto atwork, MinerTeachers joint Teachersis the College.teacher-pupil annualintroduced College, At exhibit the planning, and Monroea numberof maintained elementary etc.Demonstration of Finally, teachers, classroom school another inSchool, activities centers,concert piece seldomdebate.behavior.Normalbachelor's questionedSchool ASchool pinchdegree; officials, training ofit. 96% skepticismIn 1931, however, ofor elementarya bachelor's. By 1948,78% 78%of high of schoolthe teachers implicitly accepted the premiseteachers had from 2 to 3 years of had at least a entire staff and practiceswherelessondescribing black planswere anteachers inrevealing activity-centered Divisions presented teacher 10-13. direction projectsclassroom, In issues and Unfortunately,their of three control the classes Journal, others at eachhad laid for produced."step outeach ofexemplary article the plan I have no way of assessing how widespread these were93%bachelor'samong collegereceived of whites senior degreesgraduates. their were).high professionalthan Teachers whites training. teachers (85% of black teachers were Among elementary teachers, more (74% to 61%) whilealso thereported reverse to Strayer whenWithin the previous five years college graduates; blacks had occurredthey last (1943- practicesquestions."without a in hint the ofwhite student schools involvement (Division Aother1-9). similar Thatthan problem schoolsanswering surfacesand teacher certain in determining the extent of progressive traininghad1948),the been betweenintroduction 55% appointed.104 of 1933 the teachers ofand progressive 1942, had and A review of those organizational characteristics105 that practicestaken courses; into the 29% classroom had taken offer16% had not taken a course permit and limit since theytheir last crude studyingclassesquestion.teachers1932 inand introduced Mexican ArticlesPetworth 1933; Progressiveinlife, progressiveand national and Ketcham painting. professionalEducation methods schools The 1936; inWashington journalsconstructing their Grade classrooms (Childhood Teacher Post railroad and goes 1939) otherEducation stations, without featured local 106 schoolpapers94 / Progressivism supervisor,carried and articles Classroom deeply on Practice,classroominvolved 1890-1940 in projects. San Francisco Julia Hahn, schools' an elementaryprogressive TeachersLarge classes lacked preparation for change" Behind the Classroom Door ht Three (.'Lies, 1920-1940 / 95 difficultandeffortswhat wrote prior extent to articles assess to herteachers on howcoming the far selectedactivity tothese Washington, movementpractices which ideas workedhad in District spreadto convert directly schools.in schools intowith I classroom teachersfound and to it supposedteachersintended to into todo do twoMonday and groups: what morning?" thosethey hadwith Strayer to "the doToo child-developmentspecifically,divided many Districtteachers i.e. held fuzzy notions of what the program was"what amelementary Iphilosophy othertoDistricttecnniques.")8 Washington, things, schools how attook the much place Board of in the of1948 Education's Child when DevelopmentThe George request.only Strayer appraisal to Program determine, brought of the had his amongdiffusion teambeen of progressive methods in the spreadnumbers,allthosewith such its with of emphasisarbitrary the onlythe program "traditional" such categoriesupon vague is the difficult.111 wholestress withinwords uponchild theas "many." and Hence, determining survey,mastery Strayer of facts offered and skills. no specific As with upon purposive learning" and the containedimplementedEightimplemented Year all Study.inthe classrooms.than conventional Ballou's either New formal vocabulary York effort City's Theat about installing Activity program "child-centered progressiveProgram was equally or activity educationDenver's as ambitious, but far less systematically Superior,theseandwhen spoke discussionshe described withGood, teachers, Fair, andhow observations, andfour principals, Poor.s'aff members Unlike and they Thesupervising ratedthe visited closest Morrison the all Strayer directors.schools came to estimating the diffusion of the elementary schools, survey of New they Basedsaw as uponprogram is wheretionalprogram"hood,both children.. room city, spreading and and shared school nation. throughout in duties,planning Projects, andDistrict the studiedcenters, work, schools, assumedactively movable pushing theresponsibilities furniture, family, out the neighbor- "tradi- . subject-centered program," Classrooms were to become places activity for Strayer'sconstructed,York's Activity team verified judged Program for a schoolvalidity in 1940 Superior, and where reliability,if theobservers program and data was designedcarefully to lit the needs of the children, the were trained, scales purposes of sifted, Program."soughtperiods,activity craftsthe programs often-quoted in the schools. repertoire Some Headquarter's schools,that pedagogical building supervisors onprogressives the and principals inwere charged to bstablish public schoolswere central to the Child Development cadre of theirwhichdamentaldevelopmentteachers children. secured and knowledges, pupilsactivities,'12 the interests were understandings an clear, effective and there cooperation instructional was and a skills, well of parents organized andprogram dealing with fun- a community programon the education of program of child dentschools,embracedteachers but pinneddid who the not, hadSuperintendent's to or existing experimentedcould not,practice, apparently charge earlier heeded Strayer'swith institute withthe greatwords projects team the enthusiasm. of had,entire as program. one ofMost its objectives, the job of assessing to the Superinten- and centers, what andhalfcanGood; oneofGood. 27%the conclude District NotFair; only andthat schools; 18.2% Childwould that Developm, Poor. such is, byOnly a addingleapThese at by Programs be thoseobservers schools existed found rated in 19% more of than all elementary schools Superior; 35.7% a courageous inferential leap courageous, it would be Superior later.degreethatobstacles,the He Superintendent'seither the found program, errors,frustrated, "many" and initiated orjustclassroomsmandate, worse, plain in 1938, poor contradictedin that hadjudgments met been both Bal implemented themade lou's letter byannounced school a spite of numerous and enervating and spirit of officialsdecade direc- Activityamongdefinedprobableprecarious teachers itemsProgram.113 differences given and, existthe finally, multipleamong as they the them obviousanddo between ambiguous in makingfact that schools, judgmentscriteriawithin e.g. observers New York used, City's a school, differences on such loosely the tion. Strayer added them up; Teachersnew program. were not This given was time a "seriousor resources error." to produce new curricula for the schools.uncertain,Developmentprogram's unsystematic,implementation Program was and and executed,jigsaw his implementationstatements theAdding picture of uphowthat in Strayer's District spottily observationselementary of the organizational obstacles emerges is one of the Child to the instructionalinOnly ShortRoomsten one years. school new lacked materials. unit day space, (math) cabinets, was produced equipment; for teachers teachers to use lacked in the textbooks new effort 1 0 7 and teachingcollectedfrom the 53patterns for classroom Washington. appear descriptions in slightly Figure (ofmore 2.5 which illustrates thanSome 20 help that in student-tdetermining the spread of progressive practices one out of three wereelementary elementary classes) I entered comes 108 Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940197 96/ ProgressivismPercent and Classroom Practice,100 1890-1940 NIED Mixed Teacher-instruction centered Percent 100 94 ri Teacher-Mixedinstruction centered 8090 (Ei Student -centered) Number of classesinstruction 907080 77 70 0 Student-centered) Number of classesinstruction 6070 44 57 5060 58 63 4050 33 33 33 31 36 37 25 37 38 38 4030 30 32 302010 25 23 2010 14 to 20 0 Arrangement C ass (9) * Instruction Group (16) Classroom Talk(14) IMovementStudent (8) ClassroomActivities (13) Arrangement Class (16) , Instruction Group (22) Classroom Talk (21) Movement Student (19) ClassroomActivities (19) Figure1920-1940. 2.5 Patterns of Instruction in Washington, D.C. Elementary Classrooms, 1920-1940.Figure 2.6 Patterns of Instruction in Washington, D.C. High School Classrooms, confidenceclassrooms.teachingcontextualCombining practices, than conditionsThe the Strayer's numbers,pieces as describeddefined of team data, however, byjudgments individuallyearlier are the Child Development Program, pene- both pieces suggest that progressive smallof flawedindividual and offer as they school little are, morequality. with the facinggraphpercentageslittleteachers is student-initiatedrows a profile instructed for of thosestudents of,a highthepractices movement entire sittingschool ingroup, teacherinelementary within desks. talked teaching the Three mostclassrooms.room. four ofout One the toof fivewaytime, Drawnfour classesto andtimes, corroborate from permited daily, thethe hetrated broadeningdegreesinferenceas small a minority by as that substantialone-quartergorthe of certainnumber the District's progressive of as large classrooms, as practices were numbers of District elementary teachers who expanded their range one-third. Equally plausible is the although that minority may adopted to varying teachers, further of techni- Central'sonblack.that a profilehill overlooking reputation is to take forathe closer a Capitol, splendid look Washington at view someConsider of District the Monument, city the high began predominantly schools, andwhen downtown, whiteit opened academic and Central High School. Perched factques.elementary undisturbed: Yet saying classrooms. teacher-centered all this in careful and conditional language instructional patterns prevailed in still leaves one Directoritsmentsreadbecome doors the forofto astudent the whitegraduation,world-renowned Federal studentshandbooks Bureau daily in schedule, actress,1916.that of Investigation, described Both were extracurricular J. CentralEdgar school and Hoover, studentsrules,Helen activities, curriculaHayes, subsequently and andmust soon require- school have to HigheveryFigure School category2.6 shows Classrooms patterns teacher-centered practices at the high similar to New York City109 and Denver school exceed in that for mustquiet(homeroom)cheers. havemust theprevail for "proper opening at this attitude" time,"exercises theand handbookby "frame 8:55 a.m.of stated, "In classroomsbecause the absolutestudents In the 1926 Handbook students were told to go to their section mind necessary to start the 110 98 / Progressivism ond Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 I 99 day"sixdaymove right." recitationfrom At one 9:10 classperiods" the to bellanother. and rang lunch. A to rich startIn arrayfour the minutes, student's students seven were to of activities was available at Brecky, the senior period Novembergardens,topic in whichsprouting 17, 1938. they seeds, are interested,etc." some students have chosen dish Florence Jayne's classes "voted for and attained whatNotes"weeklyyearbook,the end certain began,newspaper.of the teachersdayuntil including 1938A glimpse did when in the their into:he chance columnclassrooms rooms. toFrom writelapsed, From the appeared for studentsthese the in thewrote the Journal, Bulletin, a literary beginningreview begun in 1925in 1886, when and a thesection called "Class "Class Notes" I weekly.114Bulletin, items on a newspaperoractivities15 English that about andinvolved 4 one-fourthhistory student teachers of participation, the wereentireIn responsible facultyanalyzing as reported in the for 302mid-1930s.by twothirds theclassroom student of Of allactivitiescertain from changes 55 teachers in the teacher's I found system that of marking." one-fifthteachersstudies,identified science, werein 302 foreign indescriptions math, the language English and foreign of anddepartment; teaching the language remainderStudent activities one-quarter teachers. reporters in for science. 55Almost in English,noted unusual items about teachers' classrooms: social studies; half of the social teachershowever,studentcourse, reporters theusing that total within progressive sampleheard this about, sampleof practices. teachers which there isclasseswere selective,Viewed a varietythey took,reflectingthis of approachesway, etc. The Iclasses found point among that is, less than 10 percent of all activities 1. NovemberInstancesmonitors of24, asstudent 1925. they areparticipation called, record in class the recitation. attendance, test the rest of the In Florence Jayne's English class "various pupils, or sivism.jectsthestudentsning,reported a revisedActivities usualleadingby students teachingcourse a involving recitation in content thesepractices students orclasses related discussion, associated includedundertakento current and with joint andcommittee by pedagogical student-teacherfuturea substantial student work progres- numberon needs, plan- pro- answertheApril2,class, class read 1930. one acts the of asthequestions teacher.... questions." from One the of true the andpupils false called tests." on Miss Clark to In Alice Clark's Latin class "at each lesson some member of useevidencedetermineddebates,of Central student actingis teachers that participationby outtheeven scenes,teacher stayed among to and andwithin refreshthe leadingminoritylinked a existing narrow todiscussions of required Central contentband, e.g.contentfaculty(80 and studentpercent)all instruction, who or text. chosereports, The the to were 2. outlanternClassroomDecember scenes slides, from activities 17, radio 1930.novels programs, that and departed plays, outside etc. fromspeakers, the routine,panel discussions, e.g. acting Bessie Whitford's sixth period English class debated field trips, describeddominantinstruction, mode in ause studentof ofinstruction texts, newspaper, question-answer was teacher-centered. was seeminglyInstruction exchanges 115 tied atinitiated Central, to large-group and then, control- except for a small group of teachers properties."theirOctoberthe merits first 20, experiment of 1932. high school by themselves.... fraternities. They made oxygen and found its Mr. DeShazo's third period chemistry class "performed desk.classroomstakingled by athe left arranged teacher, at 0 Street, in scant rows and student of going desks movement anotherfacingTravelling the dozen and blackboard participationalldownblocks, the and hill teacher's on withinThirteenth Street toward the White House, a visitor would JanuarywithVicarMarch the19, of 1933.players9, Wakefield 1933. speaking only French...." Alma Boyd's secondMiss Gill's period fourth English yearthrough class French apresented simulated class held the radio "a bridge broadcast. party thewhenhave firstsame reached it openedblack year the high asits stepsCentral doors school of to Dunbar, did.in four the New black nation. the or studentsblack not, Dunbar academiccompared in moved a church high tointo Central,basement, school. InDunbar it 1870 a new building was 3. workedUnusualMarch in 16,class groups, 1932. activities and created where projects. students determined what they study, Students in Ruth, Denham's second period class made resemblingofscarredclasses her school, wereby years alarger, map."even of use, books"the Yet and, blackboards thiswere in was thefrayed, thewords were schoolmaterials of crackeda teacherthat were produced, with whofewer, confusing wrote furniture lovingly lines as Thomas was 1 1 replicas"are-Februaryplace wqrkingofon the15.a card Globe1934. on table." projects Theatre"The of practical theatre application. will be about Allowed large enough to pick to any Freshman Biology students in Miss E. C. Paul's class Brooke),(WilliamCabinetSowell noted, memberHastie),and the the discoverer thefirst (Robert first black black C. ofgeneral bloodWeaver),senator (Benjamin plasma since the Reconstruction(Charles first 0. Davis), black Drew) federalthe (Edward 116 first judgeblack W. 112 100 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 / 101 whomfromtheties, a"Talented sethadpool high earned of standardsblack Tenth," advanced students for a cadre behaviordegrees from of acrosseducated fromandDunbar's academics. northern the blackscity, purpose andthe They who easternfaculty, wasshared would clear: universi- many a providebelief prepare of in students for college. Drawing Theversionsdidthe pastsubjects individualphotographs and of magazines present."studied. projects of English Constant Senior like on the eighteenthandEnglish effortSpectator, Spanish wasclasses century classes mademodels of Missto showedEngland, ofshow villages,Howard the familiar creatingconnection andmurals, Mr.patterns their Hilletc. of rulesskills,leadershipyour for and notebooks. English gentilityto the students race. As was you Equalling gospel werehave amongexplicit:at leastand believers exceedingthree "WriteIn the other all 1924-1925in whites lessonslessonthis inassignments to Crimson knowledge, prepare and in Black student handbook, for example, faith."' daily, theDunbar.studentsshowsof teachers evidence.12° the Onlystanding teacher talking partial in conductingto atheinferences half-circle entire an class; are experimentaround appropriate one himphotograph inwatching. front given of the theaData chemistry skimpiness room are fewand class the forof studyingcollateralsuggestionswarned:do not attempt (with"To reports of study Nihil tothe andtrust teacher historySine wider your Lahore asmemory."intelligentlyreading." to asthe a keepingsubtitle) Advice For die history studentofinwere thenotebooks, classes listed form should prescribing ofstudents 12 mapfollow rules work, were thefor Theseteachersschoolsrevealed impressions occurs, elsewhere at Central little and inHighmore the partial Schoolthancity. informedAsinferences and tentative the inpressionsUntilset link a'of an othereasily intensive candescriptions with be recovery offeredthe patterns from now. of highmore classroom descriptions of Dunbar all this is, a student essay on georgettes,werekindKeepsocks, of"Hints light yourand satins shirtsforandshoes Dunbar spacehave of cleaned quiet no at Boys placehomecolors. and andin polished."that Don't your Girls would letwardrobe"; e.g. them Rules be for adequate. be for conspicuous for entering boys, Also "Wear and includedand leaving showy. ties, girls, "silks, chiffons, evidence.peekwhat happenedat the reality in 1942 that when somehow the electric keeps bells dancing went beyondout of order the availablegives us a Clock Trouble saryclassrooms wereclasses,moving the were except aboutsame stated as isfor toat with those Central,be allowedunmistakable occasions although after when Theclarity:the the belldaily teacherthe "No haselectric schedule talkingload bellsand of or seven unneces-broke periods down, with bells punctuating changes in sounded."118 class sizes ran intosendscurriculum their children next of Dunbarhourspringing class no from onlylonger theirto existsfind seats, that (Long dashing the TheLiveclass... downweary WhenClockbefore the janitors Trouble!) thehas hall, Dunbarnot andclimb heard puffing theclocks the stairs are and out clang of theorder, ancient the 'cowefficient bell' whichschool studyhigherliterarythe andsenior at the textsjournalsEdmund blackyear were thatthan the drove atsame the Burke's whiteincludingstudents high"On theto school.ConciliationWhat parody one piecehappened The in academicoftheir With required in yearbooks America."119Dunbar courses work classrooms, in ofand within a context of clear and once!)'21thereturned,bellFor bell and the and theythe District leaveteacher will thehave of proceeds homeworkColumbia, to return with tounassigned. teacher-centeredthe the lesson class justthey (Ah, in had time instruction left. to beAfter interrupted prevailedthey have by in a good night's sleep for withprecisearebolted-downdesk, a available. highstudent classes level expectations desks),ofWhat of35 academic orthese can more onlyscatteredfor students trainingacademic be inferred. photographs, 5 facing, orwork 6 Few times andfrom descriptions studentbehaviordaily behind in newspaper row(and the of after teacher'saclassrooms faculty row of items, teachers.one-thirdgrades,wereboth elementaryembraced but Thisin in elementary numberspattern by and more high of that elementaryschoolvariation school seldom and classrooms. between addedteachersno more up levels thantoSome more oftheir progressiveschooling than peers one-quarter in resemblesthe practices higher to one in five high school yearbooklargerstudentand Dunbarframework vignettes, participation high and of schools, teacher-centeredofficial in classwork reportedreports (e.g.show in patterns 1920 reports,Harrietare thatinstances of Riggs,ininstruction.debates, English of English project etc.) "the within work,andsocialized History a Department Head for Armstrong haveuponBallou'swhat Denver'sappearedvaried. tenure Plausiblecontinuity infor New almost York itin a maytopquarter City leadership be and ofbut aDenver.Granted century,the would hunch that bea plausible thatfallsthe patternthe short patternhunch ofwas beingbasedmight similar, still with the unique stability of classescontinued,learnedstudy....recitation both toBy was work"emphasis teachersthis found methodfor the and valuablewas welfare ofpupils placed recitation in collected ofteachingupon the each geographygroup." pictures pupils child In contributed howand andall clippings historymapto think study. hisclasses, andbearing partIn how many andshe on to 113 wereabidingingconvincingprogressive. the adopted bureaucracy,and when passionate but The Ballou's represented Child the interests priorities scientificDevelopment no ofmore are usesan recalled: administrative,than Programof testing,symbolic new and buildings,etc. curriculum -efforts,not These pedagogical, reorganiz- closerwere revision the to 114 102 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 I 103 wideofcopy-cat insufficientrhetoriccurrent change progressivism ideas.with in for classroomlittle Continuity District direct than of practice, a ormayColumbia comprehensively tangible be but an teachers importantmildsupport endorsements developed to for conditionalter teachers their implementation enhanced fordaily were district- routines simply by concernsefficiency,theand bottomleisure versus linetime getting collective of in thean more achievement-basedprofit-loss needs bang of the outstatement; group; ofThese each society the the contradictionsdollar, values tension that surroundingandoften between creative looks mirror seeking firstplay self- larger to ones in the culture: individual timebuildingscannotwith children.and estimate. isenergy evident Thatof fromschool race the influenced officials data. That who allocation theHow worriedissue much ofof race whatfunds, a role consumed Congress, teachers,race played much andthe in determining classroom practice, I numberchildculturedevelopment. and and of a teachers existset These of uneasily prescriptions discovered conflicting in both their valuesembedded public classrooms have andBy in grown openingprivate pedagogy, to be up institutions.schoolsarenas side a byconsiderable where to side the in thesedebate our over what is best for the individual decisionsCommissioners,suitableteacherrelations andforinadvertently is whitealsoprincipal the evident middleBoard enthusiasm made of inand Education,the upper-classthat sources. fortransgressed progressive and That children white race theparents pedagogy,than may etiquette- blacks have might being influencedwho ofthink race hadmore of to bepracticalvaluesresolving worked had manner. to through,these be resolved Notcontradictions. teachersunlike or, families at abest, generation todaymaintained whereI suggestago simultaneously thesefound that dilemmas varied teachers ways in have who some ofto constructed classroom tasks containing education,concernexceedteaching whites voiced isthat only did inamong speculation knowledge,appear some in the atblacks skill,threethis point. cities.aand generationWhat moxie Mixed is less in patterns later order speculative, over ofto teacher-surviveainformal however, and is a pattern of mixed forms of taughtconflictingblazedboth teacher- bya trail Mrs. cultural forand Spencer later student-centered values generations that as I theydescribed surfacedof approaches colleaguesThat at the in New classrooms.beginning were to York follow the Citypathfindersof in this copingfourth chapter gradewithwho is classroom of 42 children in 1924 student-centeredAlthoughintroducefoundhybrids congenial, adapted child-centereda small instruction toand minority the the classroom instructiondemands mean of classrooms, that conditionsof ora supervisors number to continue these they of teacherseither hybridstraditionalfaced, urging. theconstructed suggest ideaspractices. them theythat to sheonegames,fromlesson; permittedexample. the shereading, class movedShe children were usedplay-acting around handledstudents to talk the whole-class withroomwithas helpers; onehumor;aiding another recitation. children individual class during activities coached The students; theinstructional each werearithmetic complaints other; varied: cli- teachers,transformthattailored dogged confronting to publictheir the settings. footstepsschools. conflicting For of bothexpectations,teachers, teachers Thecontradictions developedappearance and reformers uniquemultiplied of these who solutions hybrids triedas they to also suggests a fundamental paradox doingmovement,Heremate ofwasall the of evidence givingthisroom with studentswas ofwell-timed both a teacher responsibility, serious dispatch. encouraging and tolerantYethelping in thestudent individualof sameindividual expressionclassroom, children, children. studentsand sat in rows of bolted-down desks; sensed,tion"triedexpectedand toand respect atresolve thesome of daily schools.for thelevel, their realities tensions that Forauthority concentration thosethey generated faced teachers,were in proxiesby ontheir partisansthis basic schools. dilemmafor skills, what of Afterthe classroom ofthe "Newcoping largerall, teachers Educa- withorder,society the theofsourceate student teacherbehavior; of all involvementhaddecided authority what already classwha.. was decided existed activitieswas Mrs. to to except Spencer.be do. werestudied Teacher as to Nomonitors occurand pretense rewards when; and or inwhatorhelpersand whateven sanctions was semblanceorder.to appropri- do what wereThe commondemandscomplexitiesteachers bodyfor had children of ofto individual knowledgemake to obeywhen choice hadauthority, they to and closedbe expressionworked behaveFew the reformersclassroom outuniformly, amidstin each or door.oranizational and classroom.school acquireOf course,officials a knew the difficult choices some sharplyclearwhereclassroom,elsewhere, to bythecontradictory whatclass. struckMrs. the Boundaries Spencer,a teachercompromise. behaviors eagerfelt for appearedwas individualTheto appropriate.try results, child-centered in an expression I uneasy,believe, Thus, often were practiceslikewere fragileclassroomsteachers defined in con- her whatmany,andmanyappearance they whatperhaps teachers had roles alwaysofmost, begantheyhybridsa teachers donewere to see teacher-centeredinexpected saw atheir fundamental no rooms. contradictions, to play. But dilemma progressivismsuggests in these felt in twobothno tugs, decades, what and they didthe that did 115 Teachersefficient,isfiguration. oneoften that contradictory, construct Thishas persisted paradox patchwork impulses ofsince, progressivism creatingcompromises but (and classrooms herethat grewtoI can contain in only.kpvctilate)where the these interwar impulses competing, decades at to a be cost scientific, child-centered, and authoritative beset teachers. 116 1041 Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890 1940 Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 I 105 of classroomleaving within discipline, many and a vague relations uneasiness with students over thethat aims seldom of teaching,goes away. comesState,yearsconcluded 'otherBoston: from "prepared directed.' economists Beacon, the" (Joel1972, Samuelindividual Spring, pp. Bowles49 to Education-61). he andwhat HerbertDissent andDavid the RiemanGintis, fromRise ofthese and calledthe historiansCorporateviews in later of reformers' impact upon teaching practice NOTES 1. Agnes DeLima, Our Enemysettingpp. The21-31. and Child description All (Newquotes York:were were paraphrased.takenNew Republic,from DeLima's 1925), observation. The classroom school,schools'liberalAmerica,Michael professionals standardizedadministrationKatz. Bowles David and spearheadedTyacktesting, Gintisand curriculumand abilityargue Arthur successful thatgrouping, (forZilversmit. a coalitionexample, reforms vocational In ofthethat Schooling business comprehensive changed education, inleaders theCapitalist andpublic high and the 2. Tyack, pp. 182-98; MichaelYork:Patricia Katz,Urban TeachersPraeger Class, Graham, School Bureaucracy,Publishers, College Reform Progressive Press,(New 1971), and 1967),York:Educalion: pp.Schools Teachers117-20;chapter (NewFrom 4;Cremin, College, Sol Arcady Cohen, pp. Bureau to179-239: ProgressivesAcademe of Publications, See (New also and "workedavoidedandschoolsconcentrating students. have criticizing in vain changedofBecause authority for corporate a little pedagogicalhumanistic in in school substance" capitalism, andprofessionals).reformers egalitarian in Bowles the lacked exchange However, andeducation." popular Gintis between they support argue, No say,teachers direct "thetheyand 5.4.3. Time,Graham, October chaptersp. 46. 31, 31934. -4: DeLima, p. 31.Depression1964), chapters chapters (New 4, 9;1-4; York: Cremin, C.A. Random Bowers,pp. 201 House, -34. The 1%9), Progressive chapters Educator 1-4. and the alNewcited.evidence reform York: (Samuel of stopped Basicclassroom Bowles Books, at the instruction and classroom1976, Herbert pp. is Gintis,offered 43,door 181, because Schoolingexcept 200).Michael forthe inwhat movementKatz Capitalist other argues researchers itselfAmerica, in Class, was Bureaucracy, and Schools that instruction- 6. Historians, however, disagreechangesveryaboutideas upon different targetedinprogressivism the teaching degree reasons,on theofpractice. impact classroom.and that schools, Lawrenceteachingof those Of at progressivethebehavior leastCremin dozen six changed. andhistorianshave Joel dealt Spring who with haveassert, the issuewritten for of progressiveleadingthatessentiallyrefers historians theoristsalso conservativeyears, to cannot Middletown hewrote said learn in andin outlook 1971, whattosaid. support cannot happenedWhetherand aimedhis yet arguments. be teachingin at answered schoolsbureaucratic changedHe byby does studyinghistorians. changes. acknowledgeduring what Katz(pp. the a conservativefeyeveryhave and been Winnetka little typical strain else there well ofof schools progressivism wereinto the probably in thirties,"the "pedagogical in schools Muncie he goesCremin "that (Indiana) onmainstream." mustto cites state classroomshave the that "Middletown" taughtNoting the reformers might McGuf-that for studies in 1925 and 1935 to illustrate how surveyedunanticipated,bureaucracy113-25) progressive in between explaining reform 1890-1940. andthe itslack Distinguishingconsequences, of changeDavid in Tyack among bothteaching anticipated shares the practice.varied andstrains He a similar perspective on the importance of left unmistakable footprints in classrooms.standardelementaryThe character pedagogical level, of the as procedure. classroomprojects beganStudents changed to andcompete markedly, teachers with alikeespecially recitations tended atto thebeas of sessingprofessors,inprogressivism, changing a vision superintendents, the Tyack ofstructure a "one described best and foundation system" governancethe success based executives, administrative of upon public scientific and schools. lay progressives reformers,school Coalitions manage- had pos- of ideas of Dewey, Kilpatrick, and Colinonemore Scott another. active, onIn group moreEducation(pp. 305,workmobile, 307) andand and thetraces more Rise their informalof the Corporate in their relationshipsState, Joel Spring with takes the wholeeliminatewithofment, formal different changed group surveysinefficient instruction, thenetworks oflandscape schoolclassroom ofand systems, influentialof formal Americanpractices writings, recitation, educators. suchschooling conferences,as aaccording uniformthroughReformers and thecourse to closeTyack.strategicdid of seek contact study, (pp. use to directvariationsthe"socializedintentional lessonpath into by ofrecitation" classrooms.either groupeach; leading activitythe where "project Spring the thatstudents recitation, hasisolates method" a assume socially specificdeveloping put the useful forth role teaching ofaend;by group teacher Kilpatrick andmethods: discussion other and review methodsasthe an or onofwritings,researchers126-98) Deweythe very Using newspaper and successesof his morethis followers period,articles, primary of the aboutTyack and administrativesources autobiographies exciting drew on fromschools classrooms progressives, city toand schoolconclude classroomsfor children surveys,especially that thethanfoundered teacher dreams inother the experiencescoursesmethods,impactthat generated upon on the thesein the booksthe student classroom, topicsform written ofgroup in cooperative teacher-educationSpring by activities advocates cites projects inthe theof abundance andeach, classroom.curricula. socialized and of the "Group articlesTo recitations,"appearance demonstrate learningon these heof ill cities. wasintoA gifted Dewey'smore teacher difficult model in fora of one-room Dewey'ssocial learning, schoolideas of housebut democlitit changing might flucationalone a large turn city demanded her system class 118 106 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 / 107 education"which..substantialand administration, ,teachers inautonomy urban commonly school on more the systems partforms lacked. of often toteachers Predictably,fill brought out and and more,childrenan committees the notcall less for autonomy redtoa "new tape attend, 7. New York (City) BoardSuperintendent ofNewclassrooms,providing Education, York (City) a moreofThirty-Second Schools, Board solid of (New baseEducation, Annual ofYork: knowledge TheReport Board First of Fifty oftheEducation, what Years: teachers A 1930), Brief didReviewp. 485; do in of Thecontrolledhardlyfundamentalmore full supervisors,expression the wishurban change of ofeducation.new those Dewey's in tests the administrative hierarchialfor (pp.ideal children 197-8) of democratic structureprogressivesto take, new of education schoolsand and their required allies that was jargon for old ideas. who 8. Cohen, Progressives and SchooltwoProgress,UrbanDiane comparisons SchoolWars: Ravitch1898-1948 New Reform; withand York (New Ronald the Diane City, sizeYom Goodenow 1805-1973Ravitch,of k: the Board school The of (eds.)(New Education, Greatsystem EducatingYork: are Basic1949), mine. An Books, p, Urban 86; the1974); People: last pedagogy.Americanchanges in elementary orderFirst, to he determine argued, schools. thehow His curriculum widespreadverdict: veryZilversmitArthur of progressive pre-1940little. Zilversmit relied practicesteacher-training upen is the three onlywere indicators historianin thusof the far acceptance to focus upon of progressive classroom 10. On Maxwell9. Cohen, as Superintendent,p. 153, seeYork:Maxwell,Time Samuel New Scheba P.The York Abelow, First Publishing City Superintendent Experience Dr, William Co.. 1934);(New of Schools York: Selma Teachersof C.the Berrol, City College of "WilliamNew Press, York, 1981). Henry (New andcurriculasroom.skilled,institutions college Instead,alert, that should training progressiveand he reasonablyknowledgable foundcourses ideas in of mirrorthree study. had teacher nationalthespread Second, extent is minimally essential surveys of'Zilversmit instructional to through a investigatedprogressive reform both normal since clas- a of teacher education clas- 12.11, Who'sNew York Who (City) in America, Board 1920-1921,of Education,p.8Maxwell (1968),895; (Chicago: ThirtiethThe and pp. First a 215-28; NewMarquis AnnualFifty Educational Ravitch,Years, Co., Report 1921),p. pp.New 92; of 111-86. Cohen,York,"the11, Historyp. 110. of Education Quarterly, sroomforyetmovabledesks almostZilversmit furniture. firmlydesks 40 percent pointedProgressiveand bolted chairs of out to new forthethat educators desks flexible floor.in 1934 sold, A seating tookstationarythird not assignto and amention schoolofwork weak spacethose influence inmillions classrooms, on of school old given the importance of desks still accounted 13, Sec New York (City) Board of Education,Review,Are1924-1929,Superintendent The 74ProgressProgressive (1927),(New of York:Schools,of pp. the Steps 99- Board Public 103.(New of ofthe Schools, Education,York: New Board York 1929); Cityof Education, WilliamSchools," O'Shea, 1928), Educational p."What 53. wasists.systemspractice, Mentala serious to according promote health concern of mentalto children, ofZilversmit, progressive health, the commitment i.e.were educators. social the fewworkers to specialists the wholeand school child,hired heby argues,school psycholog- 15.14. Cohen, pp. 159-60.129-32, While it is beyondexploration,embraceeducational the of scopethe i.e. conservativeActivity why of thisdoes Program study, a Superintendentin the Campbell's remains midst of an whoretrenchment intriguing characterized puzzle decide thathimself to deserves launch as an the suburbanonringintensive the to 2traditional of classroomsevaluation the 12 volumes, instruction ofacross New hethe York quotes thatstate. state evaluators Heextensively schoolsconcludesFor the betweenfrom thatclas.,room each the 1935-1938. progressiveone's itself, conclusions Zilversmit Refer- ideas relied upon the Regents' Inquiry, an found in urban, rural and 16. C. B. J, Snyder, "A Stupendous SchoolhousevolumeBoardelementarylargest Journal, experiment65 (October,publicProblem," 66 school (February,ever 1922), American undertakencurriculum pp. 1923), 60-1.School andin pp. the instruction? 59-61; nation's also history see same to reform journal, the of pp.enceZilversmit,the 252-61).child-centered Stone (ed.) "The Schooling Failure school of andleft Preogressive Society,few marks Baltimore: onEducation, elementaryFor those 1920-1940," who schools, have (Arthur writtenin Lawr- about these years when progressive vocabul- John Hopkins Press, 1976, 18.17.19. New New York York Times,(City) (City) BoardMay Board 18, of 1930,Education,of Education, p.Superintendent 9.Yr All rk: Thirty-Third TheBoard Children, of of Education, Schools, Annual 1935-1936 1936), 1930-1931 Report p.(New 120;of the (New All The York: Children, Board 1942 of Education,- 1943, p. 30. usedonary infrequentlythe became is question sparse, the accepted of leansto impact classrooms heavily language of progressive upon and in educationalschools.the ideas Middletown on Despite research,the paucity and of refers data on thediscourse, classroom. opinion The is evidence divided in 21.20. HaroldReport Campbell,of Survey "Classof Public Sizes School in New System,(December, York1931). City," City p. 615. 1935), ofThe New School p. York, 139; Executive, Thirty-Eighth1924 (New 55 Annual Report, 1935-1936, p. 83. classroomsclassrooms,theparticularignore arguments the often historiansdistricts' critical advancedtake pointschoolsan trying all-or-nothing thusof to andthe farassess extentclassrooms while the approach, ofsuggesting spread penetration. might ofand, progressive newconfirm except Alines systematic orfor of refutepractices Zilversmit,research somelook atof 119 and 22,24.23. ibid., Theibid., pp. First pp. 1265-92. Fifty1292-96, Years, 1309. pp. 94 -5.York: Board of Education, 1929), p. 306. 120 108 / Progressivism ana Classroom Practice, 1890 -1940 Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-19401109 26.25, O'Shea,Twenty-Eighth "Progress Annual of Public Report, Schools," 1925-1926, pp.RegentsCommittee,""Report 29-31; pp. of 176-7.TheExamination the FirstHigh Investigation FiftyPoints, Committee,"Years, 21 of (December,Regentsp. 95; High Examinations Points, 1939), 22 pp. (April, by 14-29; the 1940), First "Report Assistants' pp. of8-16. the 49.48.50, ibid.,The New New February York York (City) 16,Times, 1940, Board May p. of 2.18, Education, Also 1930, see p. (NewSuperintendentthe 9.Exploring use York: of the Bureaua Firstword O'Shea's Grade of"progressive" Reference, Progress Curriculum. inResearch, of the Public and Schools, Statistics, 1924-1929. 1947), Forword 28.27. NewHigh YorkPoints, (City) 3 (December, Board of Education, 1921), Richmanpp. juniorThe 30-1; Handbookhigh HighTeachers school School, of report Evander Manual 1924, card, Childsof p. 1925; Julia High School, 1927-1928, pp. 124. 2; Practical Suggestions For Teachers, 52.51. ActivitySee, for Program: example, Report "An Experiment of a Survey, Withpp. p,High 143, the School," Dalton PlanSurvey, in the 1924, Wadleigh pp, 205-7; 1High -7. 86-90.Points, 9 (March 1927), pp. 1939),dardsPoints,(Bronx), in pp.14 the1926, 7-10. Supervision pp. 28-31; of HighForeign Points, Languages," 12 (October, High Points,1930), 21,pp. (November, 52-5; High (April, 1932), pp. 44-8; Theodore Huebner, "Suggested Stan- 54.53. BenjaminThomas H. Rosenthal, Briggs, "The "A Case Practices Study26-7. of ofReview, Best aPoints, Lesson High 43 22 School(December,in (November, American Teachers," History,"1935), 1.,40), School pp. pp.High 745-52. 21-39. 30.29.31. New ibid., York pp. (City)Principals 22-31. Board Association, of Education, The The Principal,dents, Teachers'Use 1921),in November the Handbook: Schools p. 27. 14, of A 1921.the Guide City (n. Forof p.) New York (New York: Board of Superinten- 57.56.55. Marvinibid.ibid., pp. Lazerson 31-9. suggested to me thisCohen line ofand reasoning. Barbara Neufeld. Also see ''The David Failure K. of I Iigh School and the Progress of 33,32.34, SamuelSurvey, The comparison Tenenbaum,1924, pp. with841-9. "SupervisionTheorydriving and rulescutive, forand the and Robert59 road Practice,"(March, conies Dreeben, 1940), ft The 0111 "InstructionSchool pp.Rebecca 28-9. Exe- Barr in Classrooms," in Lee Shulman (ed.) 60.59.58. Taxpayers'JosephMira Scott Kett Review,Frank, pointed "Dedication October out this 12, line of1934. of Valverde argumentEducation,"1951, Elementaryn.p. to Daedalus,me, School," 110 (Summer, mimeo, 1981), pp. 76-7. 35. Arthur Jersild et al., "An Evaluation Reviewof Education,the1977),Aspects New of p. Research 114.Yorkof 8the (December, City Activity in Public Education Program 1939),Elementary p.in 166; Schools," John Loftus, Journal "New of ExperimentalYork's Large- (Itasca, Ill,: F. E. Peacock Publishers, 62,61, SchoolWho's DistrictWho in of America, Denver, Twenty-Eighth1936-1937,Journal,p. 191814;A. Annual L. Threlkeld, Denver8 Report Public of"Dr. Superintendent Schools,Dewey's "ClassroomPhilosophy of andInterests," the Curriculum, April 21, 1936, Curriculum p. 3; (April, 1937), pp. 164-6. (Chicago: Marquis Co., 1937), 37.36. JohnThe ActivityLoftus, "TheProgrom: Nature The of theReport ActivityScale ofDepartment17 aProgram," (February, SurveyExperimentation ofmimeo, 1940), Education, SeptemberWithp. 117. an1941), Activity 9, pp. Program,"20-1. Progressive Education, (Albany, N.Y.: State 63. Twentieth Annual Report, 1922-1923,Schools,Review,pp.Report, p. 64;33-6. 1930-1931 Denver June, 1934, Public (Denver, p. Schools, 3. Colorado, School 1931), p. 45; Thirty-Eighth Annual 1940-1941, p. 63; Twenty-Sixth Annual Report, 1928-1929, 40.39.38. Loftus,TheArthur New Jersild,Progressive York Times,et. al. Education, "StudiesJuly 9, 1941. p.of 117.ElementaryJournal1936, ofp. Experimental2. School Classes Education, in Action," 9 (June, 1941), pp. 299, 301. 65.64, JesseU.S. Oflice Newton, of Education, "The Need Statistics of a Scientific Seniorp.Bulletin.of 6,City Curriculum HighSchoc! 1935, Schools," No. Systems, Policy 2 (Washington, Educational for 1933-1934, Junior D.C.:andAdministration Government and Printing Supervision, Office, 3 1936), (May, 42.41.44.43. Jersild,ibid. Theibid., ActivityDecember, p. 41. Program: 1939, Reportp. 196. of a Survey, p. 47, 67,66. Denveribid., p. Public 266. Schools, Denver ProgramA.No.1917), L. of12 Threlkeld, Curriculump. (Denver 267. Board"The Revision, Denver of Education, Monograph Curriculum 1927), Revision pp. 17-21; Program," Jesse Newton in National and 47.46.45. ibid.;J.ibid., Cayce Alsop. 53. Morrison, see Ralph "The Tyler, Curriculum Perspectives ExperimentScienceIts on Implications American Research With the Education forAssociates, Activitythe Further (Chicago: Program: 1976), Study pp. of 36-7. Education," in New York Society for 68. Denver Program of Curriculum Revision,andSocietyp, Present,232. p. for the Part Study 1, of(Bloomington, Education, 26th Ill. 1926),Yearbook, pp. 231-3.Curriculum-Making: Past 14; Newlon and Threlkeld, Co.,Experimental 1943), p. Study28: All of the Education Children, Yearbook 1940-1941, (New p. 62.York:121 Thesis Publishing 70,69'. ibid.,Denver p. 28,Program of Curriculum Revision, pp. 22-7. 122 . 1101 Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Behind the Classroom Door in Three Cities, 1920-1940 I 111 72.71.74.73. Denveribid., NewDenver pp. lon Public 30-1.Public and Threlkeld,Schools, Schools, "General p.School 235. Review, InformationSchool March, Courses and 1929, of p. Study,"2. 1929 (Denver, 1929), p. 28. Courses: Senior High 104.103.102.105. Strayer,Amy Report King, p.pp. of 409. 81-2.the"Evolution Eoard of of Education, the Study 1923-1924, Group,"Association Journal pp. 92-7. of of the the EducationDistrict of Columbia, June, 1936, p. 28. 75.76. Thirty See Schoolschapter onTell Denver Their Story, schools 5 (Newin Thirty Co.,Spears,p.York: 146. Schools,1940), Harpers The pp.Emerging pp. 243-73. 146-212 High School Curriculum (New York: and Brothers, 1942), American Book and Harold 106.107. Mayme See issues Lewis, of Journal "Report of of the Visit Columbian to Horace Educational JournalMannMay,Educational School, of 1932,Association the Columbiap.New 35;Outlook York," forPearl July, Educational Among E. The 1925 Minor, Negroes, Association,"A Unit May, in Creative 1939,May, pp.1925, Writing," 11-12. pp.'28-9 National and 78.77.79. DenverSpears, Denver Publicpp. Public 268-9. Schools, Schools, "North "Handbook High SchoolManualalso for the Masterthe training1938 Application Schedule, and and 1939 North Thunderbolt High Schools, and respectively. Viking, student of Progressiveyearbooks for 1938-1939;" 108.109. Washington George G. Post, Handorf, April "An3, 1938 Histo-ical and October Study Whysand 27,of1933), the1940;February, and Superintendency pp. FlowsJulia 206-10. 1926. Hahn, of the "SomeActivity of Dr. Program," Childhood Education, 9 (January, 81.80. DenverH. H. Giles Public et Schools, al., Exploring "Classroom the45-46, Curriculum Interests,"Brothers,Education 50. 1942),PrinciplesJanuary, (New 2, pp. to Secondary320-8. Education," mimeo, September, York: Harpers and1934, p. 11. 1936, pp. 111.110.112. ibid.,Strayer, ibid., p. p.407.pp. 458. 427-8, 443-7. (UnpublishedFrank W. Ballou Ed, is D. the dissertation, Public School American System University, of the District 1962), of p.Columbia" 190. 82.84.83. East C.Thirty HighL. Cushman, Schools, School p.Core"Conference 182. Classes, Appraises "Our Education,"culum Denver Journal, Secondary 1938, 9 (November,pp. 1938), pp. 316-7. Program," Curri- 12-13. 116.115.114.113. ibid.MaryCentral Gibson HighHigh School,Hundley,School, TheHandbook, The Bulletin, Dunbar 1926, all Story: issues pp. 1870-1955 43-4. fromPress, 1925-1938. 1965), (New p. York: 66; Thomas Vantage Sowell, "Black Excellence: A History of Dunbar 86.85.88.87. NorthThirty DistrictDenver HighSchools, Post,of School, Columbia, p.October 210. "Master Report13, Schedule,"1954, of Boardp. 25. "history1938-44, of Education, of mimeo; East High1921'922 School," 1948, pp. 112-3. East High School, (Washing- 117. For background on the concept of the TalentedW.descriptionHigh," Tenth, E. B. The see Dubois, PublicSowellof its "TalentedcultivationInterest article for(Spring, Tenth," at Dunbar 1974). in Negro prior Problemsto 1954; also(no editorsee essay given) by 91.90.89. ReportWho'sReport Whoof of Board Board in America, of of Education, Education, 1936-1937, 1921-1922, 1929-1930,ton,p. 19 D.C.:230, p. Government 137. p. 71; Report Printing of Office, 1922), pp. 96, 97, (Chicago: Marquis Co., 1937), 103. Board of 118. Dunbar High School, Crimson and Black Handbook,Work,"(New(Amherst:47-8, York: 1930, 1924-1925, 70, UniversityJames in81. Herbert Pottpp. of11, Co.,Aptheker Massachusetts 15, 1903), (ed.) pp. ThePress,33-75; Education 1973), and his pp. of "Education 61-82. Black People and 93.92. Report onof SurveyBoard ofof Education,the Public School 1910-1911,thepp.Education, System Bureau106-8. p. of 35. theof "School Efficiency,District Achievements of Columbia1928 (Washington: in Twenty Government Years," JunePrinting 30, Office, 1941, by 121.120.119. DunbarSeeReport Eastern ofHigh the High School, Board School, ofThe Education, DunbarThe Easterner, News 1919-1920, Reel, February,arySchool, April 28,pp. 1921, 23, 1932,372-3;Liber 1942, pp. noAnni, Dunbar 8-21.pagep. 2.1929-1930 given High in student(student newspaper. yearbook); Dunbar Observer, Janu- 9695.94. Bureau Reportibid., pp. ofof Efficiency401-3.Board of Education, Survey, 1928, 1929-1930, p.the 69.1928), District p. pp.107; of 50-5; Columbia,Strayer, George p. 1949,444. Strayer, p. 388. Report of a Survey of the Public Schools of 100.101. Bureau Report99.98.97. ibid., of ofEfficiency p.pp.Board 441.70; 438-9. Strayer, of Survey, Education, pp. 1928, 439-41. 1929-1930, p. 94. pp. 79-80. 123 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 124 At just about the same time Helmick wrote her superintendent, Time Rural and Urban Schools, 1920-1940 I 113 3 "predominatelygreaterPronouncingExecutivemagazine New Secretarycarried York,that a progressivepublic onChicago, of its theschool cover Progressive educationand affair" theLos portrait Angeles," even had Education "strongholds"transforming" of theFrederick Associationmovement in themajorL. suburbsRedefer, was (PEA). school now of Rural and Urban theDetroit.2systemsmovement changes such inquiteas schoolsDenver, differently thatSan hadFrancisco, than occurred Time. LosJohn as Angeles, a Dewey, result New of however, the York progressive City,writing and shortly before his death in 1952, viewed Schools, 1920 1940 humanizedbeing,classroom.has been and in the Therebringingand personal democratized. is a about greater relations a significantawareness But between the ofsuccesschange teacherstheThe needs in in most the andthese of life widespreadstudentsthe respects conditions growing have isand human asinbeen marked yetthe success of the progressive movement sincesuperintendentA Hillsdale attending County ain summer 1939 (Michigan) of session the changes teacheron a scholarship she in hada one-room initiated from the schoolin herW. K.classroom wrote Kellogg her ofthelimited; beforeintellectualwhichthe foundations method, it theis largely progressive ofof the educationatmospheric; waseducational themovement byestablished it fearinstitution. hasn't beganand yet repressionphysical,norm really Thehave, forolder penetrated generally the gross educational manifestations andspeaking, social permeated system and been School.Foundation. Leona Helmick reported whatwere she called had bydone a 'tap' at Grubby (Children Knoll turn in theirSchool seats), began'tap' (children one September rise from morning. Enrollment was taken. Classes enterpriseeliminated....therein various is farin modified whichmoreThe fundamental tc..Ik the forms. teachers about itauthoritarianism andthan students the doing participateThere of of it. the Tois old be democratically, educationsure, many persists teachers, but a great deal of talk about education being a cooperative dismissedwereoccurred).theirExact seats),called assignments atThis four(toand same recite o'clock....'tap' werecall to(children bell thegiven We hadteacner) didin called passall art subjects, workand toclasses front by once anmuchfor of average afourteen roomweek hurrying, of forwhere years twenty-five enjoyment school beforerecitation classesthis. wasand partsystem....intoparticularly sharingof teachers within the inthem kindergarten the to needs an extent and and impossibleconcerns the elementary of andIn those theinconceivable schools, secondary whom take they schools,under the teach....3 children the old ... however, there isn't much sharing on the pupilsreadandtraining.... sit and assist with talk slowertheir as the teacher ones need near mayin a them. largebe. Much Thiscircle eliminatesof at the Nowthe studying front the walking littleof theis bell donearound. room. is here. no HereWhen longer Quick they the used. The children come in large groups evendifficulties one Hillsdale of determining County theclassroom. extent to To whichTime, what progressive extentLeona these Helmick's theory ideas enteredturnedreport, and Dewey's reflections suggest the totheirgroup understandhis scats ownis finished with ability and some another and others drill speed. group andsoon blackboard forget,comes. weArithmetic work. studyInstead Each birds is privatelyone ofand learningworking write worked stories accordinga lot out of about atrules in grammar that many of them never warsupRURAL in isrural one andMICHIGANof a urban number classrooms of CLASSROOMS questions in the that two this decades chapter betweenwill try to the answer. world didonpoems,them. travel, a good We stories, transportation,publish unit onand a Michigan. bi-monthly articles.... special paper. studies In of this productsWe the still children andfollow places. volunteer the textbook Last originalyear in we Geography although we enrich it with units "giveBetweenthreeHillsdale teachersyear 1936was project oneand of 1939,administratorsaimed seven the at rural W. improving K.Michigan a Kelloggclearer rural counties understandingFoundation life through that provided participated of thethe schools. philoso-funds in to a 112 I have learned to think of the needs of the pupils.' .t4 4.r) phy, psychology, and procedures involved in the newer concepts of 126 education."114 / Through college extensionProgressivism courses, weekend and Classroom gatherings Practice, 1890-1940at the Category Rural and Urban Schools,Number 1920-1940 of Teachers / I IS Percentage expectedFoundation'sknowledge to carry camps,to use back as and means to special their for one-room summerimproving collegeschoolhousesIn rural these courseseducation.; seven new teacherscounties skills werethereand were over 1,300 teachers working in Provisioning supplies,Teachersmade in equipmentreport instruction, seeking to satisfycurriculum, out books, changes and other 43 23 orteachersbeyondone-room summer the who schoolhouses. sessions,high attended school wrote Kellogg diploma. Their to Henry Foundation-sponsoredaverage In a J. remarkable Otto, level consultant of schooling document, courses, to the was 193* Foundation,workshops, two of yearsthese Activity Method Teacherspartsprojects, of the report program.and integrationusing method, of two describing or more , 42 describinganproceduresproblems obvious, "the which whichand changes almost had were arisen embarassing, inused classroom into connectionmeet absence these teachingThe problems."5accountswith of any ... these change ranged changes, whatsoever. from and sheer the In ecstasy over rejuvenated teaching to the administrative Extracurricular ActivitiesTeacherssubjects.Mothers' report Club. initiating 4H, etc.). clubs (hot lunch, 8053 28 constructedprogressiveactivities,order to assemble I groupededucationthe following athe coherentliterature reported table. onportrait practices appropriate of into these classroomcategories rural teachers' techniquesextracted class from and ChangingMaking Report Curriculum Cards RelevantuponTeachersbasic child's subjects;(excluding report emotional using does a development notcard use that letters focuses and AF 25 13 Table 3.1 Reports from 190 One-Room SchoolCategory Teachers in MichiganParticipated Who in Kellogg-Fut.ded Activities Number of Teachers Percentage activity method) events,Teachersinstruction, examples report etc. use from of dailyfield trips,life in current 77 40 Physical Changes in Roomb.a. Remove/modifyMake room home-like, student (e.g. desks curtains. 3218 17 curriculumincluding the more use ofclosely projects to theto correlate lives of Substantialchildrendifferent Fewer numbers of teachers reported the use of subjects and efforts to tie teachersactivity reported methods, d.c. Did at least two of above sofa,work,Create tables, etc. centers etc.) for students to read, 3219 1017 9 spaceaalteredotherelsewhere. changes reportpattern cards,in resemblinghow increased they grouped teacher pupil children, participation, selection of classroom practices modified the daily schedule, and rearranged class ScheduleGrouping ChangesChanges individualizingsmallTeachers groups report determined instruction,combining by classes.etc. ability. using 40 21 senseonesconveyed. of define how Themanya teacher table teachers asbelow progressive. employed suggests SincetheoneNo breadth or criteriathese more figuresof yet exist summarize for determining what individual how many Aware of all the problems inherent in teachers reported,teachers'of activitiesnothese activities. practices and which is Increased Pupil ParticipationweeklyTeachersgrouping.practice, schedule report different any aimed change subject, at introducing in or daily modified or a new 37 19 numberdevelopingallyrearrangement included of progressivesuch numerouscriteria, of classroom techniques I constructed teacher space. teachersbehaviors Notionstwo in reportedorder (grouping to analyze they of progressive practice gener- practices, student used and anythe data: the classTeachersrunning with report studentsclubs. change electing leading in officers. governancediscussion. of 43 (Continued) 23 activities,classroom.expressedlinkage pupilbetween and participation, sought use of after classroom arrangementfundamental space of andin space,building furniture etc.) a was a student-centered Also the tight commonly ' Because 3 of theanalyses. teachers sere listed as anonymous. I have used 190 reports in all of the BEST COPY AVAILABLE two techniques; one-quarter used four orAlmost more half of these Michigan one-room teachers practices. Depending upon reported using only 128 116 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Rural and Urban Schools, 1920 -19401 Categories Reported Number of Table 3.2 Summary of Teacher Activities Number ofTeachers Percentage communitysivepersonala room, teachers.' settingtriumphs or indifferent up and, a hot-lunch in superintendent, some instances,program considered inviewed the face themselves suchof a hostile changes as progres- parent as 0321 34365811 30.018.019.014.06.0 However,superiors,who were thenonethelessisolated majority from foundintroduced one it another difficult some Finally,and to new install received practices the more data little than into make support twotheir unmistakably progres- rooms. from clear that some rural teachers 48765 27 239 5.01.01.5 RURALsive techniques CLASSROOMS over a three ACROSS year period. THE NATION 1110 9 190 0 1(10.0 0.0 .5 bothevidencecountry?Was newlysouthwestern Yesthat consolidated andprogressive no. Michigan The and methods"yes" one-room a halfmicrocosm appeared of buildings the answer ofin acrossruralindividual comes schoolsthe country.from rural across abundantschools, Highly the progressivehowwhowhere much used bolted-down weight 4approaches, or more an observer desksnew particularly techniques, were gives common, to inrearrangment 2 outthese of of theone-room3 made 51 of teachers spacesome schoolhouses aschange (27 a sign percent) in the of sionalpublicizedMissouri;CollinsHarvey's journals effortsexperimental work Fannie throughout inat developingtheDunn's rural Porter worktheschools School the1920s at projectgarneredthe inand Quaker Kirksville, methodearly national Grove 1930s: in Missouri;limelight McDonald School Marie in inEllsworth Turner profes-County, Warren teachersofroom physicalskids; (e.g. whoplaced createdchange reported curtains spacein the5 or onfor room. more windows, learning new centers;practices,installedSuch unbolted tables,87 data percent have sofa, had obviousetc.). made Of limits. thesome 24 The teachers are an atypical sample, desks and put them weretechniquesCounty,Association's collected New into Jersey.8 CommitteeBlackin a survey and whiteon conducted Experimental rural Thereschools. by Schoolsthe were SomeProgressive many in of 1937. these less TheEducation publicizedinstances Commit- efforts to introduce progressive assessmenteffortstoonly reportsattend 15 percentto orare. please ofsought selective,practice. of totaldonors out staff Foundation-supported Alack ornumber in independentsupervisors 7 countries, of researchers and verification,rather these courses. thanhave were -andofferunderscoredMoreover, either often a recruited suggest the realistic self- areasandreplied;tee sent Californiasuperintendents into 44letters school-widecame reportedto fromover in public300 Connecticut, curriculumprograms, schools schools. andrevision,activity New Of districts these, York, programs,integration ruralin North 43 teachers, states. andCarolina, of various other Seventy-eight supervisors, Arizona,student- content glimpsetheseirresistiblereformers,practice. limits, of Throughhowinflation hooks,there progressive are andsuchof someteacher other varied conceptsdecided teachers, estimates filters strengthsgetas classroom professorsofselected their to innovativeness. practiceandthe of education,data.put intochanged They classroom foundation Despiteyield uneven- a centeredVermont.andmade their when approaches.`' limited they leisuretried different time. Consider methods MaryEven at great Stapleton less expense well fromknown to Cuttingsville, their are. salaries the decisions individual teachers quietly progressivismly whenindividuallyamong necessary. teachers. appear.°one period Second,In the a lastday differing twoon arithmetic years, viewsAlice she problems,among said, Dean this teachers in helping wasCalhoun "theregarding one biggestCounty,another for example, let students work suggestedstressesMy superintendent individual my reading instructional told some me aboutbooks.... materials the Winnetka matchedDuringIn the tomethod differencesfall the of fall (an1932, and approach in Iwinter pupils)had an of that enrollmentand 1932-33, Iof did about a great 20 pupilsdeal of in research all the grades. work, (8.) student'schangeOtherCalhoun inteachers personal, teaching County institutin"&4ch family, teacher,that I andhave reported school changesundertaken." information her as newa science Or system Leslieas center,the of soleEngle, recording adding innovation. another tables each to wordsandtoplacement in know theinto springbefore units and ability.theyIof developed 25 study orThis 30 them method wordsthe andtechnic testseachallows the(sic) according them children in spelling....to concentrate toon (students')words I divided we on wantthP grade wordsthe them 118 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940know.they miss in the test, rather than wasting time studying words they already instructroom, i.e. in 30all pupilssubject scattered areas for across each grade.8 grades t2 with the teacher required to Rural and Urban Schools, 1920-19401119 diagnosticeachstatearithmetic withcourses 3 thetests or of 4next studycoveringsub-units. fall.... and each dividedIThe collected nextdetail.... the problem allyear's Thisof my workwas plan textbooks the of in each developmentspelling gradetogether proved of with aso set successfulmy that I decided to try to develop into 8 units, of wrote,andthesive flintlock educators,"rhetoric "have rifleand been a wisdomand U.S. traveling the Bureau woodenlocated the of length theplow. Education one-room and"DevotedFew breadth specialist schoolwriters reformers, of somewhere atthe in this ruralland philosophers, time preachingeducation between sang the praises of the rural school. Progres- perhapsobtainedpracticebooks, the some pasted material. most tests importantthem fromPrinted on Winnetka. cardboard job drill was pads toI andcut supplyin arithmeticout placed examplestheI foundchildrenthem and anditin English helpful withmy problems files. self-instructive have to exchangeThe frombeen last oldfound and tests with other teachers. For a small sum I childrenone-teachertionthe inefficiency cut intoa decade schools the of numbers thelater. in little1917, Stil!, ofold the such somered number schoolhouse."schools. states fell containedto From 153,000 Preaching an estimatedmanyenrolling and one-teacher consolida-4,000,000 195,000 hadhelpful....speed....no begun repeating to realize of grades,the objectives it was of up this to instructioneachBy to theprogress and end since of atthe there year would I had fewerbe failures than ever before. The children his own rate of inpercentone-roomschools. these ofschools.13 In theschools. South teachers Dakota, Half in of Iowa, for the example, teachersMontana, fourin Nebraska,What North out didof Dakota five andteachers teachersVermont did anddo taughtall workedover day 40in in these isolated yet densely packed contribution....ansocial was:opportunity studies where program...can Thefor I children getquestion the materials from that confrontedthe to first construct Theto methe activity these aseighth I workedactivities? side of out the The myinstruction units can be worked out effectively in the For example, an activity dealing with Indian life is grades to make a question visitedreporting550rooms? one-room parentsIn that the schclltheymid-1920s, (78%), advised teachers provided a the Teachersin 24school drinking states. College board Verne water on graduate N1cGuffey classroom (74%), student oversaw found needs surveyed teachers (78%),school whichstudies theof rural rural schooling Michigan since data 1920. can he TheyThewas compared answered"no" provide half to bya of backdrop determineappealing the answer againstto what the comes children.... from numerous state and local toilets (83%), and regulated heat and ventilation (88%). Instructionally,75%82%73% kepttaughtpresented several all subjectssubject groups matterin busy 8 grades inwhile short one periods recited hollows,teachingdatedplantation, schoolconditions rickety and merely ashacks andnewly skimclassroom on plastered athe scrub varied practices room brush surfaceRural in were half-acre a recently schools ofelsewhere rural on built schools.were a inMississippi Iowa the diverse. nation.In consoli- 1920, One-room schools in West Virginia one-roomrural schools schools. in 1920. Median Reports age of came teachers fromLook (of62 at whompercent teaching 76 of practices percentthe teachers66% were in 18planned in Pennsylvania and executed counties work withwith little mainly or no supervision" teachers,2,5(X)is,almostnearby ones people.half located one-roomvillage of allFor in childrenschools the thebuildings.' most "open andenrolled part, country," Iones rural in consolidated willschools and refer villages attended to schoolsthrough but rural notwith the schools, places oneclosing or over twothat of female)tainedreportingaveragedlacked was studentsa high 23.enrollments26 Mostin school spreadthe began 18 diploma overco teaching .nties eight35 orstudents. with anygrades.I5at 19. formalabout Almost Remember one-quarter teacher four out thattraining. of eachof five the teachersClassclass teachers size con- Theyequipment,yearmostly were (1920) female. andyoung for isolated. Turnover one-teacher(median Teachers was age high;schools, 21-23), had wages little depending hadMore wereeducation little oftenlow. experience,on Frombeyondthan not$300 high these and to school. $800 werebuildings per were old, furnished with antique the state, wages ran averaged30staggertimes or amore dayteachers 51/2 theyrecitations hours questionedtoday. (330 aOne day. minutes), students out The of medianfour apartin each Whenteachers from was grade teachers recess26. said within Since theyand say the the lunch,hadhow class, school conducted many teachers figures day recitations they had, that is, how many $500double-seatthefrom toroom 20$700 to towering 60less desks. students for jobsTheover of majorin thevarious village seven difficulty ages. and year town Fifteen oldswas schools. whohaving year sat 131olds Classmany in satthe sizes gradesin front the ranged back rowin one of mendedEvenorreporting more the 23students, State30 daily or Departmentmore recitations. dismissed recitations of them,AllEducation's met of dailymetthis suggestswith for formal at another least coursethe 10 rugged group, minutes of study scheduleand with recom- so on. 132.111 one a 120 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Master's thesis. For a school with 24 pupils in School Number Three, Rural and Urban Schools, 1920-1940 I 121 self-reports."'teacherState1922. in aUniversity, one-room Brim examined schoolled a survey followed,the published team accordingShortly after the Pennsylvania study, Orville curriculum,thatBrim, evaluated professor surveyed Texas ruralcounty superin- to both expectations and schools in at Ohio SchoolafternoonaboutNorway 15 Number District, minutes with 2 ThreeTrail! recesses each inCounty, between the and Belmont thean 9:15 hourteacher District in for theheld lunch. morninghad 22 recitations,13 In students.the and 4:00 averaging in the same county, Twenty- tenuentselsewheredescribeunusual and amongclassrooms in teachers the researcherscountry, onin 230 contained ruralthen up to eight how the curriculum was used, andschools. now, trained These one-teachera set of observers schools, as grades. Texas teachers, and, in a step likelow to forCourseschoolone 22recitations, recitations, day,of Study were also was held.about averaging being For15 implemented minutesa Cassabout County each,the same the for schoolteacher's time,19 students withinwhere thethe same length daily program called although in this new Rural schoolswages,theirdescribed. counteri)arts and the short class in other period states of l7 faced similar sized classes. In 2 to 10 minutes, 24 timeshad limited per day, education, was received these one- and two-teacher lemsgrammarcase theof over teacherlevels 3,200 rather had rural groupedthan teachers by grades.2° students in over 20byOne states.primary, researcher All intermediate,of thesummarized studies and 11 studies identifying instructional prob-were and his colleagues summarized What did teachers do in theseDrill teacher practices: brief episodes, called recitations?34% Brim categorylistdisclosedbasedto: the upon diverse ofby inadequateteacherthese problems investigations reports time. described of Teachers their in striking. byproblems. teachers. complained The The researcher that they distilled lacked into time Heading that list was the similarity in problems a MeaningFormalConstructionEnjoymentDiscussion textbook of text of work sought vitalrecitation questions 27%27% 4%4%5% allowhelpprepare individual for plans pupil for activitiesstudents every subject for all grades TheThecurrent textbookgiven investigators events to studentswas and the found children'sprimary (found that source experiencevirtually no special in 3% of classes).18 of the lesson (88%) with little use(8%), according to Brim's team. work or projects were of one-roommost"There frequent is ungraded general and most agreementtype difficult of organization.... in problems these studies,"Yet of ,,2 ruralingenuity sheteachers and arepersistence due to the in the face of these obstacles turned concluded, "that the up, follows: Brim'schildrenIn practically final upon summary someall the facts work of they observed,what are supposedhe to the teacher is concernedand in drillinghis team saw in recitations know or in asking questions that the whatforwithsuggesting seatwork, whatshe did. they that for had.teachers, example, On the likeStella most Lucien other of people,Lewistown, did theMontana best they described could ever-present problem of insufficient materials attemptcallinterestarbitrarilygrip for the textbookis ormadepupils. insight.assigns toanswers. They enrich Thethe add nextclass aOccasions lessonis returned to little to the facts of thechild's lesson.... life Thewith new interests in the text without anyfor effort thinking to develop are few. Little, almost no, its seat to memorize the text for the Work does not teacher then cost.Wehouse,Many then We ofa bubblehave ihesekeep seat themlessons pipe, work inetc. direct boxeswhich I cut theandout child suchuse themtolessons makeI obtain and some one article, copy ofsuch Laidlaw's as may be used over and over without additionalSilent Reading Seat year after year. paste them on cardboard. Work for each grade. a bird This,all Brim parts concludes, of the state.19 is the picture occasionalnext recitation. admonitions Here they from work the teacherblindly toor study in "70 to 85 percent of the schools" half-heartedly or idly sit, with their lessons. in Teacherstudents Ruth to be Cederburg neat. of Firth, Idaho wrote how she I tacked a strong string across the front of the room; on this I fastened a got primary subjectsdailyexercises,teacher programs to schools a lunch few the students fromand staccato recess. one-room series In North ofIn Dakota, other states throughout the 1920s 133 scattered over the grades produced in one- schools were collectedbrief recitations in 1928 for bracketed a by openingand 1930s the rigors of teaching to cite an instance, actual all day.aisleballoondesks Itor were was indeskin front frontexamined.not the longof ofballoon each that before If row row was ofevery remained desks.taken balloon downEach eveningremainedand remained before up.2.1 dismissal,down the aisles and every child in a row had tidy desks and clean aisles the up. But if a single child had an untidy following134 122NoneRURAL / Progressivism of these BLACK and studies SCHOOLS mention specifically Clas Aroma Practice, 1890-1940 black rural schools. Plagued by andmanner' the children repeated the line. SheJohnson completed also offered the lesson a portrait in that of a one-teacher°t school that, in his Rum! and Urban Schools, 1920-19401123 pupilsrials,teacherstheboard same faced of andwith workingdifferent the superintendent little same conditionsagesformal structural spread education, to describedcover problemsover eightall teaching subjects, before, untrained,that affectedgrades, poorly mandates how paid they from taught: school with andfew insufficient books and mate-time to do theweekclearedjudgment, mangerstate." before plot "standsThe andof Christmas. groundBrooks the in Christ sharp in School, OnEast child.contrast a tableFeliciano a Thetiny into work thewhite-washedthe Parish, roommass table received wasof in one-teacher thea frame class-built reara team buildingand schoolsvisitor thescene book on the ofin a ofeverything. informedproblemsLouisiana observers inblack their schools. visits of rural to His 132 schools team onefound in otherFisk Universitystates. sociologist Charles Johnson and two-teacher schools familiar tc the same dreary catalogue of directed the 1924 survey A typical situation in anotherindividuallyclothshelves while along group thelabeled the stood shelves side for ofat thethein the roomstudents.work rear were table of The thecovered makingAs room one in wascontained "favors"brightgroup spotless. redof with childrenwaterand yellowscissors, glasses sat oil in their seats making gifts for a party, theseinaccording workersa schools, Delta toparishsaw representingJohnson, two in smalleastern was privies 65captured Louisiana. percent surrounded ofApproaching by the church in which in a description of the Shelton Schoolthe school was housed, the fieldall black schools in the state,thick Delta mud next to the workedandpaper,production giving and on paste.advice a andfarm The actual when had teacher plants.shownasked. moved Thepictures class fromThe ofhad group classthe gone variousto had throughgroup just stagesquietly completedthe process of listening cotton a from Imit on cotton. The teacher who had onefrontsmallmuchoverweight another entrance. stoveshifting on teacherin Insidelong aroundthe backwooden talk.the to school of allowBecause the benches, room. students60 students No to get spanning of the chill in the morning air, there was fidgetingventilation while they in listenedthe room to stirred an the closer to warm areas near the 7 grades sat next to occasions,seedplant,relatedappropriate. to clothes and words. the in visitor In sixthwith In the second was andallfirst the told,seventh grade and grades, all third she of grades the grades,usedusing children theyflash arithmetic pupils wrote cardsparticipated made shortmarked and sentences stories.reading in COTI'ON discussion. On aboutwhere many andthe andairatOne except walls.the of rear the for Smudged lamps ofthe the draughts hungroom, darkly from thata withwashstand ancame equallysmoke, through the stooddark with ceiling. a cracked Just pitcher.above the The pulpit, thewalls many held cracks kerosene in the lamps.floor reported,classEven withthrough all of the the subjects grades and in subjectsan orderlyThe to cover,Brooks manner, the School teacherthe teamwas moved an worker exception. the Of 100 teachers,25 75 had never lookedeachroomno pupilbooks;was at one crowded. saying, we observer don't "It's have and got anything." said:to do "We you The don'tall day,visitors have so no watched pencils; the teacher pass out two She looked back at the class and began be careful withhalf-sheets it." She of paper to we don't have ofdone teacherstionreportedLouisiana, a inunit school that thateither health, they includedgovernance said hadsewing, they donea project washadcooking, projects nonexistent: no or similarstudent andlisted life Indianactivity. governmentof at 132 home. life, one-roomThe Studentgardening, 25 at teachers all schools, participa- or products did who 115 not givingrestless out but assignments quiet students. in history read this and tell me what you read whenTake I come Allpages right, 45 tofourth 50, seventhand fifth grade. grade, Sixth spelling. grade The and spelling, grade by grade, to the first word isback.... correspond.take pages 20 It to 30. Now OFPHOTOSrespond.' RURAL AND CLASSROOMS WRITTEN ACCOUNTS anymeanstennisthat'sexamination,Fred. instrument to No? write Well, ayou'dpeople. sometimesgame. ),.st Second,Fifth, sit andwe ninety, haveinstrumentsomethinglisten. yes counting You'll and just from youone to like to play? Come on, talk up. Do you have a speller, nothat's examination. Fourth, have to do without. Third, use. Do youninety. know All right, ernThismicrocosmmethodsHillsdale Michigan coarse-grained of County teaching.of who the teacherresthad picture I ofhadreceived theLeona ofasked country. black Helmick sonicwhether and Criss-crossing formal white andthese her exposureruralone-teacher colleagues theschools country, to schools progressiveinbegan southwest- a number werewith a moved to reading for the lower grades.Thethat's She teacher, your read spelling. a singlewalking Use around them in the sentences. room with a 135 switch in her hand, then line from a book coralnumerousof state reefs and in,l-ncesin national a vast ofocean studies progressive of suggestedteacher-centered practices yes and but paste no they answers. seemed There to be were tiny 136 of instructs -0 A the124/Progressivism190 country. rural Michigan (See and ClassroomFigures teachers) Practice,3.1 and I collected1890-1940 3.2.)The Does from final this 32data data states that converge inI offer every are with region 103 or classroom of descriptions (excluding the Percent 100 8090 Jsi Mixed StudentTeacherinstruction -centered-centered contradictin the studies the diverse of rural studies schools already described reviewed? Whileabove thethey, 103 nonetheless, photos and displaywritten aaccounts differ from the sources used 6070 56 ) Number of classes60 instruction centers;mostregisterrough falling symmetry strongly; they 25% show student-centeredwithor upless. that in Veryless data. thanfew Teacher-centered practices of10 these percent scale103 of teachersno thepatterns higher elementary tried thanof instructionprojects 40% school with or 4050 37 50 44 classrooms.rural classrooms Progressive nationally practices, but aswere defined probablyOne in curiousthese a minority. categories, note is the existed high percentage in of group instruction and class 2030 16 12 12 13 activitiesmixindividualblend of of student-centeredin large thestudents; mixed and small almost pattern and group halfteacher-centered of teaching.ofinstruction the classrooms Half accompanied approaches of thehad teachersactivities occurred. by work used where Com- with a a 10 0 Arrangement C ass , Instruction Group Classroom Talk Student Classroom example,schools.factorsparedthe toteachers' within the Withteachers other thestudents desk, settings, wouldrural leaving spreadclassroom generally these the amongpercentages call restunlike upon severalof anythe aare few class faced gradeshigh students toandby inwork teachers mayone to reciteonstemroom, differentin fromnear city for Figure 3.1 60% of all desks were stationary. Patterns(76) of Instruction in Rural Elementary Classrooms, 1920-1940 ( 71) (68) Movement (50) Activities (67) gradedexplainworkingassigned urban whyin tasks groups schools.practices until and they helping in wereungraded one called another rural to the inschools one-room recitation varied schools, bench. from then,Students those may in Percent 100 90 MixedTeacherinstruction -centered themixedsimilar three cities. to, A butlater not generation identical ofwith, reformersThe configurations dominant interested patterns that in constructing surfaced of instruction in were teacher-centered and 7080 ( 0 ) Number of classesStudentinstruction -centered 87 settings.povertystudent-centeredrote instruction, wagesRural one-roomof classroomsthe poorly 1920s teachers trained and would 1930s usedteachers, look andmixed beyond see inadequate forms embryonic the of staccato grouping school child-centered recitations, rooms, because and 5060 co 50 43 57 Tostudents latter-day spread reformers across eight this grades became required individual varying instruction. amounts of attention.Children 4030 25 32 rye,-2 studentshelped"cross-age one recite another tutoring." at her withdesk. The assignedThis content helping oflessons the behavior curriculum while would the would teacher come draw to listened be from labeled ruralto 20 25 25 25 47 14 13 20 wastrusteeadmire.concerns exactly was The and someone's thefamily-like daily climate life, uncle athatatmosphere linkage orreformers the that teacher of subsequent sought.the a schoolhouse,cousin to createschool of a childdecades reformers where in the alater school wouldclass, for 10 0 Arrangement Class * Instruction Group Classroom Talk MovementStudent Classroom largehewn, urban, atheoretical graded schools. versions of some progressiveSuch classroom practices. conditions Indeed, somein rural communities did create rough- 137 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Figure 3.2 15% of all desks were stationery. (13)Patterns of Instruction in Rural High School Classrooms' 1,9,2(.1.-1940. (16) (16) 138 (14) Activities (14) 126teaching / Progressivism approaches and Classroom grew Practice, naturally 1890-1940 from the classroom as a workplace. Rural and Urban Schools, 1920-1940 I 127 untrainedchildren,timehouses,Overwhelming schooling, however, and and the inexperienced many instruction ways were of that traditionalthese theirin teachers naturalthose teachers parent basic practicesconstructed had attitudesskills handled in that mostclassrooms that they classes; one-room reinforced had wheremoreover,learned school- part- fre- as enforcedstudentquentrealities and responses by andbrief a measuredbirch recitations into sapling what them drawncould discipline. against befrom recaptured their inadequate Few enthusiasm reformers by roteall textbooks for recalledofselected which narrowed theseitems were in One-RoomCrossville,(Farm Security Tennessee,School, c. 1935 PREVALENTtheRURAL one-room AND school. TEACHING URBAN PRACTICES: Administration,Congress). Library of I- f centurySosetsinterwarNow far theI andIhave turnstage period. between triedto for teaching A a to looksummaryWorld reconstruct at practices Warschools of Ithe and teaching beyond similaritiesthat II in were threethe practices prevalentthree and cities differencescities andat thenationally Irural have turn that schools. described of I inthefound the changes,summaryin both rural ifis any,contrasted and had urban occurred with schools teaching in played classrooms practices againstIn examining by in a Worldnational1900 to evidenceWar determinebackdrop. II. of whatwhat This teachers did in their classrooms, I will (FarmOne-RoomWhite SecurityPlains, School, Georgia, 1941 tionsratechange:concentrateappropriate subjects, on formalgroup on and nowinstruction, recitation, those lack to summarize teachingof student wholeclassroom activitiesgroup activitythe activities,data instruction, or thatdrawn movement wereand from thestudent clearly teaching classroomin the movement targets class. of descrip-sepa- Itfor inis Administration,Congress). Library of theteaching four settings. the entire (See class Figures as a unit, 3.3 towhile 3.6.) a student-centeredRecall that the teacher-centered pattern referred pattern for group instruction included ; patternto grouproomsfromdividing describedteaching teachingin theDenver class theandteachers and intowhole the New highestsmall who class York usedgroups amountsto City independent varied and showed of individualgrouping work the work. in least smalltechniques work. Elementary amount groups. The rangingmixedof In class-whole these 4 cityshowedteacherspercentages high schoolsa infrequently slightly for ruralthe higher favored classroomsdivided percentage groupingtheir were classes than lower. was their into the Similarly,urban groups entire cousins while class, urban inrural althoughhighusing teachers school small Grade,Questa, 1943 New Mexico, First (Office of War groups for instruction, although the numberWhat of teachers emerges is in small. these graphs are divergent patterns in grouping -1 0 r BEST COPY AVAILABLE Congress).Information, Library of 1 4 0 1281 Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Rural and Urban Schools, 1920-1946 1129 -L adt itk 1 Breathitt County, Kentucky, Big Rock School, 1940 (Farm Security Gee's Bend, Alabama, First Grade, 1939 (Farm Security Administration, Library Administration, Library of Congress). of Congress). 6, .1,.. via g. t"gli tsc. ..1.). .., hr ..., -., " '.4-.,': :1-:.. - WilliamsCongress). County, North Dakota, 1937 141 (Farm Security Administration, Library of BEST COPY AVAILIBLE GrundyLibrary County, of Congress). County, Iowa, One-Room School, 1939 142 -elite* (Farm Security Administration, HIGH SCHOOLS ELEMENTARY HIGH SCHOOLS ELEMENTARY Washington,77MMAXIM D.C. (22) 14 E, 9 E 101011Ma WashIngton,D.C.25 (16 ) ..:17.::1 31 44 DEl MixedTeacher - centered Washington, D.C. (20) 63 bXXXXXXVI 20 t= 15a NakMM2M 38 38Washington, D.C. (13) 23 Qla Mixed Teachercentered - 691MEMINZEN 16at5 M2223 32 2( ) Number of classescenteredStudent- .\\\\\\\ 3MEI 8 33 59 (El Student ) Number of classescentered :2 \\\.\\\\\\`.;"\\\*\.;New York City (55) 13 M 9 New York City (93) ----5511MEER 32 F77,77:7 M2E222ANew York 6City (61) Denver (76) 50 5E M222a 38 Denver (21) 37 50 DenverMTIONNEEM (74) 1315 ,M Ez Denver (16) 37 94 Figure 3.3 100 80 60 40 20 00 20 40 60 80Instructional 100Rural Percent Grouping Patterns in Four Sites, 1920-1940. (16) 2 5 r222 '2313 Rural (71) Figure 3.5 100 80 60 40 20 00 20 40 60 80 100Rural Percent (15)Student Movement Patterns in Four Sites, 1920-1940. 20 EM ..ZA\\\\\\ 19 Rural (67) HIGH SCHOOLS 58 ELEMENTARY Washington, D.C. (19) 32 10 V. M2M,.,...22;;;:WashIngton,D.C. j 25 37 (13) EjIs Mixed centeredTeacher- Percent 100 86 IVO Projects/ centers) NuriTherIn classrooms of classrooms New York City (19) 47 27 h.1.:7326 MEE222237771MN 1732 51 Ei Student - ) Number of classescentered 6080 ----761EGEN 38 em16 PO, New York City (47) 10 40 4020 33 41 41 -----511REENEDenver (74) 29 MEE=hXN_NVi 50 60 27Denver (10) 0 Washington, Denver D.C. New York Rural Rural ' Analysis of sources that produced this 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 Rural (14) 14 EEE M percentage showed that the20 activities 40 60 came 80 from 100 Percent Rural (50) came either from photographsAnalysis of from sources local that newspapers produced that this school percentage officials revealed had provided that project/center (or activities (15) (34) (89)City (National) (76) Michigan (80) Figurethen,newspaperphotographs 3.4 probably articles from overstates thatlocal described papersthe frequency that activities, school of student-centered mostly officials of the had project provided activities. variety. to reporters This percentage, or from 1 Class4 3 Activity Patterns in Four Sites, 1920-1940. BEST COPY AV4ILAail ,Fi urefrequencysuggested 3.6Mexico. toof colonial reporters)projects. America, or from building newspaper a boat, articles etc. specifically This on such projects. Use of Projects/Centers in Elementary Classrooms, 1-00.-1-940. percentage,I 4 4 then, probably overstates e.g., Indians, 132 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Rural and Urban Schools, 1920-1940/133 betweenexceptclasses;group instruction elementaryin teaching rural schools, inoccurredand small high in thegroups farschool lower more tookclassrooms grades placeUnder than substantiallythe "Class incidence Activities," more where recitation, discussion, project in high school than in elementary in the high school. of whole often,work, teacher'sithadstanding was become, the atattention. also their by very thedesks 1940s, familiar reciting, a quaint image a familiar custom of arm-waving imagePedagogical in urban in classrooms classrooms. pupils reformers, vying for Replacing decades fordivided the as they were among themselves on seatwork,patternonessurface. turned between Moreand up the teacher-centered in and usualhigh among school instructional city than class and elementary activities ruraltasks classrooms occurred, androoms. fewer similaremerges. patterns Otherwise, no clear student-centered it teachersrecitationaswhat a plus. classrooms that wasBut involved viewed far should more as students onebewas like, of sought ain probablynumber the in life classroom of ofsaw competing the the clPssroom. relaxation change. activities The Theyof formalismchosen informal sought, by mentaryteacher-andagain. New Moreand andYork high students student-centered classrooms school move teachers, about showing patterns.in except lower slightlyFor forthan "Student higherrural upper percentagesgrades, Movement," with the same configurations between Finally, theclassrooms, percentage appear of inDenver both ele- byreplicas,school,subjects,among the teacher otherand paintingjoint active things, inteacher-pupil a murals,involvementsubtle, small non-directive groupsand planning, dozensof workingstudents explicitof way. other inon Studiesclass topicslinks activitiesall tasks with thatof teaching suchlifejoined orchestrated beyondas different buildingpractice the elementaryclassrooms.inflatedYork City, due classrooms and Theyto the rural show sources thatMichigan general had used. project instructional classrooms, workThese ran patterns although graphs highest suggesting describe inDenver's Denver, frequencies the figure New extent in teaching behavior in almost 300 is ofbetween methods,Persistencethe Recitation the buttwo of of wars,the(1928) the Recitation."27 however,few was who premature didsuggest only and that aSome handful could Vivian investigators have countedThayer's been what retitledThe in Passing theythese "The saw. years looked at classroom teaching thestudentclassesthattween recitation, student-centered mobilityfor teacher instruction, textbook, theyand student? permitted.practices the activity activities There surfaced What method, is they about a smallin andstructured, how specific cooperativebody teachers ofteaching and evidence organized theplanning tactics degree their likebe- of describing reportedhaveHence,attachedCounting restricted in to events summarizinghas such no myself wordsthat special were assevento "child-centered,"virtuethose less different vulnerablestudies given studies thethat "progressive," variedto were ofinterpretation. classroom lessmeanings judgmental, and instruction, observers"modern." In short, and I answerswhatpreviouslyrecite teachers toanswers the didmemorized question. infrom their either classrooms content. a textbook, Thebetween familiar Inworkbook, thethe recitation,two pattern wars blackboard thatof for many offer example, work, someteacher orthe teacher asks questions; students etc.orstudentstheexamining stationary riskEven ofworking with onlymisjudging student these those together; hedges,desks, behaviors what students students ahad risk that occurred answeringof givingcould misinterpretation beinreports, teacher seenthe classroom: and leading questions; countedremains discussions, groups movable reducedbut it isof criptionbothbeenquestionsthe journalists,lamented decades of and lessons short throughoutthat professionals, in answers followed1908-1911 the from thelast anddocumented students publicationquarter reformers. onof what specificthe Romiettof othersnineteenth her subject studyI hadStevens's observed. century matter suggest trans- hasby In no cameWisconsinschoolsomewhat from classrooms reduced. inurban addition and in California,torural national superintendents, Illinois,reports between Indiana,Briefly, supervisors, 1922I Minnesota, examined and principals, 1940. studies Texas, Reports that andand investigated 1,625 elementary and high ledstudents,penetrationcause-effectdebates. discussions, instead This ofrelationshipthe reports,practicethe of the"socialized teacher, stagingtransformed formal ofcover recitation,"scenes the therecitation formal from subject novelsa recitation. technique softened.matter or plays, through Verbal Thethat panels, gradualstudent-hadexchanges andthe evidenceobserverscollegeand self-reports professors. collectedin some investigations frombyCarefully very teachers different designed and, formed methodsin instrumentsothers, theFrom basis fromhastily these of largewere thewritten7 studies study.28usedand impressionssmall, by of trained 1,625 rural classrooms, 3 points are clear: first, towardteacherbetweenanswers,rapid-fire butthe teacher followed,could formalquestions slipand recitation in easily studentsto turn students intoby where stillanother either who pivoted the a returnedburst quasi-conversation teacher145 onof teacher questionsthe delivered volley questions. asked withor a shiftvolley one byStudents back theword of country,format,entirealmostand urban, showsclass 300 and urbanelementary asgeneralnotable the and primary convergencereliance rural and classrooms.vehicle highupon with schools, the for the textbook instruction,Second, data in Idifferent found thatthe the patternik independently 4.4Stevens, questionanswersections of using of inand thethe 148 Rural and Urban Schools, 1920-19401135 theothers134practices ' twoProgressivism observed wars that in and entered decadesthe Classroom nation's some earlier Practice, classrooms.elementary seemed 1890-1940 classroomsundisturbed Third, the was incore the larger years than Projects,of progressive joint betweenthe core andWhatSUMMARY an conclusions analysis of can national I draw studies from a of study the yearsof urban between and rural the classrooms orstudentteacherof teachersreportsaspractices in many of and thatobservers high planning, others,appeared schools whoand small as in satfrom theyfar groupin fewer photographs. didclassrooms, inwork high simply school from did rooms. not appear as the lower grades, at least from the descriptions written by often SomeWars aboutcommonalities the extent emerge of the spreadfrom the of varied progressiveI. settings teaching and practices? A core of progressive teaching practices did penetrate types of data. atwo consider- World classroomsshowsyear farSurvey higher than of percentagesSecondarysuggested Education,above. of certain The progressive1929-1932,Yet congressionally evidence methods drawn mandated in from high principals' three and superintendents' reports, for example, produced a school activities;studiesincreasedanywhereable number I reviewed more levels near of student elementary ofathe majoritystudent number expression; participation schools,in of a classroomsschool increased but throughindistrict. the districts smallThis I examined so affected never reached groupcore work; of practices-project - and the projectofmassive instructionevery methods, threebody althoughofsuch information27 schoolspercent only inoffrom4 thepercentthe 8,600 countryschools reportedsecondary atsaid that that itstime. schools, usethey On "withused the about unusualthisone one formitem out suc- of withgroupings;room community wac increased unevenly through joiningimplemented field of trips; two andwithinor more and subject across classrooms for only more freedom to move around a use of varied classroom areas; more contacts a cess."ofthe course, schools Similarly, is checked saidwhat for they the off wordsphraseused the it spacemean "with"Individualized indicatingtounusual the people success." use. Instruction," reporting Here Part again, the 25of thepractice.percent4 percent problem, If a of systematicallyformalappearedportion organizational of thein moretried school tothan energyinstallday. one-fourth I estimate thesewas devoted varied of that the suchtoelements.classrooms implementing teaching Elsewhere, in practices these any district that practices. seldom little studentshandfultroublesomeprincipal of produced social would in studies reportingreport a few teachers theprojects was school the outthe asambiguity, ofsemester employinga faculty ifprevious ofnot this100 confusion, approach.in to a theschool survey, of Equally ofterms 3,500 the like as the'Thequitewould range number selective run of ofonehigher teachers outin whatif of certain adoptingfive they to practices tenchose this elementary to incorporate teachers. into The their core of practices wereprobably counted hovered since in teachers were classrooms.percentage subjects,thermore,(e.g.project Dalton method. changing curriculum method) Quite labels changes, oftenfrom and thisone content i.e. andanother revised other of conventional in phrases coursesschool were officials' ofsubjects, study, indistinguishable minds. mergingdid happen. Fur- of suchTurninginstructional as studentup less time,decisionfrequently and making what in elementary activities on what content toclassrooms2. choose. In academic subjects at the high school level to study, the allocation of wereeven other fewer practices progres- Theseandteaching positivealterations practice, acceptance often impulses got of entangledthose to be changes fashionable with bydescriptions those in joining who responded ofcurrent changes reforms, to in the jointanInsive a activity fewpracticespupilteacher high program, school modified planning classrooms, varied teacher-centered did groupings, exist. scattered Few flexibleinstruction andprogressive isolated, space in the arrangments, and exceptpractices for Denver, appeared interwar period. survey?'separatepointlater professor in a what study experimentalduring he did the for surge thepractices ofGeneral interestJ. high Wayne Education inschools activity Wrightstone, had programs, Board. undertaken NewHe made tried York in this to City school system evaluator and the Tracesandin recitationmost social highof child-centeredstudies. occurredschool classes.Some with practicesloosening more Course discussion, content couldof the he formalismchanged, student seen in increased student reports, and debates.generallyconnected in English with the stoneheabove,1930s had concluded from thecultivated Eight other Year factors.withthat Studyhighmajor Leaning school sponsored strides heavilyexperiments had by beenuponPEA, theacrosstakenand National a networkin the introducing nation, Survey, of contacts Wright- cited new ofthoseclassroom.subjectparticipation the schools school matter But in that thatdayremained classroomthe tried touched percentage out coretalk, upon the curriculum occasionalof student time allotted trips in the concernsor general or life education outside of for the a part to subjectsexcept for community, and correlationsubjectsinstructionin classroom and of school tocontent instruction the entiresubjects. into remainedclass." the But, high he pinnedschool noted, tothecurriculum, the specific recitation, center especially textbook, of gravity the and 147 theclassroom front facing space rows often of continued tablet armchairs to be arranged3. with the These reduced cores of practices in elementary same. Even with movable furniture, 148or portable desk-chairs. teacher's desk atand secondary classrooms136 /Progressivism became ,end Classroom hybrid Prac versions lice, 1890-1940 of pedagogical progressivism that substantivelywide implementation different from occurred those and classrooms whether wheresuch changes systematic, endured. district- Rural and Urban Schools, 1920-1940 I 137 teacher-centeredapproachesappearedin similar reformers progressivism,to (but dreamed were, nevertheless, withof ainstalling varyingconsiderable different strainsin schools. numberbeing from) of schools, A public school version of a Theseevident, forms existedof the cluster of theElementaryspread room, of thesedeciding and hybridsecondary what progressive was teachers to be practices,persisted learned,5. inremained teachingwhat manner, teacher-centered. from theand front under of The dominant pattern of instruction, allowing for the substantial involuntaryandconditions:progressivefurniture. content classesclassroommasstoWhy cover; ofparticular with students; teachers appeared 35 orteaching limited untrainedmore that hadstudents; spaceapproaches adaptedin andthe courses approaches;supplies, itselfwere oftoemb-aced rigorous an andstudy inhospitable with skills unselected,and others climatic telling,entirewhatofanswered, theseconditions. class. explaining, activities. Theread, majorThe and and primarywrote. daily questioning classroomSeatwork means students of oractivities grouping supervised while continued for the study instruction students waswith an a listened,was teacherextension the prideenthusiasmexistedrejected at the inis thesea minorityfor puzzle doing hybrids I of the teachers impossiblefor school who withhadofficials incorporatedfewEnough resourcesand ofteachers thethese and familiar practices toto rhetoric and symbolism of will return to in the last chapter. progressivism point withdrum up into recitation,groupsfurnituresomewhat. although provided with Teachers students most an optionpermitted teachers rising for continued fromteacher:,more theirmobility to liningRestrictions seatsrearrange within tothem speak, desks upthe on in eased.class. studentand rows. chairs MovableIn Formal movement short, into within the classroom loosened changesthetheirissuehybrids dream daily that as wereinstruction.drove only an anreformers improvement incomplete Yet the outside very replica for resemblancethe children publicof the isschoolsreal betweenan thing. important to the is beyond the scope of this study. What is evident is that condemnWhether these these butpractice separate and crosstheanother. classroom the formal climate boundaries softened that sufficiently kept them for at teachers arm's length and students from one to classroomsubstantialeffort.in school established repertoires. districtsnumbers whereorganizational of teachers top administrators did, machinery indeed,4. gave to modify carry formal it somewhat out, approval and persisted Where these cores of practice seemed to appear in strength were for the their wereclassroom,Even1900 substantialthough since instruction the there teachersnumbers were still in ofsuccessive tilted1940 new weretowardand veteran generationsnot teacher-centeredness. Lookingthe sameteachers backof as teachersthose in to these 1900 who enteringyears YetI taught can there whosee in the that some important changes occurred, in havehaddistrictsteachingits implementation.insufficient spread, where practices except teachersbooks did for Yetand not werecertain evenmaterials, penetrate isolated, in practices Denver fewer a possessedmajority progressivethatand wereNew of limited classrooms. alreadyYork, methods schooling, these indigneous seemed In new rural and to schoolsbywidelymodified professional at known, the their turn methodsusednorms. of theby The aincentury. minority varying narrow ofdegreesrange teachers,13y of that existing1940, andwere alternativesconsidered practice unapparent had respectableto instretched standard public teaching methods were available, outprogressiveto Dunn.multi-grade, of the persistence practice one roomalso and appeared dedicationschools, i.e.in of Thethose groupingtireless one unique effort individuals, schoolsto spread e.g. progressive approaches into rural schools that practices. Islands of that grew Fanny tooMichigan,practicesto fromencompass time-consuming, the was there conditions aindeed largerwere upsettingdozens limited.repertoire,they had of For totoother although existingface every teachers daily. Leona routines,the For whoimplementation Helmick every found or too Mary such infar Hillsdale, Stapletonremoved practicesof those in teachersFoundationI reportedteachersteacher. in offers didsouthwesternThrough in thealter a glimpsemid-1930s their extension Michigan,classroom of another used courses athatmethods, waystrategy, concentrated andto change according summersshaped practice. upon by toat the theirthecolleges, The dispersal individual reports, Kellogg some of but mightsuperintendenttechniquestime,Cuttingsville, scores arise frombecause of Vermont fellowor introducing principal, of teachers whothe high exploredhad changes kept priceto paytheir the andin in classroomWinnetkaenergy makingpersonal that oneself approachtime,doors they, lonelinesscloseddifferent and on nother to fromsuch theirownthat minehappenedclassroomprojects,in a limited, if the foroverdescriptions changesithit4Furred hopscotch instance, the years 1 thanmanner.analyzed.in teachers' were in Higher one-teacherMore reported rooms. research percentages Such inschools otheris evidence needed in ofstudies Michigan teachers tocould trace and deter- usedwerewhat the 49 observedchildren.andcolleagues, uncertainty in lack 1952 of ofthat tangible whether progressivism and promised explicit had incentivesoutcomes alteredLooking the to backwould "lifemake to conditions indeedsuchthe early change benefit inyears the:1, of the twentieth century, John Dewey 1 5 0 138appearingclassroom" I Progressivism in and highand Classroomlittle school else Practice,classrooms. in elementary 1890-1940 He noticedschools, how with much hardly more any talk change there 9. Report of the Committee onCountryMacmillan Experimental School Co., Schools, 1923); Fannie Dunn and Marcia Everett, (New York: Teachers College, Bureau of Publications, 1926). Rural and Urban Schools, 1920-1940 / 139 What Schools Are Doing *Fou,- Years in a observedwaspersists about thatinchange various the than"fundamental modified actual alterationsforms."32 authoritarianism inI classroomfound much of conditions.the evidence old education He to support Dewey's observations about the also 10. Winn L. Taplin and Irving Pearson,in42-3,(New "Contributions York:50. Progressive to Individual Education Instruction"Newer Association, Types of1937), Instruction pp. ii, 3-5, 10, 19, 31, in Small Rural Schools, Yearbook 1938 consider.commentsextentintroduced and Such onquality into "fundamentala remark their of classroomsthe directs changes authoritarianism," attention and that why to had thoseinstructional occurred practices however, practicessince were I have 1900. selected teachers yet His toand 11.12. Department Department of theof the Interior, Interior, "StatusAssociation,(Washington, of1924, the Vol.Rural 11938). D.C.:Teacher pp.Department in114-5. Pennsylvania," of Rural Education, National Educational (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1924), pp. 125. Biennial Survey of Education, 1920-1922, Bulletin embracedformsofnot students others. of some grouping in Why, formclassrooms, offor over progressive example, otherproject methods pedagogyactivitiesdid those such forencourage elementary part as joint of themore student-teacher day,teachers movement and mixed who 13. pp.SmallBiennialBulletin 8-9, 21,Rural 1921,Survey, 33; Schools," no. 1920-1922, 34. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922), Biennial Survey, 1920-1922, Teachers College Record, p. 127; Fannie W. Dunn, "Modern Education in pp. 143-5. 32 (February, 1931), Teacher-centeredplanningwhonotteacher others. risked ofdelegated what Perhaps, introducing progressivismtopics to studentsthese should some hybrids how incorporatedbe changes the studied?permitted daily into schedule Orsome those their why new adventurousrooms shouldwas techniques it to rarebe pick arranged? teachersthat andthose a 14.15. Verne "Status 1V1cGuffey, of Rural Teacher in Pennsylvania,"College,Teacherpp. 411 -2. 1929),Schools pp: 18, pp. 33.and 10-13. of Grade Teachers in Cities Differences in the Activities of Teachers in Pura! One- (New York: Teachers curriculum.practicesteacher'smayhybrids have thatthemselves, classroom Dewey's strengtheneddid not comment threatentheauthority. changes rather their is I intriguingamthat thanclassroom uncertain had weakened entered because authority now a number theaboutit suggests foundationsor this school-wideof classrooms,possibility. that the of a 19.18.17.16. Texasibid., pp.p.Educationalpp. 20. 307, 378-9. 368, Survey 376. Commission,5 (Austin, Tex.: Texas Educational Survey Commission, 1924), pp. 321, 365. Courses of Study and Instruction, Vol. tion,Examining1960s containing and a earlysubsequent approaches 1970s effortmay similar clarify by reformers tothis progressive uncertainty. to introduce pedagogy, informal in the educa- late 21.20. JuliaAndrew Uggen, C. Berg, "A Composite "A Daily Study Program of Difficulties fortionalpp.Dakota" the 19-20. Administration One-Room (Unpul of Rural Teachers,"Schools and Supervision, of North shed Masters Thesis, University of North Dakota, 1929), Educa- NOTES 1. Changes in Classroom Teaching Made During 1937-1939 in One-Room Rural 23.22.24. ibid., Louisiana (December, Educational 1930), p. Survey,316. "The(LouisianaGrade Negro Teacher, Public Educational 48 Schools," Survey, Section 1924), B pp. 57-8. (October, 1930), p. 159. 24 (March, 1938), pp. 195-202. 3.2. Martin Dworkin (ed.),SchoolsUniversityTime,Mich.: in W. the K.Press, Area Kellogg of1959), the Foundation, Michigan pp. 129-30. Community 1940), p. 129.Health Project October 31, 1938, p. 31. Dewey on Education (New York: Teachers College (Battle Creek, 28.27.26.25. RatherJamesibid., p. pp. Hoetkerthan 56. 164-5. analyze and Williamthe details Ahlbrand, of theseAmerican seven"The Persistence studies,Educational I have of Research theincluded Recitation," Journal, tables 6 (March, 1969), pp. 145-67. 5.4. IlenryOtto. p. Otto, 3; et al., nitypp. Health 1, 5. Project Changes in Classroom Teaching, (AnnCommunity Arbor, Workshops Mich.: University for Teachers of Michigan in Michigan Press, Commu- 1942), foreword. Newthethat narrative.capture York University the data and professor, some narrative to the state describing to directIn 1922, each that a one.portionstatewide Citations of studythe surveyfollow of Texas schools brought Margaret Noonan, a 8.7.6. Evelyn Dewey, EllsworthChangesness,"I !ermine in Collings,Marshall, Classroom "Open Teaching, Classrooms: Has the Term Outlived151 Its Useful-Review of Educational Research, New Schools for Old An Experiment with a Project Curriculum pp. 50-1. (New York: E.P. Dutton and Co., 1919); 51 (Summer, 1981), pp. 185-6. (New York: evidenceTexasexamining"theNoonan citywhole of blackstatedschools: connections child and clearly must presencewhite the betweenbe city standardskept of schools. group inclasswork mind." by Anwork, which ardent and joint she life advocate pupil-teacherwould outside judgeof theprogressivism, school,instruction planning, and in 152 140 / Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Rural and Urban Schools, 1920-1940 / 141 rooms. Many statements were open Trained observers used a list to check and appreciation of activity." A few to broad interpretation by off what they saw in teachers' the observer, items on Table 3.4 Method Frequency in Type of Recitations and Project Methods Reported by Bagley, 1929-1930, in Percentages Rural Elem. Urban Elem. Rural High City High thee.g. checklist"students included show enjoyment specific itemsTable 3.3 Selected Items Reported in 1922 Survey of White and Black Schools and behaviors. Nine Texas Cities, TextbookIndividualRecitation and 16.6 10.4 28.8 22.5 Furniture fastened to floor Category White, % 70 2 Black, % 77 0 Group Work: GroupIndividual or reports 7.3 7.7 10.0 5.5 CurrentPupilsActivity at events suggestedwork ondiscussed sameindividualgroup by pupil activity activity or activity class 221456 3 452242 2 Individual Committeeandreport group 9.05.0 12.2 5.2 5.51.1 6.03.1 NumberPupils(Texas moving of Educational classes freely observed Survey Commission, Courses of Study and Instruction, (176) 24 (40) 20 Number of classrooms projects TOTAL (108)21.3 (234)25.1 (61)16.6 (122)14.6 Bagley,321,Vol.rized 5,365, (Austin, resultsconducted 368, 376-9.)from Tex.: a state,national Texas city, Educational study and onrural SurveysurveysOn a larger scale than Noonan, Teachers College teaching methods in 1930 that summa- between 1900 andCommission, 1930. "One 1924), pp. 307, professor, William conformingfashion,theorytions, Bagley seems and closely itdismissedto be with affecting generally them elementary-school and accepted concluded standards?" that practice "contemporary Noting in a bothfairly educational explana- profound is apparently not without its influence upon the secondary escapewhomaterials."rizedwhether studies the by ona suchlifeless the elementaryreports and perfunctory over or a secondary series study level,and conclusion that the work of the typical American of years," he said, "could scarcely recitation of assignedhas been textbookand still is, characte- classroom, andtonbseryschool." ones high ed I Whether foundinschool classrooms appear are or evidentnot inis aconsideredBagley's range in levels of survey. 15-25%"profound" of recitationDifferences of influence,individual and between student-centeredregularities and groupelementary similar work describethesuperintendents, country teaching asking principals, methods.them to use Helocal an received overTo verify the accuracy of these survey conclusions, Bagley observationand state instrument supervisors he had of instruction developed toacross 500 completed classroom forms wrote to Activities."toactivities. Nationalpercentages Also Society forthe student-centeredmagnitude for the Study of individual of instructionEducation. and(William groupunder workthe C. category isBagley, comparable "Class "The Textbook and Methods of Teaching," in The Textbook in American fromthesehaveelementary onover hadobservationsin 30 classrooms...." varied states (342) perspectives unevenly and "cannot secondary distributedbe in regarded describing (183). as thoroughlyteachers, typical betweenAcknowledging rural (169) and urbanthat observers (356), may he cautioned readers that of what is going pp.Education,instrumentIndiana 10-11. cities15, he 17-18, ofused 217 25.)to fourth assess to progressive sixth grade practiceclassrooms.In 1940, required L. W.Again, Krause, a greatmuch a dealpublic of the of school teacher, completed a study in 10Part 2, (Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1931), resultsprofessionalsconcluded of his textbooksurvey who satare recitations inshown classrooms in dominatedTable 3.4.Although/low did some Bagley categories explain the were differences collapsed between and found that student-centered practices instruction and these results from to provide clarity, the main those formal surveys that judgmentofthinking.principles, actual by Someactivities, children the items,observer, showedreducing though, e.g. signs somewhat, did teacher ofcall self-discipline, for conducted but describing not eliminating, teacher classthe presence on encouraged democraticthe marginor absence clear for hadOrshowingit penetratedbecauseresponsible, was it as schoolbecause possibleclasses exhibited officials considerably,practitioners in the responding alight "natural of bothvisiting contemporary totendency in a cityprofessor153 classrooms for which theyto interpret were what theyand saw countryside as schools?ideals," Was wantedi.c. progressivism? "to make as good a classrooms,subjectson interpretationwhat teachersin large recorded, anddidby an andsmall, observer. andsaid urban transcribedin their Thoseand classrooms. rural, tallies notes schoolsFor arefor Covering high shownalmost these schools, investigatorsallin 600 Tableof a theexperienced number academic3.5. sat of in studies between 1924 and 1930 concentrated 154 142/ Progressivism and Classroom Practice, 1890-1940 Table 3.5 Average Frequency of Selected Items Reported in 217 Indiana and Social Science Classes" (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford Rural and Urban Schools, 1920-1940 I 143 Category Intermediate Classrooms, 1940 Percentage 46 30.29. J.U.S. Wayne Office Wrightstone, of Education. Appraisal National of Survey Experimentalpp.MonographUniversity, 126, of Secondary 129. 1930),HighNo. 1 School p.Education, 128. Practices Summary, (New (Washington. D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1934), TeacherVarietySeveralMovable groups ofhas furniture materials a unit of pupils of present work at workin progress 16 2 1 76,York: 184-5. Bureau of Publications. Teachers College, 1936), pp. 21-2, 48-9, 59, Source:Students(December,Practiced L. helping W. in Krause,1941),Intermediate to plan pp. "What 252-4.work -Grade Principles Classrooms," of Modern Journal and of ProgressiveEducational Education Are Research, 35, 4 31. This estimate is drawn from the followingestimateCentralself-reportsphotographs Highinsources: New inI collectedSchool rural York the Michigan Citydescriptionsin of Washington, classroomsat the (1937-1939); height and instruction; ofD.C. the (1925-1938);Activityclassrooms the analysisProgram's and Joseph of55 implementa-190 teachers Loftus's teacher at akinteachersmarginteacher to the in of controlearliermidwestern time work availableover and ofthe Romiett California amountto students Stevens and high todirection respond;schools.(1912) inof Theand classroom talk; revealingthe narrow the highhow level few of other activitiesresults are remarkably 32. Dworkin, pp. 129-30. teachertion; and use reports of different from Krause practices and in Bagley the 1930s. who tried to estimate the degree of occurredperiod.supervisedthe Minneapolis. in Recitation the study, typical assignments Minnesotaconsumed 45 minute and an areaperiod. averagetests) and accounted found ofBetween 62 that percent for 41924 90 percent and 1926. university researchers visited activities (recitation,of class time. Two346 classrooms in of each class classroomshowquestions,answer'Northwestern few recitation."instudents some 1929 University as andraised rapidly concludedThey questions as professors found150 thatin (10 athat "teaching45 percent)went minute82 percentinto is period. 116still Chicago during the recitation or offered of the teachersThey were asked surprisedlargely at 'question and social studies principalsclassesconsiderablemethodsany comment of of andWisconsin teaching (8 extent."superintendents. percent). teachers,Inare "Thethe not same changes."findingWithin designated year, a their40 A. minuteas S. way "good" Barr intoperiod, sat the they noted, "beim, advocated in our and "poor" by theirin 77 social studies he found that theschools to any percentverifiedteachersFinally,teachers thatfor asked inwho theteachers 1930, 93recitationused and a monopolized theStanford 102 "problem-project portion questions, student air of time the observedrespectively, classduring organization 42the Englishclass or and alone. He also found eight Stenographic recordslearning byreaching doing." almost 60 social science discussion"teachersProcedures1927), in 5p.averaged San in343; Short Francisco J. M.59 and Ipercent lughes Long area ofClassandschools. each E. Periods" 0. class CharlesMelby, (Leonardperiod. The "A Bursch SchoolCross-Section V. Koos and Oliver L. Troxel, "A Comparison Review,found 35, (May. that "class of Teaching in of Teaching TermsGood285-9;quesSchool of andClassroom A.and Publishing S.Poor Results Barr, Teachers Activities,"Characteristic of Co., an Analysis 1929),of theEducational pp.DifferencesSocial of the84, Studies,103; Method, inCharles the (Bloomington, 10, Teaching W. (October, JJrr- Teaching Process in High School English Bursch, "The Techni- Performance of Ill.: Public1930). pp. 156 Progressivism OpenRevisited, ClassroomsAlternative and Schools: 1965-1975 Part II I 151 153 Informal Education, NewOld Wine1965-1975: Bottles? in 4 elementaryinIn 1972.a North school Dakota of 180 city children of 35,000, and intervieweda university researcher a second grade teacher went to an I : classroom?... To begin with, would you describe for us a typical day in your T: scheduletheyreadfor themselves. areto them. goinga time At forto We thisput those always ontime, kinds a. Theplay gatherthe of morning children oractivities togetherif they is also tohavespent after schedule somethingwith lunch children inand doing the activities they schedule a group and toI show. Weannounce if T:I : TheAsOkay.they other you include Nowcomechildren I'd inthat the likechoose in door, youtheir whether weto schedule.... describehave or a highnot the they shelf classroom.... wish area. to That attend. is If they occur later in the afternoon. our hospitality do, counterarebulletinkids. in withThe that board board our mathparticular guestat right centerthe book,other there.part is oncoffee,end.of We the A have room.othertypewriterjuice, a sideandThenlong cookiesandof combinationwe these have for shelves. anthe oldvisitors blackboard- trunk.There's and It is our creative writing area a somelisteningour props drama centerlike trunk a cane.with and records,Thenis filled we awith have View a a variety Master,table six of filmstrip feet hats, in dresses, length previewer, that coats, has and and , a 159 BEST COPY AVAILABLE reading machine.. . 147 Informal Education, 1965 1975 / 149 148 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965-1975 sciencecenterand stuffed is center, what animals, you'd plant calland Bookshelves that.animal Going center. are on, Then onwe the Wehave you'd sides,have a gamesee a kind largethe shelf, cookingof carpeted a thenreading area area that has a davenport, lots of pillows the centeredchild-centerednessthemeat "new and theme theprogressive then-current in the and publicationmovement" social ardor reform. for of thesethat A. Locating S.resonated reforms. Neill's the SummerhillHe with rebirth saw the two of earlier thethemesin 1960, child- one: in a 1 : withyear.... recipes written tin chart paper of all the things we've cooked over the sawbook the that writings was selling of schoolover 200,000 critics copiesJohn Holt, annually George a decade Dennison, later, Cremi,n James T: sustainedTheinOn schedule.language a only typical timesilent Duringdayarts we reading. inand would th6 the reading? classroom, day Reading,be when working theyhow though, as comemany a whole is tochildren a whatpart group of part would each would of theirchild'sbe beinvolved schedule, during daily differentandimaginationHerndon, passive kinds and learning.3 and Herbertof creativityteachers Kohl fromand as contributing schooling deadening that routines,to the would momentum tyrannical free children's for authority, seeking practices in the 1920s across decades andIf a sattime them machine down could in this have swept ferventtheybuddy, goadvocates into to thea tutor, ofreading child-centered or other center. adult They that would might read be inby the themselves, room... to a second theirpointedpoliticalhe aspirationscommented, out, reform blacks for "athemes andidentity fascinating other in and theethnic a literature interweavingsense groupsAt of the community.of tried samethe of movement,to thetime, shape child-centered "We growing schools have so that outseen," to openfit ofand the civil rights movement, Cremin gradeNewcloserapproaches.Michigan North York in spirit Dakota Cityone-room The to progressiveclassroomthis North primary school Dakota in inclassroomtheteacher 1935classroom's early boththan 1970s, or ofto touse whomMrs.they Leona of wouldspaceSpencer tried Helmick's andstudent-centeredhave in furniture, her the felt far rural1924 educationtheleverFrancisahistorical." two of is radicalthemes, viewedW. Parker Thosesocial heas afoundor lever change, whotheir theof establishedCaroline childon literature the liberation other."Pratt new "notoriously Noting schoolson the differencesone "have atheoretical hand, not and between read as and atheir with the result that boundless highainformal,andreach national level the of signsof a child-centered curriculumstudentsurge of studentin participation lay that and independenceclassroom. touched professional both both This in reportedinstruction academic Northfervor Dakota by andand the life-like ruleteacher making, capturewassituations, partthe an of for open classrooms and ofwheel."energy associatedClassroom,reform has Yet remains been he with "surelysaw spent thethe a publicfundamentalinpresent the countless mostschool. movement," learnedclassrooms similarity Even Charles andproposed inreinventing wide-rangeboth Silberman's movements:the open the analysis pedagogicalCrisis classroom the in tooltothe beas progressive.alternativeis schooling that an earlierzig-zag generation andBut broken. the might line Three easilyof descent decadeshave in labeled instruction separate betweenan activity the 1930sprogram and the 1970s Vito"the(subsequently keystonePerrone, inDean therenamed ofarch the of Universitythe educational CenterLeaning offor reform."North Teaching heavily Dakota's and upon Learning)New Cremin's School and work on the progressive movement, classroomprogress,withoutor butterflya core in wallsinclassroom New thanthe inwordsYork by Washington, ain City bullet."2of Denver's Philip from Jackson,the EastD.C., above High 30 "could second yearsSchool be later.grade more inThis North educational Dakota in 1936 from a school easily traced by a education,Perroneandofprominent the child-centered century. located described in the Although the national roots themesboth. heof Henetwork didopenin broadenedthe not education surge distinguishof reformers of his ininterest progressivism searchbetween committed in foropen the roots social at classrooms,to the informal beyond reformturn THERather SETTING than retrace FOR the INFORMAL post-World War CLASSROOMS: II history of public THE schools, 1960s I will schoolspollution,alsoprogressivism,inhumane, in the for thegrowing giving andenvironment, locating destructive."considerable public it inawareness theand Moreover, civil stimulus,"Vietnam ofrights government that hemovement,especially credited were policies viewed after asthe did Englishthe concerning as Cremin, publication mindless, primary but air suggestforconcentrateLawrence informal comparisons on andCremin those alternative conditionswithdrew the parallels schools earlier that seemingly betweenwhichprogressiveIn peaked the the led midst movement.earlier toin thethe of progressive brieftheearly media's enthusiasm 1611970s move-fascinationand for informal and free schools, toeducationof William1961.Children John inHull, and the Dewey TheiraUnited Cambridge, Primaryis Siates.5absent MassachusettsSchools from the (1967), indexRoland private toof Barth's thethe schoolpractice book. search teacherIn of thatfor informal the year,went sources to of open education took him back 162 150 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965-1975 Informal Education, 196: , "75 / 151 andtravelingenthusiasticEngland the "developmental toto see observe words first hand ledand classroom." tothe report a "Leicestershire growing on Thethe number workEducation of plan," the "integrated day,"of becameprimary aschools. center for His the AmericanDevelopment educators Center vocabularycoursesmindedformal organizations, individuals, of ofstudy teachers used journals, and annualto train officials teacher-education conventions,school mirrored administrators.Progressivism the informal absorption curricula, networksThe was ofand then-current progressivemainstream. graduate of like- The movement found expression in Josephschools,movementexportingin Newton, Featherstone's foundations, of Massachusetts fromideas its and early and articlesmaterials federally locuswhere in theon in Hull fundedEnglishan worked curriculum New Republic interlocking network of private primary schools. Tracing the and the publication of developers fed by eruptioneducatorideas. To was hadbe part intensebecome of the and synonymous. educational brief compared establishment toFew the of decades these arid to developments bethat a progressive marked the nova of informal education. Its spreadandstateSilberman's teachers, departments of informal Barth ofclassrooms pointed education, out in the the unsystematic, uneven, yet Crisis in the Classroom, universities, public school administratorsto a broader enthusiasmcountry.° that included varied, according persistent shallownesstookbeliefslackPerhaps a deepoftook passion the tohold of suddennessbecome the organizationally among organizational mainstream. itsof itspartisans appearance among root Informal forsystem the formal may general education, amongexplain ties ranks may that.open I believe, ofaccount Or educators.classroom perhaps never for the changedisappearance)to generatedthese beforewriters. math, and ofYet science,curriculum after none Sputnik, ofand the reform. social writers reformers studies SourcesAs part texts forof the origin and spread of open classrooms discussed the appearance (and in the 1956s and 1960sand materialsthe national that got wave of pulsesthanspreadenthusiasts. peripheral andideas participants, Occasionaland to practices, the educational groupsI believe, but these of advocatesmasks establishment. casual the networks joined substantial Thetogether seldom similarity differences inwere efforts inmore im- into enthusiasticand,studentsdisappointed in general, to handle proponents in behave the Cuisenaire returns and as scientists.participants thatrods materialized and Whilelight in the many in classrooms across andbulbs, motivation, simulate and situations, tyingchange effort ended up of the academics' the schoolinglegionsorganizational1960s, of by wasteachers, the approachesastonishing. mid-1970s, administrators, and concernsGenerally the amount and for acceptedCompared informedbasic of time skills, as citizens. toavailable beginning testearlier scores, reformto in penetrate thetraditional efforts, mid- the brevity of interest in informal contentcountry,culumgenerations to change,the contemporary focus of reformers.and upon self-liberation concernschildren's anchored intereststhat markedThe tangled threads of social reform, child-centered pedagogy, curri-in disciplines, echoesthe earlier progressive movement articlesteachers.roomsalternative on referred the Aschools, barometer agenda to in and of minimum ofschool the sudden boards, competencies shift superintendents, in interesthad replaced is principals,the open number class- and of Education Index and the Current Index of Journals of writers,participantsdecadesineffectual, and earlier professionalin and both reappeared even surges harmful reformers ofin reform.the to late childrenthat The1960s. saw earlier found public Similar an mindlessgeneration and destructive. of academics,echoschools in the as critics constraining, ofalso the were the kinds of practicethishadthatEducation. stretchedshrunkinterest emerged to in fora informalpage pages even or in two, education thesethose is one indexes,peak sign was, years ofand no the of 1975-1979,uniformity 1967drop inthrough interest. whenin definition 1973. referencesAs brief Between 1969 and 1973, when there was a burst of publications oras laterContrasts period who with saw Progressivism schools and instruction as categorizedfilmsdocumentedsional journals, within and thethe bookssupplementedarraybroad oflabel differences of informalThe among explosionby education: television and of between articles inschools newspapers, popular magazines, profes- open classrooms, coverage and Beyondsionalsformstwo generations theseof as progressivism the similarities, wisest of school course had however, becomereformers. to follow substantial accepted inBy public differencesby most 1940, for example. the varied schooling. Administrative how efficientcitizens facility and profes- separated the reformersrunningofpersonalizedfree the schools, classes to believedrevulsion education, openand schools education, thaton the publichumanistic shared part alternative school of a some strongschools, teaching critics, schools, distaste mini-schools, mostcould school-within-a-school,for professional publicimprove. etc. schools, While and oftenmost lay maintenance,progressivesinformeddology.Pedagogical Social 163educators had business progressives theirreformers scorecardsand procedures, dozenshad wrote developed to booksof andrate articles newscientifically thatan architecturein became journals. of building construction were. best sellers among teaching metho- classroomsToclassroom be clear teaching synonymouslyabout whatpractices I mean,in describingin public I will elementary use changeIn informal sharpening in and elementary education secondary the focus, schools. and schools. I will At concentrate on those efforts to alter 164 open Informal Education, 1965-1975 / 153 ofthe152 classroomthereinnovations rsecondary Open wereClassrooms reform. level,athat number and spanned "alternative" Alternative of the common Schools, late will 1960s 1965-1975 beelements the and preferred early that 1970s. becameterm targets At both levelsfor the range for classroomscautious.vitality that He would teachers feared do that broughtwhat unthinking, drunks to open had simple-minded classrooms,doneCharles to alcohol: warnedSilberman, true give believers advocates it a sensitivebad in name. opento be to any distillation that might sap the ConsiderOPENinformal CLASSROOMS: first schooling the open ran classroom. 1970sits course, Afteradvocates the initial worried surge about of the fervor forheadlong education....opennoris constitute an approach For open the to education; openteaching classroom andcreating learning...... is large not openaThus,By model itself, spaces the or dividing set artifactsdoes of techniques; a classroom of theeducation; open it into classroominterest interest areas (learning areas, centers) concrete does individualizing instruction does not constitute not constitute open werethe"openrushBarth, child, by the classroom." school Joseph essentialsnotand the practitioners Featherstone, process Assumptions some of todeveloping productVitofreeze about Perrone, into teaching, an orthodoxy informal Charles learning, setting,andsomething Arlene they labeled: open classroom. Roland the nature of Silberman, called an argued, ends....materials, In addition, wall displaysare open classrooms not ends arein themselves organizedpaperlearningactive andlearning asbut and tothe rather encourageexpression spoken rather means thanword; in to apassive other variety learning; of media, rather than just pencil and classrooms.andmissingLillianby ends Featherstone Weber, the or fundamental"Tempering in searchingand in others 1971. aissues Fad," futilely wrote"Although inran informaland forthe spoke thereprescriptionsheadline education are often ofmany aabout New byto prophets confusingbe Republicthe grafted dangers rising means onto articlein the of spread of progressive practices are nowThe appropriate questions here. asked In assessing in previous the chaptersselflearning; about directed, the.. .1`) extent of the student-initiated learning more than teacher-directed Gospel."land,"theBritish vocabulary,he wroteHisprimary warning in anotherclassroomsthe appearance, was article to mindlessly.no theavail.' the same materials, "Wemonth,In have1973, and "there made soldBarth is it ano toneatcomplained educational the package thatof American educators have copied schools." ton,ambitiousNorthdegree1967 D.C.all Dakota, thatand state-wide 1975.informal centers a state certificationof educationthat ferment tried topenetratedin program, reforminstalling teachingNew classrooms, open York classroomspractices City, 1 and through Washing-between an will examine classroom.Warningsconventionalearlyseized 1970s by seldom Those the drew publicones. deflectedresearchers, up listsSomeand ofprofessionalthe advocatesitems schoolstrong that administrators,impulse distinguished passionreasoned to fordefine that informal andopen whatthere board classrooms wasschoolswas members an a openrisk in from the of studentmentstudentsbe the within very choice facing artifacts the of one classroom, activities another,Silberman aresmall learning apparentwarned groups centers, against.thenThe and somesigns individualunimpeded If clusters ofindicators informal instruction, studentof desks ofeducation with and that I will seek out, unfortunately, will an open move- thesedegreemorehadmaking to informal listsbe ofa complextraded openness warned classrooms. off process readersagainst began trivial Checklists,offering tothat appear byteachers suchspecific by diagrams, listings,1971. differed directions Language andyet, among waysthey for converts argued,accompanying themselves that to build risk in of assessing the viewdevelopment,revealandclassroom the of nothing exception the are classroom orpresent. substantial concerns should These it be can forabout underscored, practices beimproving fairlyteachers' will criticized thesestudent viewsvary outward from skills.offor learning, beingclass clues As to narrow of class.childrens' openness But,and a behavioral curredimplementingspacements. unevenly." and The methods; style these of classroomsteaching students in were openand thatinvolvedclassrooms Evenintroducing with was these flexible new concerns, practices both in writersuseoc- of agreed upon some common ele- in choosing activities, the suchsignsToinincorporateincapable such their asartifacts criticisms,evidence circumstances. of some capturing point of I versioncanmoving to only thetangible Finally, of holistic towardsay the that open effort Iinformalqualities teachersrecognize classroom on inherentclassroom:;themselvesthe that thatpart what tothey of informal sawand, the Ifelt these atteacher the education. visible least, to am doing is a was practical classroomwhengroupsearlierdirectly it andgeneration.was wasby individuals, appropriate.9students. provisioned Grouping Curriculum although with for abundant the instruction was-.mire integrated"correlated"materials class was would 65 mostthat bewere often handled by smallto an taught as one teacherstudyingcrudeprimitive as fervor itreconstructiononly is, such orstatements intentions. a reconstruction of afrom number educational isof still key acomponents marginal leaders andimprovement to classrooms.rhetoric about As 166 over 154 / Open Classrooms and AUernative Schools, 1965-1975 Informal Education, 1965-1975 1 155 featureTheNORTHYork Saturday articlesTimes, DAKOTA Review, andon the the newAtlantic,Wall reform Street Newsweek, Journalsweeping within Readers one an-room 11-monthDigest, schools, Life, period villages,The carriedNew surroundingeducation.13familiar,degi:eless-than-degree and especiallycommunity,certification). teachers many Perrone Using who grades imagery thenand hiswentin oneofcolleagues torural classthe schools New and promoted School closethat' tiesinformalto parents found get their to the sponsoredirresistiblethePublictowns, state's Broadcastingand open studyansmall angle classrooms. thatcities forCorporation Charles inthe the media Hinterland highSilberman and toplains ignore. CBS as ofhad hadavante NorthThe published shown Carnegie gardeDakota. documentaries asreform Corporation- ByCrisis 1972, was in thetootheon sharplychildren)Newtotal) School withreduced had 80 joined andschools the other the percentage (enrollingNew state School colleges ofabout less-than-degree in toitshalf aidventure.Between of teachers the state's The 1968 teachersin campaign elementary and 1973, from of over school the59 50 districts (about 20 per cent of the state earning a degree state.generatingEducationUniversityClassroom In all of (hereafter devotedoftheseideas, North feature funds, a Dakota'scalledchapter articles, teacher the to New New boostingprofessional training, SchoolSchool), the andof journals,changes played Behavioral support a occurringand primary for books Studies informal role inthe theon in directlytown,Devil'spercent village Lake, inby 1968 New Fort and toSchool Yates, 13one-teacher percent interns Fargo, in or Bismarck,1973.14schoolall federallyInterns wereMinot, funded touchedintroduced and outreach Grand directly open Forks. classroom practices in Starkweather, programs in Minto, ;r in-City, legislators,conservativeeducation."York-sounding and state, children name and calledfoundled by "Vito,"leadershipa Michigan requiresTo understandin educator an explanation. institution whom how open withTheteachers, generalclassroomsa New state took root in a rural, politically teachersdledsupportthe initial to include programsdid five on years. their only across ownAfter what thetime.15 1973, those state however, motivatedevaporated.Cautious federal and Outreach about activitiesfreezing dwin- open classroom concepts into a gospel, fundingenergetic of New New School School outlinegradebachelor'spreparationdocumented of school the degreeand story that forchildren Northelementaryhas been the (e.g.Dakota range told few teacherstwo inwas ofkindergarten a school numberdead last opportunities ofout among places.classes, of every all A specialstates studyavailable five in inlackedteachers, level 1967 to itsof a theapproachesNorthandPerrone New accept Dakota andSchool foundthese his versioncolleaguesstressed, differentin British of particularly also approachesinformalprimary knew schools onthateducation tostudent with involvement containedthe addition the inof parents hadteaching to both and understand school life. The classroomareas that core of circumstancesteachersservicestrainmended these lackingfor that the less-than-degree anmany collegehandicapped, experimental of degreesthem came etc.).teacher teachers(average from:To education upgrade agein small ways 43), schools schoolthethe that 40study would bepercent with staffestablished matchstudents recom- of the the to decisions,policykeepevaluation in the mind student introductionof thatimportant interaction no other of nonacademic openstate used classrooms.in asthe a growth,nationIn Thedetermining had and uniquenessembraced to whatand reach extent of open classrooms spread in the state, way of teaching and learning, parent involvement.'6 as a matter of Dakota,schoolsalicscattered match articles inwas betweenover aon rural created Britishseveral state. informal notprimary grades. The only New education toschoolsChance certify School, tobrought teachers andthe as partattention the Featherstone's butofneeds the to of introduceUniversity ofthe small, staff, New "radical" whoisolatedof Repub- North saw aexample,spread centerbeNorth considered throughout forDakota's at theinterns request in effort atthe Madison, of stateprevents the insuperintendent, athe comparisionsschool early with 1970s. the a withrecord New In otherFargo, Schoolof in established 1969, for any assessment of implementation. Open classrooms did states and should classroomchangeshiredingenuity like-minded in decisions howand emotionalteachers were teachers, made.12 taught, electricity some their ofto use whompowerHiring of the werethe Vito curriculum, infant knowledgable Perrone venture. as and the Perrone how aboutnew Dean, sources agreed, provided the organized.student1973.1969 andperformance.Walls Learning1977 between were centersThe bothclassrooms two affiliated in principals math, were with science,tornPrincipal whothe down. New served social Vincent School. studies, Dodge creative described the changes that had occurred Cross-grade teams were Madison between persistently low by classroomslegislators,wereCenterEnglish developed in primary Newton, andschool New schoolsand officials,Massachusetts, School published. or internshadteachers, workedPerrone (youngwhere and at criss-crossedmaterialsparentsmen the Educationand of167 womenfor the open thevirtues Development who state classrooms replacedof telling open tri-wallchairs,werewriting,between used carrels,cardboard reading, 30to minutesenrich, magazine andand motivate,toother artcontaining an racks, hourmaterials. supplyand link individual bins, the community stations tofor the students school per day. In addition, students made tables, Finally, no letter grades appeared games, and puzzles out of 168 156 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965-1975 Informal Education, 1965 1975 / 157 formalhaviors,onteacher-pupilincludes report teacher-parent and cards. all interpersonal the planningChecklists artifacts conferences and skillsof of decisionspecific open were were classrooms making,academicsent held. home In according skills,short, twiceas well thisa toyearas descriptionthe the and principal. spirit two of cooperative be- cityclassroomsReview, schools newspapers, inin Devil'sthe state.2° and Lake, New Minto, School and publications dozens of trace other the one-teacher spread of and open SchoolsgroupLewisThe Fargo-Moorhead activities, and Lead Clark, Education and and freedom Forum Horace Revolution," ofran Mann student articles schools Lessone movement on headline thanthe describing Madison, a inhundred proclaimed." classrooms. centers,Clara miles Barton, north small of Fargo, Grand Forks, in the words "Fargo morespreadTryingThe Spread difficult throughto document of than Openthe statesimply theClassrooms or extent countingthe persistence that instancesopen inclassrooms these of such practices classrooms.in various forms Quite over time is establishedyouinnovation."of milesSuperintendent find away. 30 a Heformalstudents Larry declared Wayne relationship Hoiberg, in thata box."Worner there principal with The is in notthe Washington1969, oneNewof the school hadSchool, kindergarten become in elementary itselfthe district alocated "meccathrough "whereschool a few forsixth informallabeledbetweensimilar opento determiningpractices assessing and the (centers, theinevitable the spread degree small variations of ofgroups, progressivism, implementationThe first etc.)between part have of classroomsthe thebeen problem used. in involves iswhich split using the global construct "open among classrooms andflexiblecapturedthegrade "child'saides school space smallworked.18 school ofarrangments groups,220 world students learning and in whichhis(1970), home centers, New described world." School students' Photographs howinterns, free Washington parent movement, and volunteers, narrative merged and ofclassroom" informal"openfromthe varied which classroom." witheducation meaningsto teacherdraw As conclusions.or Ithatreports openhave teachers classroomalready and Such direct and suggested data asobservationsobservers are difficultin analyzing pack providing to into interpret progressivism, the the phrase because data an unidimensional construct is andatclassroomto clusteredintroduce a dozen program desks, otheraides individualizedat outwardinto the aKelly newly signs School. reading built pointed In Centers,school anotherprograms, to the helpedsmall Grand presence abundant groups createForks of of materials, school, an onstudents openopen Jerry Abbott told how a federal grant teacherthemselves,haveless selectively useful reports Among than ofand a progressive construct researchers,unevenly composed put andthere into open has Thepractice. of beenclassroom variedsecond elements part practices of the which problem tend teachers deals with the sources of information a growing awareness that to classroomteamsroomrole of directing she the and is teacher?" freealtered the to same moveteaching Abbott . among asked.practice. them "She 'Whatand Elsewhereis to no happenshelp longer those in to atthe whothe the state, traditional frontneed visitors of the and reporters noied the appearance of .. lesson for all children. As the children work in it."19 theseinflated.principaloverestimate points.21. The reports evidence what of observershow I havemuch collected ininformal classrooms Oneon practices North way record. toDakota have determine Thus, spread is vulnerable teacher the tend extent of informal practices in the state is to to be and on Schoolschooldentsinformalmore around ofdegreeinnovative classrooms200 inchildren candidates) classrooms than in in unlikelyanything grades holding in Starkweather 1-12places.one classes canhad Arlene find 4 "moreelementary (population in Silbermanthe exciting Scarsdales, teachers 250) followedand where Winnetkas,certainly(all Newstu- the teacherstotaltheirthefind schools. out ideasschools thecontinued of Bynumber open in 1973, the classroomstheir of state.over New activities 500 Whether School intoNew over80 Schoolinterns orschools, the not teachersand these graduates New and interns School-trained that workedhad taken years is an issue explored in aor almost 15 percent of the in groupsthatclassroomsShaker were of Heights, dividedstudents supplied into andworking with math, Palo pegboards, together,reading, Altosa table of science,some withcash the childrenUnitedregisters,the and teacher, art States."by areas.and themselves, some Cuisenaire She She insaw visitedcorners others small rods or sprawled on a carpet. individually;relatedrandomnairesstudy completedhe to sample compared informal the of by degree 342 teaching:aa sampleNew North to School which ofDakotathe 56 extent Newresearcher the teachers teacher Schoolthat teachers in interns' centralized1975. dealt Throughclassrooms with question-children with on a number of dimensions or dispersed a shevisited.research-iinot saw Chapter carried(population in the out1Gseven state, in 33,477) inschoolsresonates Crisis staffed across in with the,srooms Classroom,thebythe Newstate.vitality in Edmore School Articles ofbased the (populationgraduates informaluponin Life, Silberman's Saturday instructionwere 405), also Lakota (population 1,658), and classroomtoalltasks; childrenof thethe decision teacher'slinkages learning making; arrangementsor from integration one different another.22 ofand these typesTheclassroom experiences;researcher of classroom organization concluded and activities the that New School (by this time renamed the contributedextent that and ITO 158 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965-1975 informal Education, 1965-1975 1159 significantlyCenterattitudementDakota." forto toward informal TeachingWhile more open graduates openeducation, and education Learningthan of thethose there to New moderate."23or of wasCTL) Schoolteachers "a interns maintained in general tendency for their overall "have classrooms their commit- in North requestswerecasespartitions,each city pleasedand containedfor portable eight-foot walls that theblackboards.openso high thatcentral space; dividers, each administration that Inteacher both is,or largehomemade cities, would spaces wasteachers have wallsaboutseparated a told builtseparate to meact by from thatonmovable room, theirbook they criteria.nottypical convert teachers their classrooms in the state intoand indirectlyopen onesAlthough suggest as the that study most is limited, these results compareButtressing that inference is a small study completed by a defined by New School graduates with teachers did teachersknockedincludingRooms I down were observedFargo's copiouslya decade Madison had advanced earlierstocked elementary to trainingwith create overhead school beyondspacious projectors,where the double bachelor's walls rooms.sets had degree.of been books,The centers;sincetheiruseUniversity of classrooms. theymath hence, oflent materials North themselvesthe These Dakotaextent such materials as of researcherto fraction theirindividual were use who commonbecomes and asked group toteachersa informal use by to discs, Cuisenaire rods, and chips in rough proxy for the describe thechildrenclassrooms in schools?evident.math and science materials, and equipment.What patterns Project of instruction did I see while in classrooms of the six activities were Ninetythirddiffusionmanipulative of percent those of informal in of materialsthe the state) teacherstechniques. fromin their reported 116 Almostrooms. schools that 1,000Teacher they replied had teachers usetotwo the of or (or these more about materials, one- questionnaire. of these "a Table 4.1 Instruction,Patterns of% Instruction: GrandcenteredTeacher- Forks and Fargo, 1981 Pattern, % Mixed Instruction, % CenteredStudent- Number of Classes andresearcherlittle"however, the and existence was onlyfound low.seven a of strong Almost learningpercent relationship half said centers, of they the betweenusedthat teachers is,them the materials said"extensively." teachers they children usedwho Also,them reported handle the GroupClass InstructionArrangement 4362 2530 2713 (63) frequer.tkindergartensaidwho theyreported use hadof rods,(40%) theylearning chips,had and learningcenters shrinkingdiscs, and withcenters. untilmetric the theOf highest materials fifthalmost and percentage 1,000were sixth also teachers, grades teacherslocated where at 25% ClassStudentClassroom Movementtalk 3760 24 0 6316 openabout14% classrooms informal and 15% classrooms fromof those the teachersNew is demonstrable. School reported sowedThe centers.24impact Theand Johnny of the AppleseedsNew School in disseminating ideas and practices reaped across the state. of Classes with CentersOneActivities or More 59 3u 11 32 differentDakotaFarData,School more however, teachers versionsneedsand individual showto ofbetweenbe the collected,the open teachers.limited 1968 classroom yet extent and what 1975 and asthere defined staying adopted is suggests and power in altered varying that of the manyby changes.thedegrees North New concentrateteacher,Keep in mindgenerally upon that teaching myoccurred observations basic in skills,the morninglasted and involvedbetween when more15elementary to than30 minutes one teachers teacher per and observing 63 teachers (or 20 percentIn of 1981, the grades I spent 1-6 a weekstaffs in Grandthese 2 Forks and Fargo visiting 6 schools ansnapshots.classessince entire in simultaneously.some group, buildings talked IThis could most manner watch of the ofthree time, Theobservation to table andfour shows structuredteachers is akin that work a classroommajority with their of the time teachers taught the class to a series of as werecities)averaginghad New beento see School sites25 what students. for graduates. teachers interns At didleastandI spent in 171universityone their time out classrooms. atof Madisonfaculty.everyBoth fourcities Ofand elementary the hadother 63 about teachers, schools a dozen 8 in elementary schools with class sizes schools that permissionStudentfurnitureclassactivities on movementworkbooks thatin from ways concentrated the that insideor teacher seatwork. encouraged the upon in classroom two Morelistening studentsof than every was to half the threetopermitted theteachertalk classroomsteachers with andwithout workingarranged I seekingvisited. the one another. 172 as a 160occurredSmall / Open groupClassrooms infrequently. and and individual Alternative Schools,instruction 1965 1975and student-centered class activities Consider:alterations had occurred in four decades to the New York City schools. Informal Education, 1965-1975 I 161 exception,center.afternoonFranklin Four however. schoolwhen fifth languageand used When sixth a dozenI arts askedgrade and centers teachersteachers scienceIn for how almost wasat that Grand andscheduled. partone-third when of thethey They of morning usedthe were classrooms, the the or there was at least one learning Forks' Benjamin backgroundsblackthatWave was andafter predominately Hispanic, wave by 1980. of newcomerswith whiteheavy sinceinpercentages 1940 World to one Warof poorin II which changed children the a majorityfromschool all system ethnic were therewardlikecenters, fourreading, for invariably teachers good language behavior, mentionedthe response arts, or lunch,practice above, was: recess, before of centers skills aadand already were afteras either scheduledused taught. enrichment, as aExcept periodic for a activities producededucation.IndecadesOne 1940, of ten later,New much The children Yorkone Activitycompetition out City attended of Program,schools eight for private attended teacherwere elite viewedschool high andprivate administrativeschools, asbefore schools.national Worldand leadershigh vacancies. War test in II; scorespublic four By supplementtheyteachingwhere were a dailyin toof the theNew scheduleschools existing School I wasvisited, program.alumni, posted. and two I Of Teachersusedhad the no centers eight way set of extensivelyNewaside knowing School time howfor graduates portionseach typical task in 27 percent of the classrooms drivenmeasuresforscores,1980, over class reported afilling decaderesulting sizes classroomsannually up with intofrom just the now the a withmid-30s glimmer city'sin qualifiednewspapers, unprecedentedand of low-40s,turnaround teachers had strippedbeen became evident.fiscal in aschools emergencydownwarda Retrenchmentmajor of task.critical slide had Test of classFourtherooms: school ofwould those student day. do six Infor hadmobility,the the dailyother day. schedulessixlearning classrooms centers, on blackboards ByI saw 1981,and no arrangment evidence listing ofthe centers. tasks the elements of open classrooms could be seen in these teacher of classroom Signs of those changes in four decades were posted in the numberorganizationsupporting. of The services, image unable and of to buried thecope school witha number the system problems of novel was ateffortsthat hand.26 of to a improvetroubled, school- chaotic centeredinstructionclassroomfurniture.cities less practices. In intasks than organizing these aassigned decadeThis 63 classrooms brief the after to class glimpse students, an intense forclustered ofinstruction however,classrooms effort around to installthrough the ina variety twoprimary open groupingNorth classroomsof modeteacher- Dakota and of in yearssuperintendentsStateLivingston of laws the century, had Street. mandated that While6 wentsat behind the4 in school divisionand the outchiefs top of of desk the servedthe schoolin revolving the the schoolssystem system doors intosince in the 31of 1960. first school110 40 classroomstheschoolsendorsing state had is and awitheredclassroom substantially which suggestswere changes differentless what durable. in order elementssetting A to predominately forupgrade of introducing the approach the state'srural open persisted legislature elementary classrooms in closedadministrators.communitydistricts schools (kindergarten school downProtracted board numerous through empowered and divisive times eighth tobetween teacher hiregradeWhat and strikes1960schools), had fire changed andits and each parent more boycotts than anything were public attitudes. Belief in own teachers and1970. run by a enthusiasmin ballthe nation'sbetween for largestinformal 110 Livingston school schooling system. Street that appearedand Turnschools andnow across richocheted to New the Yorkcity. like Citya cue in the 1970s for a look at the uneven corruptionwereWarintellectualthe legitimacy IIsupposed years inand confidence constructingto of moral do. the In school developmentthose diminished new years, board schools. New inandhad the Yorkers stafferoded. Theypublic heardschoolsDuring of theschoolto do post-World what officials' they as guardians of children'ssaw school boards and NEWmillionCompare YORK students the CITY school in nearly system a thousandin 1940 with buildings 1980. withThere over were 50,000 still about teachers. one ism.topofside,superintendents desegregation. administrators Andkeeping New a York straightpaddling They trying parents watchedcourse firstto wrestlewith on but the one children reluctant uncertain, with side teacherof in to thethe if deal not schools union franklyfumbling, and experienced with parent attempts the activ- issue the of canoe, then on the other ThereClintonlatter'srows, was title Highinstill classroom had a School Board been after bolted-downofupgraded Education to desks,Chancellor.and a Beneathsuperintendent, somewhat When this scarred, Isurface visited although still familiarity, DeWitt sat the in however, a number of profound classroom.25 confrontationsrepeatedunleashedreachingresults ofstrikes asquabbles racialcrescendo between and bigotry, boycotts between union of raucous saw members that theparents Boardanarchyshut and and schools and community betweenteacher-activists unioas down and control for parent all arrested, advocateschildren and 1968 and 1970 groups in when f i 4 entirelegislature.162/led toschool intervention Substantial system resulted. bychanges the State Asit. thethe CommissionerOpen governancecity Classrooms watched and and theseof organizationAlternative Education events Schools, unfold, ofand 1965the the 1975 illustratesintroducedThis description anotherby City of variationCollegethe first ofOpen of New informal Corridor York Professoreducation program, Lillian adapted Weber to American in 1967, Informal Education, 1965-1975 / 163 as gently and astutely officialnightlyefforts1970s.27 charges totelevision negotiate of incompetence, news, differences and in nationalpublic were pleasdisplayed journals for improvement, throughoutin daily newspapers, the and 1960s failed and on informalschoolsconditions. and schooling Weberhad written by had placing spentabout student athem.29 year teachersandIn a1967 half there shevisiting and found in British nearby an opportunity primaryschools. in P.S. 123 to apply her ideas of atendentsrecall erosionihe recent the Williamof 1912 theperiod public Hanus Maxwell differed confidence Report becauseand hisand in criticismsuccessors thebarragesWhile schools' was intense of absorbed capacity somehowcharges criticism into thataccompanied theirimprove of Superin- publictenures schools by was familiar to New Yorkers the workingties,voluntarily,importanceIn subsequent and deepas ofinformal a the aversionprofessoryears, teacher classrooms Weber to and aslabels decision pursuedlater composed about as maker, herdirector openness. convictionsof teacherschildren of Her joiningwith about different thethe central abili- a center for informal strategy of change, program classroomsAdoptinglot of children. and Open alternative WithinClassrooms: schools this political Rhetoric popped contextupand like Action mushrooms of the late after 1960s, a rain. open thattosmalleducationboth "wasproduce, they changes it ourshould over intention taken outside time, go individuallythis a toof transformed way.convince the school Instead, and the teacher voluntarilysystemwas whole she wantedand New byschool. encouraging York teachers "to CityworkNever, and school in sheschools, said, a series of a smallsystem P.S.A vignette 123: of a school program getting underway one morning in Harlem's At 9:30 A.M. teacher aides and student teachers begin to line the small, classroomsofschools....way contacts to create "31 werespread an formally outwardexemplar linked in Manhattanof to what Weber's could untilFrom City bein Collegefive 1971possible kindergarten-second Advisory in the Servicepublic grade teachers in P.S. 123, ten schools and 80 a network Thereanimals,differenttheyL-shaped are bring scales, clay....kindssection out Cuisenaireboxes ofSingly, of match the full corridorand ofrods,puzzles, materialsin pairs,water with counting tablesthreesvessels, and spread and devices,musical chairs.fours, the contentsinstruments, hexagons, childrenOut of a on filterstorage trapezoids, thea dozen into tables. room the 4,000thetion.to Open Open Four children Corridors Corridors years in later, classes.3I whichprogram an inventory became listed 17the of schools schoolsWorkshop and and 156Center teachers teachers for affiliated Open with Educa- with almost teacherscorridortimesdirectly fromwithare to conducting activities,afive friend classrooms, in having tow,lessons.... shop the lei,,ned doorsaround the of before whichcorridor'sThe settlingare corridor openofferings. down and has insideto becomeOthers, one which thing.... some-another kind of place. Some children move directlyhadinvestmentSilberman 200 toteachers inCityand informal VitoCollege. with Perrone, education, almost In addition, 5,000gathered 26 elementary children over Byto celebrate1978 in and when 2 secondary Weber's schools friends and admirers, including Charles a thousand teachers, aides, open classrooms tied a decade of her shenewsprintidentifyingAt onewill tablethen on relationships. the measurea four floor year while in Behind,blocks old a student girl anda six is hangteacher manipulatingyear onold traces the Otherhas wall. spread her childrena formgame herself in areabout crayon, on pacing a people,piece.of which off distances, measuring with string.... A few otherversionsprincipals, privately of andthe andopenparents publicly classroom visited funded the on Workshop theirgroups ownElsewhere working initiative Center inannually.32 the city, whole schools and individual teachers adopted out of universities and or with the help of shoes....feetrooms.... away a Insidegroup theof fourroom, has run been along working formal steadily Childrenlines, there for return anis a hour tostriking their weighing classes, absence others come out, work continues in all the otheraboutwentconstructstore aheadfronts.teacherstheir a form personaland Other wrote didof teachers,open it.odysseys of While similarclassroom unaware Herb in journeyssomeuncertainly Kohltailored of theand to innovationsopeningGloria their of themstyle Channon andpainfully students, wrote books just up their classrooms, or determined to unsuc- of onclear.informallyfromrestlessness. the theMaterials, corridor corridor. in Children small walls tables, In clusters sharp areare and thehard contrast,chairsof paper children....at work have cutouts a second despitebeen By of returned 11gradechildren the A.M. sounds class to the figures.`" their- nextandcorridor storeroom. movementsdoor begins operates Left to teachersforward.cessfulin occurredLocally, Master's amidsta similartheses." the welling heavy emotionalup of Betweenenthusiasm fallout 1970 from and the 1973, national interest in open classrooms surged among parents and 1968-1969 176 164 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965-1975 Informal Education, 1965-1975 / 165 Chancellor.nationalcommunityschoolRalph year searchBunchc Afterschool of threefor Sargent alldistricts. a personteachernational Shriver, It to occurredstrikes figureshadassume Arthur and also the Goldberg, the turnednewlyin creationthe midst createddownRamsey of of the overtopa Clark, year-long Board post thirty and of of teachersteacherCentersopen1973, classrooms change.evenlargely to other before Budgetignored were assignments, Scribner hard cuts, informal to left,ballooning locate. increased Shanker's classrooms By class1975, emphasispublic sizes,as union-supported appropriate statements staff on improvingfirings, on targets theTeacher shifting joys testfor of AlbertandacceptedEducation, the Shankerforthright the Harvey post in inpublic favor 1970.34Scribner, position of informal Vermont's taken education byDuring CommissionerUnited intersected theseFederation turbulent of neatlyofEducation, Teachers' years, for a the naming of Scribner as Chancellor Spreadclassrooms.38scores, andof Open basic skillsClassrooms instruction replaced talk about reform and informal hear.allTeaneckFifty-sixmoment the His bells in (New"Vermontyear time, that oldJersey) raising informal Harvey Design superintendenthopes classroom forScribner, for Education" the future enthusiasts formerprior of(1968) to open ruralhis wantedstintlaidclassrooms Maine outin Vermont,desperately 17 teacher inobjectives the rangand to city. administratorsteachersmeWhy but the of brief did less in momentconcentrated importance their classroomsof reform uponin this hopesopening whilestudy disappeared upthantalk classrooms fromdetermining is union of muchand leaders alternatives.what interest most and to thatstudentsuponauthorin capturedhis his speechs. of whoexperience a thebook wanted main He on met tenets herasto alearn,with conversionrural of Gloria informalas teacher he often Channon,to whoeducation.open said. tried classrooms. "There a tofifth He get quoted isgrade out no He one Johnteacher drew design Holt often and of of the way of appearovertionprovisionedEvidence has 25,000 among been that their teachers. presented. hundredsthem? rooms, The To Buttaughtof answerwhat teachers there smallextent here were began groups, isdid over similar elementscenters, 600and to prizedelementary the rearranged of one openstudent offered schoolsclassrooms furniture,participa- before and educationgivesaid,must them"togive that proceed childrenmany can alternatives."35serve at an their opportunitythe ownneeds rate, of to allto learn workpeople,"Pledging in at their theirhe particulartold to own make a reporter.level. decentralizationmanner," We "We must work and to reform schooling in he inkblot.adoptionvaried;on progressive teachers was uneven practices were selective in twoschoolscloser generations in what theyWhat to earlier. theintroduced; can spattering beDefinitions said and with of the inkofa modest patternopenness than degreeof of confidence is that the spread an forandScribnerorder change.36 sought to producevisited out like-minded schools, more choices spoke people tofor inteachers students the cityWorking and in in an administratorsclassrooms effort the other to build andside frequently, coalitions schools,of the street, Albert Shanker said to a reporter: i experimentmademethodsgenerousof open his classrooms, in 25estimate sanctionedtheir percent classrooms howeverafter of and teachers years promoted defined just ofestimated prior high andby to theinterestimplemented, Worldby Superintendent Loftus andWar to II.did be Recall notusing and exceed staff activitythat that hethe a six-year formal see"Wecommunityinformas him intenda vehicle as uniona to hero, forums,getfor leadershipteachersreforminga constructive and tosupport schools, readof critic."the Silberman system-wide merits the Endorsing teacher of(Crisis openefforts union the in classrooms, the informal inpresident thatClassroom) direction. sponsor and At a pledged toclassroom managers.enjoysustainedinvolved widespread over setWords of 75,000 policies weresupport children simply and among organizational insufficientin nearlycentral 70 administration Scribnerto schools.procedures; generate served changes and less middle-level beyond than three110 years; he shaped nor did hisno ideas explicit and laterincomingindeed,andmitted city-wide savvy to a tide.37 "shopspecial union meeting around" president moment. of toteachers, find publiclyIt lasted an Shankeropen supportingno longerclassroom. urged thaninformal that The a sandparents new education castle Chancellor be per- in was, the couldopenacrimoniouswithLivingston the classroomsboost birth Street. open teacherof 30 classrooms,existed. Also, community strikes. a generalLacking Thus,teachers school political ano formal districts embracedorganizational instability institutional coming informal pervaded drivein the frameworkpractices forbackwash the adopting that of system on an toTryingwideningthe trying post to towhenreformgap turn of his aroundconfidence"the contract New the York liner betweenended City Queen schools,in the June, TwoElizabeth Board Scribnerand 1973. of a IIEducationhalf inHis discovered, theyears explanation: East intoand River. washimself.the job,akin By "a Scribner announced he would177 leave schoolscadresclassroompracticesad hoc of and basis,like-minded ishow survey impossible finding many was individualsteachers occasional ever to determine undertaken eventually elsewheresupport with in implemented in anythe incolleges, 1967-1975precisionthe system. private since period. How 176 open classroom groups,no or formal many 166 / Openwouldfour Classrooms or have five askedhad and maintainedAlternative for a recount, Schools, an open1965given 1975 theIf a survey had been done and it showed classroom, even defined broadly, I lack of corroboratingthat more evidence. than one teacher in slum,schooland had newly Gerald 1,300 appointed. Levy children wrote Heand about records 70 teachers, in passionatelyGhetto half School, of whom and located with were much ininexperienced a mid-towndisgust how Informal Education, 1965-1975 TeachingTheanques,Fordham basisestimate. data Workshop for University,fot myIn the the estimate Open were17 Queenselementary active is narrow, College,in spreading Bank Corridors is available and provides some basis schools in 1975 where Open Corridors however. While City College, informal classroomStreet, and techni- the Creative for designed,secondlearningstrike,they stumbled parent gradeas he the said, action, throughteacher,primary to keep and 1967-1968, goal.instruction childrenadministrative Except quiet a wasfor year andthe a fecklessness.marked series kindergartenbusy at ofby their mindless a wildcat Orderteacherdesks. replacedroutinesteacher'sReading and one existedWorkshopwere550involved teachers. therepart of on wasin the OpentheOf a program. totalthatprogram. Education population,student These therepopulation schoolsover were had an By 1978, in 26 elementary schools linked 3,000 students and3,900 150 children teachers and 180 teachersof about 13,000 and aroundestimated 21,000 children with fifthteachersclassroomslike a graders topsy-turvy with seven ato strong an version decades open distaste classroomof earlier, Joseph for schools.41 theRice's in book 1967-1968Gloria dreary portrays Channon's chronicles contains both frankchildrenof unsparingNew description York and of how she introduced 22 Harlem workedwouldandhadschools 800 beenexpect next teachers. had associated to diffusion heavycolleagues And participation withthisto beheavily levelCity contagious Collegeof involved becauseinvolvement sinceand in of non-open was other schools may havethe length recentlythe of program. time the Noschool doubt some in schools where oneclassroom teachers strugglepublication,hadadministrative imprinted to free ofherself upon Januarymemos ofher. a 31,and mindsetFrom 1968:observations the that Stuff a dozen Bulletin, drawn years froma in 110 New a Livingston painful York schools internal Street lower.fromjoined.39 a universityNone of this or advisersis to suggest the level that oftheIn other schools across the city where insubstantial.involvement, Teachersteachers 1 trained would lackedinfluence guess,in outside wasof support the Workshop on sentences....makeDuringGumPupils a recitation chewingcontribution, must ask is lessons, permissionforbidden they pupils shouldanywhere to shouldgo tobe the inraiseencouraged thebathroom.... handsschool to building. to indicate speak The desire teacher to in full workedOpenfunding EducationCorridors elsewhere was cut andtook in for similarschool administrative Open programsefforts Corridors was (e.g.posts advisers, Teacher throughout the system and community boards often Centers). Also, when bethePupilsmust discardedteacher set should the and example....onempty everything the theirspot desksorother taken thanregularly home approved underat 3:00.... books the routine and materials supervision should of 42 consultants.4°foundTeacher accounts Reports elsewhere and Direct in Observation of the budget to continueClassrooms the work of "gets whipped into shape." theChannon main focus observed of their that activity. by the Lessons third gradeare formallyChildren the New organized sit York at their intocurriculum desks spelling, for hours. Notebooks and textbooks become subjectsthereadAnother daily of New inbasis issues self-contained York for of theCity steering estimate teachers classrooms. 30 comes inor these more Some from years students of the numerous tried some techniques; mosttheseand how teachers, they wrestled intrigued with by through a half-dozen reports I have fearedchronicled and whereher experiences parents were in apushing buildingatpenmanship, for aIn dominatedpremium, openanother classrooms reading, now Harlem by as a nevercomposition,principal inschool 1972herbefore.43 sheof and 1,350 math. children, Silence and Donna good behavior DeGaetani are seemedtalkcontacttryupon about out surviving,too newwith informal busy, childrenapproaches tooor classrooms,simply exhausted, in and thatdisagreed out toogingerly of theintimidated by required preparation of materials, more with the direction. They hesitatedclassroom, to and possibly extra time superiors, too intent reactionsthird as a toteacher. a formal Her observation frankness isby disarming. her principal.adjustingKnowing DeGaetani that she wasdescribed to observe her you teaching resulted in such actions as shades to regulation height, picking up stray pieces of at underhome workingwhich teachers on classroom taught tasks.and what they173In didthe inlate 1960s, a number of teacher accounts their classrooms.described The conditions anpreppingpaper authority .. . droppedthe Ichildren did onnot the onbelieve theirfloor, behavior.... inbringing but had your notI admit bulletinthe strengthI was boards a coward, to challenge.up to cowed date, and by 180 44 Informal Education, 1965-1975 1 169 chosenthrough168 / Open 3by Classrooms opened students upand their forAlternative an classrooms hour Schools, or 1965 soslowly Aftera 1975 day. through this Proud principal centers as she and retired, was activities of 4her teachers (of about 30) in grades 1 bore down on socialsupervisor,affect studieshow assistantand lesson. what principal SittingBoroughs in Edmund the did. back Take, Fried, ofLelyveld the for to room, evaluateexample, also Boroughs provides her the teaching visit gave a glimpse of himofher a of some organizational processes that progress,believehow"pressuresthe teacher. to thetakein." weightteachers Why the"Too Test, didof ofteninto the shealthough Metropolitancompromises.... thesuccumb cloud I realize to of Achievement the achievement Ithis presure?know is basicallyI will Tests tests,"teach against my she children wrote,what I intendedthe daily toplan follow composed as she oftaught the aims, the lesson. procedures,(Lelyveld and writes) activities but had that not she actually committedMiss any Boroughs thoughts tohad paper been until worrying about the lesson plan for a week ButthoseknowI do mostnot ofthe havetraditional scoresparents the of energy don't. openclasses. Manynor,education The at administrators this comparison classes point, thein isour willingnessdon't itself school and fallacious. willthe of systemfightbe comparedI know the doesn't.45 system. that.... with I to a close with the question: "why are weAfterdemandsthe studying lunch teaching ofhour theher that explorers?"supervisorthe day.lesson Normally but on neverexplorers, she works prepares Boroughs from lesson them... brought plans .49 to the satisfy period the childfirstdiary grade hasof her an teachers thirdassigned year had seat asclasses a andprimary "conducted all tables teacherIn face ain nearbyin the the1971-1972. traditional front school of theThesimilarmanner. room." six toother Each DeGaetani's, In Alicia Montalvo kept a themin the already." direction of Mr. Fried. On"Fooled"Because his way you, he's out, Shaun,"Kure Mr. to Friedwatch," the assistant noted said Shaunthat principal Pizzaro Sheppard declared. was knowingly, the "I only know Spanish nodding about hadordersheprepareafter to to hadget 3:00thestart specialmaterialsto leavean opentime permission by and classroom,3:30in change the because fromcontract centers, a the "Bankno principal."onethat the Street" could teachersprincipal beBecauseone responsible couldas she she leavedefined often for schoolto herstayed it, after"1 called her in to say that semester she had signed up with a handfulfilledtoldexplorer Orof Miss othertwoconsider mentioned Boroughssheets P.S. Boroughs' on198 thatinhis theteachers clipboard.5'later text exposureon who heto wouldhad tonot gothe been over open mentioned with classroom. her the in commentsthe In lesson. the springthat He thatworkeveneffort," time. angrierwith she"I reallyCuisenaire wrote later don't inin theher rods know yeardiary to whentheif for this conventional that she whole day,switched idea "Im way of sothe mineofdisgusted." children teaching is worth additionShe the got from their outsidetheAftertake Lower an hearing after-school help, East fromBoroughs Side hercourse who student hadgot on permissionopenedopen teacher classrooms up about their from classroomsthree offered her teachersprincipal by withoutHunter at to P.S. spendCollege.funds 42 onor a classroom."46heand30 testedsubtraction students, to seeunlike after whether the her principal colleagues or not told described they her thatIn were P.S. above,"the 198learning children enjoyed (Manhattan), werein an the easy-goinggoing openDorothy to Boroughs, fourth grade teacher of visitsbyintomorning thespurred one professor mathin Boroughs'these corner. to teachers' speak thinkingWhen to therooms. twoP.S. and of The198a mildthe class,Hunter P.S. rearrangement the 42 College principal teachers class ofannounced furniture and these were invited on forrelationship(1970-1971) The New with York periodically her Times, principal. visitingJoseph In a unique LelyveldBorough's "Aseries spent brisk,class.47 of almostan energetic, entire a dozen school and articles strongly year committed young teacher who is ofteachersthe "shewhom public seemed describe wereaddress uncertainregistered how system they as thatfor openedto thehow entireclass, upfar theiror staffshowed fast classes. Boroughsof she 55 herself were Twelve was invited would interestedteachers, to hear in the an open classroom. "But," Lelyveld up at the meeting." move in that wrote, most fourthBoroughs'usuallyearnestwith grade children, among demands.as level.a teacher the and He The showered dedicateddescribed children them to herresponded getting whenwith a childrenshe mixturewith laughed, openness to of read touching scolded, at and or seriousness,above praisepleaded the and first at school to punch in," Lelyveld described creatively.faded.direction.early The 1970s By Workingsupreme the as enda writer realityin of a thebilingual, charged was week, Spring."52 experimental"debateto help teachersNotover far educationalschool from and withchildrenP.S. theory198, poet had Philip Lopate worked in P.S. 90 in the open class- to write classif notchildrenachievementfacing on outright tasks one could another,that affection and resist the behavior teacherworking48 for their were had individually, teacher. assigned. evidentn1 Students daily High in small in teacher asat vibrant groups at expectationsclustered charm or as an thatdesks entirefor few rooms Lopate received advice from a friendlyThisP.S.there's school 90 veteran a unless lot may of conservative it'steacher.look introduced free and feeling. verygroovy cautiously Nothing on the from surfaceand the slowly. outsidebut don't will be take fooled, root at 182 After170/ being in the school for awhile,Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965-1975 Lopate noticed some classes were and classroom activities; and the number of classrooms that contained at informal Education, 1965-1975 I 171 mostlyDenise white Loften while explained others were why. the beginning of the year whether they wantedDenise to said the reason for this was that the parents were predominately black and Puerto Rican. place their children in 'open' given a choice at whatpractices.panyingleast onethey any learning Thesechose attempt figuresto center. put to determine intosupport I have practice. alreadythe the point spread mentioned Giventhat among teachers the limitsthe teachers wereproblems to theparticular of datainformal accom- I presented, in it would still be fair to say that tional context, not to mention theor largerbasicoptedSide'moreFrom tended skills... moreformal' these for to.53 classrooms. traditionalselectteacher open and classes, classrooms. journalist feeling Theaccountsthat parentsopen a The white, liberal parents of the Upper West environment outside of the educationflavor might for bethe soft organiza- on from ethnic minorities aboutdotsofopen the probably classrooms, highcity inschools? these didn't at peak varyingadd yearsup to stage ofmore interest of than development, inone informal teacher dotted classrooms. in four the or school five. But Whatthese map dominatingmannetschool,elementary suggests, following an classroom entire that personal versionsschool. descriptions contacts of open from classrooms Supportingacross this observation are limited data and random information, yet seldom the city. Figure 4.1 showsspread in a hop-scotchdrawn from over 30 schoolsclassrooms,AlternativeRegular differed and althoughschools Alternative somewhat were there not Highwerefrom simply similarities.theSchools sources the secondary ofThe informal roots counterpart of education. alternative to These openhigh tionfurniturethatthese andstudent-centered practicesclassroom arrangement appear. tasks andpractices in Two studentno moreitems, occurred movement than however, one-quarter in over but are interesting.under The groupin substan-grouping instructionhalf for of instruc- the classesof the inclassrooms did highthenam,roots late schools.civilwere 1960s rights located Growinglike concerns, metal in student disaffection filings and protest hugginga melange with against a high magnet. of issues universityschool Protest that rules cameprograms, filtered and together behavior, down Viet- into tial percentagesPercent of a 100mixed pattern that turn up 0Elsi Student-centered Mixed Teacherinstruction -centered mentstudentcurriculumbigness, of boycotts,privateconventional viewed and underground as public instruction,alien alternativeto current newspapers, a lack youth schools.54 of Murrayparticipation concernsdrop-outs, Road found in(Newton,and decisions, theexpression establish- Massachusetts) and ina and New York's Harlem Prep 809070 ell( Classrooms with )more Number of classesthaninstruction one learning center openedmovementprogramMinnesota) their sent hundredsdoors began students in in of1967. 1968, throughoutsecondary Wilson and, alternativea the Openyear city later,Campus to schools learn. Philadelphia's School Athad the been (Mankato,height created Parkway of theby 6050 53 59 45 42 54 39 and,secondary1972. in a Thenumber schools mortality of were instances, ratea fact ran ofnurtured high.life that 55Schools most school without systems walls accepted where the city is the classroom, store-front Still, by 1975, public alternative 4030 29 18 26 15 24 31 30 schools,alternativemagnet mini-schools schools high schools. (e.g. within arts, I largerexclude science, conventional vocational, etc.)all fall high continuation, under schools, the headingtheme and other or of 2010 0 L Group Classroom Student 4 Classroom schools.establishedschools targetedA numberprior to on of1965. certain commonalities, groups of however,No students, easy .xisted.generalization, most of which then, were can capture the diversity in these Figure1967-1975. 4.1 Arrangement 183 C ass(28) Patterns of Instruction in New York City Elementary Classrooms, Instruction (34) Talk(29) IMovement (26) Activities (32) (28) ActiveTeacherSchool ratheras as community advisor than passive learning 184 172 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965-1975 Informal Education, 1965-1975 1173 Varying greatly, individualinstruction.56NeedsStudent high and participation schools experiences stressed in major of somestudents decision of these incorporated making themes into curriculum and by300,000inHarvey chargeany standard.Scribner's students of over Mostin100 platform the academic range early to from 1970s.improve and 3,000 vocationalThe the toacademic Incity's 4,000 New high high students Yorkhigh schools schools. schools City, with enrolling Scribner alternative 175were to large was215 schools became an official plank in over highcoursesandandmore curricularschools.57 than others. ideological decision Nonetheless, commitment, makingparticularly in size, climate,alternativesWhat teachers inabout constructing differed instruction? advising from students,elective regularWith the individual student, active learning, largestBrandeisschoolsonesteachers which New in on(Manhattan) 1971 enrolledthe York faculty. were high between with John Among school, nearly Jay 1,500 the(Brooklyn) 6,000,with smallerto 2,000almost and schools DeWittwithstudents; 7,000 5,600 Clintonwere studentsall students, the (Bronx), vocational male.Louis the among the larger schoolsteachingtionand curricularof has practicesstudent concentrated body,choice occurred? student-teacherupon paramount issuesMost ofof values thegovernance, relationships, research in alternative curriculum, on organizational alternative schools, composi- high what pro- Ethnic composition in the high schools (1971) whiteblack 29.550.9% was: tion,gatheredMoore,cesses; to very "relatively forfrom example,little the attentionlimited formless, cites research: has the collaborative been range teacher-directed, paid ofWhat practiceto investigations pedagogy.58 little has that programmed been he and observeddone activities." stresses instruc- and diversity in teaching methods. David Daily attendance for academic high schools was 77 otherOrientalPuerto Rican 15.1 3.11.4 percent of the student theworkfarwrites,Discussion moreprimary are "lecturing common."commonly is responsibility the happenspreferred Frequent used, moreaccording forteaching field designingthan trips, oneto method, Moore. might and hesupplyingStillimagine, notes. "teachers "Curiously,'but materials often take for he guest speakers, films, and group open talk is Scribner'sorgradebody. four level.Almost year arrival, colleges.61Yet one nearly of a everynumber eight three out of ofstudents ten Thegraduates read new two Chancellor applied or more to directed either a massive privately funded store-front schools, operation. Yet even prior to years below junior theseinnovativestructorscourses." practices Histo teaching assume interviews "may practice bethat new with role." in in andstudents American Moore of itself uncovered Dannotes education."59but theDuke that frquency that visitedthere they anu and wanted the studied mix "inof six alternative secondary schools. In may be less incomebanksNewhadestablished been York and minority either Urbancorporations, through pushedareas Coalition private of out theestablished and efforts, orcity. droppedthe As Urban aimed thenetworks out at of of these grants ended,League, the usingprivate funds groups raised from salvaging. able studentsregular who high schools. The schools in low- studentspracticesstudyusedinstructional a common variety to he work foundgrouping of to withclassroom all that but tutorshe half onefound groupings,ofor of theindividually. mixedthe schools schools. abilitywith had smallNone, Whengrouping special however, he roomslookedin all hadsix. set at "creativeteachingTeachersaside for group and independent (Manhattan),nearby,staffingschoolsnegotiated asandsuch mini-schools.with rooms asWingate theHarambee in Board the Prep Such main of Prep in Educationschools building the in school Charles had orto 75 inofinstall churchesEvansthe them and in the rented facilities to 125 students with separate same name (Brooklyn), Hughes High School regular high wasusedolderstudentroom reported fixed studentsarrangements," exchanges, scales to tutorbethat etc. on students youngeri.e. individual,One learning high wereones. school non-competitivemeasuredcenters, For hadstudent chairsteam against; evaluation, teaching arranged grading. and three to In increase schoolstelling yet far more stress one used werealternativeschools.62and Haaren 11 alternative schools High School, schools spread itselfenrollingthroughout divided 4,000 the into studentsUnder 14 andScribner 40 mini-schools and his successor, these mini-schools and separate system so that by 1975 there semi-autonomous mini- in concludedportfoliosparents12edagogicalAfter howreviewing of that studentswhat revolution."6° "contemporary studentsthe were results haddoing and produced alternative inthe school, history and fourschools ofteacher-parent instructional alternative do1S5 not conferences.constituteschools reforms, used Duke a School'sgram,a numberaimedall 5 Erasmus borough's Talentat of talented alternative Hall's Unlimited of the students. Institute city programs, with Theof about Music Executivelocated 6,500 and in students.Art, schools and Julia and centralRichman program are examples of such programs. By 186 High School Internship pro- In addition there were offices, High 1741 Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965 1975 Informal Education, 1965 -1975 / 175 recruitschools15,0001976, all truantsstudents were of these last-ditchback or alternatives, about to school efforts5 percent and including to toofsave upgradeallThe studentshigh mini-schools, range schoolmarginally from of youth.63options, dropping enrolled academic, as mentioned almostout, but to earlier, was broad. Most mini- writtenlikeIn thoseRegularthe descriptions conventional practiced High School of in academic 33 earlier teachers Classrooms generations. high in schools,13 high I schools located patterns of instruction were between 1969photographs and and characterizedwhodemands,schools.able youngwould Small and mensee manydidn't classes studentsand ofmi;.dwomen theseof at less being home whomini-schools.64 than called foundor 25 at students, theirby it difficulttheir job: firstteachers these to names; adjust were who to streetelements listen,regular workers make highthat room,almoststriking.1975. and two-thirds Spare(See most Figure as class ofthe the4.2.) activitiessample time, is,hardly built the aroundTeaching students the listening,entire class writing, as a group almost always, convergence in teachingany patterns student ismovement within the the teacher talking groups.65andMiddleNew Park York College East counterpart High High School, Schoollinkedto Philadelphia's a school to initiallyThe LaGuardiaParkway 11 alternative founded program; Community by schools Harlem community College in Prep; 1976 included the City-As-School, the collected.tionswatching, by New Reporter etc.this York isWilliamTimes teacher-centered reporters Stevens offer produced instruction additionalProfiles of writ two high schools, including extensive an in-depth article in 1971 data to the 33classroom that I observa- large. conventionalWingatemethodsPrep suggest Prep, are practice. Harambee, familiar.a range While of A Georgeteacher sampling: classes Washingtonapproaches are smallerEvidence well Prep, and within drawn andless Lowerformal, thefrom mainstream Eastjournalists teaching Side of who observed over a dozen classes at la Teacherinstruction - centered punishingA wide-ranging drug pushers, discussion and the on impact the use of of peer drugs, cultures the intenselynew state engaged law on Percent 100 97 (El0 MixedStudent- centered) Number of classesinstruction students.StudentsdiscussingchildAn English spent reading the partclass story. of readingparts the period in a a Dorothy play moving written Parker around by short a the contemporary classstory blindfoldedabout ablack blind priorwriter black to 807090 89 79 questionsAteacher.halted historyattention, periodically andclass talked plunged that foramong was momentson awith themselves,disaster. answers of intense The ignoredto teacher herdiscussion questions; teacher lectured, between warnings. students rambled, the paidclassMercifully, asked little and 405060 64 AnnotesAthe teacher bellastronomy silently. rings. wrote lesson quadratic was equations interspersed on the with blackboard questions and and students answers took on 2030 25 tt 21 mini-schools: "The classroom instructionOne reporterand subject summed matter astrologyup arehis notimpressions and horoscopes.' of classroom teaching in 10 0 Arrangement Instruction Class 5 Group Cal Classroom Talk MovementStudent ClassroomActivities decisionsinformalityschools."essentially Whatthat different in137 oftenrelations was fromdifferentinvolved between what instudents.° might these teachers be alternatives found and instudents, many was sizeconventional and of governance the school, high 1965-1975.Figure 4.2 65% of all desks were stationary. (20)Patterns of Instruction in New York City High ( 33) (33) 188 (19) School Classrooms, (31) 176on / Open John Classrooms Bowne andHigh Alternative School Schools, (Queens), 1965 1975 a school with a faculty of 200 for Algebra.problems "Happy all period class." as Natalie the teacher worked circulated on polynominal through themultiplication class helping Informal Education, 1965 1975 / 177 3,100taughtresultEthnically, students, ofby aPhysics BowneBoard of whom teacherdesegregationwas 65%75% Norman whitewent plan." andtoHesse', either 30%Stevens where black,a two- studentssat mostor infour-year ofclassrooms. individuallywhom college. came He asand contrasteda a radio electronics class ancientSocialinstudents.individual Algebra. Studies. China's "I students.just Natalielike civil it," Afterservice isshe bored repliedNatalie system on toMonday. finished, Stevens'or their She shequestionscholar-gentry couldn't br2gan about carehelping her class.less interest otherabout On howdirections.another,giveenthusiastically toany create playingteacher "This more built year," cards,a sweatysituations radios Stevens walking nightmarestudents piece like wrote, around that by piece,"Bownein theHessel's room,and hasthrowing aclass beenmathignoring and preoccupied class spitballs change the that teacher's atsceneswould with one switched.Spanish.socialWednesday,between status, NatalieThe a students andtourist lesson class had and onmobility.failed teacherhotel Monday classclerk. got was ininto Using first baseda lively anine "Peanuts" upon discussion weeks. a story cartoon, Teachers of of civil a meetingthe service, were teacher likeaffectsteachersday those was instruction,in slicedreported, the mathematicsup intoand teachers ninethe bell 40-minute class."69 also cuts pointed them periods.Bowne off. out While toSolid had Stevens nearlythediscussions scheduling that 500 "traditionalclasses get ofgoing, timea day in about 75 different subjects. The bowwows,examples,exchangesCreativeasked questions Writing. classoccurredswishes, inexploded Teacher Spanish jingles,after introduced teacherwith and moos, thea "cacaphony explanation.class oinks....onomatopoeia. chorused Much of When bangs, replies. Questionhilarity." teacher meows, and asked answersbuzzes, for teachteachingthe"thego out sexsame teacher ofapproaches"the style."subject way is at weAnd theat teach drivetheStevens,front sameother studentsof the after time."things," class sitting into attemptingone boredom. in teacher a number toremarked,"If interest ofwe classes, were everyone"it everwould to in said that wasStevens the summarizedsame as yesterday," two entire or days "classes of classes wereExcept withthe for same."72 the science, laconic: where "Tuesday"2.45 laboratory p.m. Bell. work Liberation." had Natalie and a classmate studiesthatparticipatehave if adepartment hespecific had in classroomone-third objective chairman ofuiscussions.plus histold questions class Stevens participating, One that Hardthat teacher provoke each as that lessoninhe studentsthat isjudged to isdepartment do, supposed tothe teachers think, lesson saidtoand acontinued to attempt it. The social movedwasinformation.orpaired a apparent,mild off,along formthe Seatwork by exceptother ofthe recitationfourteacher for took science.classes upwho wereone wereEachcovered entire the taughtlesson primary theperiod. aswascontent. a wholeLittle structured,means Teaching studentgroup. of directed,exchanging Discussion movementthrough and a success.70believesuccesssmall groups thathas been"a were quiet minimal, underway, classroom but not isaccording byzero." definitionEfforts Many to principal teachers,good."71to individualize Roxee Stevens Joly; instruction "our through independent study and said, still gathered.yearstextbookventional later, was Teacher-centered "I and havecommon. mini-school always As felt another patterns thatclasses the John of bestwith instruction F.Stevens' teaching Kennedysome variations narrative machinedominated teacher is inofput a bothdegreebook."732 it high a con-few schoolsand overlap the 33 descriptions I schoolwhowasto almostattended withpart of1,8005,000 Johnthe freshmenas40 F.it percent absorbedKennedy and of sophomoresmore (Bronx),the school grades.William a thatnew Fifteen wouldStevenswas(1972) year black. grow eight-story alsoold TheinNatalie spent enrollment rest a highWright wzekof shadowing a Harlem ninth grader the predecessors,educatorannouncedfrequency of of his38 particular yearsassumedresignation. service practices the Within whoChancellorship. had being a yearrisen Aboutevident. Irvingthrough Improving the Anker, the time ranks a testNewthat as scores mostYork of Cityand his Steven's account appeared, Scribner had commentsschool was androughly Natalie's divided observations between white of her and academic Hispanic classes students. follow: Stevens'Introductory Physical Science. The science teacher paired off students to onsetwouldreadingmid-1970s.accountability of be performancesevere permitted. Automatic werebudget theOpen were cutspromotions new classrooms ininstituted buzz 1975, words were survival beforewere abolished.circulating no replaced promotion longer Tougher among talka hot to about atopic.insiders standardshigher reform.74 With ingrade thefor 1&9 workwrote,tryingrecordedmass. on Theytoabecause secondgetit. They heatedthe she classrun-through spent hadsealed to twolearned graph test days ofthe tubesconservation onan results. theexperiment of experiment copper "Very of mass andboring on because sulphur,the in to juniorconservation Natalie." the weighed, high teacher Stevensschool. of wasand Corridorespeciallydrove public school the publicofficials (P.S. schools. 84) to hadcut Teacher 26back of 52severely layoffs Theteachers fiscal crippled all pink-slipped. governmentemergency programs. thatThe agencies, An joltedripple Open New York like a dash of cold water 190 178 Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965 1975 seniority to vacancies in tion. Within two weeks, the Board decided not to appeal the Wright Informal Education, 1965 1975 / 179 schoolseffectscontractualinfantblack ofwhereand efforts layoffs Hispanic, teacherslimits at shippedopening ofhad with 32 been teachersup andless classrooms. fired. 34years studentswith Massive in themore Class system, instaff elementary many size ballooned beyonddislocation the aborted many and secondaryof whom were programInstead,decisionsystemFour-Track Carlandbythat the askedHansen,system,placed scruff the theresigned.of father Superintendentthe teacher neck, of Indeed, the atunnerving Amidonthe the centerto eventsimplement the Plan, oforganization ofinstruction, a 1967tightly the shook court profoundlystructured and theorder. D.C. in the teacherwereschools,initiative, cut. morale.respectively. Larger risk-taking, Not classes exactly Aides putting and were the less outkind let extra go. of Counselorsclimate Yeteffort, in 1981or a P.S. 84, and a number of other help added up to further plunges in elementary schools, with a that nourishedspirit teacher of innovation.75and special teachers dentsdentthe decade turnover. served that the Forfollowed.77 District: almost Frank a half-century Ballou, OneRobert (1920-1967), benchmark Haycock, of fourHobart the superinten- subsequent Corning, instability is increased superinten- decadethoseif not classrooms. ago,of hostile, history that suchenvironment in While Open efforts thereCorridors survived, is are a testimonial fewer and indeed, informal to the teachers and principals than a flourished in an indifferent, education, stilltenacity retained of committed atPresidentialmovedand the Carl top. in Hansen. Theand Building. school out Yet of systemin the just large overhad twelfth-floorgrown a decade Demography,from (1968-1980), over office 90,000 court in six thestudents decisions, school downtown in chiefs 1940 and political change explain the turmoil teachersschoolshitmany hard and byenrollingstudents administrators.retrenchment, enrolled almost survivedin5,000 students quiteAt well. were the Insecondary still level, alternative high sci.Jols mini-schools lodged in senior highs (e.g. Seward 1979, 11 alternative highand mini-schools,operating, also excluding Bollinglargest8,000to 150,000 v.predominately Sharpe in 1967, of blackwhom school more than system 90 percentin the nation. were black. Althoughteachers Almost worked the in nearly 140 schools (1967). Washington was the decision, the District's counterpart to Brown v. Board of classrooms,ParkvariationsAs Highin the School, certaintwo were North evident. residuesJames Dakota Monroe Degrees of informalcities High of I visitedopenness schoolingBy School, the in early had1981, 1980s,penetrated patterns amidst the dominant teacher-centeredness Haarenpersisted High across School).76 the city. considerablein classroom of most ofEducation, attentionreplacedasthree they children had byfrom been newcomers werethe doing media black, since from and whites World thecivic continuedSouth, groupsWar Il.desegregation forAsto leavetheseits symbolic thewhite generatedschool students value, system much butwere a required desegregation of schools in 1955 when nearly two out usnumbers turn now of elementary to Washington, classrooms D.C., butto see far fewer in the upper if similar patterns emerged. grades. Let Bysystemdecade 1967, ofafter other150,000 the concerns students, shoved most ofaside whom desegregation were caught as in ana web issue.78 of poverty. 1960s Bolling there were only 15,000 white children in a school 1970s, educating black children to perform WASHINGTON,Veteran school-watchers D.C. had never seen a year like 1967. In April, wellwhenschools. slowly Congress, But replaced the goal's in desegregationthe clarity backwash (and ofitsas widespreadthepursuit)By fundamental the often late rioting went issue astraytriggered facing after bythe 1968 the and early town.themteachersmembers,appointments atIn theJune.voted bargaining most for3-2 createdthe ofto firsthavewhom table. timea the Board actively Teacher Americanin the of history opposedEducation unions Federation hadthe with policiesarrived of a majority of of the District schools judicial Teachers represent in a non-unionCarl Hansen, of black teachersdecreeobscuredpiecesassassination of inhomethe the of intense ruleMartin to effortsthe Luther District of King, administrators government. Jr., passed to Ina complyseries addition, of with laws the the goalthat judicial gavewas the middle of the schoolHobson year v.to Hansen, permit equitable allocation of a decision that mandated the transfers of systemquarter-millionschoolpolicies, waschief the released. for largely dollar nine The ineffective studyyears. study by Later severely Teachers arid in inappropriate the criticized College same month, ofinstructional the entire a program, the Superintendent's year-long, school schoolresourcesEducation programs to inall schools.for the remainder Such massive of the transfers Electoralschool year.79 of politics teachers came disrupted to D.C. initially with an elected Board of 1968; anything connected with schools became contested tracknear-empty183-pageand system, called decision for thewhite an busing endinschools the to of the black west Four-Track ofchildren Rock191The Creekfromsystem very overcrowded Park,same of grouping day, federal Judge J. Skelly Wright Hobson v. Hansen suit. He ordered an end to the and faculty integra- renderedstuder .s. aschools to items.headtwoproducedarrived years. Thea big-city new William justHis Board'ssuccessor,asschool the Manning Schoolsystem search a Detroit from in Boardfor the a Lansing,administrator, nation.superintendent independently Hugh Michigan. Scott,became to arranged Hereplaceappointed the lasted first Hansenfor lessinblack Kenneth 1970, than to 192 180Clark / Open (urbanClassrooms schools' and Alternative critic, Schools, psychologist, 1965-1975 and member of the New York After two decades under Carl Hansen and Frank Ballod's immediate Informal Education, 1965 1975 / 181 Statestiffacademicschooleducation Board resistance system's achievement,ofinto Regents) fromthe energies schools. the to wasteachers' put on handedThe his the Clarkprogramunion teaching to Scott Plan,because design toof an implement.reading effortof to testing improve that and The focused district plan met requirements improving the successors,read593-pagetitleWashington ofit. the Passowstudy study. was gave foundto The createlittle shortcomings the comfort a schools "Model to in Hansen Urbanof need the of Schoolsystemor fundamentalhis supporters System"thedocumented changes when formal in they ifthe andthanexecutingboardevaluated less-than-subtle a members,year theon later, theWright basisunion He hints decreehad of threats testbylasted buriedschool results. to less strike, the officials thanConstant plan and three by bureaucraticthat bickering1972 teachers and Scottbetween years.8° foul-ups over exitedmight less be school AtheyGrouping lowlevelcurriculum were proceduresobserved of scholasticwhich, in whichwithpractice achievement certain have been exceptions, honored hasin the not breach been especiallyas often as superintendentBarbaraempowermentactive citizen Sizemore participation of theblackhad district the people, intwo-fold the and governance and the distinction thefirstScott's superintendent and successor. of operation being athe ofChicago school administrator, deeply positive benefits of conflict. fired afterschools,first a femalebelieved the in Nor did any of the conclusions on the instructional programofdeveloped Aresponsibilities central throw for administrative or adapted in some to areas,organization an urban and proliferationpopulation which combined and overlap overconcentration in others appointmentdentpublicas twoa hearinghigh years. school in of 1975. the principal, BoardAn insider of andEducation. who hadThe Sizemorerisen swinging-door through the superintendency halted with had been a top lieutenant of the three lasted as superinten- Vincent Reed's ranks, served teachers"atbouquets all costs" overat school thehave years. officials.83 led the"The school presence board of toTeachersso hiremany hundreds ill-qualifiedwere "inadequately of temporary teachers," prepared." Pressures to staff classrooms whiplashingordersuperintendentsAcomprehensive massive to a system of staff entering that programthat development followed was and called inexisting profound Hansen, the program administrators. Competency-Based organizational Reed that re-established trained In 1976, Curriculum he thousands ofdisarray staff after the manageriallaunched a (CBC). Passowsubjectaccording concluded, matter, to classroom and "no fearful doubtobservers, of theaccounts normal arc ritualistic,Curriculum for activities the manysuperficial of was teachers."84 teachers narrow. in presenting who, Schools "stripped subjects to their most membersboosttheyear.achieve instructional In-servicestaff howobjectives, morale to setsessions, staff, werelesson and elaborate assessvarious three-poundobjectives, results strategiesexplanations deviseof classroom used instructional to in the implementing instruction public, manuals of directions distributed to and tacticsstrategies to to during the CBC. A givenandreachedformalritual word-recognition short and itscode-breaking...." peak leastshrift inmeaningful or a programdetoured as phonics, Otheraspects." that into "construed thusfurtherelementary In turning teaching exercises reading readingschool reading inas subjectsreading."word-recognitioninto the a narrownessprogram "are Yet eithertest of slimsplitastudentssocial number majority in promotion the had of Boardof publicto the demonstrate Boardoverand displays the Reed's approved setting beforeof plans ofReed's they tominimal create could direction, alevelsbe high promoted. including schoolof competency In Superintendent-Board friction and a deep for the gifted 1960,the afterend of that resultstracksnumbers show and of "not whatelementary enough movement andchildren secondary occurred do, in students Tracking fact,between learn that was tracks, to were readineffective. inthewell."85 the task different After force reviewing student achievement, the andturbulent1967 other and issues, 1980Board-Superintendent sotsthe Superintendentthe stage for examining politics tookThis anand brief what early the summaryoccurred inevitable inof organizational instability at the top and teachers on when to move and retirement.81 schoolsconfusion amid of between elementaryadministratorstencies,studying and tracking schools inadequacies trained concluded selected in observingto at thatwarrant random. "there classroomsits "TheAnd areabandonment."86 sufficient clockclassroom visited seemed inequities, teaching? 75 to teachers be ininconsis- chargeTwenty-three in 9 experienced teachers and whengreennearlycalledthe onsettoand stop. thetwo193 red of Passow huidirpci Alightsthis snapshot period givenReport, staff of to turmoil)whereaftermembers,principals Study the comes entireconducted Director from system A.the the Harry wasTeachers year-long in Passow 1966-1967College (at study survey.82BESTwho, COPY with AVAILABLE when,of another.lumthe classroom," andBulletin Thereunder in waswhat onethe little observerAmidonconditions. evidence wrote. Planwere Lessonsconsistent of Dailyteachers similar schedules departing from withset one fromwho the classroom didtheCurricu- what,spirit ofto 194 Informal Education, 1965 -1975 I 183 the182childrenrooms," / PlanOpen Classroomsor seem observersdaily compliant, andschedule. Ahernalive reported, obedient,"The Schools, "was 1965-1975 andthe phonics, on reading for social studies informa- striking characteristics of these class- passive." quietTime andwas spentorderliness.. mostly .. The curricAar,system,students.single innovation by Establishedinstructional, 1970 (when that promised to aand programbe organizationalan improvementexperimental inventory innovations wasfor arm urban for hadpoorthe entirebeen and installed taken) over two dozen minority school tion,on "drill and andon working reading arithmeticand problems."highlythe teachers directive in Washington role.... the child have spentbeen ledmostThe ... to general conclusion to be drawn from these of his day paying the closest place themselves ...observations in a is that ... theclimateinMath(e.g. Reading). departure elementary Project, resonating Federal, team of science Carl withteaching, private, Hansen, optimismseries, nongraded and English reluctant localand changein fundsprimaries, Every parent mixedin Classroom, the Languageof Cardozoto the produce decentralized the area. Madison a Experience heady With less comfort zo either teachers or administrators:questions,possibleAtanother, the attention highobeying either school to formallyher his rules. level, teacher, or The observations informally....7 followingchildren were her were not directions, respondinglimited to her and offeredencouraged even to talk to one operatingTeam.respectventure, Composedof the manyin MSD1967 educators, underofhad 15 even experiencedthe both directionmore locally discretion classroom ofandOne Mary nationally, showcase to Lela innovate.teachers, Sherburne, was effort the that team who brought began had much publicity while earning the the Innovation Science:approach...."Socialwas minimal studies: pupil-teacher or pupil-pupil "In the main, the teachers lecture and the students "In most classrooms, instruction seems to follow a interaction." listen. There textbook ideascoordination,spinningItsworked initial and with outtaskmaterials theof thewas federalEducation team to into begin was andtheir Development coordinatingtolocal daily help reformers' practice.classroom Centerthe headsmyriad teachers (EDC) and programs in wallets.incorporate Newton, that Beyond Mass. kept new Mathematics:andForeign the language: direct " .method ... needs ... massive upgrading. . . "Their training for the textbooks, instructional resources, objectives had shifted from conventionalBy in-service 1969, when training a formal and technicalevaluation of the team was completed, the questionableorganizationMathematicsmaterial they policy.of errorswere large teaching"58 or mathematics misconceptions or oblivious classes occurred toconducted its nuances frequently.... by teachers observed seemed either uncomfortable with the inept andteachers implications. is a Continued moreassistanceTheteachersaccomodated active team, forin "where underwritten, schoolwideteachers, through different toward cooperativea varietyin learningpart,changing byof problem-solving materials EDC,styles, teachers had interests, androles, held techniques, andscoresmaking decision of classrooms workshops, involving making." and paces can be elementaryinalso individual referred and to secondaryschools some promising and levels programs. classroomas mostlyThe In Passowinnovationsthe Study portrayed teaching practices teacher-centered. The studyturbulent years following in 1966-1967 at boththat were underway Plan and Four- teachersandvisitedscienceand reading hundreds and provisioned materials. math of centers classrooms In rooms a small,began with but tonumerous new appear."growingWhile math, number muchtimesat science, of of the MSDsocial vocabularyrequest classrooms, studies, of used by team members, the director, TrackHansen'sainfantpublic case system, efforts inandresignation point. professional just to reformat theand time classroomthe interest, dismantlingwhen opportunitiesinformalpractices. of theeducation The Amidon Model was at surfaced to expand these School Division is the peak of theeducationandclassroomlearning MSD.assistant advocates,Materials centers superintendentas a place and seldomfrom wherecarrels, EDC, was was children andconsistent thereusing expanding a tri-wall activelyreference with thecardboard thelearn to language teacher's open were classrooms to allof constructview informalpart ofof in thethe ModelLocated School in the Division Cardozo section of the city, an area labeled for years as a ofbeenapproach primary1967the that Team's and conveyedthe decision 1970 philosophy beliefs and maker by was in the active ofstatedwith Innovation the elements learningexplicitlyTeam Team.evolved of and in informal the Partthe inlatter teacher's ofthat education, the year. direction reason centralThe however, mayconvergence between role have as did slumincludingstudents(MSD) by newspapers had in Cardozo 5been pre-schools established andHigh." reformers, and as 18 a by 195 elementarydecentralized 1969Between the 1964 and 1975, MSD was a holding company and secondaryModel schools, School Divisionunit enrolling 19,500 for almost every existedthrustthenot produceMSD. of to the respondSome Innovationlarge did numbersto teachers'exist, Team ofand was classroomsrequests more not towere for copy packaged help. developing open Moreover, classrooms. and labeledby teachers1970. The "open" But Teamin the in 196 184 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965 1975 to use instructional materials from EDC, divided the school into teams of Informal Education, 1965-1975 / 185 source"hadMSDCort contributedendorsed orsaid MSD that theprogram."91 "improving to team's their effectivenesswork, performance indicating as atIn inteachers the 1969,surveys school whenmore that and Russellthethan classroom 15 any teachers Cort other levels completed his evaluation of the team, Collegethechildrenhelped1969 Morgan Ken hadby establish age CommunityHaskins,severed rather the its thethanschool ties Schoolfirst grades, with andprincipal, Board,the negotiated and school. embraced had leftdied.Thethe and contractinformalfew By Bishop whitethat with education.time, parentsReed, the Antioch Board head who By ofof outsideClark'syear,will take the designfunding Innovationcontinuous, for produced academic Team dedicated. deficits improvement, that persistent, theA Districtsaw new focussedother Superintendent, budget uses effort."forcould the not HughTeam; Within absorb, Scott, less a stuck with implementing Kenneth disbanded.92 discipline.95cards,andEducation principal tested that setstudents,gave specific Morgan and rules its told autonomyfor teachersstudent had conduct, toalso stress left. brought Abasic new backskillslocal reportBoard and changedworkedInnovationand changes with embedded Team. teachers,in Team Inin justtheand membership Team overhad been threeslipped dispersed. helpyears, away.Innovation explain the The Team the promiseTeam hadabolition members assembled, of planned of movedthe on to principalships, central office controlledvisitedtheblackpushed school colleges outthe wereofschool,school tothe replaceteaching school. inonly 1973, the two Thefor ones six theofprincipal thatyears thefirst hadprimary time. after recruited left.By When 1970,In teachers 1971, teachers mosta newspaper 17 still ofof from the30 maintained teachersoriginal southern reporter inteachers and open classrooms had been it began as a community- terestedLearningTeam,posts,metropolitan and and in Exchangesome establishingmember area. left the Olive Created(ALE), and system. Covingtonspreading asa privatelyaMary teacher openLelahelped centerfunded Sherburne,classrooms organize and group support first inthe of the directorAdvisoryeducators group Washington for of and thethosein- forwardMorgan."disorganizationtraditionalinformal to classroom. Yet linesthe thosereplacement and and lack fewMostsay ofopenthey teachers disciplineof areclassroomthe appalledold "ran inMorgan thetheir teachers by classes classrooms whatschool in ofthey the withsome school regardalong a teachers new lookedhighly as open the at attactedWashingtoneducationprivateorganization and teachers and public suite similar had and ofschool undergoneofficesparents approaches, parents in from 1971. many and ALEthe By educatorsD.C. changesopened 1974, area. over itsseeking andBy doors 600 1981,support to workshopsin explorehowever, a downtown of informal open hadthe spaceingEducation,requiring andbuilding then money,District appropriatingin 197,06 government,took much the necessary timeand both inPutting properlyfunds. Houses As up of aligningFrank open Congress Ballouspace the in buildings,Boardfoundauthoriz- out of like many efforts in the District classroomsOpen Classrooms was no longer and Openits main Space interest." withtohelped.necessaryin appear1925 architectural Often when in agencies, a requestsdocumenthis firstplans patience, submittedbuilding already authorizing a program outdated.insense one the ofyear Board wastheSo would itabsurd,finally was of Educationtake with approved and up the ato rabbit's replacementseven to by proceed all years foot the NorthwestYorkSometimesElsewhereBrown, City; a part insometimesthesenew the of principal were city,the city, theyopenpromoted (1971)for were classrooms example, installedbyand groups former atappeared byHearst-Eaton of Inncriationeager white in teachers. parentsasthe schools,Teamearly In in 1970s.member,the NewJoan far superintendentsof exception.intendentold, space-poor Frank Requests across elementaryBallou's the for country opentenure. buildings space in the were erectedearlyOpen submitted 1960s. spacebefore Theconcepts and and, District during after had wasSuper- seizedlengthy no the imagination of school boards and therecruitedschoolsRock1970 ones trainedCreekshe new in inheritedthe teachers Park,20 area teachers lobbiedato enthusiasticpredominately open to upschool start their openfor officials classrooms. white,informal classrooms for affluent education theA summer program.in area.12 schoolsand workshop Parents The expected summerwest from in of openfinallyBrooklandbothdelays, thespace dedicatedwere elementary elementary Dunbar approved. in 1974; Highand were By secondary aSchool). thesimilar approved mid-1970s spanlevels in of1967; open(e.g. time theplans spacemarked open forschools the spacereplacing erection appearedschool the of was old theat Alexander,workshop'i'oungbegan withteachers, wasand open ledothers.94 mostly classroomsby Innovation white, in and 1967 Team community underThe members Morgan the aides, aegis LaVerne School, mostlyof Antioch theFord, black, first197 College. Mary trainedparent-controlled school in the District, space.variedBeginning groupings in 1971 of children, when the nongraded Ketcham arrangements,additionOpen space, opened, asand an each diverse environment, year uses brought of encouragesIt teaming among teachers,is consistent with, but not essential for, open classrooms. 98 186 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965 1975 Informal Education, 1965 -1975 1 187 $163newMarie open million, Reed.97 space including schools the until new 1979, Morgan by schoolIn the whichDistrict, had however, open space was wedded to open which time there were 17, costing been renamed whoclassrooms. volun- Percent 100 8090 ElE]ga StudentMixed -centered instructionTeacherinstruction -centered doubtedbyteeredBetween a federally to that work1971 the in andfunded Britishopen 1974, space Trainingprimary in-service were school, Centerheld. workshops Six Lillian for training Open Weber's for cyclesSpace teachers Open were Schools. Few Corridors,sponsored 6070 62 62 ( ) Number of classesthanClassrooms one learning with more center andthatofficials informal some had principals, classrooms, in mind. supervisors, These in general, goals and werewere middle-level pursuedthe models seriously. managers that District By who that I mean teachersshared a school 4050 30 52 35 45 34 44 whopassionany had Superintendent forvolunteered open classrooms for since the newHansen's sought buildings. improved departure But no ways Board of trainingof made a public commitment Education nor 2030 12 26 attendedtheto informal principal workshops, education.98 and members visited ofopen the space six-teacherConsider schools staff inBrookland the of Washingtonthe School. Twoarea, years before the new school opened, "old" school 10 0 Arrangement C ass Instruction Group Classroom Talk MovementStudent !1:t 3 Classroom explainingBritishtookDistrictand courses was schools schools.99 opensubsequently at at classroomsD.C. their Teachers own identified inexpense. open College, asspace. The the staffmodelTheand newgavespent open school workshops two space weeksopened school to inparents touringfor the 1974 1967-1975.Figure 4.3 (34) Patterns of Instruction in Washington, D.C. Elementary Classrooms, (42) (37) ( 3 1? Activities (38) (43) SpreadaftertonHow is widespreadthedifficultof OpenPassow to Classrooms estimate.openReport. classrooms, WithAs in 130New even elementary York broadly City defined,noschools survey werestaffed was in Washing-by nearly undertaken centers.accountedMorganably inflated ")and for Hearst-Eaton--appeared since, almost of thehalf ten of schoolsthe classrooms in the that narrative. had that learning Thesehad onecenters, two or schools more two 3,500openeitherpercentnonetheless. teachers classrooms that of allthe (1975), teachers schools were signs located inwere openof diffusion open only space space.in conductedare,open Itat space. wouldbest, open blurred. be classroomsfoolish Less to than assume or 15 that There are some clues, smallwithout(62%),tasks groups learning askingand prevalence and the centers individual teacher's (44%), of studentpermission activities, and studentstalk student(35%). theA movingrangestudent-centered However,participation goes around fromwhen thein 22% it classroompatternclassroom comes to 34 tois %strongest in furniture arrangement experienceoveropenover space,half 700 of with D.C.2F the percent informal elementary teachers reported classrooms. attendingteachers they Thehadhad theBy openedALEattended 1974, reported inup the lastin 1975-1976 training cycle that for 200 teachers electing to teach workshop it was their first workshops. There was no their classrooms. For in againengagedofthanthe the withsmall others. classrooms the innumber listening, caveatTeacher-centered ofwere that schools, working thesetaught figures and through patternsat twodesks, may schools whole still andbe somewhatregistered responding groupcontributing instruction higherhighly; to more teacher because almost (40%) accounts ques- of halfand schoolsteachers.indicationhowever,interviews that Also that199 that Iwith gatheredconsider the the teachers, number percentages fromthe 46and wasphotographs, classroom an forcumulative evaluation student-centered descriptions newspaper report. or represented (See from articles,instruction Figure 23 elementaryindividual published 4.3.) are Note,prob- tionsnonethelessdominated(52%), (45%). and In verbal considered, inover nearly exchangeshalf of two basisthe of classes,in for everyclassrooms an thereestimate threeWhat was (62%) of allof little these oneof studentthese in classes, four scattered movement or teachersfive D.C. figures provide is 4 a splintered, but 188 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965-1975 Informal Education, 1965 -19751 189 definedelementarybudgetfunds as for cuts,open.'01 teachersthe andTraining protracted doing Center something squabbles had run in out. Bytheir 1975,City interest in open education had occurred between the Board offlagged considerably. Federal classroomdeficits that produced could be lists of specifichadno longer studentschildren instruction.104 present. sitting Specialinat tablesrows ofteachers facing chairs one facingdid Ofanother. pull the the students7 chalkboard; teachersChildren out I movedobserved the 6 freelyteachers (14 onas staff for grades 1 through 6) only 1 of classes for andbudgetEducation372study other opencuts. that andservices Thespacecompared Mayor schools andthat over reading self-containedhad retrenched which nurtured achievement agencies by open classroomscutting would and education. By 1978, a smallother studentaides, outcomesbear staff what development, inportions of thefound that "the self- thetheirofteachersthey small chalkboards workedpods wereand called large workingon the tasks,"Learning groupings CBC with asked objective the Communities." within theclass teachers forasthe one thetwo group;day: questions,Fourhours ofthe I movedthe rest etc.teachers used inFour anda mixture hadof out the on of opencontainedinitially,ing space basic classroom the classroom."skills Clark and providedPlan constant The (1970-1973) last a bettermonitoring nail was learning and,More oflater, important,progress however, was the growing pounded home. w2 environmentconcentration than hason improv-thethe Competency-Based by tests through "Add"Circle"Using"Review and the contractions"subtract." beginningplural endings." sounds." Curriculumexpanded.orspecific enforced.not students and underStandards direct For had Reed children instruction performed for after semi-annual who 1976. in atthese were Teachers promotionsskills; retained, teachers were remedialwere programs the appropriate level each day. Testing had to knowcharged whether to bothprovide tightened and were studentsentiretextbook classworked questions, sitting at their in frontcopying desks of from her. from She30 the to asked 45blackboard.For minutes questionsclassroom on One on theactivities, math sameteacher problems task, 5 had teachers i.e. the of gave directions to students and the measures,expanded.foundinPlan the andthisWhile structured, directionCBC open quite classrooms isteacher-centered farsimilar closer areto thenot1967, approachnecessityapproaches than the child-centered classroom. in spirit to the Amidon Plan, abolished favored by HansenMany years veteranincompatible teacherscIlled with for such in the Clark differentteacherthedaily. students, had Teacherstasks. dividedwho had told her texts me class thatin their into they laps,at were least andSix used three answered of occasionallythe groups seven her that questions. teachers asworked rewards had One on learning or centers. They were not used `iefore.alsthattangible had, accompany aftersupport 1976, informal for in open securing teaching education, volunteers may Theand explain thestressto staffinherently the upon difficultiesopen academicspace greater skills through CBC, the reductionthat of princip-classrooms. demands aides"Learningthroughpractice had eighthfor been Centers" CBC cut. grade. objectives Teacher as Large the gradesreductions whenopen spaceswerescheduled hadAlso called. withbrought openedactivities few As new withdividers in staffwere1974, Bruce-Monroe, to madecompleted. Brooklandthe schoolup the had 450 students in kindergarten teacherssomeTheexplainedeffortto jerry-builtreplace to create by theirof thewhom self-containedless-senior concentration were assigned colleaguesthrew roomsupon to academicvacancies within openup skills.in open space Learning space may centers walls of portable blackboards and book cases that around students in of alsoschools be Mostinprovidedwhile the sendingteachersentire instruction school others had thefortheirelsewhere. morningall students grades. Art, I visited.Only sittingmusic,Of one the andat classroom 9round hometeachers tables,economics center in grades facing was teachers 1 visible through one 6, 1 spent 2 hours with 6 of them. werehadbothfacility used aopen principal less had space and opened whoschools.less.103 inhad 1974. Bruce-Monroe, worked At that with time, Inthe with 1981-1982centers Innovation 525 onpupils reading, I spent Team. and twoa staff mornings at Bruce-Monroe and math, science, Brookland, The new of 20, teachersanother.exchangesdifferentdoing workedassignments Children tasks. occurred with moved one out for group ofmore at texts. will whilethan Onein ten thethe teacher minutes,rest classroom of hadthe the classtwo exchangesspace. groupssat at Five their working were of tables thein theon In four of the six classrooms where teacher-student whenfoursocialperiodsused teachers, Istudies, walkedsporadically on reading, beingand through the usedby math,like teachers,the often dotted pods and in languageI usuallyeach thesaw course "Learninga numberfor arts practiceof weredaily ofCommunity" 201 centers completed.instruction.activities but Aides were after formal of threethey to were In 1981, fromteacherinAlsolisting five the chartsquestion-student CBCtextof the orwithskills sixworksheet. students' classrooms.in reading, answer Onnames thinking the format showingwalls skills,with of everytasksthe math, questions thatclassroom language were drawn completed arts, were directlyand charts so hung on. 202 190 / Open C'lassroonis and Alternative Schools, 1965 1975 Informal Education, /965-197S/191 space,Thewhom.centrality artifacts and Student freedom were were participationobvious there: of student centers, in steering was movement. flexible limited whoWere to did what,these classrooms in the two schools open? furnituretasks arrangement,assigned by the use teachers. ofYet teacher direction and when, how,The space and with was open. juniorestablishedwouldsecondaryadmission. high spend schools, teachersInalso. afternoons addition, No A andmini-schools,Literary Rhodes administratorsproducing Arts and andhowever, a his city-wide Journal toassistants establish were Program, creative developed encouraged mini-schools wherearts atjournal, aanystudents group inof fivewasthe of elementaryteachersThesethose mixed years? had schools created:behaviors after a hybrid,resemble 1967, whata teacher-centered closely happenedIf what informal an classrooms, at different levels of development, in D.C. high schools in progressivism."earlier generation of emerged in toAcademy,outside11 reducehigh the schools." actual D.C.aegis Street andof the potential Academy, public schoolsdropouts Rap suchInc., fromAs asand in Districtthe other other Urban cities,ventures high League's schoolsthere that wereStreet tried and privately funded alternative schools AsHigh in SchoolNew York Classrooms City and elsewhere in the country, the late 1960s saw beganSchoolincorporateredirect to Board evolve students didthese in not, theinto programs earlyas resuming the 1970s.liu New into their Yorkthe schoolingalternative BoardBy 1981, of beyond Educationschool the School-Without-Walls, high framework had school. done, thatThe the Literary Arts Program, the HowardspilluniversityMartinissues, over University especiallyLutheronto students' high King schools.afterprotestexcept in 1968.the against that Washingtonconflagration Development initially, their institution'sshared student triggered of racial the protests same by consciousness was policiesthe assassinationand actions of experience withpursued racial the constitutedLemuelstudents.andArts, instruction andPenn the the Careeralternative newly were Center, establishedseemingly high theschool Duke subordinated Banneker program. Ellington HighIssues to School developing School of governance, of forPerforming choices the Giftedsize, for basisthereceived.School ofcourses the students Theyfirst and public designedselected who alternativewere thethe dissatisfied teachers.alternative school Billed with Freedomschool,in the theas oneraised quality Annex money ofgrew out of the work of a small cadre of District." of the few student-run schooling theyEastern Highfor it, chose betweensmaller.differedfrequency fromIndividual teachers of the small range and help groups studentsof from practices and teachers inindependent inthe regular smallerwasI found available. highwot programs no kschools. was evidence Informal probably didClass thatexist. relationssize higher' classroom Thewas in instruction in alternative schools fromtheRhodes,high Board schoolsfoundations assistant of Education, in the superintendentand nation, other but noprivateFreedom public of sources.secondary funds AnnexOver were was schools, a hundred supported students took required courses in the allocated, Funding came and approved by morningby George at centereduponthe programs 86 classroomspatterns where shout (1967-1976)specific their uniformity crafts is acutelyand for skillsAsIn 10 familiar.regular in ofwere New the hightaught.'"12 York high schools, City, schools the frompercentagespicture that emerges in each fromcategory Figure for 4.4 teacher- based organization.history,churchEastern where BlackHigh "17 they Schoolliterature, heard and lecturesSwahili, spent the and Black rest participated artofTwo theand years school drama, in later, with less than thirty students enrolled, private discussion on Black day at a nearbyand community and stunninglyschoolwhichparticipation, theseteachers similar descriptions describe(' the fashion.needle werein would these So drawn. stunningly, accountshave Nearly barely orNothing thatcaught eightmoved on out in herea off photos meterof zero, contradictsevery oftaught tenstudent highin my a experience as a social studies teacher curriculum,windows.foundationcreated FreedomEastern grantsinstituted spent,High Annex a number School, the had school of graduated."with changes, closed a new Anitsand principal, advocatedoor the studentand had for choices, George Rhodes had been laying boarded up its leadersmodified thewho its ground- groupsandbrieflyespecially team1970-1972) of leaderinternsand in informally.the in atin aRooseveltEnglishthe teacher-training building andThe High broughtsocial patterns School. program studies me reported inMy contactdepartments,for duties three here with asyears forteam many who (1967-1968high leader teachers,I observed schools for 203workSchool,ton'sBoardthe for versionSchool-Without-Walls, sinceother and theChicago'salternative of FreedomPhiladelphia's Metro programs School Programtenth Parkway made sponsored graders localaccepted Program, fromheadlines. and itsacrossfunded Newfirst In the byYork's1970, city students. Called appliedthe School for Washing-City-As- assignedinstruction,elsewherestrongpanels. seatwork,legs Thein little thewere textbook, studentDistrict studentsthe primary movement, chalkboard,were at blackboards, similarteaching discussions durable to tools. what occasional vocalI andobserved: informal chords,student whole reportsandrecitations, agroup pair and of 2 0 4 192 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965 1975 informal Education, 1965-1975 / 193 Percent 100 0El Student-centered Teacher-centeredMixed instruction wooden door and peer into the classroom. DinnersteinNo"What'sThere one is answers. thelots differenceraisesof noise her in voice.between the hallway. "This industrial is Faces a review! andappear craft We've in unions?" the done windows this!" of the 8C)9070 80 84 78 ( ) Number 82 of classes 77 steps out into the hallway and comes right back."Mrs.A studentItDinnerstein is"You Dinnerstein, eleven itinterrupted the minutes marches hallway someone my after to steps class," the class wants door:into is theto supposed"I'm see room, aboutyou." holdingto to have explode." begun.the door Dinnerstein open. 405060 steinshe tells tells someone another outstudent, there. "If you want to play"WhoOne"What games, student saidis a feel union?"I'm reads freeplaying the sheto answerleave." asksgames?" herfrom class. the his student notes. When retorts.... he finishes, Dinner- 2030 17 15 13 "IOne"What can't girl is hear saysa union you," the answershop'?" Dinnerstein quietly.she asks. tells her. 10 0 Class 3 Group Classroom Student Classroom 10 listening.correct. A few know the answers to the questionsTheA boy class thatsitting isDinnerstein quiet next tonow, the first girl20 gave minutes repeats theafter girl's it began. answer The for hisstudents own. Itare is Figure1967-1975. 4.4 Arrangement (69) Patterns of Instruction in Washington, D.C. high School Classrooms, instruction (86) Talk(73) Movement (77) Activities (71) distractionscontent, the amountand interruptions of subject spillingmatter covered overTheonthem the intoreporteron test.112 in Monday. thea week, suggestsclassroom. This and is thathallwayThursday. Such the class On Friday,was a disasterthose same in questionsits low level will beof detail.Highfour high School. Here schools is Sitting a U.S. in inthe history a metropolitanhalf-dozen class. classes, area,In 1979, oneshe Patdescribedof whichLewis, was twoa classesCoolidge in Washington Star reporter, spent two months in relianceanothercaptureteachreasonvignettes I todo typicalthe upon judgebar know overall reporters theimplicitly instance that text, quality this from and theof episode theteacher'softeachingtheir her question-answer classes. frominstruction. performance the one entireSince class WhatIclass format,andhave does giveasit seen not doesone reinforcedteachers inDinnerstein wellconvey any aftergoodway by is questions on the test." Rita Dinnerstein tells"A"What'sFourteen her law," U.S. an someonedon'tThe History act?" testanswer isreplies.class. tomorrow. roll call in Today room I230 am at going Coolidge. to review Ten withdo. you the exact Theinterest National in open Picture classrooms and alternative schools had ebbed. begin. Four"ItNo"What is?"one students was someoneanswers. the saunter National asks"It's intoinquietly. Laboryour class textbook," Relationseight minutes sheAct?" says. after it was scheduled to wererooms1967Case studiesandthese and 1975 alternativeinstances of establishedNorth comparedDakota,schools developedNew to elsewhere York, in and the inWashington, upper the nation? grades. D.C. How between typical that informal schooling existed in some class- guarantee?"2u5 Someone"The"Three National tardies answers, areLabor equal"collective Relations to a cut," bargaining." Act Dinnerstein was passed yells. in 1935. "And WhatI've had did it." it percentestimateeven broadly of I camethe schoolsdefined, across in was for drawn any sustained from a researcherIn periodno place of v.'ho could time. claimed The largestthat 60 I find Roslyn (N.Y.) had at least a majority of classrooms taught informally, 206 one open classroom. 194' Vt.wl Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1955 1975 11111P' Informal Education, 1965-1975 l 195 I 14- *,' r ppe 191 Takoma Elementary, 1977 (District of Columbia Media Center). Winston Elementary School, 1977 (District of Columbia Media Center). 12--74441"111' TheEducation 100,000other estimate Associationpopulation. came inNinety-one from1974 toa surveysuperintendents cities (59sent percent) by ofthe 153 Nationalresponded, cities with Open meaning over IPM cityclassroomsnaire.(Lillianthat makeeither The Weber substantial the wasquestion superintendent respondedconstructed usefrom offor read:whichopen New or "Aboutapproachessomeone Yorkan estimate City) else to to education."113 ofcomplete the spread the question- of % of the classrooms in mywas delegated the task open mr..; phonewhoseand "open callsinterest approaches" to principals in informal are he educationnoor shegreater knows isthan'The known, has having problemssuch make classes of interpretationand compile the packed into the words "substantial" a central office person, a few inquiries or notnoinapproaches."replies thebetter unlike 91 citiesthan the The informedpredictions was mean 17%; guesses,estimate the of 80median percent lacedfrom was superintendentswith of 10%. thesea heavy Such same dose estimates administratorsand of their hope. designees They who are into a response of how many teachers were using "open are, at best, Gage-Eckington Elementary, 1977 2 07 (District of Columbia Media Center). BEST COPY AVAILABLE movementinsaid their that cities."'"in thewas next in public 5 years schools (1975-- by1980) 1974I cite"open even these approaches when figures optimism wouldonly to infusedincrease underscore how limited the spread of X08 the 196/ Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965-1975 work.ly,dailyand-answer, and activityone "Rarely," one groupWhen Goodlad group didthe teacherseatwork read wrote, to divided the "wererelated teacher, thechildren to class onecurrent, groupintoengaged previous,groups read in independent-self-initiatedfor orreadinga future Informal Education, 1965 1975 /197 Dunbar High School, vanillaences.classroomscludedand self-directed "Judging thanthat werein subject from "gearedsmall our matter, groups sample," to group materials, or he individualnorms" wrote, and rather "childhood teachingactivity." than individual schoolingpractice The report the isdiffer- more con-150 neapolitan."16 LY Media(DistrictEnglish Center). Class, of Columbia 1977 schoolingand his associates where promised found reformsa dreary had sameness"a a Goodladreasonable flatness"atwas chance disappointed. for a success.level In of looking behind the classroom door, he ... couraging"TeachersinnovativeinterestinglyReforms were sincerelyinductivethey enough, "bluntedwere thought learning, documentedcontrasted on theyschool involving sharply repeatedlywere and individualizing withchildrenclassroom that what teacher in observers groupdoor." instruction, reports processes." His reported. of team, how en- '4'41 I Dunbar High School, changescommissionedotherObservers researchers. that found had a surveythattaken '17 they place of wereresearch in not,science, studiesa finding math,Examining in consistentcurricular and social a similarwithand studies instructional results time between from span, the National Science Foundation school officials' statements. Lacking reliable national data on the frequen- Media(DistrictScience Center). Class, of Columbia 1977 threeobservation1955 subjects. and 1975.studies, The and results, other drawn research from were a Math:synthesis remarkably Summarizing of surveys, similar classroom forseven the studies on elementary and secondary cyorordertions, or rebuts spread tostudies, determine the of open dataand accounts Iifclassrooms gathered a fabric that canthus directs have be far. stitched appeared me Into thesampletogether between late 1960s,scattered that 1967 either John and supports Goodlad1975 in and a team of researchers observed descrip- teachers verbal behavior in classrooms betweenIn classroom 1968 and practice, 1976, TeachersTheSuydam teacher tendand talks Osborneto useabout a direct, two-thirds cited rather eight of structured studiesthe time. (in- approach. testwerestructionhadteam150 whether primary teaching,"remarkably the grade crossed widelyungraded classroomssimilar" the publicized primaries,threshold classroom in 67 educational curricularofschools theprograms classroom. in reform,13innovations in states. school individualizedWhat They afterof they wantedthe found 60s in- to school, cluding Goodlad's) between 1959 and 1977, and conclude that:Tell-and-showTellinglecture-newteaching and practice. questioning, homework and seatwork atusually the at secondary the in total-classelementary level are groups level the dominant with is the homework- prevailing patterns of markedirrespective by: of local differences. The classroomsenormous... telling, they amount teachers' observed of seemingly were quite routine seatwork. questioning individual children in group settings, and an summarized,the early 1970s, almost as with sadly, math, as: disclose a similarSocial patternStudies: that A reviewone researcherinstruction.' of two decades 18 of research including studies in Theand primary supplementary tools of instructionreadings,115 were the2 textbook 09The common followed pattern by workbooks of instruction in the whole group was question- many of us experienced as .youngsters: :textbook the students' assignments social studies followed classes by will be strikingly similar to those that 210 Informal Education, 1965-1975 / 199 198 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, torecitation Science:show concern led Summarizingby a forteacher them... who, nine in his studies or her own way, ."119 1965 1975 of elementary school science likes students and tried SummarizingSUMMARYsettings at a briefpatterns moment of instruction of time, when between intense 1967 and and widespread 1975 in three efforts (1963-1976), reviewers found that: activities."However,"There is Lecture-discussionmore a substantial use of 'hands number is on' the of andmost common teachers do not emphasizelaboratory laboratory types of instruction .... learning activity, followed systems.yearswhatwere undertaken occurred1920-1940 in to thesewhen reform places the classroom tides is comparable of progressivismteaching, to is what necessary ran occurred strong to determine duringin school the if reading/lecturenumberbyAt student the of secondary teachersdemonstration. class. (probablylevel, there Reports about is less lecture 30-40%)and surveys teach scienceindicate largely a substantial as a and discussionand is themore predomi- "student-centered werea generationthree evident sites earlier,from in a considerablewhich a set ofI collected teaching number data.practices of Artifacts elementary1. that can of openhe classrooms labeled classrooms informal in thewere Core of Informal Practices. As with the progressive approaches of arcindividual the studies schools of failed where a systematic andAnother body of literaturenantactivity," method that than allows used there by aused to be but "lecture innovations; thatteachers."120 is, descriptions and analyses intentional effort toglimpse open upof existing practice of selectivewithoutinstruction,couldpresent speak insecuring in learning use,and and theserelatively workthe centers, teacher'spractices together, free tables permission.seldommovement the and increased captured desks of Uneven students clustered usemore ofin than invarieddevelopment sothe a that fourthclass groups students spaceof andthefor elementarySmithclassroomspseudonymstaff-led and schoolKeith'soccurred for a in Boston Kensingston, theand, mid-1960s, forelementary a number a was school operation in a new building; Cambire pseudonym for a St. Louisof reasons, areaexpected failed to to be materialize. a child-centered,in 1966-1967 where Gross and School is another studyotherclassroomslearning informaland determining centers in any approaches district,as the how central ifsuch much that vehicleas many. time student is EvenofComparisons spent instruction.decision fewer on what makingteachers between topics, on employed orwhat the using interwar to decades and this period show hiswork,pectations colleaguesclassroomsBarth's individual Attucks-Lincoln for documented staffed classroom attention, by bright, howchanges program and anyoung,centers inept such in Newbut as producedinexperienced an educationalHaven white disaster; (1968-1969) teachersadministrator in awherestudent and open choices, unclear smallex- group incorporatedshowedofWhilerough a child-centered likenessesthere some were intoevidence in a thefew classroom, extentdaily teachersof informal routines.of the mostwho spread practices triedof These the into elementarycertainduplicate weremixtures selective teaching the ofclassrooms entireinformal approaches.in what panoply andthatwas Whatmajorityexistedchanges all of blackand in these teacher'sthat school studies such classroomwere,informal show again is practiceshow for tough a spreadA few among points some are clear. That various stages behavior.I21 variety of reasons, torpedoed.it was to plan and implement of openness in classrooms teachers is, as progressivismformalandthatthatunlike organizational Ipractices studied Denver that wasresemble, I describedthere mechanismsand New formalI believe, earlier. York schoolconstructed the CityOne hybridboard inmajor the to orforms difference,1920simplement superintendent of and teacher-centered however,1930satand incorporate advocacy no was site distinctD.C.,theclassroomsany evidence andgiven minority, scattered Itime, to gathered somein ain sites number anydegree. for around North of Yet instances the Dakota, there country, also given setting, involved in restructuring quite substantial, ofNew teachers,existed, York atCity, equally Washington, as ciear, the undeniable. There was a their variedevidenceopen classrooms substantially appeared into to from show the teacher'sthat that of classroom a generationinstructional 2.practice earlier. repertoire. in regular While high content schools was Instruction in Regular and Alternative High Schools. Very little 211statementspowerfulthe1967 range and tug into 1975.that of doubt, teacher-centered can Until comfortably an more overwhelming data practices be are called gathered upon most majority of teachers stayedteacher-centered within practices. that would throw the above classrooms between ingusedinstructionalinterest,revised that to categorizein theand subject accounts sequencesclass areasinexact, discussions come andto thelink patterns from convergence it tended to multiple events reported toEven beinin sources students'earlierresults quitethough informal, remainedisand the livesstrikingconsider- numbercover or theinheighten diverse place.of basic classrooms was minute, and the methods I 212 Informal Education, 1963 1975 / 201 settings,200approachesofthe / techniquesevidence In alternative that is, indeed,involveused high by sparse,students, schools,teachers, show especiallytheOpen although nocategories Classroomssubstantial in discussions the and Alternative Schools, 1965-197S of instruction,difference and here in the frequencyrange of some and classroom Wholethemovement, 1970s. group instruction,and little variety teacher-controlled in tasks captured classroom the high talk,school little classroom student in tion.informality,threeis unmistakablyThe to picture four resemble decades of teacher-centered high elementary schoolearlier. teaching patternsand remarkably that for emerges student-centeredakin instruc- to what showed up from these accounts NOTES 1. Vito Perrone, et al., Two ElementaryChildren, and Classrooms: Parents (Dubuque, Views From Iowa: The Kendall/Hunt Teacher, Publishing Co., 1977), bothrather1930s, periods, than a higher higher the percentage extentgrades. of There of student-centeredness student-centered is some3. evidence practices to Elementary and High School Instruction. As in the peaked in the primarydemonstrate that, in entered the lower 1920s and 3.2. LawrencePhilip Jackson, Cremin, The "The Teacher Freep. Education,Pittsburgh1-20. AndSchool The Movement: Press,October,Machine 1968), 1973,(Pittsburgh: A Perspective,"p. p.4. 171. University Notes onof fractiongradesappearedelementaryof and of what descendedby grades,high existed school. particularlyuntil at the it bottomedelementary in the out primarystudent-centeredlevels. in the In senioryears, other and instruction appeared more frequently high words,school versionsat a virtually dis- in the 5.4 Vito Perrone, "A View of SchoolCollegeTobieribid.,Perrone, pp. (eds.),Reform," Workshop 2-3. "Open Roots in Education: RuthCenterof Open Dropkin for Education PromiseOpen and Education, Arthur inand America Problems," 1976), (New Phi pp.York: 186-7;Delta The Kappan VitoCity instruction,least two forms teachers of teacher-centeredness.talking most of the 4.time The while pure students Teacher-centered Instruction. Dominating the classroom were at formwhole class listen, limited 6. Roland Barth, Open EducationRepublic,Agathon1972),Fastback and pp. Press, (Bloomington, Septemberthe10-11, American 1972); 11, Joseph 1971, Ind.:School Featherstone, Phipp. (New 20-5Delta and York:Kappan "The"Tempering BritishEducational anda Fad," Us," Foundation, September The New allowingcenterednessmobilitycharacterizedrange of activities more emerged informality done with by the the teachersin entireinstructional using diverse talk, movement, classroom and space high school. Then hybrids of teacherclass at same time, and little student groupings, 8.7. Featherstone,Roland Barth, "The "Should British We Review,25,and Forget 1971, Us," Aboutpp.p. 20. 17-21. Open Education?" Saturday November 6, 1973, p. 59; for examples of checklists, see New York capturedarrangements.1975. Certain only aStudent-centered child-centeredvery small fraction teaching instruction of teachers Whatpractices across appeared at became any givenas increasinglya direction time. by com- 1940 shows up with more the major categories student move- clarity by openColo.:DevelopingStateEducation, classrooms,Education Westview Open 1971); Press,Department,seeEducation Anne Roland 1976); Bessis, Programs Barth's forInformation et warnings al., article (Albany,Beyond in aboutand Saturday Surface N.Y.: Planning too Taskrapid Curriculum, Review; KitForcean embracefor Perrone's on (Boulder,Use Open ofin mentmonthesefrequentlypractices in within elementary modest such but the changes sufficientlyasclassroom, classrooms: learning give tocenters and the beflexible noted.theelementary and use seating Lookingsmall of classroomgrouppatterns, back work to 1900. of show the 1970s up a varied groupings. Other however, less 9. Robert A. Horwitz, "PsychologicalYork:NyquistPDK1972), Fastback; VintageEffects and pp. Gene 102-10; ofBooks, Ruththe Hawes Open Charles Flurry,1973), (eds.) Classroom," Silbermanpp. "OpenOpen 297-8. Education Education: Review (ed.) Open (New What Classroom York; Is BantamIt'?" Reader, in Books,Ewald (New continueddecidedlywhatthatWorking the activities tolimiteddifferent monopolize alone wouldevidence appearance.at a classroom deskoccur suggests while for But verbalhow the theas teacherremaining long appearanceexchanges; and either who quite teachersmasks supervised would potent. continuities determined or worked participate. Teachers 10. Silberman (ed.), pp. 297-8. tion,"Developingof inEducational theand Public Welfare, Open Research,Schools" Education1973), (Washington, 49pp. (Winter,in 3-5; America: Perrone, 1979), D.C.: A ReviewPDK pp.Department 72-3; Fastback, of TheoryKathleen of pp.Health, and 12-21.Devaney, Practice Educa- alteredwithone'sout another of very desk answers, little groupor in except andthe continued informalfront for the of 213 astheformal discussion a roomdominant recitation. toIn techniquesanswer high instructional Raising schools, the teacher's of pedagogy pattern.hands, since 1900 in the five academic replaced standing at questions. subjects yelling 12.11. Resnick,For example, pp. 67-8; see Newsweek,Silberman, Crisis 77Vitopp."Promise (May in67-9; Perronethe 3, ofClassroom,1971),The Change andNew p. Warren York65;in chapters North Henry Times, Strandberg, Dakota," 7Resnick, andOctober 11; Saturday "The 11, New 1970, Review, School" p. 68. 54 (April in Nyquist 17, 1971) and 214 202 / Open ClassroomsHawes, and Alternativepp. 275-91; Schools, The 1965 North -1975 Dakota Statewide Study of Education, 30. Beth Alberty, Continuity and Connection: Curriculum in Five Open Class- Informal Education, 1965 -1973 / 203 p.Education"Dakota,(GlandEducational 7. Forks, 1973), (Grand Development N.D.: pp. Forks, 6-9;Center Michael N.D.: forfor TeachingNorth Center Patton, Dakota, for and"Structural Teaching Learning, 1967-1975, Dimensionsand University Learning, An Overview, of 1973),NorthOpen 31. David Rogers, An Inventory of Educationalties:rooms1978),1979), A Case(New Improvementp.pp. 30, Study 6-7;York: Chitru of City Open Efforts Karunkakaran, College Education," in the Workshop New "Life(Chicago: andCenter Work Center for in Openfor Several New Education, Communi-Schools, 14.16.15.13. Kathleen Richardibid.,Patton, p. Devaney, p.219.G. 21, Landry, "The "Comparative New School (Grandand of BehavioralLongitudinal Forks, N.D.: Studies Analyses Center in Education," for of Teaching and Learning, 1974), pp. 209, 211. 33.32. SomeDropkin, examples p. 51. of open classrooms acrossJanuaryYork the Times,17,City city 1973 Schools are January issue;reported (New New8, 1973in York: YorkThe on New (City)TeachersP.S. 24 Board (Bronx) College of Education, and Press, P.S. 1977),27 Staff (Bronx) pp.Bulletin 82-4. in the 17. Vincent Dodge, "The Fargo-MadisonSchool-University(GrandInternLearning, ClassroomsSchool Forks, 1974), Program:N.D.: on Effort" ItemCenterSelected A VI, Cooperative(Grand for Dimensionspp. Teaching 1-5; Forks, Fargo-Moorhead ofandN.D.: Openness' Learning, Center Third for 1975),Forum, Teaching Year p. October (1975)"5. and 4, Library.teachershasMay19 a 15,descriptiondescribes 19721967);such onas P.S.Gloria of P.S.Herbert P.S. 13 92 Channon, 35(Queens). (Bronx); Kohl, (Queens); 36 HomeworkUnited In Children New addition, Teacher, York (New thereSupervisor, June York: are 25, accounts Outerbridge NewSpring,1972, American pp. written1975, 15-16 and p. by 19.18. FinalGrand Report, Forks Herald,Title III, August Elementary 26, Together1969; andton1970; Secondary ElementaryLarry October at Washington Floiberg, Education25, School, 1970; "We're Elementary November1971),Act: Putting The mimeo, ImpactSchool" It29, All 1970. pp. (Grand 1-51. Forks, N.D.: Washing- CollegeProcedures(1974);DonnaDienstfrey, of C. Mamie Education DeCiaetani, 1970).and Gumbs, Self-Discovery Masters detail "Beginning "Humanizing classroom theses Methods"from an experiences. Open Learning teachers Classroom(1974); enrolledThrough Sec Helen thesesin in Opena thePublicHaratonik, written Bank Classroom School" Street by "A 20. Silberman, Crisis Schools,of February,Classroomthe Teacher 1970), 1973, Reader, mimeo,and p. His 35. pp. p. Staff 43-52;56. (Grand Life, Forks,October N.D.: 1, 1971; Grand Today's Forks Education, Public in the Classroom, pp. 290-7; Silberman (ed.) Open 34. The New York Times, January 8, 1973,SeenHelaineroom"Descriptive Through (1973); R. Meister, Study theAlicia Eyesof "Educational an Montalvo, ofApproach an Advisor" Change"Dairy to Teaching (1977). ofin ana School ReadingOpen Classroom"Mandated in an Open 'Open' (1972); Class- As 21. Marshall, p. 180. 1 35. The New York Times, July 25, 1970; "Vermont Design for Education" in 24.23.22. RonaldLandry,Patton, Kutz, p.p. 7.14. ''An Analysis of the Use Services,Northof Math Dakota" Manipulativ.. 1977), (Grand pp. 21, Materials Forks,37. N.D.: in Bureau of Educational Research and 37.36. Theibid., New February York Times,7, 1971; January December 30.p.inNyquist 1971. 20, 31;the 1970; TheSchool and New and Hawes. System," JanuaryYork pp. Times, The 24,55-62; 1971New July Joseph York(a25, paid 1970. Lelyveld, Times iliagazine, "The Mole March Powerful 21, 1971, Man 27.26.25. ForNewRavitch, a Yorksampling p. (City) 239. of Public the diverse Schools, literature FactsinBoard writtenandthis Figures,ofdecade, aboutEducation, /977-1978,seeNew Diane York1978), Ravitch, (NewCity pp. schools 1,York: The5, Great School Wars, chapters 23-33; 11. 39.38. ibid.,Edward January Chittenden, 8, 1973. et al., First YearWorkshopCenteradvertisement). Evaluative for CenterOpen Study Education,for of Open the Workshop Education, City College 1973); of Dropkin, New York pp. 51-3.(New York: frontationEstelleandMiriamDavid Dienstfrey, Rogers, Fuchs,atWasserman, Ocean Teachers110 1970);Hill-Brownsville, Livingston The Maurice Talk School (New Street R. Fix, (New BerubeYork: NYC,(New York: Doubleday and York:USA Praeger Marilyn (New Random andPublishers, York:Gittell Co., House, Outerbridge 1969).(eds.) 1969); 1968); Con- 43.42.41.40. ibid.,GeraldKarunkakaran,Channon. p. Levy, 116. pp. Ghetto23-4. pp. 205-7. School (New York:chapters Pegasus 4 and Publishing7. Co., 1970), 28.29. Center Charles for SilbermanUrban Education, pointed Openout that Door:schools,ClassroomCenter in the New formidst and York Urbanhe wrote ofhad Citywriting Education, "ourmet Weber,work Crisis took1970), read in a the new herpp. manuscript11-12.direction. We about went British off to Englandprimary (New York: 47.46,45.44. JosephMontalvo,ibid.,DeGaetani, pp. Lelyveld, 14, master's master's 36. "Class thesis, thesis, 4-4; pp. p.Educational 4.4-5, 33,York 57. Theories Times, Meet October Reality, 9, 1970, "The p. New39; November 16, 1970, p. 39; November 25, Cityto see College for ourselves." Workshop Ruth Center Dropkin for Open (ed.) Education, Changing215 1978),Schools p. (New48. York: BEST COPY AVAILABLE 1971,1970, p.p. 31;39; JanuaryDecember 22, 20,1971, 1970, p. 41; p. February49; January 9, 1971, 8, 1971, p. 41; p. 33;March January 11, 1971, 16, n 204 Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965-1975 Informal Education, 1965-1975 /205 50.49.48. ibid.,ibid. MarchOctober 11, 9, 1971, 1970, p. p. 41. 39. p. 41; May 29, 1971, p. 25; July 1, 1971, p. 49. 73.72,71. ibid.;ibid. Carol Gladstone, "What ConstitutesPointsThe a remedial New York Reading Times, Lesson," (March, 1975), p. 29. January 8, 1973, p. 57, High 53.52.51. ibid.,ibid.Philip May Lopate, 29, 1971, Being p. with 25. pp. 24, 29. Children (New York: Bantam Books, 1975), 76.75.74.77. ibid.,New Carl SeptemberYork Hansen, (City) Danger8, Board 1975; ofJanuary Education, 15, 1975;1978-1979The New November York (New 16. York: 1975. Board of Education, 1979), pp. 5, 27, 39, 51, 122.-9. Times, December 9, 1973. in Washington (West Nyack, N.Y.: Parker Publishing Directory of the Public Schools, 54. For background to the alternative schooland MarioDanmovement, Robert1978); L. Fantini, Duke, Nolan Allan I The (eds.)Gotthard, Transformation Free Public Schools of choice Alternative the Children Schoolsof the (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1978); (New York: Simon andSchool Schuster,(New (Chicago: York: Pantheon, Nelson-Hall, 1973); used: Terrence E. Deal 78. Hansen, chapters 1-5; Constance M.(Spring,OrganizationalCo., Green, 1968), 1975), pp. pp. 91-106; 15-37. Larry Cuban, "Hobson v. Hansen: A Study in Response," Educational Administration The Secret City Quarterly, (Princeton, 11. 55. Raywid, p. 551; Moore, pp. 21-22.tives,"tion,Schools:1973); TeachersKaman, Mary A Review" Anne April,College, Raywid, 1981,(New Columbia York: pp."The 551-7; InstituteUniversity,First Decade David for 1978). Urban "I', of PublicMoore, and SchoolMinority "Alternative Alterna- Educa- 80.79. LarryCuban, Cuban, p. 35. "Reform By Fiat; The ClarkCollege,TowardN.J.: Plan Princeton Creating Columbia in Washington, University University. 1970-1972," Press, 1967), chapters 2, 4, 5. a Model Urban School System 1967). chapter 13; A. Harry Passim:, (New York: Teachers 57.56. DealTerrence and Nolan,E. Deal p. and 3. Robert Nolan, "AlternativeIMap," lanstead (eds.) Schools; 1977- A /978 Conceptual School Review (November, 1978), p. 33; Anne Flaxman and Kerry Schools 81. 3,toWashingtonUrban the(Winter, Competency-B.e,edEducation, 1978), pp. 199-200. Curriculum," Journal Post, October 13, 1980, p. C-3; Vincent Reed, "An Introduction 9 (April, 1974), pp. 8-32. of Personalized Instruction, 58. Mary McBride, "Five Alternative Schools,"tion,(Amherst, University (Unpublished Mass,: of NationalMaryland,Massachusetts doctoral Alternative 1979);disserta- at Amherst, Schools 1978).Program at School of Educa- National Directory of Public Alternative Harvard Educational Review, "Alterna- 84.83.82. ibid.,A. Harry p. 265.3. Passow, York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1967). Toward Creating a Model Urban School System (New 60.61.59. Duke, NewMoore, pp. York pp.40, (City) 9-10.44-6, Public 51. Schools,tiveDivision Schools," of System 42 (August, Planning, 1972). 1971), Appendix A, p. 6. School Profiles, 1970- 19 71 (New York: 87.86.85.89.88. ibid.,ibid ibid.,District P. p.pp. pp.235.255. of275 295, Columbia 6. 305, 312, Public 322. Schools, "Model School Division in a Capsule" 63.62. Rogers, An Inventory schools1971),Divoky, pp. I"New deal 60-7. withYork's exclude Mini-Schools," Bronx High School of Science, Beach Channel An Inventory of Educational Improvement Efforts, of Educational Improvement Efforts. Saturday Review, 54 (December, 18, pp. 10-11;pp. 8, Diane 22-5. The 90. WashingtonhouseCardozo(Washington,I I. R. the Cort, High all-white School et D.C.:School al., Central ofModel nosPsychiatry, ed HighSchool into School. the1969), Division, recently pp. 7-8.1969). closed In building 1950, thethat all-black used to An Evaluation of the Innovation leant (Washington, D.C.: studentalternativestothemesHigh meet School, ofinvolvement in special order but John they tointerests, Dewey bedifferin governance,admitted. markedly andHigh usually School These frometc. have and otherschools, requirements others alternatives in that the are thatbroad in city-wide, size,students sense, ideology, have are 91. Cort, pp. 227-8, 240; I also had frequentSuperintendentandUrbanInnovation and later, Teaching--one sustained when Team, Norman I administered contactsits initialof Nickens two director withdozen the whilethe district-wide programs (Mary I directed Lela in staffSherburne),the the Modeldevelopment Cardozo School and Project Assistant program.Division. in 64.65. Rogers, An Divoky,The New pp. York 60-7. Tunes, Inventory of Educational Improvement Efforts, November 17, 1971; November 1, 1971; July 1, 1975; November 1, 1971 and July 1, 1975. pp. 14-22. 93.92. EsinCurt, Kaya,p. 240. "An Evaluation and Descriptionchange,Exchange, of 1974), the 1973-1974" Advisory pp. ii-iii. and (Washington, Learning D.C.: Advisory and Learning Ex- 69.68.67.66.70. ibid.,Divoky,ibid. ibid. May pp. 24, 60-7; 1971, The p. 33. The New York Times, 217 NewNovember York Times, 1, 1971. 94. (Urban,theWashington1973), Elementary Ill.: pp. Star,Center 8-154. School: for Instructional Six Teachers Research Who Were and Curriculum Expected toEvaluation, Change" August 16, 1970; Theresa H. Elofson, "Open Education in 218 206 / Open Classrooms95. Washington and Alternative Post, MaySchools, 13, 1965-1975 1973, C3. 118. Marilyn Suydam and Alan Osborne, The Status of Pre-College Science, Informal Education, 1965 -1975 I 207 96.97, Paul Washington Lauter and Post, Florence December Howe, 11, "The 1979. ShortMay235-62;Community 13, Happy Washington1973. School,"Life of AdamsMorganStar, Harvard March Educational 1, 1970; Washington Review, 38 Post, (Spring, July 6,1968), 1971 pp.and 119. James P. Shaver, et al., "An Interpretive ReportSocialtion,EducationMathematics, on he1977), Studies Status (Columbus, pp. and Educationof 54-5. Pre-collegeSocial Ohio: Science Based Center on Education, Three for NSF-FundedScience 1955 -1975, and MathematicsStudies," Vol. 2, Mathematics in National Educa- 98.99. Behavioral "Brookland Service Plan," Consultants, n.p.; Washington "Finalhavioralfor Evaluationary,Post, Open-Space 1974, DecemberService Report: Consultants,Schools, 11, Training 1979. ESEA Inc., Center Title1974); III "Brookland Project" (Greenbelt, School Plan," Md.: Febru- Be- 120. Stanley Helgeson, et al., The Status of Pre-Collegetics,ScienceSocialFoundation, and Science, Foundation, SocialScience Mathematics, 1979), Science Education, What p. 7.Education? Are and 1955-1975, The Needs (Washington, Vol. in Pre-college 1, Science D.C.: Science,Education National Mathema- Science(Washing- 102.101.100. DistrictBehavioral of Columbia Service Consultants, PublicPublic Schools,Schools, pp. Data21,"Open 47. Resume Spacerooms"Division Bookvs. Self-Contained(Washington, of(Washington, Research andD.C.: Class-D.C.: Evaluation, Division of 1976), Research p. 28, and 32; Evaluation, Kaya, p. 9. 1980). 121. Louis Smith and Pat Keith, Anatomy of an EducationalandInnovationsYork:ton, theD.C.: John American NationalInnovation, Wiley,(New SchoolYork: 1971); Science (New Basic (New Neal Foundation, Books, York: Gross, Agathon1971): et 1977),al., Roland Implementing Press, pp. Barth,31-2,1972). 34.Open AlsoOrganizationa' Educationsee Robert 104.103.105. NotesWashington In addition from my Post,to visit;my December observations, Behavioral 11, Service reporter1979; IConsultants, Judyobservedclose1981. Valente off these open pp. of 60, teacherthespace 71.Washington when efforts I visited to Post Bruce-Monroe and Brookland schools in (Berkeley,Herriot and Calif.: Neal Gross McCutchan (eds.) The Publishing Dynamics Co.. of 1979). Planned Educational Change 106. As in New York City, I exclude continuationofdropoutsMonroe.wrote schools Performing a series See(e.g.for potentialOctober Spingarnof Arts, articles Banneker 13,or program); actualon1980 second-grade and High the May SchoolCapitol 24, teacher 1981 forPage, the issues.Dorothy Duke Gifted, Ellington Porter and separateof School Bruce 11)7. Washington Daily News, November 14. 1968;governance,fromvocational22, Washington alternatives1968. schools. size, etc.Post, Admission November criteria differed markedly in these schools I describe as well as other substantial differences in 109.108. WashingtonGeorge Rhodes, Post, November Jr., "Action 1, 1970. Programs inpp.Schools"March 21-2, 9,Washington,24; 1971. Washington D.C.: Daily District News, of MarchColumbia 9, 1971; Public Washington Schools, 1970), Progress in the Secondary Post, lll,110. Barbara Sizemore, Superintendent MemorandumhadIdures hadArts. had visitedforto Alsodiscussions School Alternative thesee Board,Literary Washington with Programs," "Proce- teachersArts programPost, at June theMarch Dukeat19, the 9,1974, EllingtonLemuel1971. p. 4. Penn School Career of Performing Center; I 115,113.112.114. TheWashingtonJohn ibid., New Goodlad, p. York 36. Star, Times, et Decemberal., AprilLooking 20, 31, 1975;Behind 1979. Opening the Classroomp. Education,5. Door 2 (Summer, (Worthington, 1975), 117,116. ibid., p.pp. 97. 82-3. Ohio: Charles Jones Publishing Co., 1974), pp. 78-9, 81. 4-,4 i 21.0 0 town and among 500 other Arlington elementary teachers between 1975 Classroom Practice in a School District: Arlington, Virginia, 1967-1980 I 209 5 superintendent,sawHoffman-Boston,and Schildt's 1980. room there an for alternativewasn't the first any time junior class during forhighUnusual me my school to visits see. also in inShe Arlington. was my had Bobbyinitial individual- When year Schildt's as 1 social studies classroom in 1975 at Classroom Practice in a studentsthatizedcontractsrest sheher of collectively wouldcoursesthe theyweek, gather intohad students calledanegotiatedonce series a aworked week ofsocial projects, with as atstudies a variousSchildt.class contracts, laboratory.to tasks discussShe spentand some Forcenterslearning class topic.each timecompleting stations course,For asking the School District: Arlington,Virginia, 1969-1980 overflowedtheandquestions wall.commenting ofTeacher-made, theindividual room. on work students, thatteacher-gathered, would helping beAs someplaced with andthat into Wilkinson, werecommercial student stuck, cubbiesI sawand materials readingSchildt along a number of times over the years. I first met Carmen Wilkinson in 1975 when in my regulr visits to schools I andschool.hadthroughWhen individualbeen I lastBut ninth consolidated sawthe graders, worklaboratoryher in through1981, althoughinto was shea seventhcontracts no was then more. still it through was teachingandThe in learninghigh antwelfth social alternativedegree stations studiesgrade of independent school secondarytowere seventh now that elementarywalkedstationsonefirst Iyear intohad in asopen her seenwhich Arlington room space that students athad and CountyJamestown mixed self-contained spent Superintendent, ages most Elementary (grades of classrooms. the day I 1 andhad through working wasalready This stunned. 4) was independentlyseen the overIn only my 300 and learning simulations,carriedeffortsmirror, on aimed periodically,in role-playing,a number at reforming woven of andimportant teaching togethersmall group practices.ways, withThe work. more subtlewhat In whole-class thishappened changes chapter, thatdiscussions,nationally I will occurred sketch to in these Arlington classrooms questions,individuallyandadjacentCalled moved by givingrooms. whilefreelyparents, Wilkinsonadvice,Wilkinson about children, listening,the moved teamed room; and staff aboutand withthey working"The theanother worked room Palace," withteacher asking in small variousthe andand, class group answering atstudents. usedthat and time,two intopetencies,intenseoutclassrooms the the preoccupationswift early and both shift accountability1980s. nationally in attentionThen with and thethatI in fromteachingswelled one informal school in of the basic district, mid-1970s education skills, Arlington minimum and to aspilled renewed, County, com- over will try to reconstruct what happened in taskstwowatchedrick, student in Harold a quiet, Wilkinson teachers. Rugg, low-key andSheand Elizabethfashion.orchestratedher colleague Irwin in work beenanHad unobtrusive with lookingLillian the Weber, 5(1over manner children my Vito shoulder scores thatPerrone, April ofas I Charles Silberman, William Kilpat- betweenroomsVirginia, vanished 1968 after and this was 1974, abrupt breathtaking. open shift. classrooms WithinThe and a swiftnessbrief alternative period in ofwhichschools time, media attractedroughly and popular interest in informal class- into"Palace"morning,other the otherclassroom atI am Jamestown. 17 sure self-contained theysimilar would Had to thethey haveclassrooms, "Palace"' walked been pleased theythe halls would with with thehave mepresence seen and only looked of onethe articles,publicthenationalresearch, edge and attention,tradeof professional theand books,public's research became television interest radar notes a screen. are in programs, the Mirroring number journal of that references rise articles, and to fall newspaperacademic in both de rigeur Readers' Guide,innovation, Educational and Index, began the slide off flexibleclassroomhadinstructional taught groupings forchange 32 day. years intoandWilkinson's (as alearning one-grade of 1980), informal centers atself-contained Overleast classroomthat tenthe were moreyears wasintegratedroom timesI served unusual yet and retainingas into221saw at Superintendent, James- theher I visited Wilkinson, who decades.movements,listings.The New SomehowYork as Times,this onethis had, impulse their oflifespans informalWhile usually othereducation schoolstretched and reform alternativeover impulses a few have surfaced and coalesced into and Washington Post indices and other similar 222 schools2101local Open differences).were Classrooms telescoped and ItAlternative seemed into less Schools, almost than 1965-1975 a as decade if, by (allowing1975, the forpublic regional and schooland undefined,quasi-open basic classrooms skills were where neglected, children and made order choices, was problematic. standards were The Classroom Practice in a School District: Arlington, Virginia, 1967-1980 / 211 aboutsuncartoonstelevisionprofessionals, clunk the I brief downsawchannels for aslife on aany childspanthe to number anotherhorizon. ofwhen informal ofthe station. Whatever reasons, narrator education Or flicked imagesaidto shift isthe Ievident.the wouldsunimages, dial set anduse,Byand I recall 1975,switchedtheI saw point the the evidencelikeclassroomsclassroomswhichissue, to Idemonstrate believe, and would the isprofound itprobably aboutnot is, whetheralthough teachers. misconception turn this upa Thepersistent instances is issuea misrepresentation of is theofsearch the whateverfrequency gap among between anyone and twoof availableinformalspread million would of cannotsubstantially.climateevenly,15,000 holdsurrounding schoolthere for Obviously, isall districts, still schools. open a high suchclassrooms millions Yet tide.generalizations while of and teachersan alternative incoming about and a schoolschildrentide country seldom had within thechanged arrives nearly 1970s passioncatchingclassroomsWashington,open classrooms. for on thedid, D.C.,in reforman indeed, Asandink. the North didsplattering turn limited it everDakotaup in datacapture numerousfashion, for I 1967gathered more but throughand thanat fromunpredictable no a 1975 point smallNew suggest, inminorityYork the places, City,briefopen of Californiaofreporter Alto,alternative amarked leaderestablished schools the in informalend its committed of John the education, Marshallpassion to traditionalfor Fundamental created informalExactly the approaches. schoolswhen HooverSchool the in in Contemporarytheshift 1973;Pasadena, founding occurred Palo varies from place to place. One whatteachersthepublic went public andschools on byschools. in newspapers, classroomsto political What issuesthebut nit slogansfar gazines, in more the reveal cultureabout and,What moreaboutthe asremains selectedhistoric recently,schools unclear, vulnerabilityand is television. translatedless however, about of for is why some teachers converted from tratedSchool upon: in 1974 with a program, accordinghabits to ...its ... academic brochure, in a quiet skills andthat and orderlyconcen- subject environment.... matter and the A majority of the school establishment of good study techniques,approachesteacher-centeredrhetorictheir previous and and by new selectivelywhy practicespatterns. practice, some of toAlso,incorporating and theseinformal persistedwhy teachers, ones,have somein over mostwhytheir but time,others teacher-centeredteachers not slipped othermodified ignored backinformal their class-into both PrinceMore and Georges more schoolCounty, districts Maryland established did inhours 1975.and "Basic willarithmetic. Arlington's be Alternative devoted entryto Schools"the cameteaching asin of reading, writing, spelling, language theteaching.classrooms?rooms? teacher-centered Finally, As I have what tried regularitiespractices about to show,teaching there practicesThe was which rhetoric some since seemed movement of the "back waning consistent toaway theof openfrom basics"with hid more than it revealed about phraseoccurredmid-1970s.2familiar1978 with with trinity far inthe moreschools Page of basicpolitical Traditional and skills, classrooms baggage Alternativebecame packed Whether(oftena rallying School. into captured it than sloganwas"Back affectiona inknee tothroughout athe codejerk basics," for reaction wordthe the a to the perceived changes that had centerednessoccurredthestudent-centered1975, claims Iseemed shall of andthose look practices.to the be wantingat legitimacy,the Arlington, introduction To more assess Virgina, stress what of more onhappened and fundamental variation then in review classrooms around skills. some teacher- Whatsince recent if not viability, of varied forms of accountabilitytivedisrespectpersistentborrowed climate reports forfrom that teachers, and an ofspilled minimumearlierdeclining or theonto generation educational test competencyschools scores, ofwith versionincreasing critics, testsI state of cannot "permissiveness"),mandates theschool political say. vandalism for conserva- teacher and or ARLINGTON,national studies of VIRGINIA, teaching practices. 1974-1981 homework,blackboardnostalgicness, stability, strings anddetentions, and teacherswithin academic bothdress desk, citizens codes, theskills teacher spellingand capturedWhatever parents: in bees,front in rows the symbolsletterof explanations,the of grades desksroom, that facing on requiredplucked reportthere the was a renewed passion for orderli- writeexperiencescattereddata,In turning evaluating as a fragments participant. toas thisa teachersources, school of and informationallsifting district, administrator. the I evidence,am no filtered When longer and I throughdrawing writean historian about inferencesmy Arlington,values collecting fr arid )m I convertecards, tougher promotion standards and schoolwideImplicit in these discipline slogans rules. and symbols was that(:, most teachers had either(pc, threatened to convert their classrooms, into open or university.seven years The and seven left yearsin 1981 I spent to begin in Arlington writingIn 1974, were this I wasstudyboth appointedexhilarating and teach superintendent atand a in Arlington. I served nearly =24 212 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965 1975 Classroom Practice in a School District: Arlington, Virginia, 1967-1980 / 213 bothtothedent'sexhausting. signal view in office, detail in readers the Viewing however, and narrative thatemphasis. a other isschool beyond a narrow accounts system what perspective. I fromofsaw, Arlington Ithe raise Whilecockpit the would Iissue will of the oftry mysuperinten- to positionbroaden probably vary believe,methinkingtaughtprincipals, in touchworkshops communicated skills and with throughstudents. afor substantial teachers thesome In useaddition, of ofand mynumber questions. administratorspriorities at least of twiceteachersAll about of during interested theseinstruction and, activitiesthe I would schoolin and improving broughtstudent likeyear, to I theiryearmanyteaching periodrooms. classrooms practices andFew informally people, as in athe superintendent professional district. gathered I saw aor does, great overlay,Because should havehalfdeal of ofautomatic he Arlington'smy or position, access teachers I visitedto as in classrooms repeatedly over a seven of information about she choose to use classrooms.3theseperformance. years are A necessary few words to about establish the schoolthe setting district for andthe examinationcommunity inof spendformallythistheme privilege. formaltoa monthbecome assuming duties and acquainted a ofthe half the post. visiting post. with The The schools principalsSchool Board, and Board staff,and sitting teachers agreedand in community classes to my in request order knew for tothat I did. My visits to classrooms began six weeks prior to before I took over hasD.C.Arlington,The become SettingOnce Virginia, a aquiet city middle-classwith is located a flourishing across white the multi-ethnicsuburb Potomac with River segregatedpopulation from Washington, schools,in the last it oursocialmyandBoard toplast teachers.studies agendajob and previous I teacheragreed items, to thatitin wasbecoming a improvementWashington, reasonable Arlington's thatofD.C., student .I spendhigh performance school. time with Because was onethe of superintendent was as a principals jumpsfewerdroppedmoredecade. culturally and in Infrom number smallerthose almost diverse. years offamilies 180,000 young Arlington The with facts insingles 1966 school-agesimultaneouslyare to plain:and about adults in children;160,000 the gotoverlast smaller,indecade there55 1978; years werepopulation older,there of sharp wereage. and gominutesinher unannounced classrooms. for a fewto a minuteshalf-hour, to Most a school, and often with then stop my most begin in stay the being to principal'sinMy walk a closerroutineclassroom through office,to for the the school ranged 20 chatbuilding, minute visits between stopping mark.was set 15 I in those initial six weeks. I would with him or enrollmentcounteracttheCoincident county, theshrankwithswelling other these from minorityshifts.4 changes, 26,000 population, inscores 1968 of to different butThe14,000 wits impact in nationalitiesinsufficient 1982. of these From numbersmovedchanges nearly into 40 toupon schools has been dramatic. Pupil onthejottedquestionsthe in arrangement class, teachernotes and inabout without astudent-teacher offolder the disrupting tasksclassroom,about students what exchanges. the and theclass, were anyteacher IIf did.unusual workingit were andIf I could,possibleitemsstudents on, theI noticedoften towere materials speak would doing, going askthe with schoolsnamesenon-Englishdoubledless than (including children.5 toa 15 overspeaking percent3 highone-third minorities,schools) minority in in1980. particularly1968,in 1970, The to 31 jumpthe schools Hispanic, number came in 1982.Korean, mostof ethnic Also sharply and frompupils Viet- in onaccustomedteacherto their the personalteacherwas to using, these thanking agenda visitsand soinherand theon. orwould school,himAs theoftenfor theyearsansweringOften take district, went thein atime mycrypticparents, by, questions,to teachers mention pidgin-shorthand, union, praising grewitems etc. I took notes so that I could write diminishingschoolwas the systemrising revenue cost as of schooling.intersecting Spending with inflation, moreSinceIf demographic to the thebuy appointed pincers less waschanges tightened. asfive-member true were for onea Schoolpincer squeezingBoard is fiscally schools, dependent the other it was for families in the mid- to late-1970s. With visitingteacherasomething pointrepeatedly afterthatclassrooms about we eachin thehad the visit, articlesand beenclass noteswriting thatdiscussing. I wrote from I wasnotes inme impressed local was Whilewere explicitlynewspapers, common. I didwith, not statedor The write simplyspeeches purposeand every reaffirmed to forsinglethe mystaff, continue beingatshortfallsupon the thetimefelt. electedplus Thethat inflation armsthe five-member cumulative of unraveledthe pincers Countyeffects school closed. ofBoard, budgets Whatthe demographic state prevented in theseand federal years, the changes pinch preciselyrevenue werefrom hurting Arlington schools too badly thatandwatching,allocatethey statementsthe were. superintendent myand One attimeroughlyanswering ofpublic the was fewmeetings: questions asways oneconcerned I Iandhad inbelieved face-to-face toa and halfdemonstrate thatinterested days teachers exchanges a thatweekto in instructionshouldconcern2 with 25 listening, teachersknow was as to railprimeformationproperty,was systemandthat locationclose the wasfrom County, wealthy. suburbthe County measuredto toWashington That city, Board's wealthby especially family and cautioussomewhat income improved during fiscal and easeda recession. furtherassessed policies the painfulby valuation Arlington's gavethe Metro trans-it the of 0 owners,Boardlowest214 / Open hadtax mostClassrooms rateto struggleof in whom theand Alternativemetropolitan with no longer the Schools, politics hadarea 1965 children (1980). of1975 retrenchment. Nonetheless,in school, Iratewanted the property County lower schoolsthroughand the trauma andthe affluenttwo from junior the portion closing highs of hadof the the beenCounty. first mergedelementary By 1980, with school nearbyfive reverberated'elementary schools. Classroom Practice in a School District: Arlington, Virginia, 1967-19801215 belts,tion,highertaxes. and bit Theirschool bullets,social demands budgets, services. and pu-sued competed subsidies other withfor less the requests vivid elderly,Caught fiscal from improved likemetaphors. citizens everyone police, who The else wantedCountyrecrea- in recessions, county officials tightened callyappearedgrades)highMoreover, schoolover had resilient school a andbeensecondary retainedclosings. enoughapproved reorganization tofour weather by intermediate the Schoolthe that controversy movedBoard.schools the Thethat(seventh ninth mergererupted grade and periodi-process eighth to the taxemergedshiftannual rate fromin from target the a themetropolit=.a Republican for mid-19-10s holdir gCounty area,costs recession anddown Board a with school and Politicalto most onereducing system servicescomposed change thatexpenditures. intact, alsohad of becomea occurred.the coalition lowest an There of had been a gradual but persistent frameworkthatal framework framework for instructional for were improving as follows: improvement studentThe performance.was other put task in place. that By consumed The 1976-1977, pieces much to a time was creating an organization- majoritycanscompleteIndependentsappointed had beencontrolthey School andhadelected of Democrats. enjoyedtheBoard toCounty the members, a five-member decade Board.By 1971, those earlier.By 1978, thiswho Board, Sinceliberal served however, thereby the blocon County thethree reassertinghad School Republi-attained Board Board a thoseSuperinendentunderstandingimprovingSchool goals Board reading, into ofandestablished school humanities staffmath, and established writing, classrooma andset of humanand organizationalinstructional thinkingpriorities. relations. skills; goals devices improving for for system, converting students e.g. the(1978)throughout lagSchool betweenand Boardappointmentsthe 1970sthe had Republicans hada three-member tobeen the appointed Countyattaining Republican Board, a by majority the it liberalwas majority.`' on not the majority. until County 1980 Due Board that to 2.1. year,mid-yearSuperintendentPlanEach thatschoolreceived toconcentrated discussstaff, an reviewed withassessment progress adviceupon each andthe from ofSchool theBoard'smake parents, plan. Plan, changes, goals. drewmet with and,up an eachat Annual the principal end School of the at executivepublicanSchool Board's School officer, relationshipBoards appointees in the with 1960s of itsthe left superintendent. liberal Asoperational part majority of this decision When political intervened makingprevious shift moreinto Re- theits 1970s, change also occurred in the 4.3. linkedAcademicSuperintendentAdministrator to the Profile Board's and andwhich goals. teacher listed evaluationtest scores and forms other and student procedures outcomes were principals discussed periodically the School transactappointedInevitably,actively1974, schoolthein inwhatfriction superintendent 1969 business most developedby superintendentsa Schooland resigned. the between Boardnew, Ifar would wasthecontent more superintendent appointed have activist to letconsidered theirthat School whoyear. hired Board.theirhad expert beenturf. In 5. andjects,Curriculumeachrevised link professional'sand tothem skill incorporate objectives, to areas School formal were the kindergartenBoard being objectivesevaluation. goals. revised through Instructionalof to the align Annual twelfth them materials, Schoolgradewith one in Planincluding allanother sub-into oftumbletellingsuccumbing the School battlefieldinto lessto Boardsuch evident stories. temptations as traps,it To changed avoid I aswill listing these overtry Ito achievements,findtheobvious summarize period, it difficult pitfalls, and my cloaking to theagendawhile summarize inescapable riskingerrors, and that ormya tenure as superintendent without curriculumtextbooks,lum-basedmaterialsaims of theobjectives.were in tests use.revised reviewed Analysisand County-wide curriculumnational and of test modified standardized items testsand weretomissed to determine make constructed achievement on them county-wide their connected to assessfit tests with curricu- thewere to the issuesresistantviewedconsequences that as seizedto an further experiencedof substantial shrinking changes enrollment,instructional amountsprompted ofThe by decliningmy staffa Board diverseattention. that test that wasstudent scores, eitherappointed population. and unaware what me was Inorin 1974 was concerned with the the generally loose linkages between systemIn short, goals, a majordistrict effort curriculum, was made over a three year periodcompleted tomine tighten al-Las and for shared improvement. with principals and teachers annually to deter- Bywhetherbythe 1975whichfirst fewor the not years Board to closemy and staff schools community and Iand, spent couldif muchschools determine time were in establishing toin close,an orderly which a processmanner ones.r' the decision making process for school( consolidation was in place worthwhileinschool positiveorder goals, to climateconcentrate targets. texts towardand In materials,thedoing academic instructional so, tests, the improvement School and staff's normal Board attention wouldevaluation and onbeI hoped fewer,generated. procedures that more a 216 /Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965-1975 Classroom Practice in a School District: Arlington, Virginia, 1967-1980 / 217 highandlevel some schools,climbed gains, consistentlybut but progress not many, for was seven wereless straight evident. establishedTest scorestheyears. The at the coin of the realm in Arlingtonat Plateaus in achievementstaffacademic identified achievement for the junior and seniorthe elementary andflashycharted aconcentration feistyheadlines, by the climate School seven on fot Board different yearsorganizational and of evening agendaSuperintendent change. meetingsitems. SoWhatthat marked much caused resulted for by staff thelong made setting.changes hours, for betweenSchoolAptitudetheirOther education,Board minorityperformance Tests and and droppingcommunityalso white indicators reflected students out substantial of such wellschool, in as1978 on the county-wide gapsthe and number efforts inbegan of to oftests, students continuingthe teachersclose and those gaps. and Scholastic TurnSchoolsincluding now and to 1 the Classroomsalternative; schools. 6There junior were highs, 36 and schools 3 senior in 1975 high (25schools, elementary, excluding decisionsadministrators.producingfromthroughout it. Unexpectedinvolving unexpected the organization, the events Boardconsequences. proved falling and Superintendent to Thisneatly beConsider, disruptivereconstruction into their for and example,proper of the years since 1974 suggests that events flowed smoothly complex, often niches. Far how the and aatofcompletely2 Masters alternative thethe topbuilding ofor open a higher secondary15-step that space weredegree). salary and open.schools). nine schedule)Average Teachers contained Of classand the were additionshighly elementarysize experienced ranged educated of substantial betweenschools, (52(over percent 22halfsix portions and werewere had 26 transferelectionSuperintendentproduced of aof veterana one political offor principal the seven controversy transferred yearsfrom theleaving, principal's that mother trailed in high its advocates wake,the school School a court to Board in the district the CountyBoard, the suit, the and studentstwo$2,000asupplies large junior at inproportion were all1974 high school adequate;to schools $3,000 levelsof which ininhad throughout 15some beenmirrored81. Bycases, closed, that the teacher abundant. year,1970s. the fivetwo salariesrose Books, elementaryPersecondary pupil materials, fromexpenditure. schoolsalternative nearlyand and tionallyVirginiaappointmentBoard and, carrying sued when of Arlington that on the collective very Republicans School principal, bargaining Board seemed by aridthen sinceAnother a Countyretired, majority 1967. unexpected Board toThe onthe thatSchoolfor crisis occurred in 1976, when the Governor Governor lost in unconstitu- Board. of schoolsschoolleavingand a had reorganization problems the been former consolidated was junior high. had highs pushedA into veteran asa single thetwo-grade Associate ninth programProfessional grade intermediate Superintendent (grades into acceptancethe 7 through schools.?high of schools,Instruc- 12),of innovation and responsiveness to most thefoundfourAfter localrepresentatives different a courtdecade but unionsof won bargainingto negotiate the(including appeal and salaries inestablishingall 1977 administrators), or workingin the personnel State conditions. Supremethe it was now illegal to sit down with teacher or administrator procedures with School Board Court. proudtionindividuallynumerousleadership, (1964-1980) of and innovations theloyal prescribed hadschool to developed Arlington district throughout instruction, hadnetworks schools either the computer-assisted 1960s, of adoptedas teachers a pacesetter.including or, and at least,instruction,administrators team Under considered teaching, this new theCountynumberteaching School Board, of Boardpositionsretrenchment itself to cutcopingand back specialist measures with both a reducedcategoriespersonnel wereSimultaneous forced flow andoccurred of programs.onto revenues, throughout thewith schools Reductions whichthe 1977 the byforced 1970s. Virginia Supreme Court decision, a the in onThereSuperintendentspace,curricula top was, and,of (socialwhatever however, of course,mandate studies, novel an informal informaloccurred science,approaches education. expectationto and apply were math), system-wide No beingthat alternative formal professionals tried these Schoolelsewhere schools, new were Board efforts. in opento the beor soakingWithasbargaining,unrelenting, a 85slap uppercent in existing theteachers spiraling face. of the funds,Thereceived budget costresentment teachers ofa pinned2 living. percent from saw down After salarythis their in the increase salariessalaries, collapse that lag and of angeredbehind inflationcollective theman 2 percent increase erupted in archeologicalstratanation1974. within and dig,investigate the traces entire of organization theirprevious appropriateness innovations when I became could for Arlington.be Superintendent seen at various Like anin subsequentconservativesmajoritythe schools voteyears periodicallyof aswith thea community the membership union switched calling punching asking control forTake afor bag,work-to-the-rule of my a County addvolatile resignation economic offices, political action in changes often1979. setting and using a that where Arlington-style liberals and nation,provednewpublication "Learning a"exciting group sent Centerof to andteachers all staffcreative"Approach." atmembers, four to elementary AcknowledgingteachersSo two it ofwas inthe schools withArlington five thatopen pages offered the classrooms. and described"experiment" enthusiastic across Inthe the June, 1969 issue of "Profile," a iw yielded less revenues4.t") for County services, anda.J mix in a different direction endorsement of the practice. Workshops had been held to train teachers in lummirrom 230 218 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965 1975 Classroom Practice in a School District: Arlington, Virginia, 19 67 1 98 0 l 219 centerstracksetting student up had centers, emerged performance stocking by 1968-1969. inthem, the centers.and establishing Already variations in the use of management systems to 'rabic 6,1 InstructionCenteredTeacher- Pa:terns of Instruction, Elementary, 1975-1981 Mixed InstructionCenteredStudent- Number of Classes spendstudentsthey work a portioninvolved with aof largerinthe learning day group.... dealing centers withThere for the the are entire Someentire those class classteachers prefer to have one or two centers for who prefer to have theirin a traditional mannerdaysmaller while othersgroups willwhite Classroom Art. N.D. Arl. c, N.D. Arl. % N.D. % Art. % N.D. % centers.'and then allot the rest of the time for the students to pursue projects in the Group arrangement 4'' 43 18 30 39 1 27 (223) (63) ingteacher." centers Teachersdemand a who great were deal interviewed of workTempering and saw the enthusiasm with caution, teachers creativity on the part of the workload recognizedas "impossible that "learn- StudentClassroominstructiontalk 4549 6062 5250 2523 2 1613 (215)(215) (63) atwithout Henry the said: help of teacher aides." Others were just I'm still wondering in my own mind if this is a new trend skeptical. Bessie Nutt in education or ClassroomsClass activitiesmovement with One or more centers 6034 593, 64 0 30 0 4023 2 326311 (209)(213)(125) (63)(6:.) Threeopening years up herlater class at Jamestown, and space in where1966, there Carmenperimentingjust anotherwere SO gimmick.a bit.' Meanwhile, I am keeping an open mind and ex- Wilkinsonfifth had and begun sixth graders Classrooms observed incentersschool at least years two with one or more 8 (NA) (150) beingsaidspentcentersfor team-taught that thea ingreat they followingscience, spentdeal by of3social partweek. teacherstime of studies, arrangingeach who weekend math, jointly for materialsand were preparing responsible in language. The three teachers materialseach and center. activities All three for 8 learning dominance,studentterns registered movement. upon a substantiallyteacher-centered A mixed patternin two configuration. areas: inWhat instructional isarrangement apparent Student-centered groupings in theof spaceCounty (large,pat- and figures is considerable reliance, but not hadson,Arlingtonas awho steady traveled an stream index to various ofof visitorsinformal schools to classroomsin her in classroom, Ithe cannot ascertainthe early how1970s. widespread the use of learning centers was County to give worshops and estimated that two or Wilkin- in learninginsmall, instructionalfindsstudent and centers.a half-dozen individual),participation. day. On In closer most classroomteachers Just inspection cases, under usedtalk, the of onecentersand thosecenters inactivities four classroomswere as classrooms used ansuggest integral forwith enrichment, higher centers contained part levels oneof skillthe degrees.threeBycenters,about 1975,teachers The nongraded 25when Drewteachers in I eachvisited Elementary primaries, whobuilding all of used the school,andopened elementarycenters team an up teaching daily,alternative their teachers permitted classrooms atschool, students tointroduced to move when it opened in 1971. least once, I found various classroomsetc.lessons,practice, I did tracke.g. or during free at a thedozen choice two end teachersdifferent of activities the reading school(8 percent) before years.period, andwho Of before afterhad all thecenters formally lunch, teachers when after scheduled who Irecess, visited had practicesestablishsomefreely, time and iscenters set organizedevident aside in from theirfor their large-groupthe rooms instruction quotes. varied That for in smallteacherstheir embracegroups could and chooseof openindividuals to teaching. That teachers who chose to classroom do so in with openoftaughtbetweenat leastthe space 11in, one theclassroomsi.e. centerbut openpresence teachers spacein thehad of orclassroom, hadlearningthe self-contained, centersthrown centers. there up and bookcases wastheexcept The kindno school forconsistent ofand one space had temporary school been therelationship where teacherbuilt parti- as 7 a climate6.1whotimes, with served 280 of the acceptance elementary inresults those of years. my isclassrooms, also observations The results or about of Betweenthose63 40 classrooms tovisits 50 1975 percentare anddisplayed 1981, on I informally observed, at least two or more clear.1° in 2 North Dakota of 0-, teachers Table eitherobservedtions to sample divide briefly thesize in space 1981.or duration into While self-contained ofthe observation, percentagesExamine rooms. the arethe visits notfigures comparable occurred for the Grandin ina Forks and Fargo teachers whom I cities. ..1 1 similar time period and in settings that were much like Arlington in a X32 220experiencednumber / Open Classrooms of areas: and and highlyclass Alternative size, trained Schools,history staffs. 1965 of responsiveness1975What turns up toin the comparison is the twofold similarity innovations, and in strength of towithalternativeHoffman-Boston. have an enrollmenttheir secondary children of In overschool, 1979,admitted 400 bothgrades students into schools 7 the through and school.'2 awere waiting 12, consolidated, called list ofH-B parents Woodlawn, into hoping one Classroom Practice in a School District: Arlington, Virginia, 1967-1980 / 221 inglyDakotateacher-centered toin strength: whatArlington. cities, occurred classroom and Two instruction,less.presence in student-centered Washington, arrangement albeit of student-centered toandD.C., categories, a higherstudent classrooms degree movement, however, instruction, in the show quite two (1967-1976) in the particular- surpris-similarNorth weremarkedtownthe early onmeeting, the a1970s, first school itsname the informality, clearlygovernance basis; as a firstunique small of thefloor classes, inschool SimilarArlington.bulletin throughand to boardtolerance alternative Students a headbecame of teacher and schoolsdifferences an teachers instant and elsewhere a in the country that opened in mobility.useputexpect of up classroom aa dailynumber schedule space of regularities. and on the New blackboard. AlmostIn half visitingIf itof were Arlington classrooms for nearly seven years I came to York City (1967-1976) for student the teachers (43 percent) time for reading, the trafficinvelopedthecommunication :,carby wall; in internships students andelementary out center ofdesigned in the Arlington schools.with building its elective notes, During and to Washington, takecoursesannouncements, the internships, day, with there D.C., teachers; andwas jobs,including pleasmuch teachersand pinned coursestutoringstudent de- to variedteachersworkbooks.entireor language tasks classwould to Theseanswering thearts work rest generally regularities ofwith thequestions one class. the groupin teacher Ifalloting from it wereand it timeorassign math, either and socialthe grouping from same studies, dittoed seatwork students science, were or would work from a text with the sheets or aunavailable veteran teacher at Woodlawn who volunteered at other high to work Teachingschools.I3 in the in Woodlawn such a school program. was different, accordingTeaching to here Amos is infinitely Houghton, more challenging than in the traditional school. commondifferentmore often except students. in subjectsfor those other teachers than whoreading, used learningand centers, assigned grouped different tasks to importantandofrewardI'm 200 puttingtidy insteadis school. the asin depthamore of relaxedBut 1,600. inhours. I've which atmosphere....beenOh, I've youI've able never gethad to toread learnscme know so from adjusting muchthe my student in own myto do.personally sonlife. This that But thisis the innot is ultimatea anotschool neat as thanShiftHigh manynowSchool tocommunities the high school. in experiencing In the early the 1970s, growing Arlington concerns was expressed no different by persecutedteacher-studentstudent to leave and relationshipare the more room. amenable andWe've we finddropped to our that Weideas." kidsthe don't authoritativeare nothave tensed rules aspectup,like don't hall in passes feelthe that must be signed by a teacher for a students,independentproblems17-year-olds teachers, students work feel and faced,both likeparents in rules 2-year-olds,and forover out maintaining of the the curriculumand school. the school lack The being discipline ofsearch opportunity unrelated for that a type made to to of do Table 6.2 Patterns of Instruction, High School and HB Woodlawn, 1975-1981 CenteredTeacher- Student- groupeducationanythingexperiments of teacherswhere they where wantedstudents and different tostudents assumed study classes for atresponsibility aWakefield week. were Theseheld for and experiments learning students drove couldled ato small choosea drive High School to initiate H.S. Instruction% H-BW % H.S. % Mixed H-BW % H.S. % InstructionCentered H-BW % H.S. % Number of Classes H-BW % studentandfor apresented separate decision italternative to making, the School electives, high Board. school." and Concerns a varietyA group for of the ofinstructional sizeteachers of high and practices schools, students at Wakefield designed a new school ClassroomGroupClass InstructionArrangement 9485 3661 10 6 45 0 01 3118 (87)(91) (11) anyproducedBoard tenth aapprovedto plan twelfth for a gradethe small venture student(225 students) and on theWoodlawn alternativebasis opened high school its doors open toin a of a lottery. The School StudentMovementTalk 9672 2733 27 1 33 0 21 7333 (85) (11)(12) byalternativeconverted, the School juniorabandoned Board high, and promptedelementary placed4, 0 in by the schoolsimilar former inimpulses, all-black 1971. Two wassecondary yearsalso endorsed later school, an Class Activities 72 25 26 42 0 33 (86) (12) 2,34 222/ Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965 -1975 teacher activities listed above capture, I believe, about 90 percent of what Classroom Practice in a School District: Arlington, Virginia, 1967-1980 / 223 littlebledofteachers classroom planetsfrom and New orbitingstudentstasks York was Citythedid a smallsun inand the in Washington, one classroomsa predictable dominatedAs this D.C.,that manner. bystudy I inobserved.regularities the has 1970s shown, The thatand universe teachinglookedresem- repertoires in Arlington differed country,considerablymorerepresented variety allowing, alike in in Table the of teachingcourse,mix 6.2. of Practices techniques,for of colleaguesexceptions. were particularlyOne asimilar generation exception but student there earlierin Arlington seemedparticipation, across wastheto be H-B Woodlawn, with half of the staff .41,111 --setle4 .11-1111111r I 4111V;MIMPOW goingteacher-centeredofthat the turned substantialcategories up in classrooms. instruction. demographicappear as frequently Mixed changes and Betweenused understudent-centered alternatives the 1974 aegis and of patterns to a1981 schoolthe familiarin in Arlington,board each a middle-sized district under- Glebe Elementary, 1975 (Arlington Public Schools, PublicDiscussions, Information student Office). reports, lectures, independent study, textbooks, slippedtoimprovingand rooms.earlier superintendent away. periods Thestudent Formstediously whenperformance, trying of impulses teacher-centeredfamiliar to classroomsteer for pattern instructionala course teaching ofinstruction some of actionshowedreform variety dominated targeted weakenedtraits in elementary common class-upon and theirprojectsallcloselypartially classroom those inwere Table of practices usedNew 6.2. byYork variouswere City from and Woodlawn Washington,mainstreamRegular teachers. D.C.,teachers high betweenschoolHow is captureddifferent teaching 1967 and practices in Arlington resembled quite Aimaxim ll* punctuatedingteacherthe1976. onesthe The who entirethat niche by isI have talking,classa thatstudent described forhigh asking, mostreport, school previously: oflistening a teachingthe panel, perioda to rows or occupiesstudent a offilm.time tablet-arm answers, inthat Arlington is chairsoccasionallyand supervis-matches facing a board,occasion,What use the student theteacher overhead reports. would projector, probablyI watched dogive teachers in tests,anyI given sendand runhighstudents movie school to projectors. satclass,the chalk- I came in classes and listened to discussions, recitations, and, on LlseiteTI° I F. I mentdiscovered,haveto frompointrealize, afrom decent thefrom was the textbookwas previouschancetext;one predictable: of collects the ofor lesson winning. veryhomework. homework fewteacher or homework;hunchesThe takes Periodically,donerange that attendance;from and questionsI would sequenceprevious a riskfilm, makes students day; ofbetting a activities, test,picksan onassign-on student uppointsand aI V .4; tapes,activitiesreports, assignment or might a field differ given trip wouldfrom at end subject interrupt of period to thesubject, ratherabove e.g. thanactivities. science beginning, labsThe sequenceor but language the of BEST COPY ANI.41LABLE Schools,Swanson PublicIntermediate Information School, Office). Social Studies Class, 1979 (Arlington Public 63 6 teaching224 / Open Classroomspractice withinand Alternative a teacher-centered Schools, 1965 1975 and mixed configuration nar- 1981 suggest a general convergence in patterns, with the differences a Classroom Practice in a School District: Arlington, Virginia, 1967-1980 I 225 toiresapparentrowinginformal producing, into in teacher-centeredArlington.a pristine as describedversion practice. of teacher-centerednessalso inNo other suchCertain settings,cross-fertilization informal at a practices did penetrate elementary the high school ishybrid formteacher of reper- seemed to Schooling."(NSF)pointsmatter studiesof degree,comparison completed rather and thanin 1978contrast: kind. and There Johntwo The NationalareGoodlad's someNSF CaseSciencerecent large-scale Studies data Foundation that"Study in Science offer of Education (CSSE) sent writers and occasionalhaveNational occurred teacher Data at on thein Classroomeach high building school Practice orlevel at H-B in Woodlawn. Arlington, except for the large,documents,theiruponresearchers feeder science,small, into and schools,wealthy, math, 11observations districts andthe poor, socialfield across white, richly researchers studies the and textured nation blackprograms constructed in caseschools. 1976-1977. instudies 11 To fromhigh corroborateof Concentrating urban, schoolsinterviews, rural, andthe classroomArlingtonComparisons practice is one with schoolin 63Arlington elementary district. in the Aclassrooms 1970sfair question and in early 2 Northto 1980s pose was Dakota cities in is whether unique. overfindingsthicksupervisors.15 7,000 descriptionsemerging teachers, from principals,of thethe casecases. studies,central The full officeNSFNo rangeclear commissioned administrators, portrait of teaching of elementary a surveyandpractice state of classroom is teaching breaks through the teacherblanketsreaderdescribed,last paragraph.16 throughwraps the sometimes reader's itself a class seductively eyes indiscussion painstaking or, on around occasion, that detailthe isn't reader when goingwhen andthe anywherethe won'tprose observer letabout andgo takesuntil atedium gifted thethe generalNonetheless,theregularities scope patterns of in amidst theinstruction were writers' the evident variety is task difficult in of nineand practices sinceofwere Thethe frequency cases alienthemass observers that ofto detail,these countsincluded described casehowever, were elementary studies. beyond some overwhelms. Sorting out the details into \ schools.ittheteacher's was primary "presentedPrincipal centrality authority investigator as to what ofall knowledge classroom experts Robert had andactivity. Stake found math,In highfoundMoreover, toscience, he schools, intrue."17 the and the 11 socialobservers, textbook cases studies; the was after mentioning the occasional superb elegantlymath or science for 50 minutes,teacher who commented hooked students'on the remark attention 'ble similaritiesand steered init I curriculum.teachingnames thatof schoolsA cut sampling across are pseudonyms) subjectfrom the matter, cases in classmakes a Houston, size, this teacher point. Texas experience,suburb:Rob or Walker on the math department of Central High School (all Washington-Lee High School, Math Class, 1974 (Washington-Lee Yearbook, believehandouts." it is If a halffair representationthe faculty did ofnot the say faculty's this"I precisely, am pedagogical a very they traditional camestyle.... close. teacher. I I use a chalkboard, a textbook, and 1974). 4d-N ( Colorado city: Mary Smith on Fall River High's science program in a small 38 226 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, Introductory Biology instructions: methods are largely lectures, 1965-1975 lab inves- Table 6.3 Frequency* in Use of Selected Math andClassroom Science Techniques, Practice in a School 1977 District: Arlington, Virginia, 1967-1980 I 227 tigations,Chemistrytheis from review the Biological sheets, text Modern and Sciences occasional Chemistry Curriculum films is is spent in lectures and laboratoryandStudy guestused (green speakers. but the version). approachThe text used is tradi- Grade: K-3 % Math4-6 % 10-12 K-3 % % Science 4-6 % 10-12 K-3 % % Sodial Studies 4-6 % 10-12 % experiments.tional. The vast majority ofLouis class timeSmith on science in Alte High School in a St. Louis suburb. IndividualDiscussionLecture 3647'30 838858 906187 407618 664290 468987 562788 529159 429580 "acrossHe jotted schools, down levels,a number disciplines, of statements1. In most classrooms, a section of the and departments": blackboard with assignmentsthat for summarized each what he saw TeacherStudents atBlackboardDemonstrationAssignment' 8171 6478 5358 3512 37 18 41 10 NA 10 NA 13 NA 6 3.2. TeachersTeachers'dayschool).the of evening)the carrying gradeweek. orbooks a into stack literally class of laboratory to full, be returned cell notebooks homeby to cell, be graded of pages (in of numbers.(in the early morning before StudentsTests or useQuizzesmaterialsof lab and 45 64 78 7 30 62 20 38 60 5.4.6. FrequentLabofReviews books classroom fullbefore of redtests, byplay ink taking comments. around tests....ISof quizzes the and tests, question, "Does it count?". returning and checking Student ProjectsReportsmanipulatives or 6612 3410 14 5 37 19 3618 7223 3121 2730 2211 denselystatus,results packedandof a other1977 into variables,national every survey.page almost of If numbers appear infrequently in Stratified5,000 by questionnaires geography, socio-economic from teachersanother were NSFthe volume volume of reporting case studies, the they are Sample number"Teacherweek.Frequency supervises is defined students as a technique working onreported individual by teachers activities."2° to be used daily or at least once a (297) (277) (548) (287) (271) (586) (254) (281) (490) classroomreturnedonesthe following I have fortechniques aused Tablesresponse throughout and I have mannerrate selected of of76 percent. this study. 19 those techniquesgroupingobvious that studentsapproximate from the for self-reports. instruction. the First, In Teachers reported their work.21samethe question task and included students answers worked of teachersalone while whoEmerging, assigned thethen, entire from class a national cross section of teachers' self-reports the teacher supervised the the lecturefrequencyexcept and for discussionelementaryas students weremovedmath. favored through theA number of commonalities are Second, certain teacher practices for high school sciencemethods teachers' throughout use thegrades grades, into high school: lecture, increased in talk,Arlington:in 1977 and arcclass teacher-centered regularities activities converged in practicepatterns with ingenerally teachertotal group self-reports consistent instruction, of with frequency classroom those inin Average Percentage of Time Spent in Various Instructional discussion,centeredof exceptliveslab equipment. and classrooms, fortests labscience) and materialseither Third,quizzesexcept such or did asclassroom notstudent reach decreased reports as beyond a reported 25practices percent in associated use. with student- and projects, use of manipula-students got older (again, Table 6.4 Arrangements by Subjects and Grade Range K-3 Math4-6 10-12 K-3 Science 4-6 10-12 K-3 Social Studies 4-6 10-12 entireexaminedaccording class even asto moreateacher group familiar responses,increases patterns in soWhen reassertthat Table 6.4 on instructional groupingsfrequency reported byin theteachers higher is grades,by high school, regardless of themselves. Teaching the EntireSmall class groupsas group 3629 2538 2254 52 18 5218 52 19 5915 50 15 6811 theteachingsubject,levels,ever, grades, did inover except smallexceptnot half exceed forgroups 239ofin K--? science.the one-quarterdecreases math.class This timeWorking in form practiceis spent as of the t:me in the three subjects at "individually" is ambiguousof instructional since grouping, how- in whole-group instruction;the students move through all StudentsSampleworkingNumberindividually (293) 36 (271) 38 (539) 24 (272) 30 (262) 30 (576) 30 (254) 26 (281) 35 240(453) 21 228 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965 1975 Classroom Practice in a School District: 4rlington, Virginia, 1967-1980 I 229 highoflecture-discussion muchcasesincreasing school althoughto discount converge. teacher-centeredness pet and for centages By wholethe "converge" inflation groupdo differ asinstruction.built I students andonly into categories suggest teacher moveFurthermore, a arereportsfromsimilar not elementary is paththe another patterns in toitem identical. How both 39classesclassroomelementarywere percent whereused had tasks appearedthere andat least alreadyhighwas 1 in a learningschool learningthe discussed report, classrooms,center. center. athowever. lengthNo Of explanation 129 I in choseIn elementar)",this one a ofnumber classrooms, of report.25 table of activities in how the centers familiar datathatStudy needsoverlap. of to Schooling he factored into a judgment of how closely the two sets of Table 6.5 Percentage of Time Teachers Used Selected Activities26 Elementary High School A reporthavefinal beenset of ofover working data 1,000 come sinceelementary from 1972 John onand Goodlad's "A secondary Study teamof classroom Schooling." of researchers observations A technical who in Explain,PreparationDiscussion lecture, for assignments read aloudor instructions; cleanup 18.912.1 6.8 25.813.2 5.2 curriculum,andpublishedeconomic,38 schools student in acrossand 1981.and views ethnic other the Although of nation, issues,backgroundswhat the representingschools I studywill concentrate ofcovered do, students different student the ongoalsand regions,expectations the school of report schools, racial, sizes, that ofsocio-parent dealt wasthe TakingWork tests on writtenor quizzes assignments TOTAL 69.529.1 2.6 65.015.2 5.6 eventswithandInteractions what 16that times teachers occurred (FMI), daily did inwithin using inan classrooms.22elementary an5 minutes, instrument classroom. 4Classroom times to count during The the data target anumber highwere events school elaborate.of classroom were class how Trained observers did Five Minute andsurveyteacher-centered.students the data Arlington spent which their These figurestallied time figures teacher infor only regular are responsesfive generally highactivitiesonesFor schoolsfor aboutconsistent frequently two-thirdsin generally the with categoryused the techniqueslabeledof 1977 each "Class NSF as class, elementary and high school classroompoolofferedteacher:teachers came a spent whocontinuous to from locate istime doing Snapshot on what picture different what activity data.of to classroom taskswhom, Briefwas and going descriptionshow, exchangesexchanges. on, and who in between Another whatweredirected context.taken students information the inactivity Thiseach and thebyActivities."withkeep a various considerable vastlyin mind Percentagessets different that ofmargin twodata instruments) of fromArlington'sfor the another "Adata Study setsand figures categorygrouping cometeacher of Schooling," for from reports these direct tasks. in however, observationdissimilar for In instructioncomparing exceed settings. (albeit Schooling,"classrooms,and the form noted ofKen grouping theSirotnik, following: for whothe activity.23 headedFrom this both portion sets of data"A Study on over of 1,000 elementary and secondary Table 6.6 Forms of Instructional Grouping* Entire Class Small GroupIndividual' Thespeaking,this:Approximately model the teachersteacher classroom explaining/lecturing half'out-talk' configurations of the students time is devotedbywhich to athe ratio totalwe to of observed teacherclass about (or talk....three ...a single looked to Relatively one. student), like Study of Schooling Elementary, 63 School, % High 71 Elementary, % 9 School, % High 15 Theinteraction.theaskingelementary students majority direct, 'listening' factual-type andof students three-fourths to thequestions at teacherall inschooling secondarywork or or monitoring responding levelsnearly or as toobserving ateacher-initiated total two-thirds class.... students; Lessin ArlingtonNationalNorth ScienceDakota citiesFoundation Survey 4948*62 (NA) 9458 2613 1 (NA) 21 0 bled closely those included in this study.2 In4 For examiningI example, Sirotnik's observersthan tables, counted 10% a are number found ofworking specific in small activities group resem- configurations.24 t NSF separatedthreeremainder."A math,All Study subjects. percentages science, of Schooling" and arc social founded has studies. a categoryoff. Percentages "Medium/Large" that group which accounts for the I used are means for the 230 / Open Classrooms and Alternative Schools, 1965-1975 Classroom Practice in a School District: Arlington, Virginia, 1967-19801 231 is, smalltiesdifferingsimply in groupgrouping stated, methodologies, and lacking. for individual instruction, What settings, remainsis a i.e.muchand entiresignificant,research Degreesless class common designs ofI isbelieve, difference frequently areteaching the in the figures are .pparent. Precision in the face ofcommonali-in this areaused, and practice. "oneThe system, sits and she listens." said, nurtures "incrediblerialessentially passivity."and presents didactic, In it classto teacher-centered students, after class, whose mode.... role is Most toThe 'absorb' teacher teachers it. knows teach the in mate- much the same way they were taughtin an differencesdatasurveyFrequenciesperhaps these in varyand classrooms. monotonous, fordirect any observationtonumber repetitive of reasons configurationstheNo ranging instruments unambiguous from that the showstatement nature up can be made about teaching used or actual practice but persis-of the Yet this teacher was touted as one of thesleeping.through finest inthe Before the hour school. long, that much I"I found realized," of my the own class mind was wanderingIneither one doodling,class too. during fidgeting, my second or week as a student, I noticed half way stabilitytentlyEllendecimalsthe point. will Glanz.to certain helpandNarrative, percentages.nail teaching down however, patterns.the So notionmay I end Numbers,fill thisthat in gaps chapterthere of in is,course, the with indeed, meaning thehelp a that escapes experience of in makingstubborn sheagendacontroltechniquesvery said, act "that over forof what sittingteachersorthe responsibility classwas and usedboring islistening the "promote was forteacher's. their notfor what theownWhen Hefourthfeeling theeducation." orteacher it shehour thatcomes plans wasin studentsShe a to saying row."" pointedthe teaching havetasks but out thelittle andmethods,the Glanz observed that most TypicalTeacheraffluent. of Playing whitethat group districts, Student of experiencedGlanz spent ateachers year as awho student work in the in suburbanhigh school studentsasideopportunitydetermineshow from her lead Englishtheirforwho a studentsdiscussion. doingdoes teacher whattheir to "make After surprisedtohomework whom, somea real the when.practice,difference or classparticipating." There one"students in theperiodis, sheway Shewere byfound,a classdescribed letting far morelittlegoes, two tivein instructionteachers,which and tilted she her taught. itin colleagues.by an sitting unusual In becoming behind Her manner." one-yeara astudent's student experience desksheA social took in class herilluminatesstudies afterteacher class,teacher perspec- classroom for six years at Lincoln-Sudbury Regional facing approachesfivediscussionattentive classes and athat day,the she teacher Glanz saw. asked learned"We mustabout when realize theAfter and stubborn thathow completing in to regularities all intervene likelihood, the year,into teachinglead despite writing the the reports, and returning to her.. . without taking control. "3t Glanz'spermissionwhatproposedHigh it School was colleague, to like toher intake tosuperintendent Sudbury, beagreed courses a student to a like hersuburb in a being anyhighproject othertwenty school. in thatclass. student, wouldmilesThe Glanz superintendent fromprovidedenable enrolled Boston, her the asto gaveteacher,afind herout seniorGlanz student.known"dictatesnow."the problems Why?intuitively Andan essentially I've theBecause described,ultimate by students didactic subject authority classes classand matterFrench, mustwill modeland remain controlbe since transmitted basicallymath, thewill subject and anatomy, fromas should theymatter teacher are historyremain is right not to lus,in'she 1978 Russian attended -1979. history, classes,Her schedule advanced did homework, included French, advanced tookdrawing,Successful tests, expository andand, in as being she writing, remarked accepted calcu- as a student after the novelty wore off, trampoline.28 with clearlystudentswith the between teacher."32in classroom the two activities, separate and worlds reducingWhile of teachers Glanz the tensions suggests and students, that ways she of sawit improving teacher methods, involving is a touchjournaltionstwoteachers reports offrom ofpride, to her thesharefor wasexperiences perspectivethe her evenhigh observations "kickedschool andof astaff, outthoughts.teacher-turned-student, and,of parents, the by the and end students. of the pull project, together wrote a library for talking."Periodically, She kept she met with Her observa- effortsofwhoimprovedapparent her has lifethat the thatbutas put knowledge, a probably shestudentan adult believes is intowilland similar astaywherethat high to muchthe schoolthea number way authorityas itfor it isofa limited inotherrests. a high booksGlanz amount school ands description of research cantime. be It is because of what is taught, thatfromnumber they those of "were pointsI attended not that very as both a different." child the textand anda teenager." tables"I was made Whatcurious earlier.29 she to found discover out howwas different other teachers' classes were243 Thatis Introduction,however,also task consistent is an Iattempt havewith theanswered to figurefigures out the presentee'. why first things one: earlier. arehow as teachers theyHer appearedexplanation, taught. to Theher. is now before me. Of the two questions I asked in the 244 Classroom Practice in a School District: Arlington, Virginia, 1967-1980 I 233 nextsecond232 / Openchapter.33 question Classrooms on and why Alter,.ative teachers Schools, taught 1965-1975 the way they did is discussed in the 11.13.12. Northern ArlingtonSuperintendent Virginia Journal, MemorandumSun, February September 14, to 1974; 7,School Schools,"1971; I visited Board, Washington June Woodlawn "Status 15, 1979,Post, Report numerous Mayp. on22. 31, Alternative times 1971, and NOTES 1. In 1966, Wilkinson asked whether her principal, Kitty Bouton, could secure a 15.14. Robertibid. E. Stake and .lack A. Easley,"Thetheobserved Case details CaseStudies classrooms, ofReports." inthe Science school listened Education,and its to ethos. students, Vol. 1, and, in general, was familiar with meaningexclaimed:roomreceivedlarger with room inapproval ample the"It's for early like herspace. to 1970s. effort ahave palace!" Seeing atoInterview wall introduce it She forknocked toldthe with firstinformal me Carmen out time,that thereby theteachingWilkinson, word creating tookpractices. March aon large a 22, negative Bouton double 1982. according to Wilkinson, she 19.18.17.16. Nationalibid.,ibid., 3 p,"The - -61,Science3-90, Project," 62, 63,Foundation, 64, n.p.; 65. pp. Report 3-90, of 91. the 1977 National Survey of Science, 2. The3. New York Times, Septemberapprovedstudy.sevenIt was, 15, years The of1974. incourse, researchthat1980 produced theseomitted proposal informal Arlingtonthe puzzling that and the as frequent questionsaNational site to classroom study. Institute It was observations of after Education I left over the (NIE) postthe which prompted me to do this 21.20.22. ibid., Kenneth p.pp. 110. B-56, A. Sirotnik, 57, 59, 60 "What 1, 63-5, You 67, SeeScienceMathematics, 110. Is What Foundation, You and Get:Social 1978). A S'tudiesSummary Education, of (Washington, D.C.: National encedexaminingschoolsandI hadbegan the innot surge the collectinga included school interwar of enthusiasm district Arlingtondata decades in in Denver, forthe andin informal mid-to-latethe for Washington,original the educationearly 1970s proposal, 1970s New thatand that York Iopenhad requested I saw already space,City, the and permissionmerit Becauseexperi- rural of 25.24.23. ibid., Tablepp.pp. 8,2-5. 10,1, n.p, 14. ReportObservations No. 29, in (LosOver Angeles:1000 Elementary Graduate and School Secondary of Education, Classrooms," 1981). Technical purposefromMost NIE werewere; to siftedadd many the to were seedistrict hownot. andapplicable they agreed. they wouldTo Thus,protect notes the confidentiality taken for one of the teachers I visited, no individual will be be for another purpose. have 26,29.28.27. ibid., Ellenibid., Table Glanz,p.pp. 5. 3,1-4. n.p,"What Are You Doing IBasic tore "" Education, (Washington, 1979). D.C.; Council for 4. Larry Cuban, "Shrinking Enrollmentidentifiedpresent,pagespublished of except andthen,this articles Consolidation:chapter, will for thosethemselves.he foraggregated who example, Political have The by agreedconsented two elementary teachers to after and I Idescribed left Arlington in or be included by name. The data I high school. theand opening Organi- 31.30.33.32. ibid.;ibid., ibid.,See, pp. for pp. 12-13.14-15. example, 25. Philip Cusick Rinehart and Winston, 1973). inside High School (New York: Holt, 5. ibid., p. 368; Arlington closedSociety,zationalterestedDrew its 11 ImpactsElementarylast all-black in Arlington, became elementary a Virginia,county school -wide 1973-1978," alternative Education school. andStudents in attending the school that(May, was 1979), advertised pp. 367 as -95, using informal in 1971. Urban in- 6. Without getting caught in thestudentsapproacheslabelNorthern nuances the in thepressof Virginiawere what Drew attached bussed "liberal" politicsneighborhood. toto themeansinDrew. the coalition earlyin A number 1970s, and was 1of used oftenslots the usedwere word by held sincemembers for it was of the context of black the 10. This9.8.7. estimate Arlingtonibid., pp.is taken PublicCounty3-4. from Schools, Public my notes groupSchools, School written itself. News, Profile, during January, June,my first 1969, 1980, year p. asn.p. 3. Superinten- dentMarch when 22, I visited 1982. elementary classrooms. Interview with Carmen z.1 ,7 Wilkinson, in Classrooms, 1890 -1980Stability and Change Part III 247 248 Explaining How They Taught:An Exploratory Analysis 6 aboutI must whatshownot attack ought the school the to be,school, as but it onlyreally nor talkabout is. overmuch what is. theories,oceanonRemember the floorocean textbooks, the lent surface, metaphor themselves and turbulent classroomof the weil hurricane.waters to instruction. agitated a fathom Images squabbles In down, ofthe storm-tossed years and over aftercalm curricular reformonwaves the WILLARD WALLER, The Sociology of Teaching metaphorimpulsesEvenprofessionalbehavior crude pumpedhelps simply classroomjournals, to revealdifferent from popular themapsthe ideasimpossibility dominance aremagazines, and better practices ofguides of and reformgeneralizing discourse into to revealing ideas public among aboutand schools, practice language teachingeducators. the than in all)thereformer metaphor intentions since orit isn'trhetoric. calm Moreover, on the oceanIf these anything, floor. mapsfeatures the reveal lastof thethefive limitsclassroom chapters of have terrain. charted some (but by no means I have collected data in five categories,individualizecapturenothat way educators theequal embracing artistic instruction thelabel richness elegance "instruction."an important with or of complexitythe those nodportionNote, teachers of however,a of ofhead, visible classroomwhose the that teachingwinksubtle these life. of techniques ancategoriesTheybehaviors eye, do and notcan in a withbetweenfriendlypracticesplayed. traditions studentsarm Thus, teachers around to theand be engage studyateachershonored, shoulder. isin limitedthatregularly. norms Or produce the in to abundantorder be a classroomrespected, to concentrate wealth culture and in rolesexchanges uponcomplete to those be c3Z.57) Explaining How They Taught I 239 238and,corenearly / Stability inof a highteacher-centered andcentury, Change school the in Classrooms,classrooms, data instructional show 1890-1980 strikinga remarkably convergenceDrawn pure from and in adurable outlining large number version a of varied sources in diverse settings over activities in the elementary school stable of teachersEvenmination less had ofvariation incorporated content, was and apparentteacher-student allocation among of Whyclass highplanning didtime school these intoof teachers.activities, theirdifferent lesson deter-patterns plan. emerge? To ask "why" shoves a theofclearlyfrom same that a dominantshowingsetsubstantial of activities. what strain body the existed. centralof evidence, Precision teaching directTo tendencyin themethodology and questionhow contextual,was and and what didsampling from variations teachers teach?answers can now be drawn 1900 of "factors,"leeryover,seldomhistorian ofbecause dealingmarch into "influences," pursuingof upopenly some to researchers excesseswithcausation. and causes, "elements." in andUnambiguous previous substituting tap Yetthem writings, historians, foron cause-effect theirthe historians word shoulders. in my such relationships judgment,have nouns More- been as sensibilitiessincetings,differenthistorical revealedthe classroom sourcesturn by ofthepresenting werethe persistent accounts, centuryat limited. similar occurrenceand However, the patternsresults sizable fromofthe and teacher-centered riskcollection studiesnumbers. of dulling in of Thisnumerous almost a practiceshistorical reader's 7,000 set- centeredTocannot ask escapewhy progressivismsince the trying the dominant late to nineteenthandexplain form informal what of century instruction educationtheyLet have and me continuedwhydocumented.developed state hybrids plainly toin whatbeofelementary teacher- I mean by "why", since the word is slippery. spiritinquirywhichright of question, intoone can classroom researcheralways which be instructionwho madeis often said, precise."1 vague "far and betterthe than imprecise anPrevious approximateexact responses answerchapters answer to alsowere the disclosedquestion toin the that changes in teaching practices did, the but less in high school classrooms, could produce a search to:JustifySeekLay out blame,the motives, status i.e. quo, intransigenti.e. i.e.of reformers, that's teachers, the way teachers, penuriousthe system administrators school has been boards and it works child-centeredboards.indeed,together,in activity occur.Some andcenters, classrooms teachers,Reforms where where teacher-student left mostlywhere clustered their students elementary, signature desks planning could made on movecreated someit occurredeasy about classroom fortheir studentsfreely daily. versions to chalk-Subjects towork work of essentialcontinuityneed. This knowledge in search teacher-centeredness for that explanations policymakers, isandThis an scholars, modestinquiry latter meaning intochangesis, and the school determinantsof theI officialsUnderstand word "why"understanding of why something developed the sources for believe, groupswerefeltcentered correlated would and practicesindependently benefit and amplechildrento initiate on time projects.and for was notpart spentunsettle of Othera byday existingstudents or teachersa once classroom a week much which routines. larger they numbcrchose certain student- working in small classroomthatcontainsknowledge would instruction,much helpupon imprecision sort which outa search someinformed in that,methodology.explanations improvementif successful,This from Nonetheless, exploratory effortscouldothers. produce couldObviously, there effort be are reliable tobuilt. criteria mapgiven and explain classroom instruction aSome sciencesubjectsworked;a circle began or or othersinto readinggroupinggroups the chose threecenterof students four a weeks unit,in so a thatfor cornersay, spent certainchildren on of onIndians, the periodsthe couldroom. project. and atalk Someday; tried toThese othersone to integrate new established practices, many pulled desks intoanother as they emergedcriteriaatfinalthe best, data explanation. suggestivefor and from selecting its theinevitable Explanationsand data: explanations provide gaps, only thatthere are furtherwould drawn is no meethypothesesone directly single, certain from forcomprehensive, criteria theexploration. patterns would thatMybe, or incorporatedoftenteacher-centerednessaverage implemented day. slowly Hence, intoon practiceaoccurred the consciously regular altered. modes selective,The of instructionmodification piecemeal that of basis,typified teacher were the practices that produced hybrid forms of in substantial numbers of elementary 2.1. elementarybothDoes elementary the argumentandargument notand at highanswer explainthe schoolhigh why the school classrooms?somepattern level?instructional of teacher-centered changes occurred instruction at the in particularschoolsstudentthanroutines. a in century mobility,student-centered theBy theinterwar earlier.1980s, and certain years classrooms Varied approaches andkinds grouping since wereof andnoise the far blended procedures, latewereless 1960s.formal acceptable. them placesTeacherslearning into Buttheir for farcenters,childrenchose daily fewer explanations for separate questions which3.These are also criteria mutually exclude, exclusive. for now, I the possibilitygressiveDoes the andargument that informal there further arepractices, separate explain and why not teachers others? selected particular pro- C:o (Th J 4 ) t) r 240 / Stability and Change in Classrooms, 1890-1980 Explaining How They Taught / 241 answersexcludeEachthe Introduction. has theserather a plausible possibilitiesthan Let complex mering review nowin ones. explaining in them Yetthe hopeandthese Ieither return add ofpossibilities initiallymorethe now persistent detail to findingthe exist. wherefive regularity candidatesimple, relevant. or explanations I sketched out briefly in chartsaloneteachersplay.whatever Moreover, onlisting say the they teacherschildren'ssame time do. task, Alsotodirects names work at work the children iswith same periodsstressed. tasks time.to often do. toTasks Thus,be Free-time involve done must classrooms and begin everyactivities daily andchild scheduleswith endare working helpercalledwhen of stabilitytionsthiscouldchange approach. be in and later teaching change tornI am practices.apart awarein schooling in of order Thethis thosetoanddanger present in arguments buildingof buildingthe correct thesethat weak are possibleone consistentarguments is inherent explana- with that inhave tried to avoid that trap by distilling from the literature on classroomandactivitiesteaching time. that competitiveness practices teachers are place functional: and on productivity. blackboards wholeAs group Withinreflectthe studentsinstruction thisthese argument, points grow where onolder, certain workwaving homework, tests, grades, focus upon wantofevidence pedagogy to alert presented raisedthe reader in in the this to last study.it. five Nonetheless,chapters and fitit remainsthe more a narrow danger issues and I theyieldproducerewardshands basis reams vie a thosefor uniform for of tests homework thebetter and appearance;teacher's atquizzes. factual to which attention; textbooks,Dominant recall; credit classroom ais ateaching question-answer givenprimary or furniture practices, withheldsource of andarranged formatthen,knowledge, becomes endure that to ThereEXPLANATIONSSorting, are fiveClassroom explanations. and School Three Structures, (Schooling and asthe Social Culture Control of Teaching) and controlservingofbecause the larger functions athey fraction societyproduce preciselyaccording of especially,the student population, behaviors in the captureto high consistentthisThe school. argument. both origins thewith ofsocial Collegethe the requirements highsorting entrance school and as a college preparatory institution ascontinuity(Teachertry analyzeif to I wereaccount Beliefstheand an strengths advocatechangefor andthe inconstancyImplementation andof practice. the flaws position. ofIn presentingteacher-centeredeach. Following of Change) each the explanation,try five instruction. to explanations explain I argueTwoboth I math.placementandfuturerequirements, instruction vocationalThese English; external Carnegie are choices matched physics demands units,channeled andto examinations,vocation, of general university students science;e.g. into businessand varied classes calculusmarketplace curricula English, where and knowledge consumershapemirroringadvanced the SchoolingThe school as is Social the only Control public and institution Sorting in the life of a growing child that highreadyhighteachersand school's upperis for duplicated to the structureelementaryhave high their byschool. and junior children grades.teaching, high up Theteachers yetto gradeplumbspersistent who level deeply press pressto be intoto prepareduponhave the juniortheir elementary for students high junior childrenthestandslife,prepare school, betweenwhat the them not knowledge prevailing always thefor familyparticintion apparent issocial and highly the butin norms, thejobvalued, nonetheless largermarket. values, and culture. The whatevident, and overriding The pedagogicalbehaviors are structure to purposesinculcate that practicesof schoolwill ofin themaking,skills,individual classroom. knowledge and choices, student Such independentfrom participationbehaviors many aresources,behavior, in beyond both Progressive jointexpressiveness,the the verbal studentteacherbehaviors and and physical believedgroup informal decision learning life to pedagogy, beof on the other hand, nourish thesocialexplanationoccur, dominant control, mirror focuses cultural thethe normssorting largely knowledge ofof upon thediverse largerschools to studentsthe class Thosebeing next and intogeneration. theteaching economic primaryniches, practices andmechanisms system. distributing that This forseek obedience, uniformity, produc- privateprogressivefessionals,althoughmatched schools theyto managers,changes the do and requirements describe groupsand and open certain ofexecutives. classroomsupper-middle of Litebehaviors university Such were class, characteristic aoften fit highly andhelps associated the educatedto marketplace, ofexplain future more parents whywithpro- tivity,vieweddichotomyInand the industrialand primary asother something with organizations,traits grades, work required toconsidered forbe doneexample, arefor viewed minimumafter more worktasks importantas both participationandare necessary completed.play by emergethen in teacherand bureaucraticWork asworthwhile. aand includesdistinct play j sincecontroldistricts.living the in is affluentturn another of the areas explanation century.2 than with for public the stability schoolsThis argument in in pedagogical white about and bluecollar schoolspractices as mechanisms for social sorting and 4 J School242alOrganizational / strategies and Classroom that structures varied Structures little drove over teachers time.Stability intoBy andstructure,adopting Change incertain !Classrooms, refer instruction-to the 1890-1980 way completedthethea dailytimely material. school andby Junethe efficient schedule, above manner, and instructional the to requirementsdetermine practices whether that permit a students course the of haveteacher study learned bein Explaining How They Taught I 243 publicralthenizedschool configurations,behavior into schooling:space grade andis physicallylevels; performance tothe get argument how a batcharranged; time of runs, isofboth allotted students howderive adults content to from and compelledtasks; students.the and and primary students how to Theseattend rules impulses are structu- governschool orga- of students.authority,decisiongroups, correlating Thesemaking and make approaches generate subject a shambles matter, noise,appear of encouraging movement, routinesout Student-centeredof touch geared expressiveness a with muted to handlingexisting viewapproaches and school ofbatches teacherstudent in and oforganizing space, instructing in small likeaimUnit,absorb ata age-grading, smallimproving certain Russian knowledge the self-contained woodenschool's while dollproductivity. classrooms,maintaining nestedThe within classroom class orderliness. another size, organization, and larger The teaching Carnegieone, located loadis a within the larger school structure classroomforthisuponbasic theexplanation, themodes uncertain structures shoulders of classroom thatbenefits and of few thewould teachers teacher. ofoperation, a seemingly student-centered areIt comes placingwilling require as tothe little upsetaclassroom. entirecomplete surprise, their burden intimate overhaul according of change world of to crowdedindividualthaningstudents upon a luxurioussetting of their approximatelystudents ageanywherein whichmaster and the bedroom. groupsupthe teacherfrom same 1 age toAmidst hasto 5 who1,000 hoursto manage involuntarilycontinual adaily day 25in in aexchanges to anspace spenddepend-40 elementary or no more larger with practicalinterpretationthewhich explicit theymanner teaching of had regularities withlittle methods thecontrol. demandsin calledinstruction By constructingfor of by organizationalstressesCalled textbooks the howsolutions "Hidden andteachers structures, professors, in Pedagogy" thecoped shape over inthis a byof some British writers, in contrast to showcontrol,classroom,matter, tangible teach vary according aevidence levelsprescribed of tothat instruction Jacksonthecontent, students capture accordinghave teacherWithin performed student isto theseexpectedstudent interest satisfactorily. overlapping differences, in to the maintain subject school and and classroom structures, teachers Thegy"teacherspractical Culture classroom survived of Teaching routines the crosscutting and teaching daily methodsthe pressures of "Hidden the classroom.3 Pedago- numberemergedmultiplerationed of astheirdemands, studentsresilient, energy in constructedsimple, aand small time and space efficientincertain order forSo, extended teachingsolutions to for cope example, periodsinwithpractices dealing rowsconflicting of time.withof movable a large and desks and seating charts permit the that have towardpractice.thatA third breeds change,explanation This conservativism conservativism, is rooted concentrates in the and peoplei.e. upon resistance preference therecruited occupational to for intochange stability the ethos profession,in and of teaching caution how instructional directiontheorder.teacher,raising room The like fortheirnear teacher's Gulliverwhat hands a chalkboard, the desk,to inclass answer Lilliput, usually will underscores questions, do easylocated each surveillance day. toin quietlyspeak a Class visually only andwhoroutines prominentwhen help determines fortorecognized maintainstudents part the of by itselftheyfinancialate are isthe a informally primaryflexible rewards, ingredient.work socialized, still schedule, embrace and the and,the service school whilePersons missionacknowledgingculture attacted of built which to theinto theteachingclassroom teaching. limited seek contact with children, appreci- mobilitysharpenerd'turntaking--establishesthe livered teacher, and orto andtothegroups. leave imperativeto speak the Students an room whenorderly of reaffirmorderliness. asking no framework one thepermission else teacher's is for talkingthe instruction controlto go to principleover the when studentpencil it of is oftenMoreover,favorablyEntrants,and move higher according disposedof out thesalaries. of young the to to classroom this schools,Attractedwho explanation, enter inhaving by teachingsearch work are been of usuallywomenschedules recognition, students youngoutnumber that for more people permitmany men,influence, already years. flexible who convenienttextsing,sourceto questionanswer are coverdirect, use of the uncomplicatedthe mandatedformat, teacher's recitation, content timea waysTeaching most seatwork,andof transmitting to valuable maintain the homework entire and knowledgecontrol. classscarce drawn atLectur- re-fromone and time is simply an efficient and reaffirm,occupationalwomenarrangementsbalance and rather toward men,conditions. with than stability,for family challenge, different Recruitment, obligations rather reasons,the than role then,and change. ofinvest vacations, schools,brings little in thereby peopleenergythe argument who tippingin altering tend runs, the to directions to groups. Given the constrictionse placed upon the Iteacher 7 by Even prior to formal entry to teaching via a brief training program, e% Jto, 244 / Stability and Change in Classrooms, 1890-1980 Explaining How They Taught / 245 ofenteringConsiderinformal the few teachers socializationthat occupations as publicwere hasin school whereclose shaped contactstudents one newcomers' learns with for firsthand12their attitudes years teachers. (overabout toward Teaching 13,000 the continuity. job hours), iswhile one level.5experimentstheseGrowing ideas numbers to are work instances of inteachers, classrooms. of the particularly spread The of Eight theseat the Yearideas elementary Studyat the secondary andlevel, other put first-yearfamiliarlessonssitting a offewassertion teacher, how yards to after is teachaway, heard a briefas year that they apprenticeship, after teachers watched. year.Similarly, teach Teacher-, Within is as thrust theythe this intuitively act intowere explanation, of the teachingtaught. classroom absorbed pressesthe toward preserving what is. The anasorganizegroups aexercise filling-up can classroom teachto developprocess. one furniture another largeAlso themuscles muchdifferently teacher of in what whofive Thethan he yearconceives teachera or teacher oldsshe wishes whowill ofwho block-building plan believes viewsto convey,for thatlearning that taskwill as children working together in small experiencedsink-or-swimwithprocessneophyte the same of is colleagues. establishing responsibilitiesordealalleviated which byFrom routines occasional usuallyas the a 20-year very that consumes advice firstwill veteran. day,permit and the Thefacing sharingfirst a privategroup fewthe of complicated years ofanguishfolklore students of of thefrom a to eventsdifferentlytobethe explorelearned teacher because than these bywho heonestudents, orlooksconnections. who she for believesviewswill connections depart Coverageit simplythat from knowledge betweenas ofthe anothersubject text textbook relatedfar playmatter more activity.to content will oftena context be thanFinally, sacrificedand willothers daily thehelpdrivenbehave counselnorms informally to in use anand of orderlythose veteransexpectations and, practices inway whodoing while ofadvised that so, the the entrantshe school subjecttheiror she use.andabsorb rememberedmatter whatExperienced through is it taught,takes were a colleaguessubtleto the surviveused teacher osmosis or takeasmay isa toKnowledgethanin adevelop trade-off dates, numbers,mustthe that mind beoffers transmitted or and similarstudents instill factsto a social largeryoung could values;graspAmongpeople; convey. of teachers,studentsthedeeper role understandingsof however, learn the school best other in is ideas are far more deeply embedded. homeworkpersistreinforceteacher. in The whatthe assignments, folklore,profession. is rather occupational than discussion, nourish seatwork,gimmicks,skepticism,Thus, tests, classroom norms,especially and andan ifpracticesoccasional daily one wishesteaching tendfilm to to be stable over time. After all, thewell-managed,mostmustrigor teacher's isteachers,be prized, paid authority, noiseless respectful especiallyand where rooted classrooms attention. in rules highin institutional are schools.where These,equitably limits Theyand legitimacy enforced aresimilar account made beliefs, byand forplain, the knowledge,the teacher; academicare perserver- held and by ownto thanexemplaryalong.interrupt schooling making To usethe teachers and, themroutinefundamental more in andtheirwere often esteemed own all changessuch than methods classrooms not, college seemed familiar wouldas instructors teaching to tobekeep newcomerspreserving the inhad classsmall used. what movingin groups, theirRather some systems.'teachinga-subject-to-childrenknowledge."movement,ance in such and teachingThe a concernfamiliar practices for dichotomy tranquilcaptures as reliance classrooms ofa substantialteaching-children-a-subject upon textbooks, marked piece by of little thethese "hum student belief orof consistentpolishinglettingintegratingis bred class byup with varied thetechniques, members the occupation.4 content basic introducingconservatism,choose into units, what variationsplanning according to dotinkering lessonsof toexisting this with explanation,with ones students, methods, would thatand be explainFeckless the coreImplementation of instructional practicesBeliefs, that have then, endured shape whatover time.8teachers choose to do in their classrooms and develop,TheBeliefs: ideas Individualthe teachers role of hold subjectand about Shared matter the purposes in instruction, of the howschool, classroom how children space practiceschanges,andthoseA core comprehensive approaches of the wouldteaching argument bewere approaches apparentefforts runs,ineffectually farbeen in more enduredthe undertaken executed. 1980s.progressive because Where Hadto implementand reformthoughtful, implementation informal efforts instructional educationalsystematic, to altersuc- shouldcentury,Parker,centeredpractices. be257 Dewey,organized,after instruction, This academiR explanationand and others, implemented and,writersthe reachedexercise stresses wrote a byof thatpopular authoritypractitioners journal 19th audience century and determine newspaper such inideas the as teaching twentiethSheldon,of articles. child- ceeded,stemmedaboutdeveloped teachingteaching. from conscious practices aWhere decision strategies classroom altered. made atthat reforms the would topExcept wereadminilltgative put for adopted,into Denver practice invariably, andlevel. new New Imp ideas Yorkthey le- in the 1930s, few school districts 4o r. 0 246 / Stability and Change in Classrooms, 1890-1980 Denver) during the 1930s when concerted organizational efforts were Explaining How They Taught / 247 oroutmentation indetermining and the briefingsinterwar was thegiven years for conditions principalslittle (which thought forstill and implementation remainsbeyond teachers, Indeed,aunique batch according except, amongseldomof directives to again,school were this beingargument. teachersindistricts). Denver sent directly In or formally involved in planning highpracticesundertaken.ivity school in implementingoccurred staff.But the Noramong argument does some grade the approaches fails interpretationschool to accountteachers but accountnot for and others.why hardly forstudent-centered teacher spread amongselect- expansionpractice,mostnized instances, effortse.g. of theChild toformal Activity put Development progressiveendorsement Program Program in or 1941occurred open (Newin classroom 1938 but York there (Washington, City); wereapproaches also, few D.C.);inorga- the into classroomsdurabilityteachers,of previous of especiallysingly a coregenerations. and of retainingin teaching groups, But the did practices. itslook, establish smell,Similarly, Itstudent-centered andaccounts activities the argumentfor of high classrooms school of a teacher in culture explains nicety the elasticity is limited. Evidence that sameFargoresultssized year, and ofand Denver'sthe Grand large Eight schoolForks decisionYear (North systemsStudy, to mandateDakota) in after all highthe in AGeneral superintendent theschools;laissez-faire, 1970s. Education open free andclassrooms courses,marketschool boardapproach in marked the posture of middle- traits.shapedmethodsvarious Nor placesby were doesthat inoccupational the vogueboth argument periods reveals culture, when help that inprogressivelargedid understanding break numbers away and of fromopen teachers,why its classroomhybrids confining while of specialwhereembracedrized reforms changeschool instructional struggled districts.would fight reforms. Individualamong doggedly Athemselves "dogma-eat-dogma," advocates for a niche, for or survival, i.e.bands resources Darwinian ofoften partisans characte- to lastworld for a a Partially,mundanepowerapproaches is rootedit activitieseven developed in helps connecting that amongto explainteachers theteachers. largerthe carry organizational Theculture out same daily and problems socialin structures their structure classrooms.afflict that the towere socialthe control and sorting argument. Its educationsuccessfulchange.withcouple like-minded of Perhaps, years.would reform Iflead professionalssuccessful, by if to conditionsa itstop expansion. administrator, the and districtwere parents Serendipity, justgrapevine superintendent, right, would moreandformal spread sporadic than notice word orplan, hoard contacts ofwould the of teacherestablishedfrommeaningthey a for context. 30in schools,students, are Yet not the i.e. etc.simplydistinctions grade Stability artifactslevels, in in the timepedagogical independently amount schedules, of practiceschange curricular created, between have tracks, detached social levels 1 process.schoolmechanismsexplain practices expansion. to disperse and Absent, district-wide information, more goals, often organizational andthan teacher not, were participationlinkages administrative between in the anyargument.classroomof schooling social controlFinally, practices and andteacher-centeredthere sortingthat is the emerge explanationlarger, fromversionsmore thefor substantial phenomena: dataof progressivism arc issue missing latent accompanying functions.andfrom open this convertroomsinto a because processa policy thatofdecision the would unwillingness or gain formal teacher approval or support incapacityStudent-centered of for an classroom instructionalof school approaches, adoption.officials change to The then, infrequently penetrated class- Thatwhati.e.masks is, social arewhat the asserted control underlyingteachers and as do functionslatent sorting in their functions of classroomsthat students are are, theThis into indeed,istrue may only economic purposes be athe surface true, real niches. ofalthough purposes. reality,the institution, forit bordersThe it on the impossible to prove that explanationpracticesorganizationalalsowas asuggests terrific bycontains spreading idea; thateffort thewithinit mayis verythea shameithave illusiontheadoption adageeven that of strengthenedofclassroom itimplementors wasn'tthe innovation ever change.9 the tried.are withoutstability fond The of explanationsubsequent ofusing: existing It assertionbesthierarchialmeans that couldthat,of reproducing control for occur, example, mechanisms."' I believe, the the larger teacher'sis a correlationsocial domination order's between power of classroom evidence relationships talkand isthe anda Applying the Criteria practiceuniquelearned.with synthesis. Theyfollow can shifts Changes be dropped,in belief in ideas patternslearned occur anew, Individual amongslowly. integrated Hence,teachers. beliefs, changes itwith as This anothers argumentexplanation,in teacher into a is moreimplicitly robust because the notion it carries of potential teacher change. Beliefs are effectiveofAll teachingInteacher-centered of meeting these implementation, practicearguments the other instructiondidyenetrate hurdle two for criteria, theexample, in elementaryclassroomsfirst however, criterion explains and (except ofdropouts highexplainingwhy schoolinso occur.New few the classrooms. changesYork Thedurability City lack inand of J andnineteenthbeliefshurdles embracing concerning two century;fo the new criteria: what ones.it accounts was it accounts appropriate for some for durabilityteaching teachers,hanging becausedating back of their entrenched to the beliefs late 260 248 / Stability and Change in Classrooms, 1890-1980 Explaining Now They Taught I 249 thenpedagogicalinstructionunforgiving wholly aspractices fully; cruciblesclassroom some since for haveexperience testingbeliefs partial outmay meshesmerit, ideas.The be accepted argumentwhile Awith few othersbelief. meet partially also aretheClassrooms explains discardedrigors at first of whyand aredaily onto teachers may have decided among theingCollegeunrelenting textbookhighagencies, Boards,school influence byand June,classroom,Scholastic other uponthat external drive Aptitudehighstrong constraints studentsschools pressures Tests, thanto thatAdvancedprepare derive lower push forfrom gradeteachers Placement, exams, Carnegie classrooms. to seek complete certify- units,jobs, In elementarytheandfails ideological classroom rather debris structuresthan that high surrounds suppliesschools. public a missingWhat schooling. teacherpiece. But The tobeliefs the suggestion explanation lack in anthat explanation, the argumentclarify whyof school more student-centered pedagogy turned up in Gradestimegrade,elementaryand take is theavailablecan the tensionsbegrades, proper combined. in elementarycoursesparticularly seldom Groups for pinch schools.graduation. the within aspress they Flexible a to class While doget in can childrenarrangements similarthe include higher readyurgencies a grades.range arefor possible.the existof More agesnext in tionsschoolsorganizationalimposedrcoms, differ are allocation uponsimilarmarkedly structures high in structureofisschools inshapetime complexity fromtopracticebut instruction not other identical.ofassumes institutions.content and thatWhere studentsexternal elementary the facetwo arrangements organiza-inand class- high frequencyexternalstructuraloccursand performance. more pressuresmay indifferencesemphasis frequentlyelementary Retaining well in schools elementary accounta student andon for subjectmuchfor thanwhy another less inchanges matter, high so year, in schools. occurred high contactwhile schools. uncommon,These time,with somethree and catedschool,vehiclereading, skills and forand gettingcertainlyrequired math skills. at of inthose thestudents Content secondaryskills. butis But secondary these school, inChildren the skills upper notand are in onlyoften grades elementaryhooked are used more of directlyas elementary a sophisti-grades flexible into learn fundamental verbal, writing. withselectedlabored,instruction the physics thencertain as athere of series student-centeredschool is ofstill andteacher-engineered the classroom final practices hurdleIf structures this of solutionsargumentand explaining not within others. designedmeets whywhich theHere teachers totheycriteria cope this and also explains teacher-centered criticism,complexsubjectapplications.analysis historicalsubjectmatter in chemistryall High drivesmatter analysis, school methodology that require teachers solving in and knowledge advancedwill of in itself remainthe classroom.'' ofmathmust didacticcomplicated problems, be learned. in methods factsquantatitive Literary and because their variedarrangements,teacher-centeredteachersargument groupings who falls embraced moreshort. openwedded student It classrooms newdoes to practices teacher-centered movement,not offer and chose progressivism,a plausiblelearning ones approaches. that centers,reason produced e.g. for classroomprojects, why hybrids those and re- of strengths,hoursnantmarkedly form with atoflimitations, the both delivering same levels. 30 capacities, instruction.orThe more self-contained students. and Generally, achievementsAlso They classroom in teacherselementary see far thanremains morespend a schools, high of the5 aor schoolchild'sdomi- more student and teacher contact time differ meetperspectivesherearguments, andall three a significantbits a criteria. numberand pieces themeLet of touchreasonablyme there. shape upon Anyone a various coherentsynthesisNone could facets,of explanationsofthe carvethese capturingexplanations argumentsagainfrom thata these highlight wouldmeet five all three criteria. From the diverse year,teacherspendduringhours; the who with atheelementary high seesyear pupils. school 5 or groups about Contactteacher teacher ofone-fifth 30 seestime sees students abecomes anyofclass the one less oftime classan 30than thatimportantchildren noan elementary morehour nearly variablea than day. colleagues 200 aOver 1,000 in hours con- a changedteacher-centeredacknowledgingprogressivism more thanthat and instruction it thoseinformal is one in of high perservered;education many schools; choicesthat have whyand developed. whyelementary I believe mixed explains versionsclassrooms why of schools,roomsideringsuchjust tasksbecause potential issuesthe potentialand ofthe is activities,grouping, absent teacher to make for has providing and25 changes morestudents rearranging contact individual in within these time furniture. aand 50-minuteattention, with other the Inareas varying period.same elementary is children;present Whetherclass- informedMySituationally explanation than aConstrained guess,is midway but it between fallsChoice: short speculation Aof Preliminarybeing a and confident conclusion. Explanation assertion. It is moreWhy suchtrancechangesissue, changes butrequirements, in the elementaryoccur structural in the and classrooms.12 lowerdifference vocational grades, in qualifications Finally, timeis. ofU1 allocation course, external have an allows entirelypressures far more for separate frompossiblea direct, accrediting associations, college en- I chosehypothesissieve.amet teacher the this All three configuration andof in the criteria,aadministrator. satisfying findings and of arguments thatmanner,rang My have true experiencea given beentorather my extractedmy quarter-centurythan experipees. fourth another from criterionacted set the isexperience becausedata fit as thisit as a 2 62 250 / Stability and Change in Classrooms, 1890-1980 Explaining How They Taught 1251 totheseworkedaries the withintwoinfluence their influences which influences of each individualare, I disentangling infound shaping teachervirtually a Thethempractical beliefs impossible school and and assigningpedagogy. and anto classroom do.occupational a The Intertwinedrelative constraints, structures, weight ethos as I believe, established the bound- ChannonHelmickdifferenttaughtrecurring for phenomenon(1969)seatingin more rural in thanarrangements, Michigan New aof decade,York veteran (1937), City, whoelementaryprojects, Carmen createdMrs. varied SpencerWilkinsonteachers, for groupings,the (1924)manyfirst (1981) time of andetc. whomin centers, Arling- GloriaLeona had pressures,organic,theshapesis the commonplacesthat invisible, what and unchanging, channelingteachers encompassing do brick-hard that daily which the inenvironment school isclassrooms. features seen and daily of classroomthat How the and few environment. difficult taken recognize contexts for it is grantedpotentially generate toSeymour analyze as socializedton,maintainingdistrictanother and others (andperspective by yearsmostlythe who alterations inwere ofin the teaching.elementary oftenclassroom, they trained Generally,made schools) still toin their conventionaladopted, awere small classes the number partially ones long approaches who ofafter orteachers persisted wholly,the initialand in in a visitorSarason,eighthaImagination student from gradein anmeeting outer isattemptU.S. required. space History daily to asking see Forin class the example, basic ofschoolteacher's 30 questionsstudents to differently, envision living in about rooma aschool usedvoluntary schoolcontrasted theof 1,500 device structure.tutorial studentswith of with aan hadAlthoughclassroomsenthusiasmhow developed children these forfaded over teachers thelearn andactivitytime, and colleagueswere beliefs what method, few, classrooms different for returned projects, any fromnumber should to learning their their of be. fellowreasons, familiar Within centers, teachers they the practices. and alreadyorganiza- about open gestsis andschools,Howto see the textbook tutor/student starklyoverriding chairs assignmentsthe in rows, different importanceand teacher/classrecitations, environments,need of toorganizational wholebe define viewed group stripped instruction as instruction,structures. a ofseries non-essentials.and of learningFor worksheets, successful public sug- suggestsfromstressedweretional less thesestructure morerenewed evident, ideas. than of attentiontheResearchers largercontent, elementary blocks upon pedagogical might experienced ofschool, time explore practices werewhere teachers thisavailable, heavy could phenomenon who external flow and already moreskills pressures since control easily were it orsolutions carryingsolutionsCopingmore ofinvented with outstudentsthat theseinstruction.° have by structures,whileteachersproved they useful to teachers solvealso in acquireddailypersonally constructed problems information maintaining workableof managing and control pedagogical values.a score while givetoteacherssubstancetheir new substance classrooms (or hold toyoung) this unchanging, to idea,the yetteachers point wishit would Ientrenchedas tosuggested classroom try question out beliefsdifferentearlier, innovators.a current andthat approaches. attentionnotionteachers Furthermore, that whoshould experiencedWere combined it be mightthere paid shapednotforveterans classroom wholly by structuralinto a teaching survival.knee arrangements, jerk, regularities Teachers unthinking copying thatfurther folkreactionWithin mentorsfunnels wisdom this but andboth reinforcesorganizational was former newcomers also teachers as a essentialrealistic framework,and was the culture of teaching, itself thatcomplexities.teachersboth could teacher- created have and been student-centered constructed, offers approachesThis an explanation argument were pathfinders.of that situationally-constrained accounts Such for choice, one of a number hybrids of instruction that coped with classroom forappraisalfluencedmilieu change ofshaped associatedwhat beliefteachingpeople withsystems. thought. approaches teacher Moreover, Yet beliefs. were differentWhat necessary organizationalCertainly, leavens ideas to about thesurvive deterministiclargerimperatives children's the social year. de- in- drift of this argument is the potential choicesteachersdecidedlybothto itsconstancy derivedfullest had toward some, by from and acontinuity. butsmall theirchange not numberbelief a great Morein systems.teaching ofdeal important, teachers, of, The practice,autonomy margin however, I believe, although ofto choice,makewas it suggests quite classroom the exploited tiltslim. that is influencedthinkingcultivatingvelopment,magazines since minds,by how touted developments the theypermeated turnthe learn, New of the inthe Education.and psychology.century. larger the purposes culture BothChild-rearing Radio andhelped for penetratedprograms, schooling shape manuals different films,educators' beyond were and atti- gestedassumedwhatspeculation that they teachersthat would about if certain were classroomdo in organizationalgatekeepers their change. rooms. ofThe mechanismsOfreform The theissue implementation fivepractice of explanations,wereteacher and in place,freelyautonomy argument two teacherschose sug- weaves covertly in and out of any cannotprofessionaldidparentstudes toward unring and citizens childrena bell. also. absorbed Ideas and schools.once these embraced ideas,Too263What often teachersas are continually onenot forgetseasily both intrigued let parentthat go. while You andme as I worked through the data was the explanations,exposedargumentincentiveswould have to focused differentof been the uponeithervirtuesdegree ideas teacher coerced ofinabout teachercertain beliefs children by formalinstructionalfreedom which and authority,could learning. to altpi changechanges. AittitorWithin persuadedwere isThe the doneteachers otherother byin 252structureclassrooms / Stability and outside Changeis diminished ofin Classrooms, the school greatly 1890-1980 or by the either professional adaptations culture to the itself. larger social themarginTeachers influence of decidedchange of the available each twin of impulses theseto them. issues; pumped Yet theirthese into decisions the classroom couldConstituted not from escape the Explaining How They Taught / 253 Thus,Teacher blaming Autonomy the teacher for resisting instructional changes"teacher- policymakersclassroomtooutside: learn theteachers decisions required and mustschool is curriculum. fundamental maintain administrators order to any in assumeThe their analysis issue classrooms teachers of of instruction how can and much and get sincecannot autonomystudents what do teachers had over school and genceconsequences.didteacherstobashing," the not, tenacity or were fear."as the offreeTeacher-centered Attributing Britishteacher-centeredness. to adopt label changes, to this teachers instruction line if ofSuch they theargumentis became amerelypersonal response an chosea artifactpowercommon assumes to. toofWhen thatresponsehaltintransi- most theyand it was because they were stubborn or fearful of classroom andwhoaprocessesis leaderoften leaderdoes built who thatit? who intoOrdetermines inexorably is isdecisions the dependent teacher shapewhat touching in needsuponwhat the classroomclassrooms. happenstoboth be circumstancesdone in an classrooms? withinIs ineffable the teacher the andclassroommix Is a thetime? ofcaptive teachercaptive Myand of decisionsorpersonaldivert teachers:the change blend behavior directly ofis aboth commonratheraffecting factors. than tendency instruction assessing Yet consider,in locating werethe potent sealed for explanations influenceexample, off for decades offor what the events settingbasic from in ThepotentspeculationopportunityIn freedomclassrooms, to maintain stressed to for alter change teacher-centeredteachers that the structural classroomexisted had (more partialand practices,and cultural in exploitautonomy. elementary influencesespecially that marginAthan narrow werein in high increasedhigh sufficiently schools.margin schools). in of 2.3.I. Whatinstruction?WhichHow manyextra students instructionaland shouldwhich leavestudents help the will classshould students because be in get? thethey class? are not profiting from trial-and-errorthoseabout teachersideaschildren, could who,fashion. learning, be for introduced any and number what to theirschools of reasons, classrooms should embraced do. and They forged different believed ahead beliefs thatin a 6.5.4. when?ShouldHowWhat long teacherstexts should will have thebe usedschool planning for day each timeor subject?class in the period daily be? schedule and, if so, yetandclassroom tofar explain less instruction. in high is why schools, Changehybrids but did itof was teacher-centeredoccur, limitedFar mostly more to certain atstability the progressivism areas.elementary than What change, level,I haveand my argument goes, characterized 10. 9.8.7. WhatWhat gradesshould standardized orbe subjects the format tests will will and each be content given?teacher of teach? the report card? up;velopedinformal teachers in education elementary divided appeared. classes classrooms into two over or the three Recallyears. groups Variedthat for more groupings reading, informality math, showed or in seating and student movement de- establishedTheing results instruction ofthe these context over decisions, which for what teachers nested teachers in have a structureThedid had inpoint littletheir outside here influenceclassrooms. is theto differentiate classroom, from those between contextualWhat decisions content will affect- the teacher teach? teachersareasActivityother activities.were in(farcenters one selected, from generationIndividual and a majority, projects initiated, attentionand however)were learning and fromembraced installed centersand the notteacher by by student-teacher substantial agrowing laterincreased one. numbers numbers Whysomewhat. planning these of classroom decisions that teachers could, indeed, make: wasHow installed thestudents classroom in rooms) should space be gro, and furniture is arranged (once portable furniture or instruction puzzleof content, to which alloting I now of timeturn. during the day, and choice of activities, is a inToWho classroomWhat what should instru(tasksdegree talkactivities are and and most under under appropriate what what circumstances circumstances to get students should to learn students what participate is expected final tools (texts, television, film, photographs, radio, etc.) particularThisWhynew question Did techniques student-centeredThese can Hybridsbe limit split what apart: Develop? approaches they why selected? did that teachers mark Why whothese did choseteachers hybrids? to introducechoose the e-N are most productive in reaching classroom goals? To answer these questions, I need to divide tepchers, since 1900 into - 6 254 / Stability and Change in Classrooms, 1890-1980 Explaining flow They Taught / 255 threeoccupationaltomedor,choseincluding general to continueasover groups.I have culture.90 percent argued,instruction First, A ofsecond, thewere high largest in shaped school a and manner group considerable byteachers organizational toand which containednumerical groupthey structures teacherswere majority,of teachers accus- who and classroomdentanticipating,similar activity areasstudent-centeredness. responding, thanrequire they of had the revising, been teacher Such used and changes certain to.Theaccepting initial skillsin conventions fivediverse and chapters noises and contained and many examples of different more patience in stages in class- stu- concentratedFinally,ideasprobablyinformal but there triedup education. to inwas out 25 elementary onlyapercent fraction They a few, of introducedofschools, thelimiting teachers, teacher who themselves as probablypopulationaccepted faithfulbelieved toina inreplicaparticularthe progressivism 5-10% of many thosetechniques. range of ideas andthe as faropeningto invested.roominvest more traditions up faris their Ifexpectedmore there classrooms timeimposed is anyof and the continuous efforta or teacher.direct, introducing beyond unrelenting themeAfternoons what progressive in teacher-centeredwhat obligation and teachers evenings practices, have colleagues upon the teacher said aboutare oftenit is that Andteachersallsources.they teachers, forcould Thesemixedthese that again, teachers, lastversions was two drawn tailored groups, ofthe progressivismmostly two to I estimate,questionstheir from classrooms elementary and added I askopen upare classrooms andto schools.applicable. at the least available one-thirdFromdeveloped. these re- of Carmenupthespent activitiesmorning in preparingWilkinson, beforefor the materials the withday children wasover and common 30 markingarrive in among papers.order such Coming teachers. to school Arlington's early in years experience, told me: to rearrange centers and set tices?majorcomplexchange: Two investment the reasons,ideas personal into Iof believe, practice. time cost and indulled What timeemotional, the and most appetites energyWhy teachersif not did andofphysical, teachersdo the ordinarily lack energy. forlimit of classroom help theirrequires Consider to choices put a to certain student-centered prac- theircurriculum.That'sassessments own not thinkingin toBut the do. Icurriculum. feelSo and much that their they paperwork. Everyown need creative other these Yet Friday, ideas.°extras.I teachWe have TeachersSpanish a lot inof thework. first The grade. curriculum is overloaded and we cook. That's not in the we haveneed so many to expand unexpectedplanningactivities.markingmaking what hundreds papers; events;Effective content handlinginteracting of execution tosmall cover disputes decisions with andof these childrenhow between dailytasks to carry continually spellwhile childrenand it theoff; in differencefront doingwhile a of dozen itteaching; the amidst between class; other hands,amounttheyAnyone have another ofreading done extra personin evenwork their a to thatclassroomssmall work had portion with to bewould individuals ofdone teacherHelp to alter was and necessary.practice. Help was needed in the shape of come away impressed with the accounts describing what small groups, grade another pair of time,throughmaintainingrevising energy, the the room. a and customaryharmonious effort To incorporate while role order of posing teacher or student-centered helplessly a expandsthreatConsider to watching theclassroom supplying personalpractices a routines.parade theinvestment and class begin pass with of varied materials in order to match up decisions.disruptivedifferentandpapers, building classroom prepare Helpnoise, centers; was copeseatwork, tasks;needed how-towith how indistractions,etc. sessionsproviding to Help distinguish was in timeandmanaging needed helpbetweenfor in students developing materials teachers to talk,pupils plan, work through instructional and engaged in six sheselves.available,requiresstudents' went Recall teachers ininterests then 1932 rural elsewhere. toto and individualizeVermontfind performance new Otherwise, teachermaterials instructional level Mary teachersin thewith Stapleton schoolmaterials classroommake or andthe similardistrict materialstotasks. what toand, Towhat lengths them-ifdo notshe so Thestudent-teachers,somethingmanagement,and Innovationwork throughnew, implementing Team etc. aides, some Many (Washington, or of parentstudent-centered curriculum, the thorniervolunteers D.C.), risking theclassroom classrooms New one's self-esteem in to help in open classrooms, School's support team issues of control,in the 1970s had trying variedskillschanginglearningheard that abouttasks centersthemgo simultaneously ininto Winnetka.weekly. operatingfor the Or first Or considerawhile classimagine time, the where the muchteacher how emotional children muchless listens the movework energy tocontinuing a goesaboutchild and into ordoingmanagerial speakswork starting many of to ideasbyare(North themselvesinstances lacked Dakota), ofaccess and the Workshop neededawareness to that technical Centerkind that of teachers for assistance.aid OpenMost lacked Education teachers the who endorsed progressive and informal or already felt overloaded with resources to do it all (New York City) educational course.additionalanda small resolving group.Students investment unexpected deciding in267 radar problemson equipment,classroom as Monitoringthey rules,if not arise ancontent demandsintensive what to children be themanagement studied, teacher's are doing, or what skills they need to work on, BEST COPY AVAILABLE gradeventuredfromthemselves,existing teacher books, into classroom progressive infromsummer 1970-1971 like-mindeddemands. courses, and tookinformal In etc. colleagues Dorothy practices either Boroughs, had in a sink-or-swim fashion, most teachersa course who in oOrPc.14ssrooms, visited a to schoollearn these or elsewhere, skills by the P.S. 198 fourth A'6 256/Stability and Change in Classrooms, 1890-1980 Jackson's comments echo John Dewey's observations 'of Explaining How They Taught / 257 substantial outsideschoolnecessaryherYet, students, aswherehelp, the to and article twoget school had her teachers pointed even class requirements, placed to out,had a read on grade level left her little doing all she had to do to openedkeep theirmath classrooms center in withoutone cornerand any herof the expectations room. of what was time and few abreast of damentalofmodificationschanges forms.the educational in""authoritarianism "life have conditions" institution."not "really of the of penetrated Moreover,old the education classroom and Dewey persistspermeated but continued, such in various the "atmospheric" foundations "the fun-modified emotionaltime,dailystudent-centered classroomand resources what children events, to practices. pursue what are activelyto The timeAll of this is to say that what is materials must bedo secured,for those how teachers torequired who wishinvolves to far more rethinking and effort burdenchanges falls directly in her classroom. spendadopt and of teacherDeweycertainMaintaining tostudent-centeredmentionteacher transmit classroom knowledge control,practices,authority. and anskills IFormalessential believe,The to students key power exerciseis that what in might is an ofbothdelegated orderly that unlock Jackson authority, manner. the to puzzle is a of teacher selectivity in choosing andthe superintendentsolelyorganizationaluponlearning upon for theircenters. the teacher'shadstudents recognition What to stay shoulders. clear after and and 4 and themselves from the additional incentives were thereconsistent to increaseNo yield professor, o'clockcould the teachersreformer, in the afternoon count principal, to or put up exertion? What studentsdirectcourse,fundamental to can incharmingly an be condition harmonious expressed subtle. for in manner instruction aStill, number tois theparamount. ofto Anteacher, occur. asymetrical Classroom managing power control,a group relationship of in the classroom permits the forms ranging from coercively of Whatamountanswersthemight tradeoffproblems of occur workexisted asin withtaken apotential toresult students,these home of problems classroom other questions. This is why, I believe,and teachers periodic rearrangement of the and additionalchanges? work?colleagues, AreNo unambiguousthe and inner school rewards administrators worth classroom? in the directions,seats,implicitlyteacherclass, asking togiving has:establishtelling questions, grades,calling students conventions reprimandingthe interrupting toroll, perform making that students, tasks, expressstudents assignments, drinking praising the to musclemake coffee changingindividual a thatin front hestudents' effort, orof shethe etc. point, giving justsecondarrange adevelop few. group classroom projects restricted space and their learning embrace centers, ofBetween 1900-1980, why did a and furniture, permit more student movement, substantial number ofand teachers use varied re- groupingsstudent-centered as the approaches to Theseengageis inkey actions charge decisions in weekly reinforce of the that thatclassroom. are daily certify discretionary the theteacher's teacher's which perogatives,While power,touch there the there making very are are, hundredscore it plain of classroom whoof such behaviors that teachers and students nonetheless, preferredspacethesetwostudent generations artifactsand student-centered furniturefreedom of reform.ago arrangementsto and move approaches? Yet open aroundinformality Partisansin the classrooms a decadethat ago resemble might awince home-like at situation, and elementaryin student-teacher classroom relationships, are more of child-centered schools closerThesewilleachinstruction be of and to studied?the the other dozensand center theWhodecisions of teacher'srepresenting determinestasks can assigned authority. be whatarrayedthe daily? core instructional Who, in of Who a instructionalseriesfor determines instance, methods of squares authority.allots whatwill with be timecontent used?those for apparentsomesuburbanHe studied careful now Chicago a then distinctions.group they in of the were50 earlyelementary a half-century 1960s. HeBut, found according to Philip Jackson, this teachers identified as "superior" in informality may be deceptive.earlier. them informal but made decisiondusteach square,from in thethe from erasers.outer seating areas To charts is such viewed for teachers, students cautiously.Many student to teachers which At theparticipation studentsexercise beginning willtheir inof knock authority thisany by deciding what will occur in thanconventions.rooms, not formal much Today's (originalthat goes teachers emphasis),on is may exercisefor even"Informz their I" as these teachers use the term, really means still done in accordance with forms, rules, and in the most up-to-dateauthority more class- casually than less formal rather educators,ideascentury,lessons.of the about classroomall increased children'sdecisions became student developmentwere professionallymadetalk, movement, solely and learning by acceptable the and teacher. enteredparticipation forms Asthe progressive ofthinking in conducting the life of theretheirdesireinterviewees predecessors,are forreal informality limits clearly toand how wasrecognizedthey far never may they sufficientlyunbend can and move respected increasingly strong to in this direction. As atradition.16 group, ourthose limits. For them, the interfere with institution- with experience, but minimumand limitingtheir development teacher classroom perogatives noise,struck yetcompromises (i.e. attracted the Substantialinner to between the core) new numbersand ideaswhat the wasabout new of viewedteachers, childrenbeliefs. as concerned with maintaining order G al definitions of responsibility, authority, and tf-N u complianceMost258then / Stability experienced count and to onChange their students teachers, authorityin Classroonss, consistently infor the1890-1980 example, establishinitial studentresponding weeks loyalty of to a theirschool requests. year. They In such can a and fistorder is oftucked the classroomall gently inside w;thinthe pillow.I8 a less Thus,formal, John relaxed Dewey's atmosphere. observations The about the limits of the penetration of Explaining How They Taught 259 establishingsetting,bethreatening studied, rearranging learning when,to a teacher's desks, andcenters, under students control or what dividing than conditions.moving around Not moreonly arethan such theystudents incre- had, determining what should pupils into groups is far less the gruentandhavechild-centeredthened open gathered. with cLssroomsthe shifts teacher's practicesSo, in also, society'sthat authority isin emerged theclassrooms notionattitudes in in the thisthat are elementarytoward centuryhybrid consistent child-rearing, forms may school with well of progressivismthe making have individualevidence streng- it con- I offerteacher'smentsroutines the of mandatebeststudent and of traditions bothinvolvement is accepted worlds: established by control students, by in the classroom less menacing, once the teacher thatis undergirdmaintained the through moral the existingbut these levels of participation classrooms.conflictingtionexpression, became and socialawkward participation values compromises that in decisionmaking.inevitably thatThese teachers come answers These fashionedto roost hybridsto the in to twoAmerica's handleof instruc- questions the on the development of teacher- schoolspersuasivetioncenteredimplications that in formsis themy halfway 1980s.analysis ofof theprogressivism betweenfindings is at this on speculation point andhow informal isteachers less andimportant education taught a confident over than offer the considering hunch. onelast explana-century How the for changeOnIMPLICATIONSmakers, school may schoolreform have officials,somethingand OF teacher FINDINGS teachers, to improvement, say. and scholars, issues these of interestdata on tostability policy- and ContentLesson ThisReform is not the place for an essay on school reform. I want to concentrate Who determines verbal exchanges LessonTasks to be done techniques cameinherentonoutflankingwho those from see in reforms microcomputerschild-centeredchange teachers aimed efforts by atgettingadvocates, targeted changingin every teacher-proof upon technologicallyclassroom, instruction the classroom. materials enthusiasts and inspired the Whetherin studentconstraints dedicatedreformers ideas hands, to Degree of student noise allowable Degree ofGrouping student for movement instruction teacheronetheor researchers unchanging, set ofclassroom practices intent consistent behavior to upon another. targetspreading was In thewas all dependable resultsmovingof these of the sporadic effective factclassroom that efforts teaching future teacher to attempts changestudies from Figure 6.1 Classroom decisions made by the teacher. Arrangement of classroom space decisions. The point is that the closer to I make no special case for the changedemonstrated.wouldthatinstructional stable wasbe made superior teaching Ireform make regardless to nopracticesover the judgment practice the of lastwere what century;hereit ineffectiveintended previous about I do theto in noteffortsreplace; quality getting assume had noror students thatvalue door hadIa assumeproposedof to anynot learn 2centerthe order one in gets, which the I havemore arranged the the I 1 decisions touch the core of the teacher's authority. and thereby should have been changed. I do assume, however, that there `) 72 260 / Stability and Change in Classrooms, 1890-1980 Explaining Now They Taught l 261 classroomsthatignoreare definite exists these both limitswere limits in to experienceis, anysuch I believe, reforms efforts and injudicious aimedfor research. nearly atThis agiven study,century. the if currentanything,What few knowledge demonstrateschanges how impervious high school altering classroom behavior. To skepticism.restructurethesecurricula.tions of and senior A related highdevelopingThere teachers, schools items.are, forwisdomand graveWhile example, more foromissions such state retooling no agendastesting references of high essentialthat echo schoolsis to matched earlier what issues often happens effortsto provoke includes present toin plausibleextendingwereoccurredinappropriate, overshadowed inargument backcurricular decadessloppily can by content, hethe implemented, intomade persistent classroomthe that shadows the continuity orreforms talk, untimely of and a were previous the and formaleither the century. ritualistic, remarkable,recitation A of teaching practices initiativescomplexitytheelementary practical is ofschools, an pedagogyteaching awareness what in that highoffactors the teachers school. profound determine haveWhat difference high invented seems school between toto instruction,be cope missing altering with and fromthethe these studies and state legislative century-longteachingsive.sign ofThe resilient practice.same stability argument, vitality. Moreover, of high as school I thehave Denverinstructional shown, experienceWhile cannot practice the be argument madein is, five if for anything,high may elementary schools be plausible,a it would be, I believe, unpersua- externalbothrequirements)roomhigh ofschool teaching.2°and which structural requirements, shapeand Connections high conditionswhat school occurs better thatstructurebetween intests, classrooms,shape etc.) the(e.g. what externaland the happenshave trying six-period beencontext toin largelyimproveschools school(e.g. ignoredcollege(e.g. class-day), andthewith experimentalinstalledthe 1943.the minor Eight And in tracesYear each this Progressive Study ofofin the coursea district offeredschools. Educationcontent wherea Yet glimpse thatalso classestop remained clearof administrators how intowas a inthereform the unevenrest curricula wassupportedof thespread adopted staffs after of these manipulatingpresumedpercentteachersin these of effortsteaching worthwhilethe theschool to 5 numberimprove classes day and are and atherebyhigh day either kinds schools.and unsuitable unchangeable ofstudents courses The sittingassumptiontargets student features in for those take, improvement. seems of rooms entrancethe toterrain beover thatand Byor75 corporatewhichchangespaid blue-ribbon to for coalitionsclassroom almost two-commissions, have instruction decades. studied inthepanels any high of of I school, theirprofessionals,raise descriptions, this little issue attention and of marginalanalyses,prestigious has been changeand because over the last decade in somehow,exitaffectedhypothesisbetter requirements, and inby butsomeproduce the burying policiescognitive mysterious higher hunches are skills unawaretestway, in ofscores. policyteacher teachers, that isCertainly, practiceguesses risky, textbooks, particularly willmay this change anddrive the when decisions. for like- thethose - is a plausible studentszationalrecommendations.haveinstruction spent toand the orandstructural larger its continue Mostquality. community. changes toWhat spend that makesaimed Little over were these noticeatthree-quarters recommended tying studies was high given quaint schools of stressed totheir isthe that andschool kinds organi- students their oftime remainingtheteachingBased withdream upon but conditionsregularities that a this dream. stiffer study outside isrequirements, ofslim. classroom of Withinthe school moreinstruction,the willcurrent class turn time, high thehigh margin andschool schools external fororganization around change tinker- will in thesittinganalysesandAssociation Stanford instruction,in classrooms. than University of an Secondary it earlier appears More study generation high Schoolthat and schoolteaching one Principals of jointly studies studies.'9 will sponsoredwhich playare imminent. no do larger include by the aExcept roleNationalcurriculum in for their inschoolsresultschange high ofmayofferschools; this bea study?lower slim, second, risk,what Two reformshigher would directions return I that predict clearly aimonWhat alteringmight to emerge.improve directions work teaching inFirst,teacher-centered the in practices reformelementarylight of than mightthe work? Given that the margins for Theoverhaulingtowardbetter-equipped loud thecall the workplace, by high thegraduates school business and will possessing flexibility communitytouch the fundamentalin internalNorlearning for does high organs new itskills, schoolsappear tasks of positive the hasthat to classroom. produceproduced the attitudes current a wave of corporate enthusiasm for approachespotentiallypractices.likelihood Letin ofrich eithersuccess me arena expand elementary forthan reform. onthose each targetedorYet ofsecondary so these. Thelittle on structuralintroducing notice schools is differencespaid havestudent-centered to thisfar morebetweenlevel by elementary and high school offer a stateclutchtougherhighertions levels. of call reports,entrance textboolis,cQmpetency forState stiffer collaborative legislativerequirements graduation agendas ventures, for standards testspublic shaped andfor universities, new(e.g.lobbying by education-business teachers,more at amath, both longer rigorous 2 thescience, 7 school local 3 coali-evalua- andetc.), day, reasons,whetherlong-termtionsthe political and I the fully amand actorsoutcomes uncertain. farfunded more who programs. areoften costlyThe so resultsspell entangledthan Whether theshort-term of differencethis with it study, is becausestakesother betweenat leastvariables, in the high on dreamyinvestment theschools, or point inten-other orofis 2 7 4 262lowerthehow / practical much grades change pedagogythan is in possible, high that school teachers is unambiguous: classrooms. haveStability and Change in Classrooms, 1890 -1980 constructed is far rosier in thethe promise for alteration in of approaches.thata reform large maynumbers need of to teachers be revised selectively in the light implemented of evidence different demonstrating classroom Explaining Now They Taught / 263 ToteacherSuchimprovement pursue efforts and that attempt need,efforts direction, I thattobelieve, understand build reforms to on be theaimed theespecially existingThe world at second that direction for reforms that offers promise altering teacher routinesteacher-centered need sensitive pedagogy. to the classroom the teacher faces daily. is toward those Basically,Improving there Teacher are four Performance strategies to upgrade the quality of classroom to occurred,andthatsecurethat acan changecompete the be they teacher'sadapted will have with be occurredexisting commitment.tobetter the currentfor ones. because children, They setting. teachers embracednot Whereundercut have different ways The teacher needs to be persuaded modestabosrbed changes rival hishavebeliefs or her authority, of viewing 'incompetents;hiringinstruction:implicationspluses teachers; and retrain revise minuses of improve existingthe selection findings for preparation corps eachpolicies in ofthis approach, teachers. instudy programs schools for Ratherlet particular of forme education apprentices;than focus strategies.go instead overand districtsremovethe I onderive the hetheteacher'sBecause closelyclassroom. mostbound limited Also, instructional to time Itangible have and argued reformsenergy,help that in imposeputtinghelp changing from increased demands upon thethose ideas outsideinto practice.teachers' the classroom minds needsis to the classrooms, like theproducttothatfour cope following thisimplications, ofwithcore occupational ofthe directionsdurable schoolprovided socializationpractices and tothat classroompursue my is a assumptionsthat set for newcomersof they those teacher-constructed find whoare themselves experience,accepted. plan to Assuming entersolutions Iin suggest and the a otheressential.Teams,basictherefore professionals, classroom WhileWorkshop need aidthere conventions. at Centerteachers theare classroomsome for fallforThe MichaelangelosOpen advisorylevel theEducation, in mostin implementing network, in the any and other resources to liaisons, Innovationmiddle range and alteration in classroom,institutional newcomers, form of gradual and veterans. change that has1. had a mild, if not unfocused, Schools of Education. Preparing entrants to the profession is one supportsmodifyingpermitimprovement teachers this classroom finding; effortsto plan alsopractices. that and the teachers talk growing Current together participate body researchData seem on intoon the buttress teacher enduring patterns of instruction suggest of literature on school-based be minimum tools in revised notions of this point.`' collaboration decades,forimprovingcenterednesseffect what upon existspatchwork classroom instruction.places in public compromisescollege instruction schools Data professors oron inhave prepare thea familiar ofbeen enduring teacher them fashioned, dilemma: to education stabilityalter leaving whatprepare committed is. those Overteachers who the to of teacher- methods.percentYorkwhatasserted constitutes administrator of The proudly.the sourcesystem's success IfJoseph forso, inteachers howthe modifying Loftus's quote could had faintly pridegenerousclassroom be hinted expressed estimatepractice. that the with statement was initiated "in some degree" activity Rememberin 1941 New that 25 three-quarters entry-levelprepareproducewithnumber theand ofteachers classroom.tests, certifystates and towho teachers upgradesimilar Thesecan pass profoundly measures credentialsolutions test items also requirementsdissatisfied.to assessing improvemirror publicminimum teachingCurrentfor teachers, dissatisfaction literacyefforts quality establish inskills will a patternsapproachesof victory.difficultythe staff It incontinuingcertainly capturing that would intheir he the befound attention, dominanta victory wrongheaded? 25 in teacher-centeredIn percent other view highly mayof the well powerful constraints on teacher behavior competitive arenas. be viewed as a instructional and the forleapseriousandpursued teachingwho to viewabout will aggressively literahaveeffectiveness. seeking spenty tests instructional morethe or courseobviousFew seat-time states creditsreform suggestion in or college as colleges,knows anything concerningclassrooms. that however, moreit is a than selectioncourageousYet have proxiesanyone yet and If executivespublisheraudienceNielson television gainsfor would a program,that jump ratings,share in thatof joy forthe show over example,school isa 10judged market, percent register first-rate. it isreturn. a bonanza. Or,The that high a viewing if a textbookpoint is thatDirect mail mastersolvers;constraintsteacherstraining. in and These whoorder they more are approachestomust technicallysurvive.more face; aware morewouldThe proficient idea ofadaptable, need the is organizationalforto in be thosea resilient, collegealtered techniques totoand produceproduceand analytic thatprofessional classroomtheya problemteacher must standardsdetermininginginstructional classrooms for judging what reformhinges thegoes mentioned,effectivenessupon on anin theirawareness the of rooms.usual an instructional of standards Beyondhow limited of thereform defining penetrat- the success ( teachers areconstraints in to totrained teachermove in beyond theis so craft, inclined survival, equipped to andtranscend with alter the what thegeneric typical occurs intellectual instructionalin the classroom, skills pattern. necessary if the Dan P 264! Stability and Change in Classrooms, 1890-1980 Explaining !low They Taught / 265 sharplytheseLortie points.22 has on offeredtwo areas. a number One is of improving concrete 2.suggestionsteacher knowledge that District In-Service Efforts. Staff development could develop some of and skills forfocus more legislatureYork,andtionCity's informal(1941). Activity the Presidential in A classrooms Bismarck,generationProgram (1941),Building wereNorthlater, designed alternativeand Dakota. in Denver's Washington, at This schools,110 mandate top-downLivingston highD.C., for school Generalapproach andStreet thereforms, inEduca- state Newwas whetherthoseimprovedcrafting, tasksexplaining, portion a classroom thatcontinually tothey orteaching extractingiscarry teacher-even out that while withmeaning orneeds student-centered:practicing predictable to from be learnedtextbooks.techniques questioning, as In anon a regularity, regardless of short, thereapprentice is a and daily basis in lectur- administratorschargedteacherscommon. toand carry principals and out. teachers Under to plan jointly Newlon to implementworked andDifferent Threlkeld through new approaches policiesa (1922-1937), series ofthat complicated emergedthey Denver were in occasional efforts to mobilize theinstructionfromReducing classroom. sufficient, the that isolation conditionswere unfamiliar and to nourishing enable or riskyteachersThe collegiality otheryet to were pursue area areviewed is somenecessary, teachers as helping teachers in their own directions in helpful to schools.but far secondarystepsinstallusedreplaced that the the produced subjects.syllabi collaboration; final asstep Whensystem-wideintended. of theprincipalsthe implementationItcourse is curriculum unclear wereof study whattold revision wasprocess. tohappened makecompleted, in Washington's sureelementary at each that directives school teachers and first to children.strategiesconfirmedclassroomescape Anyonethe designedstrongthis is from classroomreading impression otherto bringa fraction isolation.adult of teachers how contacts. of longelyStaffteacher together development A accounts shelf in their full since opportunities schools to teaching is, how insulated the of studies have 1900 cannot plan, and principalsandlawn,alternative parents.students, the 1971 and high Open although teachersalternative school, Corridors whoitFreedom highlasted wanted in school, Newless Annex, to than Yorkwasintroduce was twodesigned City planned years. informalworked by Arlington's whollyteachers, onlyapproaches bywith students, teachers Wood- those into morepsychologicalinitiate,schoolsorganizational important, research, that barriersprovide moxiethey evaluate, can in thatsettings efforts mix andseparate practitioner writeforto solve teachersteachers can common chip tofrom away both problems. one atserve theanother andTrying to folk wisdom, ingenuity, and physical and learn with but, far build thatmixtiontheir ofunderscores strategyschools the two, andwere it classrooms.theis uncommon. w importance Al to keep These inof instancesmindteacher theRather and persuasiveof a principalthan bottom-up argue body direct theimplementa- of merits researchinvolve- of one or the other approach, or even a colleaguesputtingalso raise ideas remains, some into questions practice.I believe, whileA a growingworthwhile adding number3. data to of the case substantial studies of Implementing Changes in Classrooms. The findings of this study task.23 botchedissue of repeatedly.basedsearch-basedingredientsment, commitment,knowledge Perhaps, in knowledge transforming of aand practitioners more clearis lessradical a understandingpolicy than hasstep convincing, into produced needs practice. ofto thebe thisthen taken.Furthermore,change recommendation the Policymakersexperienced- as essential if re- school"bottom-up"demandspolicemen,moved innovations, policymakers that teachers) rather cannot research than whotoall "top-down" focus onbe use street-levelmet, attention their and perspective discretion an onbureaucrats increasingservice ofin deliverers, implementationcoping (social sensitivity with i.e. to a workers,teachers heavy has routines.wouldnon-teachersimpactintent upon affectstatement. While classroom themust this teacher'sIn be isother aaccompaniedinnovations bureaucratic words, role, classroom an might instructionaldevice,by an be analysis organization, requiredsuch plana suggestion of to designed how submit materials, the becomes a largelyproposal teacher- and by a importanceandlevelinstructional principals.24 what of tasksthe or curricularclassroom were to changebeteacher done. and and Offers then schoolEducational assignedof principalaid were topolicymakers eachin often implementing organizational have generally given a rhetorical bow to the mixed with tionerforcefulmandatesto argue concerns reminder that or coercive teachers'and that classroom top-down threats commitment consequences.beyond policy and brittleThisdecisions involvement study compliance. needon how to seldom considerteachersWhere responds classroom taughtpracti- providesto some data that can be used threatswiththatimplementation heldofthe sanctions; Child it together. DAyglppment machine. these were Routines theProgram frequently and (1938), Thisdirectives used study the engines expansionwere showed the that nuts thatof New andthis boltsprocess occurred in Washington, D.C., drove the York changesdownwardmentationthechange process. occurred, and perspectivefromits The effects, again pointthe viewpointmaking teacherscanis that find thethose seemsome ofdistinction policymakers teachersto support have betweenbeen inand this activewhonot study.the from approach collaboratorsappearance the typical imple- of in 4 school266/ Stability policymakers and Change in Classrooms, have sought 1890 -19811to 4. Teacher Effectiveness. Over the last half-century, researchers pin down precisely what teaching and teachingthesecountry practices activities with great identified that confidence have asbeen effective used in tneir for are decadesefficacy. not only in Let associatedclassrocims me add with quickly across teacher- the that Explaining How They Taught / 267 correlationalthateffectivenessthatinterest search have to hasyielded studiesis, this beenwhich study strong,of documented teachers certain are positive recent teachinghave numerous it, and relationships tofindings student drawn test scores from on a number of practices at the elementaryhow level they got it. The history of times. What is of special ble"containcentereddurableProgram, to avoidmost classrooms;teaching North of any these Dakota foolishpractices practices open schools, leap andclassrooms, as to these was andinferences seenspecificWashington in in their thelinking teaching New variousschocls.35 whatYork behaviors incarnations,ICity detailedI said Activity emerging "resem- as standardized achievement tests in readingWhich practices have shownTeacher up focusesconcentrates clearly on on tasks academic alloting the favorably? goals' and math.25 instructional period to instruc- teachers,contextuallogicalfrom recent issues students, variables, studies associated school, labeled often withclass asabsent effective. correlationalsize, from grade, Beyondsuch and research, investigations, time the substantiveof thereobservation arethat methodo- a involve host which of outlining,TeachertionalTeacher tasks presents and monitorsrather reviewing; information than student socializing27 and progress clearly; covers subjectorganizingtoward matter increase student success29instructional objectives, select- instruction by explaining, extensively" exploreinfluencetional furtner findings outcome those to measures. determine teaching practices what can that Thebe showlearned resemblance, up fromstrongly their however, in past correla- use seems in to be sufficiently tantalizing to Teacheringcooperation32Teacher's materials feedbackpaces managementand instruction arrangingis quick toand abilitiesmethods fit targeted preventof on content students39 disturbances by encouraging of instructional tasks3I classrooms.36 instructionalimproved academic "functions" achievement, that have shown asBarak Rosenshine, reviewing a number measured by test scores: repeatedly to have produced of studies, specified six century,tion,towardbothered shuttle optimism. without me sinceback having After1and began forth someall, writing one between strong doesn't the beliefs bothIntroduction.On go whatinto aboutkinds teaching note children,of My jobsI should impulsesand for improvement administra- aend quarter- tended this study of constancy and change has 4.3.2.I. CheckingFeedbackInitialPresenting student previous and new correctivespractice content/skills day's work (and (reteaching, checking forif necessary) understanding) tions.of optimismimpelexisting Unlike men institutions, soared the and Grand women unreasonably Academyand into public public ofor serviceamong Lagadowas school not where anchored work. the Gulliver Yet,many in modestI motivessawnever workers expecta- felt that my that isolates certain teacher behaviors,There6.5. are substantive, and telling, criticismsWeeklyStudent andindependentof monthly reviews33practice links them to high student test correlational research nonetheless,andtryingpessimistic weaving to extract buoyant picturecloth sunshine from viewfor any spiderwebs,offrom fundamentalimproving cucumbers, Ischools.37 had Butmodification turning athe restrained, data ice canin into teaching becautious, gunpowder, easily behavior interpreted but as presenting an unrelenting, performancesurgedcurriculum.34a ahead at in one specifying point in particular time,basis and teaching thenPutting uses aside such criticisms, the point is that thisfor instructional improvement efforts or teacher practices as effective. Notice these relationships as line of research has education optimism-pessimismtattersand school of change reforms that that dichotomymay promise be insubstantial and anything convertsAnother or,beyond worse,elements marginal,interpetation irrelevant. of both incremental into Perhaps. can a mixbe drawn from the data that avoids the thatcomparedpracticestheteaching the century. sampling practices that in Theeffectiveness haveI have similarity,in been thisdisplayed279 studyrecently through of resemblesthat course, investigated, have pre- is not persisted sinceand the post-tests beginning(somewhat) are of themselves the stable core of whollycarefully accidental. counted, The and thattobuildinglearningmetaphor cando. beBy effortsto put:understanding of work whatfarming around through schools whatto the describean and durabilityseeds, ancient, teachers plants, schooling. unchanging and can insects, limits and The cannottoand process thisessential climate process,do. of Recall were growthpoint farmers likelythe was by 268 / Stability and Change in Classrooms, 1890-1980 NOTES Explaining How They Taught / 269 farmercanshaped improveprocesses is helpless by organizationalthe like yieldto seeds,exercise of crops. plants, constraintscontrol, have and to Basedbeother upon this study, there are, and climate in schools andBut theseclassrooms organic forces, over which a I believe, analogs of organicworked with,factorsthat not ignored. need to be 2. Alternative1. J. Tukey, models"The Future of explaining of33 Datahowever, (1962), Analysis," puzzling pp.to acknowledge 13-14. questions Annals of theis Mathematical common. many discussions I do Statistics, wish, I have had with David Tyack. contoursbuilding.workedand drought. through of Certainly, a practical inYet, order teaching untilpedagogy to improvethe load, man-madejust whatage grading, happens structures are like an organic force. They become withinCarnegie the walls Units, of the self- modified fun- 355-89;tionalargumentCompulsoryHe uses Knowledge,"the this are:sources modeSchooling," Basil felicitously from inBernstein, Michael Harvardwhich in Young"On I"Ways Educationaldraw the (ed.) Classification ofthe Seeing: Knowledge Schooling Review, An and Essay46 andas (August,Framing SocialControl on the Control 1976), Historyof(London: Educa- pp. of damentalwhatcontoursdamentally, Willard of traits a theypractical Waller that blow need called peoagogy like to bethea wind,reckoned "humanjust flood naturewithI draw like if mya storm, optimism from these metaphors because like an organic force. They become of thechanges classroom," are to occur.33fun- they suggest clearly and shape the Americapp.and(London:Coller-Macmillan, 341-69;Nancy (New Routledge King, York:Samuel "What Basic 1971),and Bowles KeganDo Books, pp. Schools and Paul,47-69; 1976). Herbert 1979),Teach?" Peter Gintis,chapters Woods, Curriculum Schooling 1, The 7, 20; Inquiry,Divided Michael in Capitalist 6 School, (1977), Apple stetch.forthatTherecrops. change, until There areTherethose an effective are, elasticitypowerfulare toeffective be schools schoolsure,that teachers; imagination effectivescattered structures acrossfarmers; areand large the country their students' praise recognizes them. altered there is some margin they produce abundantchunks of energy can where principals 3. Philip Jackson, Life in ClassroomsRinehartWilliamof 1968),Change (New Geoffrey, andchapter (Allyn Winston,York: 1; Theand SeymourHolt, ComplexitiesBacon,1968), Rinehart, Sarason, chapters1971), andof Thechapters an 3-4;Winston, UrbanCulture Robert 1, Classroom 7,of Dreeben, 10,the School11; (New Louis "The and York: Smith Schoolthe ProblemHolt, and as andschoolslearning, teachers can growth, have achieve constructed and effectively deep satisfactionsettings, within in theConcentratingexist.certain most boundaries upon what teachers can do well in classrooms, on unlikely places, where is a sensible what Research,"Weinstein,VisionsYork:a Workplace," Rand of theReview "TheMcNally, Learner,"in W.Physical of Traver 1973);Educational School Environment(ed.) J. W.Review The Research,Getzels, Second (August, of "Images the Handbook49 School:(Fall, 1974), of 1979), the ofpp. A TeachingClassroom Review527-40; pp. 577-610; ofCarol(New and the inevitablyrooms""teacher-centered,"responseidentifying, may to do: thehelp categorizeunder potent researchers "traditional," what processes and conditions, and simplify. promoters at"child-centered", what Such but will names they work andhelp with "open not a work in schools. Labels such as do what all labels children in bitclass- in MartinUniversityBass,it.John M. Meyer Meyer,1978): Denscombe, Press, and Hugh(ed.) Brian 1979), Environments Mehan,"The Rowan, chapter 'Hidden Learning "The 3. andPedagogy' The Structure OrganizationsLessons term "Hiddenand of (Cambridge, EducationalIts Implications(San Pedagogy" Francisco: Mass.:Organizations," comesfor Harvard TeacherJossey- from teacherspracticesmagicboosting to bothface. eitherexist academic These in classrooms different practices, performance settings labeled once and identified, inone personalspite way of orshould growth.the the severe I other.be Effective cultivatedharvest. ashave found no constraints 4. Willard Waller, The SociologyBooks,Press,chaptersTraining," of Teaching1975), 1969); 22-23; British chapters Wayne Dan(New Journal Lortie, 2-3;York: Hoy, of Estelle Schoolteacher SociologyJohn"Pupil Wiley,Fuchs, Control of 1965), Teacher Education,(Chicago: Ideology Talk University3 and(1982),(New Organizational York: pp. of 249-65.Chicago Anchor carefullyissuetaught of toas quality touch a gardener the upon issue whowhich of anticipates instructional I end this thebook. Thus,quality, approaching The in Isteadfastly refusing to go beyond the question of varietyconfess ofthat what it is teachersthe veryof circumstances over how teachers 5. Ipp.ofSocialization," avoid Schooling: 465-70. the word Some School "ideology" Findings Review, for and 77, reasons Hypotheses,"(1969), cited pp. by257-65; Kappan,Carl Kaestle, John 64 Goodlad, (March, "Ideology "Study1983), and teachingwhichdobasisof in practices classrooms teachers for effectiveness determining is havenarrower is finite. little become the thanIt influence. isquality previouslylimitedeven moreof Despiteby what thoughta demanding number teachers these or limits, sincecan the promoted. I suggested a do well in class- questions of repertoire canintersectbyAmerican Educationteachers be grouped with Educational and Society,both into administrators personal related October History" andpropositions 3, socialare 1981, (paper shaped issues, pp. which, delivered 1-10). by I also larger if Whilecomprehensively recognize at social meeting I know forcesthat ofthat these History anddescribed, beliefs beliefs often ofheld shouldrooms.teachersover teachersthe No lastalready longer century, teach? doshould beBased I believe improved? the upon my experience2 and study the central questioncentral is simply: issue how about can instruction what be: how of classrooms linkageswordsystematicallycould "ideology."be between labeled would "ideology."individual In thisbe beyond explanation, behavior To the map scope and out I concentrated ideas ofthose this and intersections study. less more onThus, the on Iimpactand dothe notgroupings apparent of use belief the 282 270 / Stability ar,J Change in Classrooms, 1890-1980 Record, (1976). On teacher collaboration, see Judith Little, "Norms of Explaining How They Taught I 271 8.7.6. LeonardGaryChittenden, Fenstermacher, Covello, et al., p. "A17. Philosophicalsystemsand Company, upon group 1970), p. 197. The Heart is the Teacher behavior. Consideration of Recent Research(Totowa, on N. J.: Littlefield, Adams, AmericanAmericanBirdCollegiality and Educational JudithEducation and Experimentation:Little, Research Research "Finding Association,Journal, andWorkplace Founding 1983): Conditions Peer school-based Coaching" of School reform (Speech Success," efforts to 19 (Fall, 1982), pp. 325-40; Tom TeacherchapterMetz,Education Effects,""Clashes 5; Chittenden, and in Urbanthe Classroom: et Society, al., chapters Review of Research in Education, 11 The Importance of Norms(November, for Authority," 1978), pp. 13-47; 4-7. The work of Lee Shulman at 6, pp. 177-82; Mary H. Lortie, 22.23. Lortie, See Jackson,pp. 228-34. Life in Classroom,Governmentare chapter105-8. summarized 1 and Policy" pp.in Jane 159-77; (Palo L. David, Alto, Sarason, Calif.: "School-Based pp. Bay Area Strategies: Research Group,Implications 1982). for theMichigandirecteddecision cognitive State inmaking. notasks University small that"How way teachers teachers andby what now must behave they engage at Stanford University hasthink." Lee Shulmanand what and they J. do," E. Lanier, he has written, "isJournal of Teacher Education, in to process information for focused upon 28 24. Richard Elmore, "Organizational Models"StreetEducationPublic of Level Social Policy, Reform,"Bureacrats Program 26 (Spring, Implementation,"and Institutional1978); Michael Innovation: Lipsky and Implementing Richard Weatherley, Special Harvard Educational Review, 47 (1977); Eleanor Farrar, "TheinJudgment,(1977), Education,Institute p. 44.and for See DecisionResearch Shulman Making," on andTeaching," Implementing3, (1975), (Itasca, Organizational Ill.: Peacock Publishers, A. S. Elstein,in "Studies F. N. Kerlinger of Problem (ed.) Solving, Innovations, chaptersReview 4-5,1975). 7,of Research8: 25. For reviews of the literature on teacheret al.,ScientificHuron effectiveness,"Alternative Institute, Basis of1978). Conceptions see: the N.Art L. of Gage,Teaching of Implementations" (Cambridge, Mass.: (New York: Teachers College, Col- The 9. Gross et al., College,tionalSmithPressman, Service:and Columbia Keith, Urban chapters University, Schools 1, 5, 1977),and 7, 9-11;Schooling chapter Policy Implementation, (Berkeley, Calif.: University of David Goodwin, 6; Aaron Wildaysky and Jeffrey (New York: Teachers Delivering Educa-California Press, researchchaptersumbiaThe University,Study on5-10; teacher of Teaching 1977), effectiveness. chapters 1 and 3; Michael Dunkin and Bruce Biddle, Journal of Teacher Education, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1974), 27 (Spring, 1976) is devoted to 11.10. ForMary example, H. Metz, see Peter Woods,Adaptation"1973); Milbrey (Los McLaughlin, Angeles: Rand "An Corporation, Exploratory Classroom and Corridors Divided School, (Berkeley, Calif.: University 1979). chaptersStudy 5-7. of School District of 26.27. Barak ibid.; Rosenshine, also T. L. "Content,Good, "Teacher Time, andEffectivenessJournalMcCutchanand Direct Herbert of Instruction,"Teacher Publishing Walbergin the Education, Elementary inCo., (eds.) P. 1979).L. Petersen School," 30 (1979).Research on Teaching (Berkeley, Calif.: 13.12.14. Sarason,Lortie, Woods, p. p. 147. p.63. 12; See Lee Ross, "TheCaliforniaings: Distortions Press, 1978), in the pp. Attribution 250-1. Process," Intuitive Psychologist and his Shortcom- Advances in Experimental Social 31.30.29.28. Rosenshine;ibid. William J. Tikunoff and Beatricefor Successful Ward, School "Ecological Practice: Perspectives Knowledge of Effective Instruction," n.d., n.p. 18.17.16.15. Jackson,InterviewThisDworkin, point with pp.is made 129-30. Wilkinson, often in March DavidPsychology, 22, Swift, Life in Classrooms, 10 (1977), pp. 173-220. p. 29. 1982. Ideology and Change in the Public 33.32. BarakT. L. Good Rosenshine, and D. A."Teaching Grouws, Functions "ThedeliveredProject," Missouri in Instructional at Mathematics NIE Conference Programs," Effectiveness at Airlie paper House, Virginia, February, 1982, p. 5. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71 (1979). 20.19. A.See Harry Lally Passow, Cuban, "Corporate"Secondary InvolvementEducation(NewSchools York: Teachers College, (Columbus, Ohio: Charles Merrill Publishing Company, Columbia University, 1976). Reform: Retrospect andin Prospect," Public Schools:National A Institute Practitioner/ of Education, 1971). 34.35. Walter Communication Doyle, "Research from Kim on Classroom Marshall,sophicaltion, BostonResearchContexts," Consideration Public in Education, Schools; of the Recent idea Researchthat the on Teacher32 (November-December, Effects," Review of 1981), p. 3; Gary Fenstermacher, "A Philo- 6, pp. 157-83. Journal of Teacher Educa- 21. This point has been made by manyAcademic otherSee,the1983); High for David Perspective"example: School," Tyack Larry and (Washington, Cuban,Tom James, "The D.C.: "Learning Kappan, 64 (February, 1983), pp. 400-406. Powerlessness of Irrelevancy,"school participants and researchers. from Past Efforts to Reform Educa- SchoolingsTommyworked,persistence Tomlinson,i.e., Since of solved particular 1950," efficiently"The Troubledteaching classroom practicesYears: problems,An occurred Interpretive was simply mentioned Analysis because of also Public they by Kappan, 62 (January, 1981), pp. 373-6. r03 tional(LosPaultion Leadership, Berman,Angeles: as Mutual theRand ChangeAdaptation Corporation, Agent in ClassroomStudies,1975); Milbrey Organization," 25 (February, 1968), pp. 393-6; Milbrey McLaughlin The Process of Change, McLaughlin, "Implementa- Teachers College Volume 3 and 38.37.36. Waller,TommyJoseph Sisk, preface.Tomlinson, "Untested "Effective Assumptions," Schools:tion, Mirror or Mirage," (April-May, 1981), pp. 48-50. 2a4 Harpers (May, 1981), p. 70. Today's Educa- becameteaching possible.) practices. With movable desks and chairs, other arrangements Appendix / 273 instructionaboutcenteredaround what the instruction can, happensroom and permitting oftenbecomes in the does, classroom astudents occur much in stronger thesewould to face seating beIfpossibility. desksone needed arrangements.another are But sincearranged far and teacher-centered more talk, (Getzel,into information astudent- hollow 1974; square, horseshoe, or tables are scattered Appendix intoWeinstein,forone student-centered evidence another, Carol, carrels, of 1979; student arrangements, rug-covered Sommer, movement, 1969). areai.e. tables studentfor a reading2.and participation desks corner, where etc., in students verbal one needs discourse,can faceto look instructional grouping and classroom activities. If class space is organized Theclassroom five categories arrangements, that I use group to capture instruction, dominant instructionalclassroom patternstalk, student are: movement, the educationactivity)Projectsdiverse grouping ^nd(a after common learning 1967) patterns, term centersassumed used and (a in the thatphrase the extent students 1920s used of andproject canoften 1930s learn inactivities movement toeffectively describe (or learningto asa install child-centered individuals centers). informal or observers.totalityandimportant,major classroom of chunksteaching. They these activities. describeof categoriesThey time are, Ithat recognizethe at areterrainteachers best, within windowsthatthe these powerof the ofcategories classroom.theof theand classroom teacher students in Theyno toway while aredeterminespend capture visible accounting together. to And, most for the for his individualfurnituremeetings;in small arrangements andgroups work small stationswhile groups thatmaking in encouragetheof students classroomsdecisions face-to-face operate independent Thus,(project inthe areas aexchanges self-directedexternal of orthe learning teacher. signs and manner, centers)small of a student-centeredgroup andwhere classroom would include homeworkor toher create classroom: to regularities assign, how where in classrooms. students should goThe issue is whether or not certain patterns the space should be arranged, who I believe that they do. In the discussion in these withincategoriesthose the room,clusterbooks etc. andtogether articles listed in should talk, what below, frontteacher'sevidence1977.) and rear.ofdesk students (Barth, is no movinglonger 1972; frontSilberman,about and without center; 1971; securing often,Bussis, thethe et teacher's roomal., 1976; lacks permission. Perrone, a discernible 1972, The theI offer bibliography. reasons for this belief. References are to1. Organization of space in the classroom. If movable desks or student chairs uponcentered.like tables a process Much scattered of thelearning aroundliterature and the onthe room,such teacher's settings does graspLet not in me the makeof add the1920s athatunderlying classroom and the 1970ssimple principles student- focused presence in of a project corner or learning centers, assertionhighare arranged probability is: in rows that facingthe instruction a. Such an arrangement is either the blackboard or teacher's intentional (exceptis teacher-centered. for the classrooms The rationale for arrangement is seldom desk then there is a where the graphsarrangementsteacherfewchild visible development represent understands signs and butwhat and available in the learning.a no William principles way artifacts Seatingguarantee Kilpatrick involved. recaptured arrangements, orthat Harold To the insuggest process writtenRugg projects, ofthat accountswill the onlyandoccur 1920s centers the andor espoused physical that photo- are the a placement,decidesmandateddesks were (or by acceptsconsciously bolteda school prevailing to board, the or not, floor). norms)superintendent, expresses Furniture use or of classroom space.the Furniture teacher's views of :tow principal. The teacher complexand a Lillian processes. Weber and Vito Perrone of the 3.1970s advocated would trivialize Classroom Talk. The evidence that teachers talk far more than students in b. When all students face the assignments,bestteachertimacyencouraged. to teach, or than tests, maintain onesTeacher-student or between class order, recitation students. and exchanges how occurs gain blackboardstudents where learn. directions, whole-group instructionhigher is priority and legi- questionsStudenttelling,patternclassrooms explaining,of talk teacher from dates in such the talk backand teacher, a consuming classroom questioningto Romiett asking mostis Stevens' is generallyprocedural a of proxy the workinstructional forconfined questions aat teacher-centered the toturn discourse responding (e.g. of the will century.in it classroom. thetobe content formon That the of c. Surveillanced. Such a configuration is easier of classroomThreatsexpeditiously.within to space classrooma classroom order to that can which be seenthe for a teacher with space arranged in teacher permits. limits students' movementquickly and dealt with this manner. questionstest?),toresponse. learn and haveover covert It is totime. a conversationsbeclassroom (Mehan,asked, whodiscourse 1979; withshould Stevens, classmates. that be contains asked, 1912; The andimplicit Hoetker teacher the rules quality and determines that Ahlbrand, of students the student what 1969.) come student-centeredingeniouslycentury when and desks with practices much were energy intofixed the to overcame classroom.(It needs to be mentioned, however, the floor, there were teachers that for the early decades of this that obstacle and introducedSuch furniture may have who schoolsclassroominstructional point talk, patterns. to student a variety Organizing movement, of teaching the and classroompatterns. classroomThese These space, activitiesfive categories, grouping as they for Ithen, materializebelieve, instruction, contain can in the pieces that teachers arrange into in classrooms. 272 2, s 5 discouraged many teachers but it did not prevent some from altering their extract from the data dominant instructional pattern ) Bowles,Blanch, Lloyd,Samuel, and and J. 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New 98 Index A Washington, D.C. classrooms, 96, 97, 187, AlternativeAdvisoryAdministrativeActivity Program, and schools, Learning progressives, 44, 171-174, 48,Exhange 50, 43, 199-20055-56, (ALE),70 64 (See 184also Informal education) Class attendancesize, 24, 50, 71, 87highelementary school, school, 27 18-19I92 AttendanceArlington, Virginia, schoolsprogressivism of, 213-217 Informal classrooms218 in, 217- (see Class attendance) Classroom of DenverNew York schools, City '71schools, 48-50 Average time spent, instructional atrangernents(table 6.4), 227 Classroom activities, 62,Denverofatorganizational 130, turnWashington, 132 ofclassrooms century, structure D.C. 18, schools, 24 of, 9-10, 87-90 242-243 BallingBeliefs,Ba Barth,Boo, v. aboutPrank Roland,Sharpe, teaching, W., 149, a4-86 152 244-245 179 Washington,ruralNewGrand classrooms,York Forks City andD.C. classrooms, Fargo125 classrooms, classrooms, 63, 96, 170, 97,159 175 187, CaseCampbell,C Studies Harold, in Science 46-50, Education 55 (CSSE), ofNetional Science Foundation, 225-226 ClassroomClassroom decisionsdecisions, architecture made 252, 258by the teacher 192 (see Classroom) ChildChange, centered in classroom progressivism, teaching 10, 23-24, 43- 44,stability) 149 (See also Progressivism) (see Classroom Classroom practiceindicators, or teaching practices, 5 !figure 6.1), 2S8 (See also Classroom ClassClark arrangement,ActivityPlan, the, Patterns 180, 62 188 (figureDenver 3.4), classrooms, 130 79 elementaryandconstructsin Arlington, curriculum forschools Virginia, analysis theory, 219-2242of,stability, 3-4 Teacher education) BEST COPY AVAILABLE ruralNewGrand classrooms,York Forks City and classrooms, Fargo125 classrooms, 63, 170, 159 175 turn1965-1975,1920-1940, of the century, 165-171,61, 63, 19-25 65-67 181-182, 187 ZOO 288 highFinkelstein's schools study (1820-1880), 19-21 / Index Curriculum study, of National Institute of Education (NIE), 2 Grades,Glanz, Ellen, 52 21n-231 Index / 289 1920-1940.turn of the century, 60, 63, 25-37 65-67,104 78-83, 96- DCurriculum theory, and teaching practice, 2 Greene,Grand Forks Charles, and Fargo69 classroom practice (table 4.1), 159 Kacstle,KJob security, Carl, for 19 teachers, at turn of century, 24 indicatorsthe historian of, of,5 8, 18 1965-1975, 172-178, 199-200181-182, 191-193, DenverDeLima,Decentralization,Dalton (Ian,classroom Agnes, the, 4360164, practice 182-183 (figures 2.2 & 2.3), Group instruction, 21, 30,NewGrandDenver 62, York130 Forks classrooms, City and classrooms, Fargo 79 classrooms, 63, 170, 159 175 LKellogg Foundation, 113 Nationaland informal Science education, Foundation 10, 228256-259 study of, 225- Denver school reform, 69-77thethe Eight reformers. Year Study, 67.70 75-7779 Washington,rural classrooms, D.C. classrooms, 125 192 96, 97, 187, LearningLanguageLancaster,Laboratory centers, Joseph,teaching, School 131, 19(the 28-29 159, Dewey 160, School), 182, 188-189 34-36 andin rural socioeconomicstructure classrooms of classroom, (1920-1940),norms,124-126, 9, 9-10, 240-241 112-121,242-243 130-132 Dewwy,Desegregation,Denver schools, John, 33-36,179 70-71 43, 113 Hansen,Hartwell,H Carl, Alfred, 183 54 MLoftus,Little Red Joseph, School 55, House, 56, 59 the 47 Classroom reform, 5-7,useandtextbook-bound. 135-138, oftradition, questions, 259-262 10, 19,243-24528-29, 22, 24,60 60 Drill,Dictation,Drillmaster, 21,E 22 28 the. 19, 29 HighHighHiddenHerbart, school school, Pedagogy, Johann curriculum at turnFredrich, 243 of(see century, 24Curriculum, 25-37 high MetaphorMemorization,Maxwell, William, 22-23, 46 28, 29 effectivecost of, 49 implementation(See of, also Progressivism) I I , 245-245, Education,East High School's improving schedule quality (tableof, 263-268 2.2), 76 High school graduation, at turn of century, 25 school) Methods of teaching (seeof school, ofClassroom history, 7 8 practice) twooriginsmovable major of, furniture, periods31 of,49-50 7264-265 ElementaryEightEducational Year Study. schoolschool,psychology, the, instruction, at turn45, turn 68-69,of of century. 30-31.century, 75-77 65-67,19-25 24, 31 High school instruction, 30-31,foreignEnglish, 65-67, languages, 27 28-29, 182177, 200 NMorganModel School School, Division 184-185 (MSD), 182-184 Classroom stability. I-3, 5-11and (See curriculumculture also of teaching, reform,Teacher-centered 2 10. 243-245 instruction) grammar,geography,arithmetic, 23 23,22-23 197 200 science,math,history,grammar, 29, 30, 27-28, 29182. 61 197, 30, 225,182. 227225-227 NewNeill, YorkSchoolEducation, A.S., City Sumtnerhill, (North classroom 31-32, Dakota), 36, 149 practice: 54 154-157 andpurposepossibleframework reform forexplanation forefforts,study study of, 5-6 of, 5of, 3 9-11, 65. 240-257 English primary school,socialscience,history, the, studies,149-150, 17, 198 23 197-198 152 Hobson v. Hansen, 178-179social studies, 182, 197-198, 227 New York City school reformthe1965-19741920-1940 Activity Program, (figures 55-60,4.12.1 && 4.2),2.2), 64 170,63 175 Classroom talkstructure, (see Teacher-student 9-10,sources 242-243 for (See studytalk time)also of, 7-8Classroom) FEvaluation,Ettinger, William, of teachers, 46 53-54 InnovationInformal pedagogyeducation, Team, 183-184 (see 10, 147-151,Progressivism) 183, 193- 199. 241 (See also Progressivism) curriculum,classroomclass1965-1975, size. 50design, 50-51 161-178 48-50 Competency-basedClassroom teachingworking (seeconditions,curriculum Classroom (CBC),48-49 practice) 180, 188, 189 FecklessFinkelstein'sFinkelstein, implementation, Barbara, study, 19-21 19 of reform, II, 245- 246 Instruction,Inspection, elementary54high school school (sec High (see school Elementaryschool instruction) teachingteachertheopen reformers, classroom, evaluation, regulations, 46-48 162-170 53-54 52-53 CrisisCookContractContact Countyin time,theleaching, Classroom Normal65-66, 60 248School, (Silberman), 33 149, 164 Four-TrackFormsFischer, of David, Instructional System, 8 178-179, Grouping 181 (table 6.6), 229 Instruction, teacherstudent-centered centered (see(see Teacher-Student- centeredinstruction) instruction) Newlon,New York Jesse, City schools 69-72 1965-1975,1920 - 1940,45 160-161 -50 CultureCubberlcy,Curriculum of teaching, Ellwood, 10,23, 243-24543high school, 25, 71-72 Frank,Frequency Mira Scott, in use, 67-69 selected techniques (table 6.3), 227 IntegratedInstructional study, grouping 33 patterns (figure 3.3), 130centered instruction) ObjectObedience,0 teaching, student 23, (see 31-32 Student obedience) Curriculum reform, 50-51,stability301progressive 72-77 of. 2 school (illus.), 35 GeneralGhettoG Education, School (Levy), 81-82 167 Irwin,InterpreterIntellectual Elizabeth, overseer,of culture, 46-47 the, the, 19 19 One-Room school teachers in Michigan, 115Kellogg-funded activities (table 3.1), 114- 302 291 Open290 classroom, 149-150,the 152-153 New School (North Dakota), 154-157 / Index in ruralprivate schools, schools, 113-121 41-43 135 rural,Washington. 125-126 D.C., 96, 97 andobservable socieconomic measures norms, of, 3 9 Index / Open education (see Openinthe NewWashington, spread classroom) York of, City 157-160, D.C. schools. schools, 193-196 162-170 183-190 Public schoolsEducation (See Association alsorural,in Classroom)Washington, 18-19, (PEA), 112-119, 45-46D.C. schools 124Washington, (see D.C. school reform) Student enrollment, 18-19, 251965-1975 Washington,NewGrand York Forks City, andD.C., 170, Fargo, 187, 175 192159 1920-1940, 130-131Washington,rural,NewDenver, York 125-126 City, 78-83 D.C., 61, 96,63 97 OrganizationalOrganicOpenO'Shea, space, Act, William, 185-186. the, structure, 84 47-48,188-190 of school 51, 53-54 and classroom, 9-10, 242-243 Questions,Q teacher-to-student,urban, 18, 28-29 24 Student movement, 19,GrandDenver 62,!-L...w 131, Forks classrooms, 132York and City Fargo 79classrooms, classrooms, 63, 170,159 175 1965-1975 Washington,NewGrand York Forks City, D.C.,and 170, Fargo, 187, 175 192159 POswego State Normal and Training School, 23,32 RecitationRating,R of teacher performance, 54 Student movement patternsruralWashington, classrooms,(figure 3.5), D.C. 125131 classrooms,192 96, 97, 187, TeacherTeacher-designed educationdecision, 252, syllabus,(See 258 also 72-75 Culture (See of also Curriculum) PassingParker.PatternsPassow Francis,of the Study,of instructionRecitation 32-33 the, 181-182 (figures)(Thayer), 23, 32, 133 Rcconstructionists, 43 atsocialized, turn1920-1940, of century, 61, 13260, 132-13319, 21-23, 26, 27, 29, 30 StudentStudent talkparticipation, obedience, time, 29, 6219,29, (See 2261-63, also 79 Student- (See also Student-centered instruction) Teacher effectiveness, 266-267and improvingclassroom (See also practice,performance, 6Teaching) 263-264 GrandHighDenver Forks School (figures and and Fargo 2.3H-B &(table Wood221 2.4), 4.1), 79lawn 159 (table 6.2), RulesRice,ReportReform, Joseph,for cards, of teaching, classroom 5222, 36 52-53 (see Classroom reform) GrandNewDenver Forks York classrooms, and City Fargo classrooms, 79 classrooms,centered 63, instruction) 170, 159 175 Teacher playingperformance,evaluation, student, 53-54 improvement 230-231 of, 263-268Teacher performance) ruralNew York(figures City 3.1 & 3.2),highelementary 125 school (figures (figures 2.1 2.2 & & 4.1), 4.2), 63, 63, 170 175 RuralRural classroom Michigan practice(see classroom, Public (figure school, 112-117 3.1 rural)& 3.2), 125 Student unfonoity, 19,Washington,rural 30 classrooms, D.C. 125 classrooms,192 96, 97, 187, Teacher salaries,questioning,talk time, at 28-30, turn 28-29 of 62 century, (See also 27 Teacher-centered instruction) Patterns of teaching (1820-1880),Washington, 19. D.C. 21 (Seehighelementary school (figure (figure 4.3), 4.4), 187 192 SRural school reform,(see Public 113-121, school, 135 rural) Shanker,Segregation,SummerhillStudy of SchoolingAlbert, (Neill), 86-87, I. 164 149(Good 102, 122-123 land, John), 228-230 ruralNewGrandDenver classrooms,York Forks classrooms, City and classrooms, Fargo125 79 classrooms, 63, 170, 159 175 Patterns of teaching dimensions (table 2.1), 62 also Classroom practice) School (See also Public schools)metaphor for, 7 Smith,Sheldon, Payson. Edward, 51 31 Washington, D.C. classrooms,192 96, 97, 187, 1 PercentagePedagogical of reformers time, selected (1920-1940), activities 43-44, (table 46-48 SchoolsSchool structure,of Tomorrow 9-10, (Dewey),as 242-243 astructure social 36- control -37 of, 9-10, and 242-243 sorting, 9, 240-241 Sources,SocialSnyder, reformers,control, C.B.J., for study and49 43 of the classroom school, 9, stability. 240-241 7-8 TeachersTeacher uniformity,turnover, in inNew New Yorkat Yorkturn City, ofCity, century, 18-21, 23-25 I PrivatePestalozzi,Perrone, schools, Vito, 23, 154-15531 progressivism in, 41-43 6.5), 229 Silberman,Scribner,Scott.Scientific Hugh, Harvey,pedagogy, Charles, 179-180 164-165 149-15336 Stephens,SteeleStability,Spaulding, High of J.M., Frank, teachingSchool, 7 23, Dayton,(see 43 Classroom Ohio, 26-28 stability) Teaching,Teaching (see a subject Classroom (see Elementary-high practice)1920-1940, 67, 72, 92,school 114 instruction) ProgressiveProgressivism,Progressive pedagogy teachingschools 4, 7, (see (see practices Progressivism) Alternative (see schools)Progressivism) 10, 31-37, 413, 135-138, Student-centeredStudentStoddard, behavior, Alexander, instruction,19, 6922and classroom3-5, 7, 62, structure,200 10, 243 SyllabusSupervision,Stevens, Romictt,(see ofCurriculum) teachers. 28 53-54 Teaching tradition,practicemethodsregulations, (see (seethe, 52-53 ClassroomClassroom10 (See also practice)practice) Teacher in DenverArlington, schools Virginia (see 241 schools.Denverreform) school217-218 andobservable reformsocioeconomicteachers, measuresimplementation, 254-256 norms, of, 3-4 9, 245-246 240-241 Teacher authorityactivities (see(table Teacher-centered 3.2), 116 instruction) Texthook-teaching'testing, 51-52, 67, 249turn of century, 22, 24education) in Newthe 1960s,1970s, York City149-152152-165, schools 199City (see schoolNcw York reform) 363 at turn1920-1940, of century, 130-132 31, 38NcwDenver, York 78-83 City, 61. 63 Teacher-centeredTeacher autonomy, instruction, 251-253,and classroom 25830, 31, 37,structure, 38, 10,55, 24362, 200, 225, 228-230, 238-240 TitreThayer, Ikeld, Vivian, A.L., The 69-70, Passing 721920- of the 1940,60,Recitation, 12023, 32, 133 3u4 Uniformity,U292 in instruction, 1, 21 / Index Washington, D.C. school reform, 93-96, 178-1965-1975 (figures 4.3 & 4.4), 187, 192 UseUrban of schoolclassroomprojects/centers (see (see Public Public in school,elementary school, urban) urban) classrooms (figure 3.6), 131 curriculum,CentralDuribarBallou, High Frank,High91 School, School, 83-86 97-99 99-101193 VermontVWashington, Design D.C.for Education classroom (Scribner).1920-1940 practice 164 (figures 2.5 & 2.6), 96, 97 Washington, D.C. schoolsopenModel classroom,1965-1975,1920-1940, School 183-190 Division, 178-18286-90 182-184

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