EDUCATION IN CERAMIC ART

IN THE UNITED STATES

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University

DOROTHY WILSON PERKINS, B. F. A., M. A

MHH*«

The Ohio State University

1956

Approved byt

School of Fine and Applied Arta TUBUS OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAOE « INTRODUCTION...... 1

PART It DEVELOPMENTS PRIOR TO 1900

1. EARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN MANUAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND ART EDUCATION...... U

2. NINETEENTH CENTURY DEVELOPMENTS IN CINCINNATI, . . 31

3. NINETEENTH CENTURY DEVELOPMENTS IN NEW ORLEANS • . 50

L. NINETEENTH CENTURY LITERATURE PERTAINING TO CERAMIC A R T ...... £6

PART II. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FORMAL EDUCATION IN CERAMIC AlF?

9. CHARLES FERGUS BINNS...... 82

6. LITERATURE OF THE POPULAR PRESS PERTAINING TO , CERAMIC ART, 1900 - 1 9 2 5 ...... 120

7. THE AMERICAN CERAMIC SOCIETY...... 130

8. ADELAIDE ALSOP ROBINEAU AND THE CERAMIC NATIONALS. 176

9. ARTHUR EUGENE BAQG3...... 139

10. DEVELOPMENTS AT NON-COLLEGE LEVELS...... 220

PART IIIi SURVEY

11. EDUCATION IN CERAMIC ART AT THE COLLEGE LEVEL - A NATIONAL SURVEY ...... 256

CONCLUSION...... 273

APPENDIXES...... 290

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 302 ii INTRODUCTION

Since that early day when some child of primitive man fashioned a crude bowl - just as he had seen his elders do - there has been continuous "ceramic education" in some degree. Kan's knowledge in this art, as in all others, passed from father to son, from master to apprentice, from teacher to student.

The present study is concerned with formal education in ceramic art, particularly at the college level, as that education has evolved in this country from the turn of the century* The term

"education in ceramic art" as used here roea: a those studies con­ cerned with the processes and products of earthy media nade permanent by fire and concerned with design as well. Courses of study offered in this aria are given such titles as "ceramic art,"

"ceramics," "pottery," and "clay work."

This investigation is not concerned with teaching methods or specific course content as these apply to education in ceramic art.

The artist and education, per se, are also matters outside the content of the work. It is concerned, rather, with a particular phase of education, "art," and the inception and growth of a particular phase of that education, "ceramic art." It is limited to the United States.

Three questions are proposed as a means of increasing under­ standing of the subject matter under consideration. They aret 1 2

(1) Hem has education in ceramic art at the college level achieved its present position?} (2) fthat is the present position?} and (3) ft hat future position may be anticipated?

The first question has prompted an investigation of the institutions and individuals who have contributed to the establish ment and growth of ceramic art as a field of formal study. The term, institutions, is used broadly. It refers to established elements within our culture* e.g., education, the press, and the oz'gar ization of individuals for common ends. The Investigation undertaken as a response to the first question hns resulted in an historical survey covering the last part of the nineteenth century and the twentieth century to the present. Chapters One through

Ten present this material, recognizing those "institutions and individuals" previously noted.

The second query - fthat is the present position of education in ceramic art at the college level? - prompted the statistical survey which is set forth in Chapter Eleven. The results of this survey provide a partial view of the present position. It is considered further in the Conclusion.

The third query - fthat future position may be anticipated for education in ceramic art at the college level? - also receives consideration in the Conclusion.

The present study brings together for the first time a number of factors pertinent to the inception and growth of education in 3 ceramic art. The full subject has not received, to the author's knowledge, either puclishod or unpublished written consideration.

It may be said, In fact, that the development of education in ceramic art has been so rapid - almost hastily engendered and fostered - and so recent that those caught up in its growth have had little time for the gathering of historical data or reflection upon that data.

The large body of historical material presented in Chapters

One through Ten may appear to include some extraneous matter. If such should be the case, there is a reason for its inclusion. It is hoped that this study will serve - singly or together with those which others may undertake - as a basis for furthering under*- standirg of education in ceramic art. It is toward further study and understanding that the present work assumes broad proportions. PART I

DEVELOPMENTS PRIOR TO 1900

#**

Chapter 1

EARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN MANUALf INDUSTRIAL AND ART EDUCATION

Formal education in ceramic art in this country did not, of course, spring suddenly into full bloom in 1900, A variety of grounds gave rise to the emergence of this particular field of study. One of the grounds was that of education, both general and specific, classical and technical. The progession of changing concepts in education - a progression from concepts favoring intellectual development to those favoring practical activities — has been readily apparent in the United States. Despite the fact that education here has shifted the emphasis from the classical education of a few to the practical education of the many, however, the very seeds of the shifting emphasis were sown in Europe.

It may be said that education in ceramic art, combining as it does manual and technical education with education in design, is particularly indicative of a culmination of educational concerns.

Education, in general, has dealt successively with these three areas, seeking to offer studies adequate to the economic, social, and psychological needs of the citizenry. 5

Although there have been many period* throughout man's history when intellectual pursuit* have been placed in esteem, high above manual pursuits, there appears to have been but. little concern over the possibility that such an elevation could have any but beneficial effect. It is to John Locke, the English seventeenth century philosopher, that recognition is owed as the first to set forth a need for some degree of manual exercise. His Some Thoughts Concerning

Education, published in 1693, recommended some manual training fcr the sons of the well-to-do, even some drawing if the gentlemen did not object too atrongly. Ideally, the training was to have some therapeutic value and a social value achieved by instilling in the student respect for labor and those who labor.

The French philosopher, Jean Jacques Rousseau, in the eighteenth century forwarded the advocacy of manual training in

Emile, published in 1762. The work was concerned with the education of fcialle, to be conducted **in the field," as it were, as much as possible. Thus some knowledge of the manual arts was to be gained

through study with a workman in his shop — not in the classroom -

through doing, not talking.

Whereas Rousseau's student was to learn in the shop, Johann

Bernhard Basedow related the manual arts more closely to the

classroom. Basedow continued the line of the "Sense Realists" who stressed the importance of physical as well as mental activity.

Each child was taught a handcraft for educational and social reasons. Johann Heinrich Pestaloszi, whose work cowered the last quarter of the eighteenth century and the first quarter of the nineteenth, carried out wore fully than Basedow the theories of sense impressionism in learning. Another Swiss, Phillip Emanuel von Fellenberg, was for a time associated with Pestaloszi. Whereas

Pestalozzi was motivated largely by hi.8 heart, his love for children, and his concern for the poor, von Fellenberg was much more the business man* He established a type of farm-school which combined elementary education, farming, and trade practices. His school was extremely popular for a time and entertained many visitors from various European countries as well as from the United States.

It may be said that his school contained the germ of the idea which later resulted in colleges of agricultural and mechanical arts as they developed in this country.

Friedrich Froebel, in the first half of the nineteenth century, was particularly concerned with the education of small children, but his theoriec concerning their education - by "doing" - carried over into work with older children as well. TWo of Froebel1s im ovations were his "gifts" and "occupations." The former consisted of material objects with which the child could carry out the con­ structive play of arranging! the latter provided certain materials which could be transformed in creative activity. One of the materials Froebel favored was clay, which could be readily manipulated.

F. Froebel, Education of Man, p. 281*. 7

Robert Owen, e cotton Bill proprietor in Scotland, ex- tablished a school for the poor children of New Lanark! it was a philanthropic enterprise. Ur. Owen came to the United State* in 182$, where he established a school at New Harmony, Indiana.

The school was as nerrly self-sufficient as possible, children from the ages of two and three upward practicing various trades to sustain themselves and the school. A visitor commented that children from the ages of five to twelve worked in a "...pottery, 2 (which had) two rather large furnaces."

Many of the earliest "schools" were established, both abroad and in the United States, for children of the poor. Although

these frequently started as Institutions for the "saving of the souls" of the children, it soon became evident that even the best- saved souls needed to learn trades. Ihus the Ragged Schools of

Ihgland and Scotland were among the earliest "vocational" schools.

In this country the earliest industrial schools, such as Girard

College in Philadelphia, were founded for orphans and children of the poor. After the Civil War, trade schools for Negroes were opened, Hampton Institute in 1867* General education was not the principal aim of such schools, but various trades were taught, often trades needed for the very construction of the schools. At

Hampton, for instance, .•brickmaking was started in 1 8 6 9 .

2------Duke of Saxe, cited by C. A. Bennett, History of Manual and Industrial Education to 1 7 0 . p. 178.

^ C. A. Bennett, History of Manual and Industrial Education to 1 8 /0 , p. 214$. 0 The schools which havo been mentioned thus far had their beginning primarily in missionary or philanthropic undertakings, and represent but one of the influences which have come to fashion

our education system as it is known today. A school of a second

type was known as the Mechanics' Institute or Workingmen's College.

Theoe first emerged in hnglar,d, and represented a form of education

for workers. The Mechanics' Institute offered additional technical

knowledge for the workers, while the Ytorkingmen's College was more

concerned with education In general and with social justice in

particular. John Huskin served as the j irst drawing teacher in

the College.^ In the nlted States the Franklin Institute, established

in 1821*, was representative of schools of this type. It offered

technical lectures to workingmen as well as schooling for their young children. Hhen It was discovered that the men were unable to

understand the content of the lectures, "hif-her" classes were

offered i these became the forerunner of our present-day high

school. Tr.ia Institute also published a Journal from 1826, in which was to be found such technical articles as were then pub­

lished, including some in the field of ceramics.

A third t>pe school which contributed to the formation of our

present system of formal education was that on the college level.

While rianuol training placed no part in the earlier colleges of

thir country, there was a movement, in the second quarter of the

T ------' Ibid., p. 31u. 9 nineteenth century, to introduce it into some. Since a number of the institutions of higher learning of that period were theological seminaries - seldom strong financially - shops or farms were some­ times maintained. Students were enabled to pay for part of their schooling and the work was considered to be of therapeutic value as well* The movement failed because the financial returns from the student 1 work were small, +he work was too time consuming, and the experience afforded the individual student was so limited as to be of little value in an educational sense*

It was also during the second quarter of the nineteenth century that some of th* early colleges aid universities intro­ duced education by doing, as opposed to the traditional lecture- type instruction* Civil engineers had heretofore had to go to

France for study. It was not until after the Civil INar that mechanics} engineering was introduced at the college level in this country* One reason for the apparent delay in establishing education of this nature was England's prohibition, before the

Revolution, of manufacturing in the colonies* Even after the

United States had become » manufacturing nation, there was constant friction between the educators and various workingmen1s organi­ zations* the latter feared that the schools would break down the apprentice system. This was a problem at all levrlB of e location.

Art academies represent a fourth educational t; pe w^ich has helped to mold the present-day educational system. The society 10 for the Encouragement of Arts Manufactures and Commerce (known as the Royal Society of Arts) was founded in England In 1751. lhis society "•••sought to produce superior taste among the people."'*

The Royal Academy was founded in 1768, Its interests were solely in the Fine Arts. The differences in alms expressed by the two organizations have not, to this da\, been fully overcome.

The early art academies of the United states were located in Jrhiladelohia, New ^ork, Boston, Charlestown, Chicago, Cin­ cinnati, and at Yale University. They were principally schools of drawing and painting. Two-dimensional plates and three-dimensional casts were utilized as subject-matter, and the hirh cost of im­ porting these, as well as the actual materials such as paper, paint and brushes, was a pressing problem, shy the academies clung so tenaciously to the procedures of Europe and which aoadeny first broke from the pattern would be an interesting line of inquiry, although it is aside from the present subject.

Shortly after the Civil Aar a divergence of opinion as to what constituted art education and what did not took place. There had been some drawing, principally free-hand, offered, even in the public schools, before 1370. Cubberley, commenting uoon the

German method of instruction which was followed, has written!

^ Ibid.. p. 383. 11

...for a generation (after i860) the teaching of these newer subjects (writing, drawing and music) was formal, mechanical, lifeless and largely in­ effective because of the attempt to present the sub­ jects logically to children, and to analyse each subject into its elements. ... In drawing, year after year was spent in studying form, with sclentifio Instruction as to angles and geometric figures and perspective, but without reaching color and ex­ pression.

While such a criticism of art training may have had its proponents in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, a much more usual criticism concerned the impracticability of such art education as was given. The period from i860 to 1900 is often referred to as the Second Industrial Revolution in the United States.

It was during this period that the manufacturing potentialities of the country began to unfold.

The state of Massachusetts, whose wealth had grown through colonial times and down through the era of the clipper ships, was the first to invest its capital in manufacturing. It was first, as well, to reoognise the need for "art" as it applied to both products and workers. That the concept of art as something which could oe so applied arose must oe placed at England's shores.

Oearge Ward Nichols, writing in lc77, said*

E. Cubberley, Public Education in the United otates, pp. 307-8. 12

Of all the effort* at art education in Europe, that of Graat E H tain haa baen moat deliberately plannad, and moat energetically and persistently put into practice In tha inatruotion of a large num­ ber of tha people. In England there la a aaparata bureau of the Government devoted to Art and Soienoe Education. Thla thorough organisation for art edu­ cation originated in the desire of the merchant* and state man of England to advanoe the commerce of that nation, in the production of objects of art, from its condition of inferiority to that of France and Germany. The English people did not seem to realize the superiority of the nations on the Con­ tinent, and especially of France, until the great exposition of 1851* ... None of the great achievements of England have been more surprising than the work she haa done within twenty years _ past in the application of art to her industries.'

Indeed, England felt that she was superior only to the United

States in her showing in 1851. Schools of Art were forthwith established, and at the Paris Exhibition of 1867, England was accorded a foremost position, considered to have out-distanced the most artistic nations in some branches of manufacture. The United

States, however, continued her "foot of the class'* standing.

England's advance, once art had been brought to Industry, naturally stirred the states, as well as manufacturers here, to take similar action as a means of increasing the value and prestige of their productions. Massachusetts passed the following act in 1870 as its first step in realising the wedding of art and industry 1

Chapter 2U8, Acts of 1870

Section 1. The first section of Chapter 38 of the General Statutes is hereby amended so as to include Drawing among the branches of learning w--- ;— — ' G. A. Nichols, Art Education Applied to Industry, p. 65. 13

which are by said section required to be taught in the public achoola.

Section 2. Any city or town may, and every city and town having wore than ten thousand inhabitants shall, annually wake provision far giving free instruction in industrial or mechanical drawing to peraona over fifteen years of age, either in day or evening schools, under the direction of the school committee.

Section 3. This Act shall take effect upon its passage.n

Under this law Walter Smith, formerly a master at the Kensington

Art School in England, was engaped as State Director of Art Education

and Professor of Art Education in the City of Boston Normal School

of Art. Mr. Smith said of the lawt

Two words...require to be added to itj and I hope will be added at soma future tlmei the words 1 and modelling' after the words 'industrial drawing'; and then it would embrace practice in industrial art such as is most required by carvers, modellers, plasterers, chasers, and moulders, and all who work with solid materials.^

Smith's book, Art Education, was published in 1872. It

was at once a plea for practical rather than theoretical education,

for art education of an industrial nature, a survey of systems

employed In England and on the Continent, and, withal, an en­

lightening, philosophical work. Although oraith was English, he made every effort to understand the particular problems of this ------H Mi. Smith, Art Education, p. 12.

9 Ibid. Ill country. If he occasionally lapsed Into a rather romantic notion of the dif: erenee between "cultural art" and "industrial art," he was at least such nore broad-minded and farsighted than many of his conteaporaries.

One of Mr. Smith1 a purposes in writing was to Justify what many citizens must have questioned - the worth of the expenditure of public funds upon such "nonsense." He therefore attempted to show the practicality of the move, as the three quotations following indicatet

If any apology were required why the State of Massachusetts is expending some few thousand dollars a year in fostering art education, it would be found in a statement, that the leading manufacturers and merchants in the State had petitioned it to move in the matter, and that, in answer to inquiries made of practical men to discover whether drawing was of any use, every respondent said, "Yes."10

The kind of drawing which the State of Massa­ chusetts requires that its citizens shall have an opportunity of studying, Is called 1 industrial drawl­ ing1 j and wisely so called, for in that lies a just­ ification of its public action in the matters.11

This much may be said of the commercial value of art education nationally, that it both increases the estimation of ancient works, and the quality of contemporary productions} whilst individuals who become proficient in art become simultaneously.... Valuable persons1 both to themselves and s o c i e t y . 12

1 0 I b i d .. p. lli.

11 Ibid., p. l li.

12 Ibid., p. U2 15

It is to be noted that the Massachusetts law did not apply to the teaching of drawing in the grammar grades, specifying ss students those fifteCh and older. The instruction was Intended to reach man and boys already at work in industry, sho could perform their Jobs more efficiently If they were able to make or read working drawings.

The establishment, by law, of classes for such training necessitated the training of teachers for the classes and this was undertaken at the Boston Normal School of Art.

Mr. Smith realized, too, a need for teachers of art in general and of schools which could "give art culture of the highest order to painters, sculptors and architects*"^3 He stated that an art school should have teachers for each subject* free-hand drawing, mechanical and architectural drawing, modeling, casting, ship draughting, wood-engraving and porcelain-painting.

It was his opinion that the existing schools of art, such as

Cooper Institute School of Design for Women, the Philadelphia

School of Design lor Aomen, and The National Academy of Design in

New York were failing in their purpose. The studies they offered were not graded in any way; hence, there was no progresulon in the work. He gave credit, on the other hand, to the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology, the Worcester Free Technical Institute, and the Lowell Free Drawing School. Diese offered courses mare closely resembling those of England, courses of a mare industrial nature.

^Ibld., p. 20. 16

The survey of European schools and methods set forth by lb**

Smith Indicates that the students were frequently apprentices, in those lines of labor in whioh "art" wae important, whose masters were required by law to send them for training. Ur. omith felt that the highly systematized methods of study were most advanta­ geous, but believed that courses better than those of either England or Prance oould be devised here. His comments on the German system are particularly significant, if German educational developments of the present century, prior to the Second World War are con­ sidered! « The (Gersan) schools are particularly successful in the scientific branches of art education, plane and solid geometry, perspective and projection; and this study is pursued to the extent of making models to Illustrate problems worked on paper. ... The good manifestly resulting from such a thorough analysis of form as must arise from this study, both in the solid and on a plane surface, would point this out as a feature to be adopted in American schools of the future. Given the power of drawing an object, the student would make it batter than if he could not draw it; and, given the exercise of making it, he ought to knew it better, and draw it more truly, than if his acquaintance with the subject was in making it only.lb

The direction of the education with which Mr. Smith was con­ cerned - namely, industrial drawing training for workmen - should be re-emphasized here. While he stressed the importance of such education in the public schools as well, his views in this matter

^ Ibid., p. 139. 17 were not widely acceptable prior to the Philadelphia Centennial of 1876.

This exhibition, celebrating the first hundred years of the existence of the United States, provided an unusual opportunity for the nation to evaluate her progress. The eomnent of George

Ward Nichols is representative of the opinions expressed about the country's statusi

Ihe exposition showed our physical resources in all their power; but it also exhibited our in­ feriority in ihe fine arts and the art industries. Nevertheless, taking into consideration the facts of our history, there was reason for gratification at the representation of the art of painting.... Ihe United States suffers most, by comparison with foreign countries, in those industries of which art forms a pert. It is said that the production of articles of taste follows the demandj but for many years millions of dollars* worth of art objects have been imported. ... There wore, however, ... many evidences of artistic faculty, and. in some departments, of great excellence in design and workmanship.^5

Mr. Nichols' principal thesis was that art, which had been the privilege of the few, must become the opportunity of all. The only answer to the elevation of taste for the masses, to the production of more artistic articles, rested with education at various levels, the most important, ultimately, being the public schools. The best and "proper" beginning for broad art education must rest in drawing, and that drawing must be "properly" taught.

Mr. Smith's work in Massachusetts was cited as the most successful ------TT------G. k*. Nichols, og. olt., p. 159. so far Initiated In the nation. A program which would more fully cower the necessary instruction* as planned by Ur. Nichols* would start with a study of geometrical figures* projection, perspective* the drawing of natural objects* the elementary harmony of colors* relief* and lights and shadows. Hia plan for more advanced wcrk was as follows*

Thus possessing all the elements which consti­ tute the true principles of design* (the student) wi]1 pass to the study of drawing after casts, of fragmei ts of architecture* and ornaments taken from the most beautiful monuments of antiquity* of the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance; then from frag­ ments of heads* busts* and torsos taken from the chef-d1oeuvres of the history of art... The studies in modeling will also be continued by copying in clay from plaster models of fruit and animals* and* later* fragments of architecture, the head* torso* and the entire human figure.

This comprehensive course, suitable for professional or industrial art school* was then adapted by Mr. Nichols for primary, inter­ mediate and high schools* The only exception was the "course in modeling, which is not practicable by reason of the material necessary to be used in the process of instruction. The use of clay and the tools of modeling require the convenience of an atelier."^

Mr. Nichols* plea for drawing in the public schools, as the basis of technical and industrial education for the masses* was 19 buttressed by his disparagement of the art offered in private schools and in institutions of higher learning. The former* he averred* provided no systematic Instruction and the students there­ fore learned no principles of design* As for higher education*

660 institutions were enumerated* by types* and less than a dosen were cited as offering art training of any importi Harvard, .

Cornell* Yale* Vassar* the College of Notre Dame* and the uni- 1 fl versities of Michigan, Cincinnati and Hocheater. If the four classes of citizens who' needed art training - capitalists* master- warkmen, workman* and children - were to receive it, Ur* Nichols wrote^

eld sting art courses would have to be changed and such courses must be introduced where they did not exist* In addition* museums must be constructed and opened to the public. Exhibitions must be held - not only of ancient works of art, but of all those products in­

cluding "art" as part of their manufacture.

Writings such as those of ^mith and Nichols can not have

failed to attract attention. It is likely that educators in the

public schools* many of whom had seen needs arising for both art

and manual training for all* were provided with some Impetus*

following early resentment for having been criticized, toward

improvements in those offerings.

The experience of Professor Calvin Woodward* who taught

mathematics and applied mechanics in the Polytechnic bchool of " " I B ' " Ibid., p. 12U. 20

Washington University in St. Louis in the early 1870’s, serves further to point out the need existing for training in the manual arts. «her, some of Woodward's students were unable to visualize forms in applied mathematics, the Professor arranged with a car­ penter for them to make some three-dimensional models. Then it was discovered that the boys were as unable to handle tools as they were to visualize form. Hie Professor had not foreseen this possibility! he had known how to use the oommon hand-tools from ohildhood, and expected the boys could, too. Times had changed!

The rapid urbanisation of this country was reflected in this as in various aspects of education, shat had once been learned in the home had now, in some way, to be learned in the school. Professor

Woodward devised a series of exercises, although he had no pre­ cedent to follow.

Thus it was - to return again to the Centennial - that the displays of the Russian system of training in the mechanical arts and industrial drawing were seized upon as offering the solution needed for a pressing problem In education. The hussian system actually had its foundation in 1830, although from that, time until i860 instruction was offered in State shops which carried out commercial orders only. The students learned as apprentices - by imitating the employed workmen. In 1868 this system was changed, ihe institution became the Imperial Technical School and a system of planned instruction was instigated. The school was elaborately equipped with varicus shops, in each of which every student had his own work bench and tools* Mechanical drawing was required, so that the student could either make a working drawing from an object or make an object from a drawing. Ihe objects which were produced were not, in themselves, useful! e.g., one of the elementary problems was nothing more than a small piece of wood squared and beveled, while a later one involved the dovetail-Jointing of two small pieces of wood. The fact that the problems were carefully graded, however, and that they offered an opportunity for training in manual dexterity, led to their rapid adoption here. Mr. Bennett commented! "A direct result of its presentation in Philadelphia was the opening of the School of Mechanic Arts in connection with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the adoption of the principles by the ot. Louis Manual Training School of Washington

University.

One reason for the rapid assimilation of the Russian system here was the fact that in the United States, as in Russia, earlier attempts in trade education had resulted in criticism from workingmen's organizations, who feared the dissolution of the apprentice-system. Also, the educators had seen no way to instriet in the skills of trades without equipping and running small shops, on a commercial basis, to provide boys with experience. Such an enterprise existed at the Worcester Technical Institute as early as 1865, where a machine shop offered some combination of theory

1 5 ------C. A. Bennett, History of Manual and Industrial Education, 1870 to 1917, p. L6. 22 20 and practice*

The opposition of workers ar,d industry continued even after the adoption of the Russian system and until the educators made it clear that the schools were not teaching trades as such, but trade skills and that the articles made were to be of no commercial value or to be sold. Opposition on the part of the tax­ payers who supported the public schools was, in time, dissipated by the schools' claim that the shops were needed, could not sustain themselves financially, and thus deserved the same support

that science laboratories enjoyed in the schools.

7Vro aspects of the Russian system, as it w^s adapted in the United States, mitigated against its retention, although its influence continues to be felt even today. One aspect was the rigidity of the system, the other the abstract character of the work, which divorced processes from valued products. Two early critics of the system were 0. Stanley Hall and Colonel Francis

Parker.

Dr. Hall, a pioneer in the scientific study of educational problems, organized, in 188U, a Department of Psychology at Johns

Hopkins niversity. "He emphasized in all his studies the mental

traits and abilities of children.••founded on what he regarded as 21 a new science. He called it 'child study1." Although Hall and

------C. A. Bennett, History of Manual and Industrial Education, to 1870, p. 3U8. 21 C. H. Judd, "Education," A Century of Progress, p. 377. 23

Parker, and later, John Dewey, criticised the atiffly-regulated methods and steps of procedure being followed in manual training, the^ were not opposed to its inclusion in the educational system.

Their criticisms were, ratho*, of method and content. The Ethical

Culture School made what seems to have been one of the first moves toward a program of hand-work more suitable to children.

Ihe Ethical Culture Schorl grew out of the "Free Kindergarten and Workingman's School" founded in New fork City in 1873 by Felix

Adler, who founded, as well, the Ethical Culture Society. The school's early leadership in the manual arts indicated Adler's preoccupation with hand-work, which reflected the earlier work of

Pestalossi and Froebel.

A report from the Principal, G. Bamberger, to fclr. Adler in the early 1800's set forth the Ideals and procedures of the kinder­ garten and workingman's school. Children below the age of six attended the fermer, those above six the latter, and were referred to as "the little workmen." The school represented a first attempt to start work-instruction at such an early age. Indeed, the children were so young that they didn't have the strength to use regular wood­ working tools on wood. They were therefore given slabs of clay, probably leather-hard, which they cut into accurate squares, trued, 22 beveled, etc. It would be unfair to leave the impression that the school's substitution of clay for the less imnipulative wood

------K* ------I. t. Clarke, Art and Industry, Vol. II, p. U83* 2U was the only use made of the former material, for the school was early concerned with the creative use of materials through w M c h children could express themselves,

Felix Adler, as early as 1368, was much concerned with the

Influence of manual training on character. It is somewhat un­ fortunate that he, with many others from time to time, perpetuated the dualism w'ich separated mind and body and, hence, intellectual and physical pursjits. He advocated, in an address delivered before the National Conference of Charities and Correction in 1366, manual training for those unfortunates incapable of higher pursuits. At the same time, however, Adler did find a definite value in hand- occupations for all. He said, MAe need to have a care that our civilization shall remain planted on solid earth. There is danger lest it mAj be developed too much into air. J Adler likewise viewed manual training as necessary to those who, perhaps, would not use their hands in their future occupations. For such students, manual training was to serve as a means of establishing a respect for physical labor and as a greater means of understanding and sympathy amonp economic classes. Moral and ethical education was his almt hand-working was a means.

The fcthieal Culture venture was paralleled by, and no doubt interrelated with, the Swedish slojd system of instruction as it was adapted in the United States. It is to this movement that the

^ F. Adler, The Moral instruction of Children, p. 268. 25 root* of manual-training in this country are frequently ascribed, although the present study suggests that manual-training as it came to be known here was not the result of a single influence, Boyd's brief reference to slojd is as followst

The beginnings of this (manual-training) move­ ment are to be found in the work of Uno Cygnaeus (1810-88), a disciple of Froebel and the pioneer of education in Finland, who established manual-training in the form of 'sloyd' (domestic manual work).. The success of sloyd In Finland led to its adoption in neighboring countries. In Sweden the system was taken up with great enthusiasm as a means of miti­ gating the evils of town life and arresting the de­ cline of the old peasant industries. The training school established at Naas, in 1675, under Otto Salomon (181*9-1907) has done good service in working out the theory and practice of the subject,21*

Although the sloyd system was scarcely less rigid in its steps of instruction than the Russian system, it did take into consid­ eration three "progressive" factors* it was concerned with the formative education of children - not small adults, it placed emphasis upon individual instruction insofar as possible, and it emphasised the making of articles which were at once useful and beautiful.

The school at Naas attracted large numbers of teachers from all Europe and the United states. An anonymous "Inspector of

Schools" in this country published, in 1 8 9 6 , The Theory of

Educatlonal Sloyd* The Only Authorised Edition of The Lectures of Otto Salomon, The sub-title leads to the conclusion that some

%. Boyd, The History of Western Education, pp. 3 '3-9* 26 variance of opinion as to the correct interpretation of the Naas doctrine occurred I It is of interact to note, hov-ever, that the early concept of manual-training in this country “ woodworking - grew quite directly out of the evaluations of various crafts by

Salomon. His school investigated the appropriateness of a number of crafts and each was tested on the following points *

1. It should accord with the children's capabilities. 2. It must excite and sustain interest. 3. Objects made should be capable of belnr used by the children in the home or elsewhere. It* Give respect for rough (inferior) kinds of labor. 5. Train to habits of order and exactness. 6. allow of cleanliness and neatness. 7. Must cultivate the sense of form. 8. Must be beneficial from a hygenir point of view. 9* Allow of methodical arrangement. 25 10. Must teach children dexterity of hand.

The crafts considered weret 1 - Simple metal work, 2 - Smith's work, 3 - Basket-making, It - Straw Plaiting, 9 - Brush making,

6 - House Painting, 7 - Fretwork, 8 - Bookbinding, 9 - Cardboard

Work, 10 - Sloyd Carpentry, 11 - Turnery and 12 - Carving in Wood.

Of these, Sloyd Carpentry alone rated a "yes" on each of the ten

evaluative points. Clay modeling was shown in the list of crafts,

although it was not regarded as a form of sloyd, but "useful for 26 comparison." It did not make out well in the ratings.

The theory of Educational Sloyd, pp. 116-7.

Ibid., p. 118 . 27

Clay modeling is not regarded as a kind of bloyd from the Swedish point of view, doubtless because it does not constitute a hand era Ct* and because the objects made are for ornament and not far utility* A good deal of this work has been carried on in Italy* also some in Switzerland* Ger­ many, and France* chiefly by children 6* 7* and 8 years of age* Leaves, fruits* plants* and flowers constitute the chief objects. It cultivates the sense of touch well* but its chief value is for the development of the sense of farm* It physical development only for the fingers.

It appears that the besic criticism was not against clay Itself* but rather against modeling. Had clay been used for forming

"useful articles*" it seems that it could have passed the evaluative tests]

The sloyd system underwent only one major change in its adaptation here. In Europe students were given three-dimensional models from which to work on their problems. In the United States* due to the custom of using working drawing s in industry* older students were given drawinps rather than models so that the;, would be better fi* ted to take their places in the manufactories. The strongest influence of sloyd was manifested here when Gustaf Larsson came to Boston in 1988.^

The fact that the sloyd system did not favor the use of clay - or modeling — had not deterred it3 being utilized in some schools.

Superintendent H. «<• Compton* of Toledo* Ohio, in his Annual ------wm------Ibid., P. 12L. 28 C. A. Bennet’, History of Manual and Industrial Fxiucatinn, 1870 to lc17, p. 131. 28

Report for 1087, expressed his belief that clay modeling had a

value as a relaxing yet instructive change from "seat study." He wrotei "The students mold the sphere and divide it into parts

and name them; make the cube, cylinder, and cone and other simple

forms end l e a m from observation and thfi actual handling and

drawing of the objects concerning the nature of lines, surfaces, 29 angles and solids." Ifchile it would appear that to form such

rigid shapes in clay would be a difficult task for children, some

slight progress is being made in this investigation of the uses of

clay in education.

A "Manual Training Course" was reported on by the New

England Superintendents’ Association in 1893* It included clay

modeling among other activities for all eight grades of the

grammar schools.^ Iheirs was a recommendatlon for clay modeling*

the implementation of such study was not undertaken.

ferhaos the latest nineteenth century development which

greatly influenced manual- and art-training in schools of the

United States was the Arts and Crafts movement. lhe Arts and Crafts

Exhibition Society was founded in London in 1088, and by 1896

sponsored the Central School of Arts and Crafts in that city. lhe

school was not an apprentice—ship institution, but supplemented the

5 ?------I. £. Clarke, og. cit., p. 1310.

30 Report of the Coianisslon Appointed to Investigate the Existing Systems of Manual Training and Industrial I'ducation, pi 2 31*. 29 art training of those already engaged in the "art trades.** The movement took definite shape in this country in Boston in 1897» and was organized "for the purpose of promoting artistic work in all branches of handicraft."^ This movement served to bring into focus a dichotomy which had long existed between "art" and

"manual training." A dissolution of the dichotomy had been attempted by changing the term "manual training" to "manual art," although the semantic manipulation did little to alleviate the sometimes bitter antagonism between the "fine" and the "useful."

The difficulty was partially due to the impossibility of training shop teachezeas both artisans arid artists and the unwillingness of artists to oe artisans. It may e said that this problem has not been solved fully to the present.

The results of the Arts and Crafts movement in tbis country became more fully felt in the twentieth century, as will be seen.

It was in the field of technical and scientific education, incidentally, that the first ceramic course at college level, leading to a Bachelor's degree, found its berinnings. This course, in Ceramic Engineering, was founded at The Ohio State

University in 1395 by Edward Orton, himself a graduate of the same university in Mining Engineering. Upon graduation, Mr. Orton entered the clay industries and soon realized the need for formal ------C. A. Bennett, History of Manual and Industrial Education, 1870 to 1917, P. iUfl. 30 education In ceramics. The state of Ohio was a center of the ceramic industry and the introduction o€ technical education for the industry at the state university was highly appropriate.

In 189U, in preparation for the opening of the course of study, an effort was made to obtain all possible ceramic lit­ erature for its library. Professor Orton later saidt "There were in all about 6 0 or 70 books found, in German, 1S% in French, and the remaining 10£ in English, but nearly all discussed English ceramic practice,which differs so markedly from American practice 32 as to afford practically no assistance to our workers here."

Thus it was, in 189$, that the publication of The Chemistry of Pottery by Karl Langenbeck, a chemist at the Encaustic Tile

Company of Zanesville, Ohio, marked, along with the establishment of the course of study at The Ohio State University, the opening of a new field of formal study. One of the nineteenth century's

"art industries" was to receive detailed and explicit consideration in the field of higher education. • ------E. Orton, Jr., "The Beginnings of Ceramic Education in the United States," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, IV (March, 192$), p. 93.

1 Chapter 2

NINETEENTH CENTURY DEVELOPMENTS IN CINCINNATI

Important as developments In general and technical education

of the nineteenth century were, there were other factors which

influenced the establishment of formal study in ceramic art.

One such factor was that of sheer interest in the art, followed

by the desire to understand something of it* Cincinnati was a

center of such interest in the last century.

The early prominence of the city in the production of

"artistic** ceramic wares was the result of a number of culminating

interests! the existing School of Design; the Philadelphia

Centennial of 1076; the Arts and Crafts movement; existing potteries,

producing the humblest of household wares; and a growing importance

of Women's Clubs. These factors were related so intimately that

it is difficult to place them in any "proper** order - whether as

to importance or as to chronology.

The School of Desipn, established in 1969, should perhaps

be mentioned first since it was there, in 187L, that the Annual

Student Exhibition contained "...several pieces of china painting

that one of the pupils had executed at home."^ Where the student

M. L. McLaughlin, "Her Own Story," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XVII (May, 1930), p» 21H* 31 32 learned china painting is not clear, although two ohlna painters are known to have been * or ki nr and teaching in Cincinnati at the tine. ^>te pieces interested other students and they requested Ur*

Ben Pitauui, an Instructor of the Sohool of Design, to aid them in learning the art. Mr* Pitman, who oust have been a most under­ standing and generous teacher, procured the necessary materials from

Eastern plants, and, during the "...summer of l37li. •• started a class of ladies, who had had some practice in water-color, in china painting. The specialty of china painting was not Included in the curriculum of the School of Design, ...(but).•.Ur. Pitman...Invited the ladies to meet at his office for Instruction and engaged Miss

Eggers as teacher."

The interest stirred up by the ware decorated in this early class oust have been of major proportions. In May, 1875, it was shown in some quantity at an auction sponsored by the Cincinnati

Committee for the approaching Philadelphia Exposition. The auction was held for the purpose of raising funds to support the

Cincinnati showing at Philadelphia, which included some exanples of the ladies1 china painting efforts.^ The Misses Mary Louise

McLaughlin, Clara Newton, Laura Fry, and Alice Holabird were re­ presented at the Centennial.

2' Mrs. Aaron F. Perry, "Decorative Pottery in Cincinnati," Harper*s, LXII (May, 1881), p. 33U.

3 Ibid. 33

Influences of the Centennial were felt in the United States in the fields of education, industry, and art - separately and inter­ dependent^* Insofar as its influence extended to ceramic art, taro residents of Cincinnati were particularly impressed* One was Mary

Louise McLaughlin, the other Mrs. Maria Longworth Butler* Miss

McLaughlin was impressed by the Limoges faience, which was being shown for the first time, and Mrs. Butler by the Japanese ceramics.

Both ladies were familiar with over-glaze decoration, both were eager to press beyond the known technique* and both - fortunately - had the financial means which permitted them to forward their ideas.

Mazy Louise McLaughlin was born in 18L8, and was thus twenty- eight when the Haviland ware presented her its challenge in 1376* bhe had been challenged previously, however, far she had developed many abilities - wood-carving, china painting, leather- and mutal- wcrking, music - and was well-educated in languages, literature, and history, ohe was not, probably, much different in these abilities than many a young lady of her age and economic status in that

Centennial year. It was she, however, who, inspired by the underglaze decoration of the Haviland*s Limope, wondered if she could not do something like it. Mary Louise knew the decoration was under the glaze, but she also knew from her own experience that when underglazes (or "mineral colors," as then called) were painted on bisque and covered with a clear glaze the fired colors were either washed-out or ran with the glaze, so that the design was lost,

Vthile awaiting the arrival of new colors, for which she had sent 3U to France, Miss McLaughlin continued with overglaze work and wrote her first manual on the subject.

In September, 1877, a visit to the pottery of Patrick Coultry brought to Mias McLaughlin’s attention the slip which was used to band the yellow Hocking ham bowls with white and blue. She con-* sidered the possibilities of using the white slip as a medium for underglaze color, thinking that the clay would help to keep the colors from bleeding. ^>he carried home da-p clay piece and some white slip and made her first experiment. It was soon fired and indicated the workability of the technique. The yellow body of the ware was not too desirable and a red clay was subsequently used.

Some difficulty in shrinkage of the decorating clay was at first encountered. Miss McLaughlin said, when telling her story in 19114*

The difficulties with tie applied clay decora­ tion would probably not have occurred if the rtBar- betlne" process used by Mr. Volkmar and which he learned at Limores...had been used. In this pro­ cess, the applied clay had been previously fired and then ground into powder. In my ignorance of ceramic processes I had used unfired clay applied to a body in the wet state instead of, as in the other process, to a thoroughly dried body. Be that as it may, those who followed me here, having learned the process from the pottery who fireri my ware, adopted it, faults and all.l*

Miss McLaughlin did all her decorating at home, trans­ porting wet pieces to be decorated ai.d dr; pieces to tfe pottery

L M. L. McLaughlin, og. cit., p. 219. 35 for firing. The "Limoges Faience," as she named the ware for the idea's origin, was made until 188?. It attracted much attention from the first, partially because reporters confused its title with

Limoges enamel, a rare earlier Limoges ware whose "secret" was supposed to have been lost, with the publioity, many were eager to learn the technique.

A young man by the name of T. J. Wheatley had oeen taken into the Coultry firm as a partner. He learned the decorating technique there, and was soon offering a class at the pottery.

It was attended by art students from the School of Design and othera the former members eventually becoming early decorators at the

Rookwood pottery. »hen ^iss McLaughlin learned of the dis­ semination of her technique by Coultry and Wheatley, she stopped having h$r ware fired at that pottery.

Mr. Wheatley subsequently set up his own shop in Cincinnati and applied for a patent on the process. Miss McLaughlin had never considered it patentable, since the "clay pa in tin " was not historically new. Mr. Wheatley's patent, though granted, was never recognized by the several potteries which were established to utilize the process.

Miss McLaughlin reoorted on the vast number who were eager to learn the technique:

There were many. ..who took up the wor(< of dec­ orating pottery, persona gathered together without any regard to pr

abandon the women of that time, whose efforts had been directed to the making of antimacassars or woolen afghana, threw themselves into the fascina­ ting occupation of working with wet clay. The potters Imparted to them various tricks of the trade and some fearful and wonderful things were produced. ... For a time* it was a wild ceramic orgy during which much perfectly good clay was spoiled and numerous freaks created. My own part in the matter I would gladly forget, for while I had no part in the direction of these ill-advised attempts, I was guilt* of having shown what could oe done with the facilities at hand, of having started it. ...I was credited with having done what I had never claimed to do while the acknowl­ edgement of what 1 had done was with-held.5

All this violent activity, this eagerness to learn about decorating under the gla^e, took place in a surprisingly short time following

Miss McLaughlin's first attempts.

In 1679 the Pottery Club of Cincinnati was formed by Miss

McLaughlin, who was elected president. The organization was at first composed of twelve members, "...of the best workers in the different branches of ceramic decoration. (It) did much to uphold the standard of good workmanship durinr the sixteen successful 6 years of its existence." The Pottery Club represented one of the earliest - if not the earliest - Women's Clubs in the United

States. As one contemporary wrote* "This corporate body, the first of its kind in the countr*, through its accomplished, wealthy and influential members, aidei powerfu .Ly the development of Cincinnati

? Ibid., p. 219. 6 Ibid. 37 7 as 8 center of ceramic art.** The nature of the membership was such that a certain social distinction is to be inferred, ar.d it may also be seen that the organization was in a way a defense against those untrained in art who had rushed to take up the new technique.

During the first year of the Club's existence, it had a workroom at the Dallas Pottery, where Miss McLaughlin had been having her firing done following Coultry's divulgence of her technique. The Club held a reception*at the Dallas Pottery in

1^80 to exhib t its work, when r. Bailey, the manager of this pottery, went to Rookwood, the Club mo ed there also. They continued their work at that pottery until its own orders became so numerous that the firinr of the Club's ware could no longer be undertaken. The ladies were once again forced to limit themselves to overplaze decoration.

In l?9l, Miss VcLnuphli n became the president of a ne* ceramic organization, the National Ceramic Association, bhe served, also, as editor of the organization's monthly publication. A

Cincinnati newspaper reported*

Ten thousand women Are actively en; ag.ed in the United States in the modeling or decorating of pot­ tery. live thousand earn a living by ccina paint­ ing. The fact that one thousand pottery decorators dwell in the viclnitj of Chicaro led...to the organ­ ization in that cit; of the National Ceramic Assoc-

^ Irene bargent, "bome ^otters and Their Products," Craitsman IV (August, 1 9 0 3 ), p. 333. 38

iation. ... The object of the association is to advance the art and secure the finest possible exhibit for the World's Fair. ... Chicago la the most active center of thia ceramic development. It has two flourishing organisations - the Chicago and the Columbian Ceramic Societiea. the annual exhibits of the Chicago clubs attract artists from all parts of the United States. Cincinnati, Philadelphia, Boston, and New York follcmr Chicago in ceramic activity. The finest china painting is done in Nebraska. It is the hope of the in­ stigators of the present movement that a purely national school of ceramics will be the outgrowth of the national association. ... The National Ceramic Association, generously supported, will tend to disseminate correct and practical in­ formation, so that many of the disappointments awaiting those who essay the work at a distance from competent Instruction may be avoided. ... A national ceramic school can not fail to be established, aith its growth, the necessity of sending American women abroad to study the fascin­ ating art will be obviated."

IVhether this organization ever became a force of any dimensions has not been ascertained. No further references to it have been found by the present author. Its purposes and hoped-for member­ ship, however, are helpful in indicating the interest displayed in the field in the last decade of the nineteenth century.

Miss McLaughlin, having very well succeeded in the "Limoges

Faience," was content, in 1885, to end that phase of her work and to turn her attention to further experimentation with overglaze and with decorative etching on metal. It was not until ten years later that she returned to pottery briefly, conducting some

h------L. R. iicCabe, (cited in) "National Ceramic Association Founded 1891," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XVII (September, 1931), pp. 377-7T 39

experiment* on Inlaid clays at the Brockmaim Pottery. This process was patented but Miss McLaughlin did not go further with it*

partially because of diaaatiafaction in never being able to carry

the pieces completely through all operations heraelf. It may also

be noted that the greatest challenge for Miss McLaughlin waa to

make a process"work." Once that waa accomplished* her intense

concentration seemed to falter.

A few years later* in 1898* when the founders of the American

Ceramic Society were meeting to organize* Miss McLaughlin began

her last and greatest adventure in pottery - the production of

porcelain. Here, again, she was forced to proceed blindly - even

more blindly than in the case of the faience. In her earlier work

all the cla} preparation, the forming of the ware, the glaze pre­

paration, glazing and firing had been done by the potteries. The

temperatures and materials needed for porcelain were not locally

available, so it was necessary to formulate a body. Nothing in

the way of published* technical aid was to be had except the

composition of the Sevres soft pastai other bodies and plazes

were stated in the form of chemical analyses* which Mias McLaughlin

could not translate into batches. Thinking to spare herself the

labor of actually preparing the clay* she gave the devres body

composition (having re-stated it according to available American

materials) to a potter for weighing out and mixing. 1*0

This done* she turned her sttention to s kiln. Nstursl gss had not been brought to Cincinnati, petroleum kilns required engines, and Miss McLaughlin was advised to build a coal-burning brick kiln, such as the potteries had, but capable of reaching higher temperatures. This she did, having it built at the rear of her home. There were vacant lots about, except on the north side, and, as it was determined that the prevailing winds did not blow toward the neighbors there, the site seemed ideal. The kiln was tested far "draw*1 and on that da;* the wind did blow the smoke toward the neighbors 1 The;, became quite alarmed, fearing that the fumes were poisonous. They called in the smoke inspector who, for­ tunately, made his inspection on a da;* when the kiln was not in operation and Miss McLaughlin was not troubled on that score for some time.

lhe first firing was bisque only, and was not supposed to go to top temperature. The fireman - a night fireman off-duty from a local pottery - decided, however, in the middle of the night, that the kiln was not functioning properly. He called out the kiln- builder and the two spent the night bringing up the temperature, aiming for the almost 2l|00° F. required for a porcelain glaze-fire and quite forgetting that nothing but a soft bisque was desired in this particular firing I Thus the first load was too hard for glazing, but at least the kiln was going to reach temperature satisfactorily. U1

The first glase-firing indicated that the potter who mixed the bod: for Mias McLaughlin had taken some liberties! he thought

the spar content too low, so raised it. Consequently, "...the pieces proved to be in so melting a mood that they had, as it were, fallen upon each other's neck, and the whole ceramic conglomerate was so firmly attached to its resting place that it was necessary q to chop it out with a hatchet."7 This difficulty in the body was overcome but there were more mishaps in the next few firings.

Finally, Miss McLaughlin determined that the next kiln should decide whether she was to continue or give up.

It was a poor time for the firing! the atmosphere was heavy and causei the kiln's smoke to hang over the neighborhood. But out of that kiln ceme some reduced copper glaze that not only caused

Kiss McLaurhlin to continue her work tait gave her thB desire to gain a greater technical knowledge of it. Up until this time a potter had been supplying her glazes, charging heavily for them.

Moreover, she did not know their composition. This firing in­ dicated, also, that a less-smokey fuel must be foundt the neighbors were complaining once more.

Coke was chosen for the fuel. It was not only cleaner in firing, but decreased the firing time from about eighteen hours to from seven and one-half to nine hours. This made it possible for

Miss McLaughlin to supervise the firing in the day-time and ------M. L, McLaughlin, o£. clt., p. 221. U2 obviated the necessity of hiring the expert firemen. ^ody and glaze trials were undertaken aa soon as raw supplies had been procured. In late 1900 a satisfactory composition was achieved and the ware waa one-fired only. It wasn't until March, 1901, that the best results were secured. Upon reflection, Miss McLaughlin saidt

Ourjng this period, it seeded aa if every flaw that fire could produce upon pottery had shown itself in the ware that came from my kiln. Cracks, blisters, warping, it appeared that the whole caterory waa lavished upon the unfortunate product. ... Being of rather an optimistic temper- ment I declined to recognize defeat and continued until the processes were practically under con­ trol, although there is always in the ordeal of the fire an element of the unexpected that only adds to tbo charm. A porcelain had oeen produced which could be fired at the unusually low temperature of 2372° F., even lower than that of the new Sevres in which the temperature has boen reduced to one much lower than that of the old ware. This increases the range of colors and also must reduce the diffi­ culties and expenses of firing. The trials that have been recited are merely tr ose which have always oeset those w> o stray from the beaten track in any field and are not to be mentioned beside those of many other potters.1 °

Miss McLaughlin's "Losanti” ware was frequently carved or modeled-on, and she achieved cojper reds, eggshell textures, crackles and inlaid decorations. The ware was first exhibited in

Paris in 1900 and in 1901 was awared a bronze medal for "American

Porcelain" at the buffalo Exposition. Her work continued until

191ii. In 1913 Doctor Sinus of Alfred wrote to her* "I have just

Ibid., p. 222 U3 returned from the Exhibition at Rochester and wish to write my aporeciatlon of your porcelain. ... You are much to be commended for the manner in which you have overcome so many of the obstacles inherent to porcelain making."

Kiss McLaughlin was also awarded, throughout her life, other medals and honorable mentions for her work in china painting, de­ corative metal, and Limoges Faience. In 1938 the American Ceramic bociety, at its Fortieth Annual Meeting, awarded ner an honorary membership "For her great accomplishments in the ceramic technology of underglaze, brush—painted faience, and in decorative, one-fire 12 porcelain." The recipient was then ninety years old and died the following year. Among her published works werei China Pa in ting,

Pottery hecoration, Suggest!ons for China Painters, The Second

Madame, Painting in Oil, and An Epitome of History.

Miss McLaughlin's name h=s often been linked with the

Rookwood Pottery, and, indeed, there is a relationship, althtxigh she was never connected with the pottery in any business sense. Miss

McLaughlin stated, in a letter of January 2L, 193^, to the Editor of the Bu iletin of the American Ceramie Socle ty, that her only association wi th Rookwood was as one of the Pottery Club members who worked in the early Rookwood studio.

n---"Mary Louise McLaughlin." ^Iletin of the American Ceramic bociety XVII (Mfly, 1938), p. 225.

12 Ibid. Uh

Rookwood is, rather, the story of a second Cincinnatian strongly influenced by the Centennial in Philadelphia in 1876,

Maria Longworth Butler (Mrs. Nicholas Ward Ifcatler). Mrs* Butler, too, had been a chine painter, perhaps one of the group who studied at the School of Design in the summer of 1871*. *>he had always been partial to Japanese design.^

The Japanese display at Philadelphia was particularly im­ pressive. It was that country's first whole-hearted attempt in such an international showing. CJeorge Ward Nicholas, who devoted many pages to the Exposition is nis Art Education Applied to Industry, wrotet

The Centennial Exposition saw the full flower and glory of Japanese art. A great empire, which for two centuries had established non-intercourse with foreigners, and whose products hod at no time, to any extent, reached European markets, chose this exposition as the field wherein to reveal the wealth of its resources.^

Nichol's statement was typical of those voiced by various writers and travelers who visited the Centennial. Mrs. hitler's earlier interfst in Japanese art was understandably whetted by this display.

She was a woman of means and soon set up a small studio in an abandoned 3 chool house in Cincinnati. Here she worked for a time,

^ Ytaldon rawcett, "The *roduction of American Pottery," Scientific American, LXXXVIII (November 10, 1900), p. ?96.

^ ft. W. Nichols, Art Education Applied to Industry, p. 181. u$ during which a more suitable building was being erected. Mrs.

Butler's father built the structure for her. He was apparently willing to build it for what he thought was a daughter’s whim. Mrs.

Butler, however, was determined from the first that the Rookwood

Pottery should be self-sustaining*

Although Miss McLaughlin was never associated with Rookwood

in a business capacity, her influence on the product of the pottery was manifested in two ways. First, the decorators hired

by j t s . Butler had been members of Wheatley's class at the Coultiy

Pottery, where they learned the slip-painting technique which

Miss McLaughlin had perfected. Second, Clara Newton, a close

friend of ^iss McLaughlin, was also a friend and former schoolmate

of Mrs. Butler. Miss Newton, one of the first members of the

Pottery Club and its secretary for all its sixteen years, waa

appointed business manager of Rookwood by Mrs. Butler, kiss Newton,

in a catalog describing Rookwood ware for the Chicago Exposition of

1393, stated that Miss McLaughlin's faience was thB foundation of

Rookwood, which helps to explain the frequent association of the

two names.

Rookwood was awarded a gold medal at the Paris Exposition

In 1339* From that time forward and until the 1920's, Rookwood

received wide acclaim. It was hailed as the first "artistic" pottery produced in the United States. An 1391 Cincinnati news­

paper statedt "Connoisseurs at home and abroad consider that in 1*6 the Rookwood pottery America has achieved Its first and only 15 distinctive artistic creation.” Maria Lor*; worth Butler subse—

quently married Bellamy Storer, who had been appointed Ambassador to Austria by President Theodore Roosevelt, lirs. Storer then relinquished management of the Rookwood plant.

Interest in the Arts and Crafts movement also accounted for much of the attention given to the ware, inasmuch as the pottery was not mechanized to any degree. Ur. Fawcett wrote in 1900*

The men and women who have directed the des­ tinies of the Rookwood institution have endeavored in every possible way to cultivate individual artistic feeling on the part of the employees, no mechanical means have been employed in the production " '‘ barred abso-

The Craftsman magazine, which was based entirely upon the

Arts and Crafts movement, frequently upheld Rookwood as a sterling

example of the movement's tenets. An anonymous writer, in 1903,

said of Rookwood*

It is, of course, conducted upon sound finan­ cial principles, and gives large annual returns to its owners. At the same time, it protects the in­ terests of artj being practically an enterprise for the production and sale of the work of forty or more individual decorators, who, in obedience to the rules of the pottery, constantly vary their shapes and never repeat their decoration. The more distinguished and experienced of these decorators ------L. R. McCabe, op. clt., p. 372.

W. Fawcett, og. cit., p. 297 ii7

work in individual studios, while the younger sre distributed in three larger roomsi ail of them forming a community resembling in constitution the workshop schools of the master artists and craftsmen of the Middle Ages. '

The fact that an art had achieved an industrial status without

being industrial and that an industry - of sorts — had achieved art waa revolutionary! Critics had said that the United States had no

"art" in its industry. Here was a proof of its possibilities.

If Miss McLaughlin and Mrs. Storer represented two types of

"studio potters" active in Cincinnati, Miss Laura Fry represented

a third. Miss Fry differed in that she was not wealthy. Her

father was a teacher of wood—carving at the School of Design and

Laura was one of a large family of children. Miss Fry's grand­

father was also a wood-carver, and had worked under Grinling

Gibbons on carvings for the House of Parliament.

Laura Anne was born in January, 1857, and her art study began

when she w»s ten. She studied drawing with Noble and modeling with

Rebisso, carving with her father and grandfather. These studies

in Cincinnati were followed by several years at the Art Students'

League in New York. Kenneth Smith, speaking about Miss Fry in

1938, said*

Later, at Trenton, New Jersey, she mastered the practical workings of pottery manufacture from the clay on the thrower's wheel to the finished product. After visiting the potteries of Lngland 17----- "The Rookwood Pottery," Craftsman, III (January, 1903), p. 21*8. U8

and Franca, assimilating from each new experience its moat helpful el amenta, ahe returned to Cin— cinnati where she began her career in applied art.3-8 llisa Fry establiahed a studio In Cincinnati where she designed furniture and decorations for pottery. She knew china painting, then became interested in Miss McLaughlin's pottery work, and was one of the first members of the lottery Club. She joined the staff of Rookwood as one of the early decorators and remained there about ten years. During this period, Miss Fry conceived of the idea of "blowing" color onto the ware, instead of brushing or dipping it on, as had been done. The decorators* foreman said it wouldn't work, but while he was away on vacation, Laura tried it, ua^ng a charcoal-fixative sprayer. It did workI

Shortly thereafter, Mrs. Storer aided Laura financially, so that she could engage in furth< r study in New York. nhile there, she learned about the possibility of using compressed air with the sprayer, much improving the process. During this period, also, ttookwood saw the possibilities of the technique and asked Miss

Fry to sign over patent rights, but she herself w-^s trying to obtain a patent on it. ihe process was never patented, as it turned out, since it was not really "new.** It was, however, new to the potteries, and waa soon in wide usage - not only for decorating but aa a means of applying glaze as well.

I B ------K. E. omlth, "Laura Anne Fry," Bulletin of the American Ceramic bociety, XVII (September, 1938)* P« From January, 1891, until June, 1892, Miss Fry served aa

Professor of Industrial Art at Purdue University. Returning there in 1 8 9 6 , she remained until her retirement in 1 9 2 2 . A e taught drawing and over-glaze painting. During this period, also, she wrote a column for china painters in The Young Ladies' Magazine, which was published In Buffalo, New York. Miss Fry is represented in various museums, not only by pottery, but by other arts as well.

Her life was dedicated to the arts and her association with both an "art industry" -'rtookwood - and an "Industrial Art" course - at

Purdue - gives her a Just place in the present study.

ihe place of Cincinnati in this study is also most appro­ priate in that the city broupit together a number of forcest the ochool of Design, as representative of art education in the latter quarter of the nineteenth century; the Pottery' Club, representative of the prevailing interest of w^men in Joining togethfr in "cultural" pursuits; visible influences of the Philadelphia Centennial; local potteri- s which made possible the ladies' earliest undertakings in something beyond china painting; and a number of residents whose ceramic interests were strong enough to send them along unexplored routes. Chapter 3

NINETEENTH CFNTURY DEVELOPMENTS IN NE*» ORLEANS

TUlane University in New Orleans was the center of an early undertaking in education in ceramic art. Funds for a women's college were left in the hands of TUlane'a Board of Trustees by

Josephine Louise Newcomb. The college was to be called the H.

Sophie Newcomb Uemorial College. It was founded in 1837, during the South's slow recovery from the Civil War.

The college at first intended to offer young ladies training in the fine arts that they might become teachera. Newcomb College was to be a center of "aesthetic culture" in Louisiana* It was shortly realized, however, that the intended program was not in step with the times, either economically or culturally. There were not enough "fine art" teaching positions open to absorb the rraduates of the school, Pome element of practicality was needed.

William Aoodwnrd, an instructor in drawing and painting at Tulene since shortly after the Civil Aar, had sponsored a small pottery studio in New Orleans where a Women's Club en­ gaged in activities very much like those of the Cincinnati group.

A potter, George Ohr, made the pottery, glazed, and fired it.

The ladies decorated it, by painting or modeling, purely as a pastime* they were not hired decorators. 50 51

Ur. Woodward was joined, on the 1\ilane staff, by his brother

Ellsworth. Both men had studied at the Rhode Island School of

Design. William also studied later In Paris and Fllsworth in

Munich. While William devoted the greater part of his time to

Tulane, Ellsworth had come to New Orleans to instruct in the new

Women’s College. Paul fc. Cox, a latrr member of the Newcomb staff, has written of Ellswortht

Ellsworth Woodward realized that young women who had been born soon after the Civil War, who were vie tins of the ruthless plundering of the State by the 'Carpetbag* government, and who had been bred to a life of sheltered ease could not be easily persuaded to undertake the fine arts unless some vocation should result from the train­ ing. These girls had to work and they knew it. Woodward had the New England idea of the need for hard work and felt that this opportunity would be found in a comb:nation of thorough training in de­ sign and application of the training to some Dro- duct that could be sold. The pottery idea was one of the avenues he decided to open up*^

William Woodward's experience with the Women's Club pof*ery un­ doubtedly furnished Ellsworth with his inspiration in tfis direction.

"The services of a potter from the Coif Juan Pottery at Cannes,

France, were secured and to him was intrusted the making of forms 2 on the wheel, glazing and firing.1*

P. tL, Cox, "Newcomb Pottery Active in New Orleans," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XIII (May, 193U), p. lUl.

2 Scherer and Cox, "Newcomb Pottery," Journal of the Amerlcan Ceramic oociety, I (August, l^lB), p. 520. 52

In the first veers of the experiment, undergraduate girls decorated the ware, often at home. Their work held an appeal, and as they graduated, the little pottery became a place where they could work profitably in the years between school and marriage.

k'iss Mary Given bcherer joined the staff at Newcomb about

1 8 9 0 , to conduct classes in the decoration of pottery and its appreciation. bhe had studied drawinr and painting in Cincinnati and had held a scholarship for stud;- with Duveneck. Her Cin­ cinnati backrround bespeaks experience in china painting and pottery decoration. Mi ss bcherer devoted her 11:e to teaching at

Newcomb. bhe joined the American Ceramic bocietv in 1920; was chairman of that organizetion*s Art Division, 1921* - 1927} and was made a Fellow in 1931- ^he died December 3# 1 9 ^ , at the age of

39. Many of the early policies of the Potter, received their formulation through Mary bcherer and Kllsworth hoodward. The young ladies were never potters in the sense 11 at the term is usually used today. They were, rather, decorating artists. They never prepared clay or glazes, formed the ware or fired it. ^uch -leavy labors would have undoubtedly been ,1udped unseemly in the 1 8 9 0 'sJ

This is not to deny that some of them desired to do sox perhaps the entire concept of such a possibility wna simply too radical for serious consideration. *53

Mias Scherer, reflecting in 192U on the earlier days of

Newcomb, aaidt

...the decorators, as well as the Instructor, wanted to experiment with the glazes and the firing, but even the potter had little but empirical knowledge back of him. Mr. Binns’ and Mr. Cox's books were not out and women were not admitted to the School of Ceramics at Columbus, Ohio, nor was the summer course In ceramics at Alfred, New York, yet started. ... Die experiments consequently were directed to­ wards methods of decoration.3

The Craftsman, the publication of the Arts and Crafts movement previously mentioned, publicized the undertaking at

Newcomb as it had that in Cincinnati. Irene Sargent, in 1093, wrote enthusiastically about the pottery, mentioning particularly the decorative motifs employed*

Acceding to the new art movement, which, felt throughout the world, is a return to nature as a source of inspiration, the designers selected their decorative motifs from the vegetation indigenous to the entire South;... The decorative motifs employed in the Newcomb Pottery, belong to one of the two divisions of the modern school; that is, the one which bases all design on plant forms, as distinguished from purely linear ornament. ... They show the plant as a whole, rather than a section or the detail of a flower, which latter Is the manner of the Paris and Dresden schools of Design.**

Paul E. Cox joined the Pottery in 1910, as ceramic tech­ nologist rather than as teacher. He was colled upon to perfect the mat glaze and to modernize the plant. He later wrote*

^ U. Scherer, "The Development of Decorative Processes at Newcomb," Journal of the American Ceramic Society, VII (August, 1921*), p.

^ I. Sargent, "An Art Industry of the Bayous," Craftsman, V (October, 1903), pp. 72-3. Sh

"Varket conditions Ratified the expansion and so the designers were able, on a piece-work basis, to raise their own pay from about

$ 8 0 0 a year to as nuch as £.3600 in one ease."^ The w r k of the

decorators, after firing, was subjected to a rigid inspection by

a Jury composed of the heads of the various art departments. A high standard of workmanship and design was adhered to, and only

those pieces which maintained the standard were allowed to carry

the monogram of the college.

The ware which came to be recognized as Newcomb pottery was decorated in soft blue and greens, with a mat glaze. Tt

continued in production until the second World bar. In 1 9 3 8

Kenneth bmith, then instructor, wrote*

The standard ware has become more or less stereotyped in color, decorative treatment, and design. This style is so entrenched on the buy­ ing public that it has become a hall-mark of New­ comb pottery to the extent that when the decora­ tors make a oiece even !;■ the same technique but using another color*.it will stay on the shelves unnoticed or unrecognized as real Newcomb pottery.

Although operated on a business basis for a half-century,

the pottery w^s never self-sustaining. Alice Parkerson,

assistant to the present head of the art department of the college,

states that all ware was withdrawn from the market about ten

P. t. Cox., 0£. cit., p. Ili2»

^ K. <->mith, "The Origin, Development, and Present btatua of Newcomb Pottery," Bulletin of the American Ceramic society, XVII (June, 1938), p. 2#'. 55 years ago (19U5)t •• n>..w« ware no longer interested in making pottery to sell.n^

The Newcomb Pottery represents a link in the historical development ol' education in ceramic art* It was part of an

Institution of higher learning. It went beyond china painting, which had been considered a proper lady-like vocation or avocation, yet it did not go beyond the equating of decoration and ceramic art until comparatively recent years. ------7------Personal letter to the author, October 11, 1955* Chapter U

NINE TEEN TO CRN iURY LITERATURE PERTAINING TO TOE CKRAUIC FIELD

The many factors which culminated in the introduction of ceramic art as a suitable subject for formal education included considerations of ceramics, in general, as indicated by both books and periodicals. What information was brought to the reading public - whether ceramic or lay public - prior to 1900?

In what repute was American ceramic production held? Public ex­ pressions undoubtedly helped to formulate the subject-matter of the earliest formal course in ceramic art. What was the form of these expressions, and to whom were they addressed?

A survey of material published prior to 1 9 0 0 indicates three major categories pertaining to ceramics! (l) "technical inform­ ation," (2 ) "history," and (3 ) "taste," which is being used here to denote nineteenth century opinion and philosophy with regard to ceramic iesipn. It may de wejl to consider the literature in the three areas separately, at the risk of a partial loss of continuity.

"Technical" literature may be divided into that concerned with and directed toward ceramic industry and that concerned with

56 57 non-industrial pursuits. Technical literature of the first class was extremely limited even 4 s late as ld9l*, as has been mentioned

in connection with the establishment of a library for the Ceramic

Engineering School at The Ohio State University in that year.

Doctor Orton gave, at that time, much credit to the publications of the chemistry, mining, metallurgy and - particularly - geo­ logical fields for furnishing the earliest American sources of information concerning clays. American periodicals devoted solely

to the ceramic field had not been established, nor were such periodicals available in foreign languages. The latter part of

the decade between 1390 and 1 9 00 did see, however, the establish­ ment of some periodicals in the field in England, Germany, France,

and the United States.

Among publications preceding that decade, The Art Journal,

an English magazine, offered some early literature pertaining to

ceramics. The information was published in a section entitled

"On the Application of Science to the Fine and Useful Arts."

Robert Hunt, in 13^0, was the author of two quite comprehensive

article s appearing in this section. One was titled "The Chemistry

of Pottery - Clay," and the other, "The Chemistr; of Pottery - 1 Earthenware." Examples of bodies and glazes were given, along

with the processes of preparation of materials, firing, etc. as

R. Hunt, "The Chemistrj of Pottery," Art Journal XII (August, 1950), pp. 237-3* (October, 1650), pp. 3iy^l these were currently being carried out in the English potteries.

The Journal also carried, in the same year, the work of an anonymous author, "A Lost Art in Porcelain*" This concerned a technique which had been used in Chinese porcelains* painting between two layers of porcelain in the wall of a bowl, the total •* thickness of which was that of an eggshell, in such a way that the decoration became apparent only when the bowl was filled with liquid, ihe writer thought it would, perhaos, be possible to recapture t h s unusual technique with the "advanced technical know- o ledge" of the English potteries. This article is mentioned here sin^e it is representative of the motivation which led potteries - and individuals - to the "rediscovery" of older techniques, or at least to their adaptation to current orocesses and materials.

a fourth JournaI article of the lB^O’s, writ en by Apsley

Pellatt., was an "Issey on Pottery and the Piotile Art - Histori­ cally, Chemically and Practically Considered.The chemical compositions of so ue materials were >~iven, s list of the potter's

■iiaterials, some glaze batches and explanations of the processes followed in making ware.

Leyshon's Operative Potter, w'th Receipts for the Manu­ facture of China was published in London in 1R6 6 . Beginning in

------5------"A Lost Art 4n Porcelain," Art Journal (London), XJT (inrch, ldcO), p. Jt>.

^ A. Pellatt, "issay on Pottery, etc.," Art Journal (London), VI - New series (February, lft^h), po. 33-7. 59

1 0 7 0 , an apparent quickening of the pace in the dissemination of

information concerning ceramics is evident, Earlier, and even la^er, writers were often condemned for riving away valuable secrets of the trade. It had, indeed, been a trade in which each potter.v or potter was exceedingly mysterious about his materials and operations.

Ihe Encyclopedia of Practical Receipts and Processes, written and published by Ailliam Dick in 1072, included several receipts for glazes and colors. The followi.ig, for "Brown Glazing,” was typical* "Take one part broken green bottle glass, l£ manganese, and two parts lead g l a s s .

Apple ton'8 Journal of "Literature, Science and Art," published a series of three artcles in 1873 by John H. Snively

on "The Ceramic Art." Ur. bnlvely dealt principally with the history

of the art, but did include some explanation of current pottery

practices.

Articles appearing in periodicals of the types mentioned were seemingly written by men outside the pottery industry, whose

information was gathered from those within the potteries, al­

though the latter were not credited. Miss Jennie J. Young, in her volume The Ceramic Art, published in 1870, did credit a number of men in industry for hints on technology, compositions

V». Dick, Encyclopedia of Practical Receipts and Processes. p. 228. 60

and manufacturing processes. Among those ao credited wares

Charles E. HaViland, Theodore Haviland, M. Bracquemond of France,

and Thomas C. Smith, Greenpolnt, Long Island; Ur. James Carr,

of New York; Hugh C. Robertson, Chelsea, Massachusetts; and J. 5 Hart Brarwer of Trenton. The point of Miss Young's assistance

in these matters by men of industry ia emphasised here beoause it

indicated a growing tolerance toward the spread of information

through journalism, .lust aa the willingness of local potteries

to give "hints" to early "students" (such as Miss McLaughlin of

Cincinnati) indicated a less fearful attitude on their part.

It may be true that the increasing solvency of the potteries both

here and abroad led to a freer dlvulgence of informations the firms

may have been enjoying wider and wider markets so that competition was not so presuinr a problem.

The Journal of the Franklin Institute, established in 1932, was one of the earliest periodicals to purvey articles of a

technical nature. Representative articles pertaining to ceramics 6 7 included* "becreta in Pottery" and "American Ceramic Clays."

J. Younp, The Ceramic Art, pp. 1—JU-

^ "Secrets in Pottery," Journal Franklin Inst., XI', New beries (July, 1833), pp. ?9-6l'j 128-32. 7 "American Ceramic Clays," Journal Franklin Inst., CVIII, 3rd beriea (October, 1979), pp. 271-2. 61

An anonymous article appeared In the American Art Review in

1830 entitled "Technical Processes Employed In the Manufacture of Q Henri II Ware*" This work is a further representative of the bits of historical research which inspired attempts at perfecting various techniques.

The American Chemical Journal typified technical and scientific periodicals which appeared before those dealing with ceramics alone. A "Brief Review of the Mo it Important Changes in

Industrial Applications of Chemistry within the Last Few Years" appeared in this periodical in 1980. It touched briefly upon the 9 manufacture of porcelain and other clay ware*'

Harper1s Magazine, reaching a lay public, published "Pottery in the United States" in l99l. The article provided a short 10 history and described a trip through an operating factory* Ahile t is report was without glaring errors as to techniques and pro­ cesses - as indeed most were - there were occasional exa rples of mis-statement, or, at least, expressions which indicated limited understanding on the part of the writer* Thomas Preston, writing for the Chautauquan in 1891, presents what w=s, perhaps, a rather general view of tde potteries, including the following! — — ■ g ■'— • — "Technical Processes, etc.? American Art Review, I (January-December, 1880), pp. 75-80.

9 J. m . Meilatt, "3rief Review, etc.," American Chemical Journal II (1890-1), pp. 66-7*

10 r. h. Fryatt, "Pottery in the United btates," Harper *s LXII (February, 1881), pp. 357—69. 62

About 65£ of the Jiggermen, turners, sagger- makers, kiln men, dippers and decorators are for­ eign-born, chiefly natives of Great Britain,...* Nearly all the mold-makers and throwers are also of English origin* ...the number of Americans is in­ creasing, especially in the decorative departments, where our girls are beginning to enter in great num­ bers. But it cannot be said that Americans are be­ coming skilled potters. The trade is too new - it is less than forty ; ears since it began to be devel­ oped - and there are not enough attractions in it for the ordinary citizen. ••• It has been suggested that the different pottery firms should unite in se­ curing better native artistic talent by founding a technical school..• While the potter's life is a pleasant one*..being surrounded with a sense of the beautiful and an artistic instinct...it is unfor­ tunately brief. The business is one of the most unhealthy in the world. Potters commence to work about eighteen years of age and at thirty-five are perceptibly beginning to decline.H

The Chautauquan was a monthly magazine which had a wide readership.

The rather severe indictment of the pottery nduatry Just cited could scarcely have had a salutatory effect upon its many readers!

Henry B. Wheatley, in his Handbook of Art Industries ift

Pottery and the Precious ketals, published in London in 1886, wrote*

The productions of the potter's art are intended primarily to be useful, and only secondarily to be artistic. The artistic nations of antiquity, however, manared to give beauty of form to the moat ordinary objects,... The two main divisions of the potter's art. are Earthenware, including Stoneware, and Porcelain. Earthenware is described as a soft opaque material formed of an earthy mixture, refractory, or hard to fuse, in the kiln. Stoneware is a hard earthenware, glazed

T. Preston, "Potters and Their Trs't," Ghautauquan VIV (November, 1891), p. 173. 63

with salt. Porcelain, on the other hand, is obtained by the fusion of a fusible earthy mixture and an infusible one} the combination becoming semi-vitrified and translucent in the kiln.12

Wheatley's work was primarily a history, but the quotation given here indicates either a hasy knowledge of his material or the fact that definitions have changed considerably since 18911

It was in the 1 8 9 0 's that Karl Langenbeck, chemist with the hncaustic Tiling Company of Zanesville, ''hio, published his book

The Chemis try of Pottery, to which Doctor Orton of ‘Hie Ohio State

University gave so much praise. During this period, also,

Langenbeck had articles published by the American Chemical Society1 ^ and the Journal of the Pranklin Institute. ^ 4 Langenbeck*s practical experience in an American pottery, his subsequent understanding of

the problems in this country, and the fact that he was willinr to publish his knowledge, undoubtedly made his writings particularly welcome. In fact, it may be said that these publications provided some of the impetus which brought together chemists from various

potteries for t^e exchange of ideas, culminating in the founding

of the American Ceramic society in 1 8 9 8 .

H. B. Wheatley, A Handbook of the Art Industries, p. 1.

13 K. Langenbeck, "Chemical Considerstiona of the Pottery Industry of the U. o.," American Chemical ooclety, XV (November, 1^93), pp. 6^1-5; (December, 1R^3T» 59^-703*

^ k . Langenbeck, "The Chemistry of the Pottery Industry," Journal ^ranklin Institute,CXLIII (May, lhV7), Dp. 321-37. 61*

Technical material published for avocational potters - that is to say, china painters - vas more profuse than was that ixiblished for the ceramic Industry itself 1 A surrey c£ such publications, as listed in the Branner Bibliography of Clays and the Ceramic Arts.^ provides some perspective. If American and English publications

(both books and articles appearing in periodicals) for china painters ore ta^en into account, 8 appeared from 1 8 7 0 - 1879* 19 from i8 6 0 - 1889j 1 0 from 1 8 9 0 - 1099; followed by a rapid diminution after 1900. Judging from these figures, interest in china painting reached its most fervent pitch in the l880fa. That the activity was quite well established before that decade, however, is evidenced by articles published both here and in England.

The Magazine of Art Illustrated, an English periodical, first published in 1 0 7 8 , contains in its first three volumes articles describing the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Annual Exhibitions of

Painting on China.^ Ibis indicates that the first such exhibition must have been held in 1 8 7 6 , and it could not have been held then without several years of preceding activity. As the anonymous reporter of these exhibits wrote, In 1 0 7 8 *

T 5------J. C. Branner, A Bibliography of Clays and the Ceramic Arts. This work was first publTshed by the u.""3. Geological Survey in 1096, later added to and published by the American Ceramic Society in 1 9 0 6 . 16 "The Exhibition of Paintings on China,11 Magazine of Art Illustrated, (London), I (January - December, 1078), pp. l7£-9'j™ II (January - December, 1*79), pp. 269-72j TTI (January - December, 1 8 8 0 ) , p p . 2 c» 2 - t>. China painting has for too lonr a time been neglected...now, however, all this is changed, for there is at present a great 'rage1 for ceramic art.. It is not our province to determine the exact reason for the recently developed taste for painting on china and porcelain; enough it, is to know It exists. The Exhibition contains nearly a thousand pieces in number. (A few executed by men, oil- paInters by profession.)

In 1879, the reporter stated that the work was divided into two

classest one for amateurs, one for professionals. Again, in 1800, he wro+e* "It is no exaggeration to say that 7 or 8 years ago the

general public knew nothing at ail of the process of china painting.

He criticised the work in that there was too much "prettiness" and

toe preat a striving far naturalism at the expense of good design.

lhe dates of these English exhibitions coincide quite closely

with those in which china painting was making its early appearance

in this country. The Art Amateur, "A I'onthly Journal devoted to

the Cultivation of Art in the Household," was an American periodical

which was published from June 1879 through September 1903. It

devoted ette; tion to china painting and maintained a special de­

partment for the art. Patterns on tissue-paper, which the china

painter could trace onto blanks, were bound into the magazine. An

article concerning an exhibition held in Philadelphia in 1088 17 appeared in the December issue of the Art Amateur. The author

was very critical of the china painting displayed, saying it lacked

cririnality. Perhaps the magazine's generosity In providing ------C. Cook, "The Exhibition of American Pottery and Porcelain, Art Amateur, XX (December, 1838), pp. 5f. 66 patterns was not all to the goodJ If so, this publication was not the only offender, as "pattern books" for all sorts of activities were enjoying popularity at the time.

Ur. Cook's article also mentioned two kilns on display at the Exhibition, the inventions of Fanny Hall and Mrs. Fraekleton.

"Mrs. Fraekleton'a is a gas-klln, Miss Hail'a is for charcoal}..

It is possible that Ur. Cook had the kilns mis-identified, since an earlier article, in October, described Miss Hall's kiln in detail, statingi "The kiln is the invention of Miss F. L. Hall. 19 It will be known to the trade as the 'keramic kiln'." The kiln was described as round, with a number of Bunsen-type gaa burners beneath it, each having its own nuffle-pipe going upward inside the jacket. The description fits early ehina-paiiiters' kilns made by 20 the Tenver Fire Clay Company. Miss Hall proved to the reporter

that she could fire to china painting temperature in twenty

mlnutesl

Despite the large volume of literature pertaining to over­ glaze decoration published, the impact of Miss McLaughlin's tech­ nique for painting under the glaze may be fudged from the fact that IB----- Ibid., p. 6 .

^ "A Hew Portable Gas Kiln," Art Amateur XX (March, 1888), p. 8 0 .

20 Correspondence between the present author and the Denver tire Clay Company has failed to establish any connection between Miss Hall's design and the trade name or style of kiln manufactured by the firm. Its records do not date back to the time Then its decorating kilns were first sold. 67 her book instructing in the technique, published in 1 8 8 0 , had run into its ninth edition in 1 8 8 1 J Authors writing on both over- and under-glaze seemed to be concentrated in Cincinnati and Boston*

S. A. Tilton published a book in the latter city in 1077*^ It is of interest from several points of view. lir. Tilton advocated a technique other than over-glaze, although it can not be compared with Miss McLaughlin's, since no glaze was to be put over the de­ coration. Whether there was any connection between the develop­ ments in Boston and Cincinnati has not been determined. It appears, however, that the developments were independent, for Mr. Tilton wrote, following tributes to the Centennial, to the English Schools of Art, and to the drawing being done by pupils of the public schools of Bostont

The influence of such institutions as the State Normal Art School of Massachusetts, the Cooper Union of New York, and Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and Cincinnati Schools of Design, is spreading among all classes; and now comes, as a result, a demand for practical application to various branches of Industry, ror simplicity and ease of accomplishment there is no othur form of applied art that can compare with pottery decoration* Any one who can draw the singlest object can do it.

It should be noted that Mr. Tuton, claiming to be among the first in this country to enter the field of decorating lottery, found no

S. W. Tilton, Designs and Instructions for Decorating Pottery in Imitation of 0reek7 aoman', BgyptiarT~and Other Styles

22 Ibid., pp. 23-li. 68

colors on ths market dependable for use on the "peculiar material composing the potter}." He therefore experimented with appropriate

colors for use on unglased, but fired, red clay forma made by a local pottery, then he had perfected his colors (oil-based, since he

advised turpentine for thinning them), he went Into the business

of making them for sale, so his book is, in effect, a sales-talk.

That the colors were to be used on unglazed ware Is evident from the followingi

This style of ware is made expressly for orna­ ment, and will not hold water without injury to the decoration. If the piece has a mouth wide enough to admit the hand, it c n be made waterproof by first oiling it on the inside, then going over it with a coat of paint, and finally, with a thick coat of va miah.^?

Whether Ur. Tilton's method ever achieved wide-spread usai.e is not

known. It is, nevertheless, indicative of the knowledge - or lack

of knowledge - prevailing among avocational "potters" before the

turn of the century J

Some of the publications already cited have dealt with the

history of ceramics as well as techniques and processes. There were

seme which concerned themselves with historical ware only - not as

to technique or process - such as the series by Fdwin A. Barber

which appeared in the Popular Science Monthly from 1890 to 1892.

Other historical articles or articles directed to collectors also

appeared in such periodicals as Llttell*s Living Age, Harper*s,

------J Ibid., p. 3U. 69

Longman's **agasine, Scribner * a and science. Books on collecting and collection catalogs ware numerous from i8 6 0 to 1 9 0 0 , many being concerned with Chinese and Japanese ceramics, Pince many personal collections were being established during this period by those industrial giants who arose upon the national scene, and since the

Chinese and Japanese wares made such an impression at the Centennial, the prevalence of books and articles of this type is not surprising.

Many publications, whether books or articles appearing in periodicals, were concerned with *taste" in the field of ceramics.

The term "taste" nay be questioned! it is meant to cover in a broad fashion the opinions being expressed, between the Centennial and

1900, about the "artistic" rather than the "technical" aspects of ceramic wares. The effects of the Centennial on the United States' awareness of the importance of "art as aojlied to Indus tr: " were emphasized strongly by writers of the time. It may, indeed, be that the very activities and comments of these writers, belittling as they did the productions of the United States, served as effective propoganda toward the greater art consciousness. Certainly it seems true that the writers, through their remarks, intimated that "art" could be applied to Industry, and thus, In effect, perpetuated a dichotomy of long-standing, despite their good intentions;

Before the Centennial, Charles Eastlake authored Hints on

Household Taste, which serves the present study's purpose from several points of view. First, Ur. hastlake was English and his 70 work waa concerned with English production. It la thus appropriate for consideration because American "taste" waa, to a large extent, founded upon English custom and written opinion. Second, Mr,

Eastlake'a "American Edition" was highly popular in this country, aa indicated by the fact that the Fourth American Edition appeared in 1076, The author touched upon furniture, carpeting, wall­ paper — in short, the household and lta contents, including a chapter on "Crockery", of particular interest here. A number of selected quotations will present the essence of Eastlake'a views1

Indeed, there is no branch of art-manufacture exposed to greater dangers, in point of taste, than that of ceramic design. Nor is it by any means easy to la^ down specific rules for the guidance of even a general taste which is inexperienced in this department of art. The tendency of the uneducated eye is, in most cases, to admire the smart and showy but effeminate hues of the de^ rather than the subtle and refined combinetions of color which have distinguished ancient potter; and porcelain. Extravagance of form is preferred to a sober grace of contour, and neatness of execution to the spirit of artistic design. The 'prett; ', in short, is too frequently held in higher estimation than the beautiful, and nothing but experience, based on a frequent inspection of good examples, with a general knowledge of, and reverence for, the principles of sound art, will teach oeople to value the importance of this distinct!on.^u

....the principles of rood design are not confined to mere objects of luxury, but are applicable to ever> sort a:td condition of manufacture. (But) it is much to be regretted that all this is los* sight of in the system

C. Eastlake, Hints on Household Taste, p. 71 of modern English design. At the china-shops, especially, we shall find that almost every article which, from its general form or association of color, approaches a standard of good taste, is either made in a rare and expensive quality of material, or has been prepared in so refined and laborious a manner, as to render it exceedingly costly. Now, perfection of quality and excessive accuracy of workmanship may add to the luxe, but never to the spirit of true art. On the contrary, I believe that there may be a sickly kind of high finish and an ignoble symmetry in design which will detract from its merit if it be good, and render it contemptible if it be p o o r . ^

Half the interest of Oriental, and indeed of all old china, depends on the artistic freedom with which it was decorated by actual handiwork; and though in this branch of manufacture, as in many others, mechanical aid has supplanted mAnual labor, there can be no reason why arabesques and other surface ornament should be printed with the mathematical precision of line which delights in representing opposite edges of a leaf as^they never are in nature, - identical in contour.

The practice of gilding china, as it is at present carried out, is a most objectionable one. It may be fairly questioned whether the application of gilding at all, looking to the nature of the material and the conditions of its manufacture, is satisfactory. But the fashion of gilding the edges of cups and plates, and touching up, as it were, the relieved ornament on lids and handles with streaks of cold, Is a monstrous piece of vulgarity.27

I have often wondered how it haj.ens that some of the most beautiful modern dinner-services we see are so frequently spoilt by the clumsy and utterly incongruous shape of the handles with which the veg- etable-dishea, soup-tureens, etc., are crowned. It 75----- Ibid., p. 22U.

26 Ibid., p. 229.

27 Ibid., pp. 230-1. 72 seems, however, that in accordance with the true spirit of modern British manufacture, the designer of the mould in which these veajels are shaped knows nothing of surface pattern itilch they are subsequently to receive. ... Surely grace of form is too important an element of beaut.\ to be thus neglectedJ If it is desirable for economy's sake that one mould should suffice far many surface patterns, then it is all the more necessary that that form should be in every respect a graceful one. A simple ring or round knob would be an infinitely better handle for dish-covera, etc., than the twisted stalks, gilt scorns, sea-shells, and other silly inventions, which we find so constantly repeated on them....*®

....I fear that good design rarely keeps its place in the market. ... All that the British public seems to care for is to get 'the last thing out1* taste is a secondary consideration. No doubt some of my readers ma; have recently noticed in the shop windows » little flower-vase of 'biscuit' or Parian ware, in the shape of a human hand modelled au nat­ ural, holding a narrow cup. A more commonplace and silly notion of a vase can scarcely be imagined, and ye: so delighted were the public with this new conceit that it sold everywhere in the hundreds. In one establishment alone twelve men were constantly employed in producing relays of this a r t i c l e . ^9

Not long ago there was a run upon toilet ser­ vices of white atone ware, decorated with a simple monochrome oorder, viz., either the wave pattern, or some variation of the Oreek fret... Now either of these patterns is excellent of its kind, and well-adapted to the purpose. But they are being gradually displaced by a new conceit. Some designer, with more ingenuity than good taste, hit upon the notion that pink and mauve ribbons, twisted back­ wards and forwards in a series of symmetrical loops, would form a fitting ornament for the neck of a ewer

TE ------Ibid., pp. 230-1. 29 Ibid., p. 232 73

and the edge of a waahing-baain. The notion la an absurd one, but It has become popular, and the pro* bability ia that not one housewife in ten cares to consider what possible connection there can be be­ tween cap-ribbons and a bed-room .tug. 30

Mr. bastlake, while condemning current production and taste, offered little beyond "..experience, baaed on a frequent in­ spection of pood examples, with a general knowledge of, and reverence far, the principles of sound art..." as a solution to these problems. He did not attempt to spell out the "principles of sound art," nor what specific "good examples" should be observed.

A personal bias, however, in favor of Greek form and design, is to be noted. Nevertheless, the author's opinions, which - in the main - are in favor of greater simplicity in art-manufacture, are of great interest from two points of view. One, they illustrate what the "critics" were saying in the 1^70’s. Two, they have been echoed and re-echoed by "critics" ever since.

If Mr. Lastlake was severely critical of commercial Lngllsh wares, these self-same wares were being held up in the United

States as good examples of the wedding of art and industry, while the commercial wares of thia country were indicted for their lack of "taste." Jennie Young, writing for the Conttmporary Review, turned her attention to the matter and wrotet

After the Civil War the industry rose with the rapidity characteristic of the country... Cream- colored and sronite wares, th:ck, heavy and clumsy, found their way into every house and restaurant, and 35---- Ibid., p. 235. 71*

manufacturers flourished* But with the peace came wealth and the wealthy would have none of the native earthenware. It was plebian, unpleasant, and posi­ tively fatiguing to handle. In course of time, its place was taken by French or English porcelain!.•• The first really American responses to the demand (for beauty) were made at Greenpoint (first porcelain by Thomas C. bmith) and Trenton, in view of the exhi­ bition of 1 8 7 6 , and that event called into activity so sudden and energetic the latent admiration of the great body of American people for ceramic art, properly so called, that manufacturers found that they must mingle art with commerce if they would re­ tain their places in trade.31

The same author, writ!nr about "Ceramic Art at the Exhibition"

(The Centennial), made no reference whatsoever to the ceramic production ox' this country, while praising the French Limoges - both faience and porcelain - the ware which provided Mary Louise

ItcLauxhlin of Cincinnati with her first Inspiration, Miss Young also cited the work of the Japanese as showing "greater wealth of 32 form and design than any other..." and commented upon the strong

Greek influence apparent in the wares of Denmark, bweden and

A .stria, she felt that the Swedish display was highly interesting.

George hard Nichols, on the other hand, wrote that* "The people of the North of Europe do not seem to display originality or invention in the potter's art. ... There was a great deal that was crude, yet vigorous, in the Swedish exhibit.Mr. Nichols,

^ J. Young, "Pottery, Old and New," Contemporary Review, XLV (February, 16%), p. 208.

^ J. Young, "Ceramic Art at the Exhibition," Lippincott's, XVIII (December, 1676), p. 708.

G. m . Nichols, og. cit., pp. 171 and 176. 75

In his Art Education Applied to Indus try, devoted many pages to the Centennial, as an argument in favor of the establishment of art education at all levels. His comments are of Interest in the present study, and included!

Certainly no modern production of oeramic art can be compared with those wonderful vases (Greek, Eg;ptian, etc.). Yet at the present period, Europe, and more especially Asia, has revealed new and beautiful resources in pottery. ... Of all the industries, none, perhaps, offers a larger field for the art of desirn than that of pottery. It is not surprising, then we see the United States so far behind all othtr countries, even in the mech­ anical devices of this industry, to find that she does not exhibit the slightest evidence of a know­ ledge of its exquisite art. The manufacture of pottery in the United States is as yet in U s in­ fancy. In that extensive commerce, which in England, France, and Germany and Italy employs so much artistic labor, we have but little part. Our potteries are few, and they produce only the cheaper and simpler undecorated stone and earthenware. 9ut it is hard for the potter's wheel to turn out un­ graceful shapes. Even in this country, the commonest pottery, where it Is not white, has a pleasing tints of yellow and gray. Tiles, jugs, jars, pitchers, and various dishes, even if the material be coarse and “ hioned in shapes of comeliness and

The somewhat kindly note thus Introduced did not soften kr.

Nichol's later statements regarding the Centennial*

Of the art of the potter in the United States there is not much to be said. At the present time his work is confined to the making of ironware, stoneware, and tiles. They are eocsllent of their kind, and have driven from the market foreign wares

Ibid., pp. 39-LiO. 76

of a aInilar character. Concerning the decoration of pottery, Which the commonest Chinese or Japanese artisan has at his fingers' ends, our manufacturers at Trenton, Cincinnati, tciotoville, and elsewhere, know but little. It is to be hoped that the magni­ ficent display of ceramics which came from foreign countries will teach them, and inspire them with emulation.35

Not only did Mr. Nichols uphold the examples of foreign wares, but he went to some length in describing the Oevres pottery and a recent investigation of the training of designers for that state- subsidized plant. The oevres manufactory, credited with among the most "artistic" wares, was mal ntained by the French government so that it might rise above ordinary commercial enterprises, give tone to public taste and bring pre-eminence to France. The Commission appointed to review the training of designers was headed by Viollet le Due, an historian and puiding light in the restoration of a number of uothic structures in France. The recommendations of his

Commission are so revealing as to the qualities desirable in the future production of the Sevres industry that the;, are worthy of note here*

The purity, beauty and pra e of Greek art. The security and vigor of Etruscan art. The brilliancy and originality of Persian art. The infinite variety, the marvelous coloring of Chinese art. The striking effects of decoration in Japanese art. The grace and inrenious combinations of Arabian art. The abundance and richness of Italian art. " T s ^ Ibid., p. 161. 77

The delicate grace of the arabesques of Rouen, Nevers, and Delft. The notile elegance m d the distinction of the Old Sevres of Louis XVI.36

It is to be inferred that M. le Due was not advocating the direct imitation of the ancient works, but it is plain, fro® various comments concerning the Centennial and current wares that lofty ideals [arovlded a ground for imitating rather than a ground for the furthering of the principles of the earlier cultures!

Mr. Nichols reserved his highest praise for the Chinese and

Japanese exhibits at Philadelphia - particularly for the latter.

He questions himself as to the reason for the strong appeal of the

Japanese w c t k , for its qualities which are not to he found in any other work. His solution is as follows*

The manufacture of its pottery, ...is carried on by the enterprise and genius of individual, not by assocleted, labor. ... In this independent atelier (the home work-shop), in this constant study of nature, and of the little thints and nearest, we have the cause of that endless variety of subject, simplicity of treat­ ment, freshness, originality, grace, and poetry which are the glory of Japanese art. This, then is the fascination which holds usj and here, also, in the Far East are found the true conditions of successful art industry. The head of the family is the artisan, his children are his students, his caban an atelier; while nature, with prodigal hand, furnishes the material. Ihe subjects for illustra­ tions are on every side. Vines clamber about his porch, flowers of every hue are in his garden, while to him, devout follower of J*uddha, the beasts of the fields and the fowls of the air have spiritual significance which finds pictorial expression in his decoration.J? ------Ibid., p. 91. 37 Ibid., p. 167. 78

This passage is particularly worthy of Inclusion here, since it demonstrates a somewhat romantic and "greener field" bias often evident in writings of the latter quarter of the nineteenth century* Its expression is especially poignant in J“r. Nichol's case, since his principal purpose in writing his 1877 volume was toward art education In the United States, where mass—production was even then becoming entrenched andirtmre art education for in­ dustry was to be made available to all levels of society.

The mass otf literature published - both in book and periodi­ cal form - concerning the Philadelphia Centennial was large, even for the late l870's. Popular magazines, such as the ConteB^>orary

Review and Lippincott'a, already cited, and Harper * a, carried reviews of the ceramic displays. The Ameri can Architect represented a periodical of another type. In all but one month of the year

1876, a series on "Ceramics at Philadelphia" was published In that magazine. The reports were not limited to architectural ceramics, but described all the ceramic production displayed. It was only in architectural ceramics, however, that the United States was generally conceded to have produced any work worthy of display*

Whether or not the publication of Lonf^llow's "Keramos" in

Harper's :n 1877 was actually related to current Interest in ceramic art, its appearance at that time and its content undoubtedly had some effect upon the readership of the day.

Sturgis and Krehbiel, in their Bibliography of *ine Art, published in 1397 as an aid to librarians in selecting books for 79 their new collections, reached only a snail m n b e r of readers, albeit a segment which, through its selction of books and attitudes toward them, undoubtedly wielded a proportionately large Influence. xn discussing volumes concerned with ceramics, the authors found but few written in English. In commenting upon Barber's Pottery and Porcelain of the United States. Sturgis wrotei

There is naturally but little artistic pottery made in *merlca, but there are a few old wares that are attractive, and two or three modern establishments have produced decorative pieces as good, perhaps, as modem industrial conditions allow.™

All the indictments of pottery produced in this country up through the nineteenth century were further amplified by the reaction generated by the Arts and Drafts movement: first, as it reached Its full flowering in England in the early 1890's, and second, as it achieved a role of some importance in this country. This movement was, of course, opposed to mechanical production and strove to recreate something of the handcrafts of earlier days. While it can not be said that Morris' sole aim was such a re-creation, since he held broader Interests pertaining to social justice, pleasure in livelihood, etc., the total irJ'luence was toward a withdrawal from the realities of life rather than a sincere attempt to understand current needs and to search for solutions to these needs. Con­ demning production without joy, Morris and his friends and followers - men of independent means - sought reality in unreality. Dora

Sturgis and Krehbiel, Bibliography of >ine Art, p. U8 . 80

Billington, in comnenting upon the foundation* of studio pottery as it is known in upland toda;, wrote*

Perhaps the first studio potter in this country was William Oe Morgan, a friend of "illiam Morris, and the only potter in the band of craftsmen.•• (He) waa more interested in colour and decoration than in plastic form, and devoted many years of research and experiment to the problems of the brilliant colours and plazea of Persian and other Near Eastern wares, which he learned to reproduce with remarkable fidelity. ’9

It may also be mentioned that* "Craft pottery in 1093 meant the painted and luatered wares designed by William do Morgan...... de

Morgan's system of designing on paper and entrusting the painting Ul to assistants. ..is quite out of tune with modern studio practice."

The interest in historical »ares which spurred the activities of late nineteenth-century potters, such as De Morgan, Mary L.

McLaughlin, Charles Volkmar, and August Delaherche, is further emphasized by the wotk of Mr. Nickerson in Newburyport, Massa­ chusetts. Of this work, Irene Sargent wrote in 1903*

....the recent, exact reproductionsof Etruscan pottery which have already won for Mr. Nickerson appreciation from the highest artistic sources. (His) experiments resulted in the 'reproduction', in the technical sense, of certain pieces of Etruscan oottery, the original molds of which are now owned by the doe ton Museum of Fine Arts. Cast from antique molds, formed of a red clay the same as the old in color and texture, finished with extreme accuracy, the new pottery is in every way identical with the pieces of the same design which issued from the kilns of Arrhetium. 5b D. Billington, "The Younger English Potters," Studio (LondonJ, CXLV (March, 19^3), p. 78. ^ d. Floud, "The Crafts Now and Then," Studio (London), CXLV (April, 19B3), p. 127. 91

In reproducing these simple ar,d artistic antiques, kr. Nickerson is diffusing correct models which will have an educative effect upon our own people*.. The New England potter is contributing his part toward the formation of a cultxired, critical publlo, which shall permit no crimes to be committed against the Beautiful, which is also the True and Sood.W.

Regardless of current opinion concerning the copying of historical wares, it mist be admitted that these independent potters, struggling

throuph many disappointments, did much to provide pert of the fund

of knowledge which has come to be the ground for education in

ceramic art. although their efforts were disassociated from the field

of commercial ceramic production, activities in both areas came to

bear uoon course-content when the first formaj education in ceramic

art was offered.

The wares of the domestic pottery industry were crude and

ugly, suffering greatly by comparison to those of Europe, according

to >vriter3 of the late nineteenth century. The works of indi­

vidual potters had much to commend them, although the long and

tortuous independent searches necessitated by* the lack of schools —

or even books - where information could be gained, obviated parti­

cipation by all but those of personal affluence.

Hie nineteenth century brought forth recognition of the

need for improved "art” products in this country and for the dis­

semination of technical information. One way in which such in­

formation could be spread most effectively was through schools.

Education in ceramic art was to become one answer to these needs. • — I. Sargent, "oome Betters and Their Products," Craftsman IV (July, 1903), pp. 2$$ and 2$7. PART II

THF t- STABLI3HMF.NT OF FORMAL rLOCATION IN CERAMIC ART

J U U l

Chapter 5

CHARLES FERGUS BINNS

Education in ceramic art, as we know it today, is the consequence of a variety of forces. Not the least of these were the men and women who devoted their lives to teaching and -jotting.

Some teachers and Individual potters have been introduced in Part I.

Their purposes and directions varied* none was concerned with formal education leading to a degree in ceramic art. Such a course 1 of study was initiated at Alfred University in 1900.

The story of the establishment of the Mew lork State School of Clayworking at Alfred, as well as of the growth and philosophy

of education in ceramic art throughout the first quarter of the

twentieth century, was the story of Charles Fergus Qinns. What forces shaped his life, what combination of interests and experiences? what particular attributes led to his being chosen

It should be noted here, lest misunderstanding arise, that tie claim is not being made that the nation's first ceramic course at the college level was offered at Alfred. That distinction belongs to The Ohio dtate University, which established a course in ceramic engineerin’ in 1895. It was Alfred, however, which first Oifered degree work in ceramic art. Alfred also initiated the ceramic engineering degree in 1900. 82 83

■a Director of the newly-estaolished New *ork State School of

Clayworking? What ware hla philosophic expressions on teaching and potting? What Influences did he exert? Pertinent questions all - and questions Which even the following brief sunnary may help to answer, shedding further light upon the general subject of the present work - education in ceramic art. The questions will be re- asked at the end of the chapter* their answers should emerge through it.

Early Lif e - England

Charles Fergus Binns was b o m in 18^7 In Worcester, England, where his father, Richard William Binns, was a director of the

Royal Worcester Porcelain Works. Richard Binns, born in Dublin, of parents in comfortable circumstances, received his schoolinp in

Ireland and England. He was then apprenticed to a Dublin hardware and crockery store. In l8/*5 he went to London to manage the china department of an early "department store." Marrying Elizabeth

Frances Ferrar, daughter of a Dublin physician, Richard Binns became associated with Royal Worcester in l8$l. A "Fellow-worker" wrote of him that he wus "...neither artist, craftsman, or chemist, but 2 his sympathetic nature served him..." The same author wrote that

Richard Binns had a particular liking for classical shapes in ------"itichard Hilliam Binns," Craftsman VIII (April, 190f?), p. 61** 8U ceramic wares. The limited Information thus presented seems to indicate that, Mr. Binns was primarily a business man, although interested, as were many men in the ceramic industry, in historic wares. The attraction of classical shapes and decoration was, indeed, strong amongst collectors and producers alike through the middle and latter part of the nineteenth century. Ur. Binns, "...a connoisseur, a student of archaeology..."^, was perhaps even more strongly interested than most men of his time.

It was into such an atmosphere that Charles Fergus, one of ten children, was b o m six years after his father Joined the

Worcester staff. Ceramics - both historical examples and con­ tent jorary industrial practice - undoubtedly were discussed fre­ quently in the home. A second strong influence in Charles' early life was that of Christian living* this did not mean a narrow piety, but a sincere interest in helping others to mare complete and satisfying lives. Charles early showed the interest in the work of the church which was to be an important part of his entire life.

tnterinr the Cathedral King's School, the young student began the usual classical education of the day. At the age of fourteen, in 1871, Charles was aporentieed to the Royal Worcester factory#

His apprenticeship, however, was somewhat unlike that of the average boy in that he was not apprenticed to learn one small task or even limited to one department. This provided a decidedly

^ J . r. McMahon, "Charles Fergus Binns," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XVIT (April, 1938)* p. 17Zi. 05 unusual advantage for Charles. He had the opportunity to observe - and undoubtedly to try his hand at - every phase of the production process. It would be necessary, perhaps, to have some knowledge of pottery Manufacture to fully appreciate the unusual aspect of

Charles* apprenticeship. The ordinary young lad, learning one narrow task - such as "batting out" for the Jiggerman - could be­ come, eventually, a Jirgerman. He weuld not become a glazer, a fire-reader, or a thrower, horkers in large plants freqiently have a very limited knowledge of tasks other than their own.

Charles, however, had the opportunity to learn as he would. That he felt a certain need for understand!ng all phases of the manu­ facture is manifested in the fact that he did learn. Thus, the foundation of what was to become a broad knowledge of ceramics was laid.

touring the years of his apprenticeship, arrangements were made for Charles to Journey to Birmingham for the study of

chemistry, a study not available in Worcester. He had shown an

early inclination toward scientific pursuit, an inclination which

the Cathedral King's School could not satisfy. The English ceramic

industry of the 1860's did not, in general, employ chemists, but

Charles seemed to ha-re an early comprehension of the possible

advantages of scientific method as applied to the ceramic industry.

Thus it was that in addition to Charles' unlimited possi­

bilities for ceramic education in the plant proper, a chemical

laboratory was set up for him to experiment in scientific chemical 86 control. All this was, of course, before the days of "ceramic engineering," which grew out of the application of chemistry and scientific method to ceramic practice. Charles* work at the factory continued for thirteen years. During this period, in 1882, he married Mary Ferrar,^* from Ireland. At the a£.,» of twenty- seven (l881i), he was placed in charge of Royal Worcester's London sales agency. While in that city he lectured before the Society of Arts and other organizations. Although the content of the lectures is unknown, it appears probable, considering the nature of the audience and Binns' own interests, that they were concerned with either historic wares or "art applied to industry." The latter seems quite probable when it is recalled that England had been forcefully exploiting the application since her miserable showing - by her own admission - in the Exhibition of 1 8 ^1 .

Following his stay in London, which was of nine years' duration and which afforded a very different sort of experience

that the earlier factor.v years, Mr. Binns returned to the olant

at Worcester as Technical director. It was during this period that

his earliest writings for publication were done. They were

published in England, although not until shortly after Mr. Binns

h»d left for the United States.

------j------A distant cousin of Elizabeth Frances Ferrer, wife of Richard Binns and also from Ireland. 87

He served as editor of Ceramic Technology, ^l ng Some

Aspects of Technical Science as Applied to lottery Manufacture, first published in 1897, with the second and third editions appearing rapidly, in 1093 and 1901* The work was assembled by

the Pottery Gazette, a ceramic trade Journal. It included chapters on* "The Chemistry of Pottery,” "Analysis and ^rnthesls," "Potter's

Clays and Iheir Components," "The Biscuit Oven," "Glazes and Their

Composition," and "Colours and Colour-making." The subject matter

may not seem particularly startling tonay, but its appearance, in print, was far from usual in 1397, as has been pointed out in the

first part of Chapter Four, dealing with early technical lit­

erature.

The Preface to Ceramic Technology may - or may not - be in

Binn's words, but his concurrence on their substance seems assured,

the ideas expressed are pertinent here*

Since the days of Simeon ohaw nothing dealing with the technical science of pottery has been pub­ lished in anglanl, a:id the proprietors of the Pottery Gazette, in offering the present work to their clients, feel' that, wh:ie the could not refrain from making a beginning, it is only a first, step that has oeen taken. The authors wish to express tleir indebtedness to the published works of brogniart, Salvetat, Seger, Lanpen- beck nnd Percey, and also to the p^gt s of Die Thonin— dustrie Zeitung and the Handbook to the Pottery in the Geological Jtuseum. They have attempted to gather and sift scientific information from every possible source... Hie advances made in technical education during the recent years, more especially in Germany and the 'Tnited States, render it imperative that Great Britain should be roused to an appreciation of the fact that her 88

corarercial position is seriously assailed. ... Germany Ion?: ago made strenucus efforts for the complete scientific and technical education of her people, end so far from relaxinr those efforts today she is continually exerting all her powers in the same direction. From the United States comes the report that at one of the Universities5 a class in ceramics has been established with the view of turning out, after a two or a four years' course, men competent to take charge of any department in practical potting. These things evidence the opinion fixed in the minds of all thoughtful men that education is the foundation of all progress. It would appear, at first, to be necessary to arouse those who think, to the importance of education, and it is partly for this onrpose that this bock has been published.*

The concern with education and the dissemination of technical information was, then, an early interest of Charles F. Binns, as wel] as one that was to remain with him always. It was further evidenced by the 1898 publication of his own work* The Story of

the Potter. The subtitle was: "Being a Popular Account of the

Kise and Progress of the Principal Manufactures of Pottery and

Porcelain in All Parts of the World, with borne Description of

Modem Practical Potting." Of the latter "Description," Mr.

Binns wrote in his Preface (dated Worcester, 1897)* "The chapters

on the practical side of the subject are entirely new, and are 7 the outcome of a lengthened experience in a large manufactory."

^ Referring to The Ohio btate University.

^ C. F. Binns (Editor), Ceramic Technology, pp. v-xii.

7 C. F. Binns, The btory of thn Potter, Preface, n. p. 09

T h M t chapters covered methods of shaping, clay bsdy composition, kilns, transfer printing and processes of decoration* Binns' interest In breaking down the traditional seorecy of the pottery industry **• to rensln with hie throughout his life* It appears probable that his strong oonrlotlons about helping others wars partly responsible, at least. These oonrlotlons were evinced further an interest In technical education even before he had beoone a teacher as suoh. It nay perhaps bs said that the convictiaa

Is a necessary - if not sufficient - condition of the second. It should also be wentloned that the greater willingness of manu­ facturers to divulge operating information could have been due either to a sense of security induced by full consumption of their products or - conversely - by a realisation of the need to "share" as a means of producing better wares, thus gaining more sales abroad to improve England's reputation oeramic-wlse. Charles Fergus

Binns was an early participant in those activities which were to make the "secrets" of pottery-making open to all.

Arrival In the United atetea

The needs and purposes which brought Hr. Binns to reside in the United States are not fully known. A reorganisation of the

Worcester plant took place in the mld-90's. The reorganisation, o according to Hiss Elsie Binns, was responsible for the move to

Elsie Binns, personsl Interview. 90 this oountry.

Ur* Binns had traveled to tha Unitad States previously, in 1893, having bean sent by Royal Worcester to acoompany its dis­ play for tha Columbian Exposition hold in Chicago* At that tins ha beoame acquainted with a number of Anarloan pottery manufacturers - particularly those from Trenton. Whan tha low repute of American ceramic production of that era is recalled, it seems doubtful that ha was attracted to the United States by reason of the industry*

He may have had a desire to aid the Industry technically, having been encouraged by men from Trenton to do so* He may have viewed the Industry as a business soon to blossom into ful] flower*

An anonymous author wrote in 1922, of Binns1 reason for oominp heret "In 1897, having a vision of opportunity in the rising prestige of ceramic America, he undertook a lecture tour of this country."9 If a lecture tour were indeed undertaken - and this is the only reference to it which has been found - there were at least two possible agencies under which it may have been sponsoredt the Arts and Crafts Society or Chautauqua* The more probable of the two is the former, enjoying a vigorous birth in this country in the letter 1890's* Its flowering in England occurred, roughly, In 1893, and it appears more than possible that Charles F* Binns was associated with the movement there* His later membership and standing as a Master-oraftaman in the Boston 8------"In Recognition," Journal of the American Ceramic Society, V (April, 1922, Part II), p. 1U* 91

Society of Art* and Croft* makes tho oonnootlon tenable.

Whatever the reasons for emigration, Binns settled in fronton,

New Jersey, in 1898* The reason for settling in Trenton nay have 10 been, primarily, the newly-established Sahool of Applied Art and, seoondly, the presence of the Lenox China Company, ex* the reverse order of Importance may hare been true. One author has written that he "...settled in Trenton, becoming connected with the Lenox China Company* Hia natural love of art led him to accept the directorship of the Trenton Art Sohool (School of*

Applied Art)..."11 liiss Norah Binns, who placed the school first, stated further that her father worked in the laboratory of the school by day and taught there by night. This would have, indeed, left little time for Lenox, unless Binns' services were of a purely advisory nature or unless he was engaged in research for the pottery while working in the school's laboratory during the day.

Kither possibility is likely, Elsie Binns avers that the former ia correct, English potters were, in the opinions of Amerioan firms, much better informed in technical matters than they them­ selves, so that the advice of English potters was sotively sought.

The School of Applied Art in fronton was one of the early attempts to provide further training for men employed in the ----13---- Norah Binns, "Charles F. Binns," Journal of the American Cersmio Society. VI (January, 1923), pp. 23-U*

11 "In Recognition," Journal of the American Ceramic Society. V (April, 1922), p. lb. 92 pottery Industry. Trsnton wsa an active pottery oantar and a logical alt* Tor auoh a school. In 1891 Thomas Proston had written, in regard to laproviag natters in tha pottery induatryt

It has basn suggested that tha different pottery firms should unite in aacuring batter native artistie tel ant by founding a tachnloal school, but tha suggestion ao far has not borne practical fruit* ...What la naadad..*la a sohool Ilka tha Kensington Schools of London, whoa a principal aim shall be to train pupils in tha decorative art as applied to pottery. The state of New Jersey has offered to aaalat materially in such an enterprise...but as yet tha project is in tha future.**

The School of Applied Art grew out of a number of opinions such as this. It had become a reality by the time Binns arrived in Trenton.

The exact policies at the time of his directorship are not known, although an article written In 1923 gave the following information conearning the four-year evening course for employed pottery workerst

To secure tha diploma men must produce a "masterpiece* in which either artlatlc quality or technical workmanship, or both, la shownf or the development of an invention or device that will Improve aosm process of clay manufacture, In whioh tha originality of the idea (not necessarily pat­ entable) and the technical workmanship are given equal weight.13

Instruction offered at the School of Applied Art wns intended to aid employees of the potteries in the area. Mr. Binns, with soma

— ------Thomas Preston, "Potters and Their Craft," The Chautau— quan, XIV (November, 1891), p. 173*

^ "School of Industrial Art, Trenton." Journal of the American Ceramic Society. IV (January, 1??3), p. m l i u t i o n of the worth of hie own brood experiences within tho plant at loreester, woo undoubtedly lnflusatlal in promoting a broad background of pottary axparlanoaa for tha school*a worker- students* Broad aa hia own axperlenoe had boon, It should ba polntsd out hara that Blnna had never mads any pottary himself prior to tha Trenton period* His knowladga of production nathoda was well-founded, but hara, for tha flrat tine, ha raally had an opportunity to produce individual pieces*

In addition to his activities as a teacher and teehnloal advisor while in Trenton, Hr* Binns was occupied with several intaraata. Ha oontinued hia work aa a lay-reader in tha ohuroh and was active in die affairs of tha American Ceramic Society, of which ho was a charter mewber* Tha Society and Hr. Binns* role in the organisation will be discussed more fully in Chapter 2 of this section.

Alfred - 1900 to 1910

During tha last years of the nineteenth century, while Binns was in Trenton, events ware occurring in a snail Haw Tork State village which ware to bring all hia earlier years of axparlanoa

Into sharp focus, and to establish the nation's first degree* granting curriculum in ceraaio art* Why these events should have occurred where they did and as the: did is a story of increasing 9k

Interest la technological studies la higher education, la economics, and la state and local pride.

Tha rlllape «ai Alfred, boat of Alfred University, a taalli private, denoadnatlonal sohool which had baan founded la 1836.

Booths Colwell Daris, who baeaaa prssldant of tha university la

109$* faead a problem. Tha school was in financial distress and

President Darla, sensing the naad for technological courses la this ever-increasingly technological culture, was opan to suggestion on studies of suoh a nature, seeing in them an opportunity to lmprore financial status ah11a aerring tha naad.

Tha following excerpt is froa an editorial which appeared

In the Bulletin of tha Aweriean Caranlo Society, titled "Tribute to Boothe Colwall Darla, A Construetire Leader in Ceramics"!

Shea 'Jake Merrill and Charles Harris, operators of a roofing tile plant at Alfred Canter, draw to tha attention of Dr. Daria that New *ork State should have a oolleplate course in oeraale technology, Dr. Daria promptly took leadership In formulating plana, securing political support, and obtaining tha necessary legislative action. Not content with haring a ceraaio department only, he oouncilled and secured support for a college of ceramics, for lifting the Instruction from the empirical to the fundnsental, and for broad­ ening the curriculum to cover the entire range of ceramic arts and sciences. ... Through the efforts of President Daria, J. J. Merrill, the late Judge P. B. McLennan, and other friends of Alfred, the attention of the Oorernor (Theodore Roosevelt) was oalled to the fact that Ohio had established a school of ceramics, and that New York should be the second state in the union to establish such a school, as New York had a wide rariety of eeramlo industries and furnished the greatest market in the country for ceramic products.1U

^ "Tribute to Booths C. Daria," Bulletin of the American Ceramic dociei^, XII (June, 1933), pp. 161, lb£ and 163* 9$

Oovtmor A o o i m l t signed the bill to boring the "Nov York State

Sohool of Gi«ywworklng11 into existence* The facte that taro tllo plants wars in oparatlon In Alfred, that native clay was areliable, and that Ur. Merrill enjoyed political connectlone in Albany should not be overlooked*

A Director of the new school was sought amongst graduates fro* tha five-year-old Ceranlo Engineering Department at The Ohio

State University* The first graduate of that oourse received hia degree in 1900 and was the only Member of hia class, so President

Davie had to look elsewhere* He had scam knowledge of Binns, although the latter had been in this country but three short years*

President Davis want to Trenton to discuss likely candidates with hia* Davis' sincere interest in the entire venture prompts the

thought that he may have investigated the infant American Ceranlo

Society and so come to a decision in favor of asking Binns' advice*

The latter, who had undoubtedly found teaching to be his aetler, wistfully said to President Davis, "If I were free, how I should like to be considered for die position*■ Davis then asked if

Binns could arrange to aooept the Directorship*^

Charles Fergus Binns was present, aa Direotor, when the cornerstone of the building to house the new sohool was set in place*

It was upon that occasion that he saidi

------1 5 ------Miss klsle Binns, personal interview* 96

I » m thi sohool thronged with busy workers. I fosl tho throb of tho engines and h w r tho roar of tho kilns.•• I ooo thooo who dream of graceful fora and glowing colors r sail sing, by tho work of tho hands, the eroatlons of tho brain* I see Issuing frosi thooo walls a suooosslon of studonts eallod to toko ohargo of clay "Working ostabllshawnts In all ports of tho country. I soo toohnioal and training schools arise.••and tholr professor# are nan frow Alfred. Z say that thors lie hidden hero vast possibilities and.••that all things are possible to those who bellows* 16

Many of Binns* beliefs regarding eoraado education wore expressod by hln in an article which appeared In The Craftsasn in 1903* The present writer, rather than paraphrasing and thus denying the reader the experlenee of reading Blnns* words for himself, takes the liberty of including here noteworthy passages from the article*

Until a very few years ago two doors and two only were open to the aspiring clay worker* He aust either enter a factory *nd take his place at the work-benoh, or he aust plunge Into an Individ­ ual enterprise- and props his way to knowledge* The former course usually resulted in a degree of mechanical skill, Halted to one style of produc­ tion and becked by no theoretioal knowledge} the latter involved long and tedious experimentstlon and almost certain dlscouragement• At the present aoaant another course is possible* There are schools of clay-working open, and within their walls both the narrow specialism and the uncertain groping may be avoided* The most recent field to be invaded by the education spirit is that of clay* Long negleoted, or handed over to the empiric and the hack decor­ ator, pottery has begun to elalm its rightful place anong the arts, and an advance ia noticeable all

16 C. F* Binns, cited by J* Nelson Norwood, *lfty Years of Ceramic Education, p. 7. along tho lino* Cortain Important roasona prosoat thoooo It o s why tho realm of ceramics ahoald ho doolt with aa demanding serious study and apoolal knowledge. From a technical rlow point tho ceramic industries, (dividing It with metallurgy and general chemistry), cover about one-third of tho range of manufacturing chemistry. In this classification tho torn ceramics la made to oover all tho manufacturing operations which concern themselves with combina­ tions produced by fire, pottery, glass and cement. Tho problems In oaoh case, If not exactly similar, are distinctly analogous. Again, the clay-resources of the oountry are unlimited, and the timber supply is growing small. The utilisation of clay for building purposes is becoming mors and mere impor­ tant. In the third place tho problems presented by pottery are special and intricate. Even the burn­ ing of a simple piece of clay Involves chemical reactions of a complicated nature, and as these operations are usua ^ly conducted upon a large scale, the money risk is very high. For these reasons, then, an educetlcn In ceramics is desirable. From the standpoint of craftsmanship an educa­ tion Is even more Important. The art of producing beautiful pottery is so closely interwoven with the lays of chsmicnl combination that no one can hope to be a successful clay-worker who has no knowledge of scientific procedure. Several schools of clay- working have been established in the United States, but in only one of these, the New York State School at Alfred, has special attention been given to the development of artistic pottery. A threefold purpose was set before the school by the management. 1. To serve as an experiment station and assist in developing the resources of the State In clays and shales. 2. To stimulate the production of fine pottery and porcelain. 3. To educate students in every branch of clay working. The first object is distinctly utilitarian. The purpose of the owner of a olaybed is, mainly, to turn the largest possible amount of his material into money. The last named object is utilitarian in part, for skilled men are needed in every branch of faotory work, and they aust therefore be in­ structed in factory methods. The second object is utilitarian only in a subsidiary way. Money ■airing oan never b# tha prl— purpose In producing Tina wares* The craftsman m a t lira* but hia craft la the first thing* The sohool offers several anurses* A full oourse of four years in technology* A course of two years in practical clay-working and a oourse of two years in applied art* The last named will be the ■oat interesting to the readers of The Craftsman* and* therefore* the ea.lor part of this account will be oonoerned d t h it* The sohool was opened in the spring of 1901* and a number of students set themselves with enthus­ iasm to the work at hand* It was necessary that some idea of form should be presented to them) many had aoaroely seen a piece of decorative pottery* and certainly had no oonoeption of making any such thing* A number of forms in plaster were therefore prepared and molds made* This had a double purpose* Molding* however objeotlonable artistically* is a fact and must be recognised* and* by mesne of mold­ ing* primary students could learn to manipulate olay and study applied design before they had acquired the ability to create* This method of pro­ cedure had the effect of enlarging the horlson of the students and setting before them the possibil­ ities of their chosen art* Every atudsnt in art was set to study elemen­ tary and applied design with such simple drawing exercises as seemed necessary in each ease* A course In simple chemistry was also deemed advisable* for intelligent design depends largely upon a knoeledfe of the materials used* Then it was felt to be possible that aome studenta might be placed in a position where there would be no chemist to whom to turn for colors and glases* so that for one to be able to make one's own combinations was a distinct point of advantage* Building upon this foundation of pure soienoe and art* the Director and his assistants have been able to develop a strong feeling for the good and true* both technically and artlet 1 oally* The Mew York State Sohool is equipped with a well organised department of art* under the charge of Miss Adels Id M* HLanohard of Boston* By means of this department It Is possible to receive students who knew nothing of art and to teach them to produce creditable pottery* This does not mean that there is any division between art and technical knowledge* but 99

that the principle* of draughtsmanship and design are used as the necessary foundation for the craft. The separation into department* ia aerely a question of Manipulation aid convenience. The technical laboratory, whore clay* and glases are weighed op, nixed and pround, nust be planned differently fron the Modelling room, though the aane atudent nay prepare hia olay in one department and uae it in another. The Director'a office ia a busy aoene after a firing. A nunber of atudenta, each with an arnful of experinanta, are waiting to discuss results. One by one they are taken in hand. Notebooks are produced, the Mixture* exanined and ooapared with the results and adrioe is given for the next step. The examine tlon of trials ia an Important natter and often takes a considerable aaount of tine. ... The beauties of glase have received close attention at Alfred. The tender texture of the dull-aurfaos glaaea called 'natt' has oeen brought to grant perfection. It is not enough, in the opinion of the Director, to simply deaden the gloes. The sand-blast will do that, but there mist be developed a special quality sonatinas called 'silky1, sonstimes 'kid glove', but rnhloh nay aore aptly be ooapared to the texture of an egg shell... This la caused by a special chealcal consideration in the glase, and students being started on the right lines, are encouraged to work for it. *or the most part, the students place and fire their cam kilns. Lady students cannot very well do this, but there is always help to be had when needed.17

These passages are revealing of Blnns' philosophy insofar as oeranie education and teaching were concerned. His interests were further revealed by the fact that his work as lay-reader in the Episcopal Church, which had been continued even through the few years at Trenton, was quiokly initiated upon hia settling in Alfred. ----- re------Charles F. Blnns, "Education in Clay," Craftsman. IV (June, 1903), pp. 160-8. 100

Khamledge of tho lubjaot'a opinions and actions ara necessary to understanding, and fkrther understanding has baan implemented by tha words of a foramr studsnt aid colleague,

John F. MoMahon, now Dean of tha Maw York 3 tat a Collars of

Ceramics. Daan McMahon1a artiole, edltad by Elais Blnns, a daughter of Charlaa F. BLnns, appaarad in 1936. Tha following excerpts ara r eleven ti

Charlaa Blnns was born and brad a gentleman. Ha was a shy parson and ona with a charming manner. Hia looks and carriage lapraaaad ona favorably on first sight. Ha was a conscientious worker and had tha ability to plan his work and an indua- trlousness to work his plans. Tha power of concen­ trations was ona of his greatest assets and his vary retentive wind was aver at his oonaand. Ha read a good deal, aoatly on subjects having to do with oeramlcs, philosophy, or ri&iglon and ha en­ joyed a pood detective story. His greatest pleasure eane fron 'doing some- thing', either alone or in cooperation with others. Ha enjoyed d r a m tlas and liked to work in hia garden. A good smoke was restful to hin and though ha pre­ ferred his pipe, he liked a pood cigar. Ha welcomed visitors to his horn, especially studenta, in all of whow he took a personal interest. Not being what might be termed a talker, ha usually reserved his speech until he had something to say. He was a 'family man* and enjoyed being and -working with Ms family about the home. He suffered two great losses, that of his son in 1912 at the ape of 28 and that of his wife and partner after forty-two years of happy companionship. He was never known to 'beef, bhould something be wrong, he either adjusted to it or saw to it that it was adjusted. He placed his trust in his fellow men and never interfered with the other fellow'a job. He lived a full life and grew old gracefully, there not having been a time that he did not have something at hand with which to occupy himself.^"

^ llellahon, op. £lt., p. 176. 101

The p n e t d l m la helpful in focusing an imago of the Director of the new school, upon whom Alfred bestowed, la June 1901, the honorary degree of Master of Saleoce. Ceramic classes had first net in the spring of that year, following the equipping of the college. Classes were also offered in the suaner of 1901.

The summer course was an Innovation In several respects.

First, being a summer course, it provided an opportunity for those eager to learn pottery-making who were not able to attend the regular, winter sessions (teachers especially). Second, the summer course provided the same opportunity for Instruction in the many phases of pottery making that the winter sessions offered. To recall the regrets expressed by Mary G. Scherer of Newcomb

College concerning the unavailability of such ins traction, or the eagerness with which Cincinnatians flocked to Wheatley's classes in under-the-glnse painting, is to realise what study at Alfred must have meant to many.

Ur. Blnns, himself, in a quotation earlier included here, mentioned that "several schools of clay-working have recently been established in the United States, but in only one of these, the

New York jtate School at Alfred, has special attention been given

to the development of artistic pottery." Discounting the phrase­

ology of the period and Blnns' natural pride in the new school, his meaning would have been made clearer had he said, "Only at

Alfred.... students making pottery, from clay preparation through 102 firing, with close attention to form and design.••"» beoause it waa in this - the entire fabricatlon by the atudenta of "artiatlo" pottery - that Alfred'a innovation lay. The workera at Newcomb and Cincinnati - yea, even the earlier china paIntera - had been concerned with "artistic" ware, and It would be unfair not to eo credit them. It m a t be remembered, though, that very few had formed the waret even Miss UoLaughlln did not eeaay to do ao until aha began her porcelain experiment a at the turn of the century. Ihen, too, the ventures and undertakings of ore-1900 were not directed toward formal education In ceramic art.

Ahe curriculum at Alfred waa augmented, in 1902, by the inclusion of a "Normal clasa...featuring the use of clay in art teaching."^ The Inclusion of such a course undoubtedly waa a consequence of the summer1 a experience in 1901. The summer course proved attractive to art teacherst their enthusiasm for the possi­ bilities of clay in art teaching and the fact that art teachers had heretofore been unable to secure instruction in its use prompted the new "Normal course" at the undergraduate level. The preparation of art teachers for New York State Certification continued, with some modifications, until 1933*

It was during these first busy years at Alfred that Blnns served as vice-president, then president, of the American Ceramic

Society. Hie address, upon retiring as president, was titled

1 9 ------J. Nelson Norwood, Fifty Years of Ceramic Education, p. 11. 103

"The Progress of Ceramic Art." It rofleotod an attitude, on

Blnns' party quit# in keeping with earlier rafaranoaa In tha proaant work to American eoraale production. Ha said, in parti

It h i at hara ba noticad that in sons of tha ■oat awrkad advances it la difficult to say whathar tha artistic or tha taohnlcal ia tha more conoarnad. Tha former is tha nora obvious, cartaInly, but tha lattar ia fully aa laportant. Tha work displayed by tha National Manufactory of Sarraa at tha Paris Exposition of 1900 waa tha finaat axhlblt of flna poroalain a war ahowi. Technically par fact, it waa artiatioally flna, but, of course, would be called a conereial failure (i.e., baoausa subsidised). Art is a natter not of new discovery, but of a particular expression. It is, In fact, the soul of production, while tha technical Is nerely the frame or body. ... Once more it is laid upon no to raise tha lament that we do not make flna porcelain. Hotel ohina, Belleek, Faience, each has its place taut tha lower of American ceramics can not handle flna specimens of European wares without a pang of regret, Nhy is tha like not made heref ... Ba it remembered that flna wares can not ba made for money alone, that profit must not be thought of - at least in tha beginning - if a world-wide reputation is to ba made, it will be apparent why our manufacturers have not touched the question.*®

Blnns felt that tha realisation of Amerloan porcelain waa a matter

of (1 ) more trained technicians and (2) the disco eery and use of

American materials. Ha was attempting to aid in both these respects

through his teaching and writing. Ha wrote, in tha years 1903 and

190b, a series of "*otos on tha Use of Amsrioan Clays for Por- 21 colain and Gras." These were published In Karasik Studio. ------WM ■ ■ - 1 ' C. F. Blnns, "Tha Progress of Ceramic Art," Transactions of tha American Ceramic boolety. IT (1902), pp. 20-1*. 21 For further information on this periodical, see psge 1 7 7 * loll accompanying a mab«r of articles by the French potter ltadle

Dost. Blnna tranalated the aoapceiticns suggested by Doat into

Materials available in this country. Both Doat* a articles and

Blnns* "Notes* were subsequently published in book form, Or and

Feu Ceraalca (1905).

Blnns stated, in an article already quoted here that Alfred, frou its inception of eerasie education, offered several coursess a full course of four years in technology, a two-year course in practical elaywerklng and a two-year course In applied art* The small enrollment of the early years would argue for ccMson classes, regardless of the type of course undertaken. One "technologist" graduated in 190U - J. F. Krehbiel - and one in 1905 - Paul £•

Cox. The latter has been referred to as "Alfred's first graduate in ceramic art," although "...Professor Blnns did not share this opinion but held respect for Cox because he had mastered each adjunot of the potter's craft other than design and decoration.

The final phrase of this statement (underlined by the present writer)indicates that course differentiations were maintained despite the small enrollment. It is not amiss to observe, however, that the student body - "technologists," "practical claywcrkers,"

"applied artists," "normal studsnts," or whatever combination of these were present in any one year - worked in conjunction. Due to such a procedure, both "technical" and "non-technical" students enjoyed certain advantages from the association. This

z^"Paul £. Cox, Hester Potter," Ceramic Age. XLIV (Deoember, 19U9), p. 398. 10$ was not pooolblo for tholr contemporaries at Iho Ohio State

University, where ceramic engineering only waa than offarod. Nor waa it poaalbla ia auooaadinf years aa enrollment increased, for by 1910, Alfred had aatabliahad aeparate four-year curricula for engineers and art lata* It la to bo seen, however* through a report of 191U* that tha dirlalon waa not anforoad until that year, whan K T, Hontgoewry aado tha following atatenant regarding tha eurrloulua at Alfreds

Previous to thia year, tha work of tha junior and aonlor yaara waa largely elective* ao that nany atudenta In tha taohnloal oouraa took work In tha Art Department to the detriment of thalr taohnloal training* or took work In tha oollage, that they night aatlafy tha Hagmt'a requirement of hew *ork Stato for toaohora' certification, to tha datrlnant of their undivided internet In eoranloa and tholr determination to nake It tholr life work* We have learned through experience that thia polioy waa faulty* and wo have* therefore* in thia year's cat­ alogue changed these courses for two atrong* inde­ pendent ooursea* one In taohnloal ceramics and one in art* Eaoh oovers a four year period and in eaoh all subjects are required**^

Alfred'a first "Ceramic Art and Deaign" graduate* according to the aohool'a reoorda* waa Kisa S* Randolph* who reoelved her degree in 1906*

Profesaor Binna* o an caption of the profession of teaching waa expressed in lectures delivered before the faculty of Alfred

University* from which the following two excerpts wore takent

23 £• T* Montgomery* "Recent Developments and Improves* nt a at the M. T* State School of Clay Working and Ceramics," Transactions of the American Ceramlo Socle tar* XVI (February, 19lii )* P* 371?* 106

bottltdgt of student personality 1* moat im­ portant In our work. No n n i bo a U « , If wo are to bo ouoooooful teachers, to trove otudont character, to do toot signs of failure, and to boll evidence of UproroMnt. bo w ot bo reedy to ooll tho erring otudont to took in o lowing way, not eoatont merely to giro tho story to tho registrar and record o fa 11- uro in indoXiblo ink. They oro with uo but four yoaro ot tho lengoot and in that short tins it is lold upon uo to oountoraot tho influence of on unhappy horn, to sun lifo into a a inntod oharacter, to curb gently a too hoadstrong ambition, to satisfy tho orarings of a hungry mind, to stinulato a Jaded appotlto to know- lodgo - in a word to tako suoh notarial as oonos to handand shapo it Into a nan. Aba oollogo world is far noro than a oosnos of faots. Foots thoro nuat ba as a foundation upon whleh to build, but any ono a an own an onoyelopodla. Add to tha faots tha paraonalitles of tho instruetors and tho aasoeiation with a group of students with similar and sympathetic sins, add tho competition of tho elass within ltaolf and of olass with class, add the riralry and discipline of tho football field, add tha thousand and ona things which are sunned up in tho word 'environment' and tha oollogo stands un­ rivaled as a moans of enabling ona to ad.luat himself to spy circumstances or conditions ho may neat. •••it is obviously impossible to present tha student with a fund of information upon which ha oan draw oheeks without limit. It is possible, however, as has boon proved repeatedly, to so equip a student that ho will ba prepared to moot a now situation with sueoeas and satisfactional*

Charles Blnns wrote nany papers for tho American Ceramie society and articles for periodicals - chiefly Tho Craftsman - between 1900 and 1910. Half his total writings of suoh a nature appeared in that decade and were vary indicative of his Interests and philosophy* The more technical articles of tha period, appearing in the American Ceramio Society publications, were out-numbered by those of a mors peneral and philosophical nature. The latter .----- C. F. Blnns, cited by F. kcllahon, op. d t . • p. 175* 107 appeared mainly in Tha Craftsman* but alae in Intamational Studio and Tha Architectural Record. Several of thaaa articlaa were devoted to hand-building; aa a means of forming clay* In ona ha wrotat

It ia but a ahort while ainea it was believed that olay work eould not ba produced without apodal applianoaa. Tha whaal waa difficult, if not im- poaaibla, and moulding waa undaalrabla because of ita lack of individuality* Than atudy of (Aaariaan) Indian aathoda opanad tha way for olay building* ••• In pottary which ia faahionad by tha hand nathod, thara ia a certain vibrant undulation of aurfaoa which at onca removes it from eomparlaon with tool work or maohlna finiah. Not that tha potter's whaal la to ba claaaad aa a machine; but in shaping a piaca by tha wheal thara la an alrnoat irraaiatible daaire to turn and polish tha clay until it aaaumaa a mechanical quality**?

Tha "irraaiatible daaire to turn and pollah" by no means should ba interpreted as Indicating a disapproval of the wheel by Blnns, for in 1906 he wrotat

Skill upon the wheel la tha ultima thule of tha pottar'a craft* Sad it ia that tills lmple- ment, tha lova of tha potter for untold ages, is belnr stifled by tha rush of competition* The mold and the steal tool are pressed into service and the olay is mercilessly dragged between them in response to s ruthless demand* Hare and thara is a potter left* A few are to be found in factories where tha pressure of machine-made goods has not yet crushed them* Nora are working in studios* These are they who have learned for lova and it la upon them that dependence m a t ba placed to keep the art alive* Clay in lta responsive plasticity la so human, so living, that no ona can wonder at tha de­ lights of tha potter in caressing it upon the wheel* It is verily, not human but feminine* It has tha

^ C* F. Blnns, "Clay in tha Pottar'a Rand," Craftsman* VI (May, 1901*), pp. 162 and 166* 108

ooy rtiiitano« and tha reluetant yielding of a blushing maiden.

These rwarka followed a criticism, in tha same article, of tha craftsman's undertaking work half-done by a wanufaoturert

e.g., hooking ruga whoae designs have bean printed on the becking, painting ahlna by following purohaaed patterns, and burning wood In a pattern stamped thereon* Thia criticism waa Indicative of Binna*

belief that the craftenan ahould underetand not only technique but dealgn9 that hia experience ahould be broad and that all - not Just

some - of hia capacitiea developed.

The fact that Binna wrote for The Craftsman and that he waa a member of the Boa ton Society of Arts and drafts demonatrated hia strong alliance with the concepta of the Arta and Crafta

Movement. The Craftaman conducted an eaaay contest In 1908 In which Binna waa awarded flrat prime. Hia eaaay diecuaaed the poor

standing of the United States at Philadelphia in 1876 and the eub-

sequent notable collection of wcrks of industrial art shewn in

Chicago in the *omen*8 Building in 1903* In accounting for the

happy change, he wrotat

A few minds were, however, aet to thinking (in Philadelphia). Of courae they were feminine minda. It always needs a feminine mind to do an original thing. Questions were asked. Study was begun, though in a very feeble and indefinite way, and it was presently found that not only waa there no in­ dustrial art in this country, but there waa no chance of learning. ... The first attempt at craft work may

1 C. F. Binna, "Craft of the Potter," Craftaman. IX (March, 1906), p. 856. 109

to traatd to this condition. Little m It d H t r v M tto nans vton viewed by recent standards it waa tha hunble art of china painting that broke out of tha drifts of apathy and uncertainty which choked tha highway. Just why this art waa selected can not now to certainly told. Perhaps it fulfilled sone condi­ tions and satisfied sone aspirations. It was art with an object. ... But serious workers soon beeaae dissatisfied with the triviality of chlne-palnting. Sons atteapted to wake pottery and net with fair success! sone began to experiment in natal work. A few enthusiasts - noetly wonen - went to Europe and studied book-binding, jewelry, weaving, block-printing and the like.*?

The author's reference to "feminine minds" is but one of several he made in recognition of the ladles* ceramic ventures as basic to the development of the potter's craft in this country. In

1905 he had writ tent

The country does not yet realise the extent of the debt it owes to enthusiastic wonen in the pro­ duction of artlstlo pottery. The work is largely individual, and lends Itself to the individuality of the studio worker. Oiven the artlstlo inspiration »» and s snail kiln, beautiful pottery is within reach.20

Ur. Blnns viewed the ceramic exhibits at the St. Louis

Exposition, reporting on them to the American Ceramic Society in

1905. Sons of his coamenta followt

(Concerning architectural terra-cotta) The only point I would like to aake here is to enter a plea for broader and less ornate work at the tops of high buildings. The mass of detail is absolutely unintelligible to a passerby, while the sane or a

------y w ------C. F. Blnns, "The Arts and Crafts Movement in America," Craftaman. XIV (June, 1908), p. 275*

28 C. F. Blnns, "The Future of Ceramics In America," Craftsman. VII (February, 190L), p. 565. 110

m l l t r cost would htvt sufficed to utoatt models upon brood, strong linos* which would not only bs an srtistio revelation but sn sduostion factor of Importance.

(Conooming dinnsr waros exhibit, in whieh foreign produosra wars wall represented, but not those of this o cun try) Tho couperieon between European and Amerioan wares only favors the foreigners whan the finer alenants of art and delioate handling are to the fore. In every instance where the intelligent use of neohanioel power, or the nansgauent of in­ tricate aaohinery is the iaportant factor, we lead the world. In the production of oraanental and artistic wares the nations enter into olose compe­ tition but Amerioa . only shares that portion of tha field occupied by faience, in porcelain we are un­ known.

(Concerning Rookwood) Thia work has been pronounced by a well-known authority to be the moat distinct ceramic novelty of the century, and in the verdlot all who understand and love their art must fully concur.29

The preceding survey of Binna' expressions, written in tha ten years after hia arrival In Alfred, sketches a man of sincerity and human warmth, a man concerned not only with the artla t-potter but the status of Industrial eeramlo production. The sketch may be further enlarged by reference to the fact that Mr. Blnns was the author of various religious articles and of plays for the "Wee

Playhouse," a community dramstio society in Alfred, during this same period*

5 9 ------C. F. Binna, "Lessens from the St. Louis Exposition," Transactions of the American Ceramic society. VII (January, 1909), pp. iiB, an3” £2. Ill

Alfred - 1910 to 1931*

Tho appearance In 1911 of Tho Potter’s Craft* A Prootlool

Ouldo for tho Studio ond *orkahop. Blnns* flrot writing Ia book fora in thin country, signaled tho lntoroot which hod rloon in eoroale art at other than industrial levels* His preface to tho firat edition atatodi "Twenty yearn ago (thia book) would hare boon impossible, for tho science of ceramics waa not then born*

Ton years ago it would have been wasted for the artist-potter in

Anerioa had not arrived***3° A second, revised and enlarged edition of the work was publishsd in 1922* The introduction to that edition discussed the trend toward personal expression in the crafts car industrial arts as a result cf a natural swing away from machine* made products* While recognizing the values of the latter, the author felt that both machine and craitsman were entitled to a place in the scheme of things* "The craftsman can not supply (all) the people and the manufacturer has no time or thought for dis­ interested production* Herein lies the need and here la the mission of the individual worker*"3^

Pursuing the matter of machlne-produotion further, Blnns differentiated between the sort of reproduction used in the asking of wall-paper - where only a surface was concerned - and the sort of

C* F. Blnns, The Potter’s Craft, First bdition, Preface, n* p. ^ C* F* 9inns, The Potter * s Craft, Second Edition, xv* reproduction which Involved ■tehanletl construction - aa in a table or chair - through which art and individuality ware, ha believed, loot* Ha extended the fault to the oonmttroiel oar ami o dinnerwarea wherein the ahape and decoration were frequently lncowpatible, ao that all right to the tern "work of art* waa forfait.

The decade, 1910 to 1920, waa marked by a decreaae in publiahed writings by Binna. The majority of hia expreasion from

1910 forward were of a mare technical nature, appearinr in the publicatIona of the American Ceramic Society. One article of a 32 general nature did appear in the American Magasine of Art In 1916.

It contained comments on various ocameroial and Individual potters.

The Rookwood, Van Briggle, Pewabic, Marblehead, Paul Revere,

Fulper, Lenox and Onondaga potteries were noted amonr the com­ mercial firms producing commendable *are, while the Dedham Pottery of Dedham, Uassachusetta, and the Moravian Tile Works of Doylee-

town, Pennsylvania, were crltioiaed for having "encouraged an artificial crudity in their endeavor to retain individuality."

Individual potters singled out in the article Included Mrs.

Robineau, Mrs. Clara Poillon of Woodbridge, New Jersey, and

Mr. Russell 0 . Crook, whose salt-glased ware was noted. Mr. Binna,

32 " “ " C. F. Binns. "Pottery in Aaerioa," American Mapasine of Art. VII (1916), pp. 131-8. 113

In thia aame artiole, made a plaa for tho acoaptanoa of dinnarwara

produoad from tha United Statea* more fra quant - and henoe, laaa

expenaive - non-white-buminjr oltyi. Ha aaaartad that "***almoet all deoorative pottery ia made from the ohaapar fradaa of olay (i*e*, non-white), a fact which landa foroa to tha oontantlon that tha

raw material la of only alight importance from the point of Tift 33 of beauty." Thia plaa and aaaartlon earre to Indicate an alerts neaa and open—mlndedneaa to both economic oonditiona and aaathetic

perception by Charlaa F. Binna - eepecially when hia early

connaotiona with Woroeater ara taken into account*

Ur* Binna aerved aa aeoretary of tha American Ceramic Society

from 1918 to 1922* Tha moat meaningful award he waa aver to reoeive

waa beatowed in tha latter ,vear when, at the age of aixty-five,

ha waa ordained by tha fcpleoopal Church, following a lifetime of

work aa a devoted layman*

Alfred Univereity, in 1929, celebrating the twenty-fifth

anniTernary of the founding of tha Ceramic College and of Binna’

direotorehip, further honored him by baatowing an honorary degree,

Doctor of Scienoa* At tha aame eomneneement, announce men t waa

aada of the eetabliahment of an endowment fund to provide for an

annual award, to ba known aa the Charlaa Fergua Binna Modal* The

lledal waa to ba awarded annually for high achievement in the field

of ceramic art* 33---- Ibid., p. 132. 3U A lie ting of tha recipient a of tha Medal will be found in Appendix A, page 290. liu

Professor Blnns1 address upon the momentous ocossion of

192St was titled "E Conorsmstlone Confirmstlo" ("Oit of Firs

Comes Firmness," or "Through Stress \tableware in this country, based on English practice and hence resulting in "china" (i.e., a derivative of "bone china") rather than in true porcelain.

He saldt

It is characteristic of the art of the potter that the craft preceded the science. In fact, one of the stumbling blocks lying in the path of pro­ gress is the difficulty of persuading those who have been trained in practice that their work can not be perfected without a knowledge of theory. This proving of theorj by practice and illuminating practice by theory is education.35

The late fall of 1925 found Professor 3inns delivering a series of lectures at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York

City. The subject matter of the series was*

1. Nature and properties of clay. 2. The shaping of clay ware from fluid, plastic and semi-dry materials. 3* Kilns and firing, li. Glazes and Glating. 5- Technical Types as Illustrated by Museum specimens - Low Temperature Viare, Earthenware, Faience. 6. Technical Types as Illustrated by Museum Specimens - High Temperaturest Stoneware and Porcelain.

C. F. Binna, "E Concrematione Oonfirmatio," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, IV (July, 1925), p. 339.

^ "Binna1 Lectures," Ibid., (December, 1925), p. 709. 115

Blnns' philosophy concerning his own potting was ono of perfectionism* of ^'unceasing sosroh and experiment. A die tine t

Interest in eloo steal sllhouotto is lsnedls tely evident upon viewing his production. Iht voluss of his production was sur­ prisingly largo for suoh an active and oonsoiontous teachar. An increasing number of hours for personal work beoanc available to hia* however* as tho institution grew and the staff lnereased.

Professor Blnns was relieved of soae teaching. Re oontinued to lecture, however* Pieces were produced for exhibition and soae for sale. More truthful reasons for his production* however* would include the challenge of experlasntation* the satisfaction of achievement, and - above all - the sheer pleasure of working in his aediua. Individual pieces were occasionally nade to order. More

time and oare was devoted to them than any customer ever realised.

The image of Charles Blnns* as it has emerged through the present biography* indicates a sincere and respectful attitude

toward his aediua - clay - and toward his tool * the potter's wheel. Dean McMahon has offered the following relevanoles in this

connection*

The pleoes he made were conceived before the wheel was approached* even to the textures and the colors of their glaaes. The ware was made from a carefully prepared grogged stoneware body.••thrown to approximate dimensions. In the leather-hard con­ dition* the pieces were turned to exact dimensions and the walls brought to an even and appropriate thinness.* The feet of his pleoes received as much If not more attention than other portions. •• His ware was first hardened by a low fire* to per­ mit handling* glased and then fired to cones 11 to 12* 116

tha body and the glaze maturinr at the same temperature. He waa a master of glaaea and continually experimenting with them. Hia experimental work waa carried out with a purpoae in mind. Having decided upon the character of a glaze that would pleaae him, he would proceed to develop It. There la aa much character in a Binna plaze aa there ia In a Binna ahape... The glazes aa well aa the ahapea they cover reflect the conaervatlve nature of their master. Charlea Binna conaidered that the proper glaze on a properly shaped and fired body made a piece of pottery. With those who preferred various types of decoration, he did not argue but deep down In hia heart he felt that decoration waa unnecessary to a properly executed piece of art pottery. He coun­ tenanced no slip-shod work, and to him that which waa not well done waa considered not done. Hia pieces when finally taken from the kiln had to pass hia own criticism and should one show a fault it was relegated to the scrap pile. Thia waa not easy for him, for even those with faults had cost him ouch in thought and labor.’'

Charles Fergus Binna retired from teaching in 1931* at the ape of seventy-four* He died in 193k* leaving four daughters* kiss hlsie Binns, Nannie Binns Bonnet, Norah Binns Kraser, and

Dorothy Binns Bemseh. His only son had died in 1912 at the ape

of twenty-eight, hia wife in the year 1925. A memorial service waa held at aifred in June of 1935* Concurrent with the ceremonies

there, a memorial exhibition of hia work was held at the Metro­

politan Museum from May 13th to June 9th. c. Louise Avery,

commenting on the exhibition, wrote*

Professor Binna' pottery is restrained, sub­ dued in tone, almost austere. He himself was quiet and restrained, but so full of kindliness and humor

YcVahon, og* cit., pp. 175-6. 117 that anyone who know hia will always recall tha genial twinkle in hia eyes, expressly of tha aplrlt within* Although ha hold hlaaalf to exaotlng standards, ha found in hia work* not hardship, but tha kaanaat axhilaratian.™

A amall bowl waa purohaaad from tha exhibition by Mias H.

II* Crawford and preaantad to tha Museum* Upon ita praaantation

Miaa Avery wrotat "To make and fira a glass of thia character

(hara'a fur) raquiraa much aolantifie knowledge and wida experience.

ihe bowl ia thua an appropriate raaindar of Frofessor Binna, whose high atandarda of workmanship placed hia in the front rank of

American pot tar a*

Concluaion

Raa this summary of tha life and work of Charles Fergus Binna

been productive in answering the questions raised about hia in the

early pages of thia chapter? A re-examination of those questions9

accompanied by such answers as have emerged should be fruitful!

(1) Wist forces shaped his life, what combination of

interests and experiences? Early life, in a hone where ceramics

and a broad-minded Christianity were affairs of everyday living

appears to be a primary force* Environment is not, however, to be

^ C* L* Avery, "A Memorial Exhibition of the Work of Charles F. Binna,11 Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, XXX (May, 1935), p. 10$: 39 ■ Ibid.. "Bowl by Binns," (October, 1935)* p. 199* n e taken aa tha all-lnolualva answer to para ona 1 development* Just aa some babies are born to grow tall eventually, some not so tall, there are psyohological-pattern differences in individuals* Psychological and environmental conditions trans-act in the life of every mans their manner of trans-action Is not, as yet, completely understood.

The isolation of the factors Is close to impossibility - nor is it desirable* If the foroes that molded Charles F. Blnns thus trans- acted, it can at least be said that both environmental and psycho­ logical conditions were such as to promote an intelligent utili­ sation of experience* Experiences were accompanied by the evolvement of new needs, whose solutions provided still further experiences.

(2) What particular attributes led to his being chosen director of the newly-established New York State School of Clay- working? A broad knowledge, founded in experience, of the dinnerware industry) teaching experience in Trenton) and, perhaps more important than either of these, sincerity, a willingness to share knowledge and a real liking for his fellow man* Reserved, quiet, difnifled, Charles Binns did not display temper, although he did, on occasion, express his scorn for shoddy workmanship somewhat violently *k°

(3) What were his Philosophic expressions on teaching and pott.ing? These expressions have shown themselves to be very closely allied to his general philosophy! a considerate and considered

Christian philosophy, with a respeot for both men and material.

Marlon L* Foadick, personal interview* 119 (U) What influence did ha exert? The influences of

Charlaa F. Binna have baan fait throughout tha field of ceramic art. Every ona of hia atudenta haa oarrlad from Alfrad a bit of hia philoaophy. From 1900 through 1931* tha data of filnna' re­ tirement, two hundred and eighty** ight earaaiata graduated froa

Alfred. They aeattarad throughout tha forty*elght atataa and ovaraaaa. Ona of them, Arthur K. Bsp-ga, will illustrate, in

Chapter Nine of the present work, the spread of Binna' ooncepts.

Binna* own pottery, produced in atoneware, may alao be aald to have influenced a revived use of that material in thia country*

Student pottery, in the ear Hea t days of tha School for Clayworking, waa low-tempereture (Cone 010 to 02) work, then tha atudenta requested problems in atoneware, however, Ur. Binna readily agreed.

Stoneware continues, to the present day, to be highly favored by studio potters.

The foregoing biography of Charlea Fergus Binna eould be augmented! that it ia of a somewhat fragmentary nature ia not denied, yet the assertion may besnde that it is the fullest trest- ment of his life which haa been undertaken to date. While hia i m ­ portance in the field of education in oeramie art ia generally conceded, the facta to support suoh ooneeaston have been widely aoattered. The present author's hope la that this gathering may 1*1 aerve as a springboard for later, more coatprehensive studies.

A chronological bibliography of the published writings of Charles F. Blnns nay be found in Appendix B, page 291 • Chapter 6

GENERAL PERIODICALS REFERRING TO CERAMIC ART,

1900 - 1925

Tha biography of Charlaa F. Binna Juat praaantad haa taken

Into aooount many aapeota of tha early twentieth century ineofar aa eduoation in oeranio art waa oonoerned* The view can not be oonaldered aa full, however, unleea artlolea pertinent to ceramic art, aa they appeared in tha popular preaa, ooaa under observation*

It would be an error to diaregard the effecte of auoh writing not only upon tha general public but upon thoaa interacted in eduoation in ceramic art aa well* Qeneral periodicals of tha period are treated hare* It ahould ba noted that tha literature appearing in the publications of tha Awerican Ceramic Society will be treated in tha following ohaptar. The present concern la with periodicals for general reading and with those pertinent to art or the crafts or both*

Perhaps the first point to gain attention, in a Surrey of periodical literature devoted to oeramlo art during the first two decades of this century* la that a surprising amount of coverage was given over to the oonmerclal "art potteries," most of ahloh were but newly established* The interest ocoaaioned by and in them was attributable to their character, whioh was held to 120 121 differ pointedly from that of the older end larger manufactories*

The Rookwood Pottery hae been discussed In Chapter TWo* The ware produced there continued, in the present century, to be highly lauded for ita decoration, subtle colors and aat glass* It enjoyed an unequaled reputation in the opinion of American house­ wives. the reputation was built, at least in pert, by the Oenerel

Federation of Wonen*a Clubs, previously Mentioned as a powerful organisation from its inception in 1699* The Federation sponsored a number of traveling exhibits of ware fron the art potteries - suoh aa Rookwood, Dedham and Marblehead - and from individual potters*

The displays were sent to various chapters of the Federation, with accoapanyinp literature, and served as subjects of discussion for local meetings* Thus the wares, as well as their makers, were introduced to thousands of house-wives the nation over**

Although the wonen preferred inported "art ware," Rookwood was certainly the best of its type, domestioally produced, to their way of thinking*

Another line of ware which attracted attention was that of the Van Briggle Pottery* Van Briggle had studied painting in

Paris in the mid-ld90ls, a period then painters there were wuoh interested in pointing on pottery* He studied auseua ceramic collections and decided that whet was inartistic about con temporary wares was their glossiness* The soft and dull textures of early

1 L* H* Crowley* "It’s Mow the Potter's Turn." International Studio. LXXV (September, 1922), pp. 539-U6. 122

Oriental wares fascinated him and though he thought the art of making dull glasee had been lost, he determined to experiment toward finding them. He went to Cincinnati upon his return to the United States and studied there, meanwhile working at Rookwood.

He was advised to go to the South-west for his health and did so in 1899, settling in Colorado. Irene Sargent wrote, in 1903i

In the Spring of 1901 he was sufficiently advanced in his work to send perfected specimens to a celebrated European ceramist for criticism on purely technical grounds. The Judgment passed by the critic was favorable to an unexpected degree, and, as a consequence, the now important pottery sprang into existence. ... As to the decoration allowed upon this pottery, it may be characterised as structural. It emphasizes the lines and con­ tours of the vase which it beautifies. It is not ornament for ornament's sake.?

The Van Briggle ware was praised frequently for its "artistic" qualities, as were those of Grueby Faience (Boston), Dedham, the

Low Tile Company (Chelsea, Mass.), Teco (Chicago) and the Pewabic

Pottery of Detroit. The last-named was an establishment like -

,\et unlike - Rookwood. Their similarity rested in the fact that each grew out of a woman's inspiration* The Pewabic venture grew out of a desire on the part of Mary Chase Perry to produce a fine porcelain ware. The 1910-11 issue of the Marazine of Art recorded1

•••the first necessity was a kiln capable of generatinr extreme heat, and it so happened that llr. J • C. Caulkina, who had been experimenting in high-flre kilns, was able to supply this need. ... Though the early trials

I* Sargent, "Chinese Pots and Modern Faience," Craftsman, IV (September, 1903), pp. U21 and 1*22. 123

were conducted with the staterial of porcelain in view, Miaa Perry found almost lamdlately that pot'ery was to her a store attractive medium because of its greater warmth, elasticity, pliability. In a word, she felt it to be more 'intimate1•^

Individual potters on whom attention centered in the first quarter of the present century * and of course the early commercial

"art" ventures were also largely the stories on individual potters - included! Adelaide Robineau^} Mrs. Fra~kleton, who produced a

"Blue and Gray," evidently salt-glased stoneware^; Miss Perkins and her mother, sculptors-turned-potters, who produced large garden pieces modeled in terra cotta after old Italian "well-heads," aand blown after firing^; Edith Brown, a social worker who started the Paul Revere Pottery in 1910 to train girls out of school at the age of fourteen to decorate - If not to make - pottery as a means 5------H* Plumb, "The Pewabic Pottery," MagaMne of Art, II (January, 1911), p. 6lu ti Whose detailed story appears in Chapter Eight.

Anon., "The Frackleton ’Blue and Gray', Craftaman, III (January, 1903), pp. 255-6.

^ L. C. Chard, "A Sculptor as Potter," Craftsman, III (January, 1903), PP* 2i*li-6. 121* of livelihood;*^ Lydia Godfrey, whose Interest was In glaze 8 development and who had her own studio along the Hudson River; and Henry C. Mercer, an archaeologist— turned-potter, who produced tiles, bas-reliefs and "mosaics," some four hundred of which were 9 set into the floor of the Pennsylvania capltol building. A further venture, subsidised by a wealthy Boston patron, entailed the establishment of a pottery with four kilns and an English potter. The reporter of the undertaking wrote a "Miss Brown and ------7------"Story of the Paul Revere Pottery," Craftsman, XXV (November, 1913), pp. 205-7.

"The Paul Revere Pottery," House Beautiful, LI (January, 1922), pp. $0ff.

It is of interest to note that the early Paul Revere Pottery expanded and by 1929 was offering classes for teachSrs, in which all processes of pottery making were taught. The following constituted the first problems of the course for teachersi 1. American Indian pottery, using a similar clay. 2. Early Egyptian hand-built, its crude color and design. 3. In contrast, Egyptian but later and more finished. 1*. Beauty of Greek. 5. Chinese. 6. Persian. 7. Modern. (I. Armstrong, "Pottery Taught in a Practical workshop,” School Arts. XXTX (October, 1929), p. 80. Q "The Glen Tor Pottery* One homan's Contribution to Practical Beauty," Craftsman, XXVIII (July, 191$), pp. U2U—6. 9 R. Bergengren, "A Master Potter of Thoughts," House Beautiful. XXXVII (May, 191$), pp. 179-^1. 125

Hiss Guierre went to burope and served profound apprantioashlp 10 In studying the art of pottery..." The girls of the club evidently decorated ware produced by the potter, thus following the

inuoh earlier pattern set by Jiewoomb College. That two persons

(whether olub members or teachers is not clear) should hare gone to

Europe to study as late as 1917 is surprising!

The periodicals contributing the preceding covers re m y be

noted in the footnotes. To those so appearing should be added

Scribner's and the International Studio. Ilunaey's Magazine offered

an article for its lay readership in 1901. It was mainly con­

cerned with methods used in plant production and tended heavily to

over-gnerallzations and not a few misconceptions, as evidenced by

the author's words concerning throwing*

...but the vase with a narrow neck can not be turn­ ed on the wheel, or not all of it. The top St least must be cast in a mold mad then fitted on the body, because it is not possible to lift a small-necked rase off the wheel.I1

The writer, Secretary of the National Arts Club, was undoubtedly

limited to observations in one plant!

The Chautauquan, a periodical previously mentioned in Part I,

published a series of nine articles on the "Arts and Crafts

L. Wright, "Girls' Club Establishes Pottery," Art World, II (September, 1917), p* 578.

11 C. defCay, "Art from the Kilns," Hunssy* s Magazine, XXVI (October, 1901), p. 50. 126 12 Movement” In 1902 and 1903* The series surveyed Its origins in the Fre-itaphaelite School) English, Continental and American developments) philosophy) the production of industrial art here) education of the producer and consumer; and patronage of the arts and crafts. Dedham, Graeby and ftookwood potteries were credited

*lth carryinp forward the Arts and Crafts Movement at the Industrial level, while Charles Volkmar, Hiss McLaughlin and Mias Perkins were cited for their adherence to its principles. The author applauded the introduction of crafts into the achool-room, as more beneficial than aloyd or technical education which failed to give the ohild an appreciation and liking for color, form and design.

Clay modeling, book-binding, basket-making and rug-weaving were mentioned as havinr been introduced prior to 1903.

Irene Sargent, writing for The Craftsman in 1903* de­ scribed an Arts and Crafts Exhibition held at Syracuse in that year. The article provided a review of the principles of the movement, as stated in a catalog of the exhibitions

The principles...are, briefly statedt the prominence of the structural idea, by which means an object frankly states the purpose for which it is intended, in the same way that a building, architecturally good, reveals in its facade the plan of its interior. The second characteristic of this new art is scaroely less important than

Rho Flak Zueblin, "The Arts and Crafts Movement," Chautauquan. XXX71 (October, 1902), pp. 57-61i (November, 1902), pp. 167-73) (December, 1902), pp. 2dit-8) (January, 1903), pp. 1*09-11* | (February, 1903)* pp* 506-13) (March, 1903)* pp. 622-7) XXXVII (April, 1903), PP. 59-66) (May, 1903), pp. 172-7) (June, 1903), pp. 266-72. 127

the first, although it proceeds from it. It is the absence of applied ornament, of all deooration that disguises or impairs the constructive features. The third is the strict fittlnr of all work to the medium in which it is executed; the development of all possibilities of color, texture and substance; the choice being dependent upon the beauty, without regard to the intrinsic value of the material employed.13

Arts and Crafts Essays, a volume written by members of the (English)

Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, reached ita third edition in

1903. A very short essay, "Fictiles," was contributed by 0. T.

Robinson, who wrote*

••••(Although) from its Dawn to the present the Fictile Art has been exercised abundantly, Its role is by no means exhausted. The artist and the craftsman have yet a wide field before them, but it would be well that the former should, for some time to come, take the lead, science has too long reigned supreme in a domain wherein she should not have been more than equal sovereign. £>he has had her triumphs, great triumphs, too, triumphs which have been fraught with pood in an utilitarian sense, but she has tyrannized too rigidly over the realm of Art. Let us now try to equalize the dual role. ^

The Arts and Crafts Movement received widespread attention in the first decade of this century, somewhat less in the second.

The Craftsman, an organ of the movement, was published from 1901

to 1->16. Various subtitles were used, one of which was "An

Illustrated Monthly Magazine in the Interest of Better Art,

Better Aork, end a Better and More Reasonable bay of Living.”

1. Sargent, "A Recent Arts and Crafts Exhibit,” Craftsman, IV (May, 1903), p. 71.

^ 0. T. Robinson, "Fietiles," Arts and Crafts Essays, p. 67. 128

An exceptionally large number of librarian In the United States possess bound volumes of the magaslne, ss tfiomn in the Union List of Serials,1^ leading to the assunption that the periodical was read widely.

Good Housekeeping ran a "Handicraft Department" in the early years of the osntury, reflecting the general public's interest in

"how-to-do-it" information. The Ootober, 1910, issue offered s

"lesson" in "home-made pottery."1^ It described how to moke hand- built pieces from clay, to be thoroughly dried and painted with enamel paint. The Department solicited orders for prepared clay and "patterns" for pottery shapes!

"A Revival of Stoneware," published in The Craftsman in

1913 provides a note of Interest in that it does much to indicate the contemporary general opinion of that materiel, previously utilised for butter crocks, eto. The examples which illustrated the article were from the School of Industrial Art, in Philadelphia.

They were sal^glased, and the author seemed to consider that method of glasing the only one possible for stoneware. The clay was described as "short" but not "brittle." Smalts (a cheapened form of oobalt), Albany slip clay and a white earth were described as the only materials that oould be used for decoration. The

15 Union List of Serials. 2nd Edition (191*3), H. ». Wilson Co., New iork.

^ A. Hanning, "Home-made Pottery," ^ood Housekeeping. LI (October, 1910), pp. l*£7-6l. 129 writer evaluated the development thust

Especially are we glad to find a large scope for stoneware's utility and loveliness. No longer is it to be confined to the domain of pots and pans; it is to take its place in the more aristo­ cratic regions of everyday livinr, with a dignity, that will make it the "social equal* of vases which heretofore it has looked up to ad th wistful stolid­ ity. ... Not that one would want to use these pieces of stoneware among the super-refined sur­ roundings of the average metropolitan drawing room...*■'

The statement is of particular interest since stoneware pottery has enjoyed such hirh popularity among studio potters for the past decade.

This partial survey of the more general periodical lit­ erature of the first quarter of the present century, as it pertained to the potter's art, shows that major emphasis was placed oni the work being done by the producers of "artistic pottery," whether commercial or individual, end upon the Arts and Crafts movement, hriters frequently upheld the former as exemplifying the tenets of the latter. These potteries, in fact, seem to have been more exemplary in this respect than any other "industry." The esteem in which they were held was not without its repercussions in education in ceramic art.

"A Revival of Stoneware," Craftsman, XXIV (September, 1913), P- 6U3. « Chapter 7

THE AMERICAN CEEAMIC SOCIETY

No account of the establishment and growth of formal

aduoatlon in the field of eeramics oan Ignore the role of the

American Ceraeio Society* Founded in 1090, it beoame influential

in the origin and content of ceramic eouraea at various eduoative

levels* Throughout the last quarter of the nineteenth century * roughly froe the tine of the establishment of BLnns' chemistry Is bora to ry at Worcester — trained chemists cams to be alloyed more regularly in ceramic factories* Men who had been trained in mining and metallurgy also found their way into the field* It was through these men, with their comprehension of scientific method and control, that the industry increased its efficiency and production* Some of the trial and error, the time- consuming and costly practice of running wares through without adequate testing was - if not eliminated — at least attended to in production laboratories* There new shipments of materials could be tested before being used, problems of troublesom impurities, body and glass defects, and the like, could be dealt with before wrasking havoc with production, Moms of the chemists who undertook such problems had been formally educated in chemical science, 130 131 although not in cor amlo ohemlstry, tlnoo no suoh study was thon available. Others gained tholr knowledge in tho faotarles, struggling against unknown - and, frsquently nnaoon - foot. Eaoh nan earrlad on, in hla respective plant, aa boat ho eould. Llttlo holpful lltaratura vaa available and no no ana of cn— ml cation between tho fow intorootod "scientists."

Thoro did exist, however, tho National Stick Manufacturers'

Asaooiation of tho Unitod States. Ihia organisation had boon founded in 1887* It vaa during tho IWelfth National Convention of tho Aaaoolotion, hold in Pittsburgh in February, 1898, that tho prosontatlon of a particular papor lad to tho founding of tho 1 Anorlean Coramio Society. Tho papor vas delivered by Slmer Oort on of Torra Cotta, Illinois. Its subject was "Experimenting, Vise and Unwise" and it was the first paper of a chemical nature ever to bo prosanted before the National Briok Manufacturers * Assoc­ iation. The papor Included glase formulae and calculationa, well sot forth by the speaker - if one but understood chemical aymbola and tarns I Unfortunately only a fow in the audience wore able to grasp the presentation and it was quiekly aeon by those who did that the delivery of similar papers in tho future would hardly moot with suooees. Ur. Oorton approached Dr. Orton, Hoad of

Coramio Studios at Tho Ohio State University, concerning tho

T " .. £• Orton, Jr., "Historical Statement of tho Origin of the American Coramio Society," Journal of tho American Ceramic Society, VI (January, 1923), p. z. 132 possibility of organising an lndapsndsnt group of oar ami o chemists and othara in tares tad in the teohnloal aids of the subject.

The purpoaa of tha organisation was prinolpally the sharing of information and techniques. Suoh a aha ring would not have appealed to manufacturers in renerali their "stock in trade" had been

Jealously-guarded glass and body "recipes" for too many generations!

The spirit of which the American Ceramic Society was born - the sharing of basic scientific knowledge - was emerging in many areas at the turn of the cmtury. It has resulted in greater help than hindrance to all - from manufacturer to consumer.

Orton and Binns, the "fathers" of ceramic education in this country, were among the first members of the Society. One of the earliest concerns of the organisation was arriving at a "language" which could be used in conducting and in communicating ceramic experiments and results. This concern was indicated appropriately by the appointment of a committee, whose personnel Included Binns,

Orton and Zimmer, to devise some acceptable system for dealing with oeramlo "equivalent weights." Binns had presented a paper

on the subject in 1$99, giving rise to the oommlttee'a appointment.

had acknowledged indirect Indebtedness to the earlier work of 2 Simeon ^haw (England), Salve tat (France) and Seger (Germany). 9------C. F. Binns, "The Use of Equivalent Weights in Ceramic Compositions," Tranaactions of the American Ceramic Society, I (February, 189$), pp. 7-1U. 133

The European ay a tarn, however, vaa based on a aerlea of "halT- weighta" (0 ■ 8), while a system baaed on 0 • 16 waa proposed

for this country*

The committee must have been diligent in their work, for in

1900 they presented a "Manual" which covered not only the matter

of weights, but their usage in calculation*^ The committee suggested

that the Manual be published in some practical end durable form*

The suggestion was acted upon and the Society sold the Manual for a number of years* The issuance of it was a step forward for

ceramic technology and its understanding in this country* Such basic "tools" were definitely required if students were to be

trained systematically for Industry*

The Interests of Orton and Binns were naturally in education and, indeed, the entire Society came to feel a concern in this matter* As the organisation grew, it soon Included men from various phases of the ceramic industry - not technicians alone - and the group, as a whole, had an interest in the training of future ceramists* Manufacturers were interested in securing good

technical men* It can not be said that they were so interested

in matters of "art", however* They were not convinced that art

"paid", but it was becoming increasingly evident that technology

surely did!

As early as 1911, speakers at Annual Meetings were exhorting

the producers to chanpe their ideas concerning art* Herman

“T ” 1 1 ' ' ■ J Binns, Orton and dimmer, "Report of Committee on Equivalent heights," Transactions of the American Cerasdc Society, II (February, 19&6), p* 19F7 13U

Mueller, In a paper titled "The Relations between the Artlet end

the Chemist in Ceramic Manufacture," seldi

While, therefore the teohnleel pert of oar work le rapidly developing, the i i m oen not be eeld of the or tie tie pert, especially in consider­ ation of oar ordinary pottery* We have a few art potteries In the United States which are doing great work, bat the potteries of utility ware are sadly lacking In ambition, as far as form and dee- oration are concerned. Uany potteries which could well afford It either purchase their blocks and molds abroad, or simply use the same model over and over again. I feel sure that your sooiety can do a great deal to help artistic development by making an effort to Interest manufacturers and artjSbs In its endeavors, and by constantly calling attention to the fact that nearly all clay work depends on its decorative qualities. Statistics show that a great amount of artis­ tic pottery la imported from Europe, and unlesa we exert ourselves to develop the artistic merit of .our own work in our own way, and according to our own taste, we can never hope to raise our clay industry to the same artistic level It has attained in Europe. The deaire to grow in this direetlon is mani­ fest. Industrial Art schools are established in various parts of the country, and the general pub­ lic ahcws its awakenin^ interest In the higher technical and artistic training of our workmen. The manufacturers, however, who play the most con­ spicuous part in this direction in Europe, do not show the desired ambition in this country, and many of them think that artistic work does not pay. It will not pay aa long as we have to draw on Europe for artistic skill, but as soon as we are able to develop our own artisans and artlats, it will surely pay for everyone concerned.u

k H. Mueller, Transactions of the American Ceramic society, XIII (February, 1911), pp. 99-100. 135

Hr* Mueller was not a member of tha American Carole Society, and

It la not difficult to imagine with what glum allanea a papar auoh as his must have not. If ever a rift bataaan tha "artistic" and tha "practical" wars to be widened, no surer wedge could haws bean devised. It Is not surprising, therefore, to find that only a small number of papers devoted to the "artists” ware delivered before the **ociaty In the first twenty years of Its existence.

At any rate, the organisation hadpown to the extent that its membership represented many varying interests within the ceramic field. Divisions were formed, so that members oould attend sessions at the National Nestings whloh would have more direct bevlng on their particular interests. It was In 1930 that "An

Art Division" was first proposed. An editorial appearing in the

Journal of the society statedt

At no time in the history of this country has the market price of beauty been as high as It Is at present. The country Is prosperousj thousands of people have the funds that enable thma to satisfy the innate craving to possess beautiful objects. They are no longer satisfied to buy objects that are good and serviceable. They want them good and serviceable} but at the same time they want them beautiful and are willing to pay the price of beauty. ... At the Annual Meeting in Pittsburgh the Bo*rd of Trustees of the Amerioan Ceramic Society authorised the formation of a Division devoted to ceramic deooratlve processes, provided t*n members asked for suoh a Division...... for the sake of the best Interests of the ceramic Industries of this country, the American Ceramic Society should foster the development of the aesthetic phases of ceramics. Many members are 136

now working In tho field of artistic oeremios. •«• • It seems feasible to uoo thooo members •• tho nucleus of a potentially important Diriaion devoted to artiatie ceramics*?

At tho next Annual Mooting, hold in Coluabua in 1921, tho f iret aooaioa of tho Dirts ion on Coramio Decoratire Proooaaoa was hold* Mr* Loan V. Solon was appointed temporary ohairman and Mr* Frederick H. Rhead temporary secretary.^ Tho name of tho Diriaion waa open to alteration* It vaa hoped that the suggested name waa aa broad aa possible, yet confined to the artistic ohaaes of ceramics* It waa intended to oower more than commercial modeling (of pottery forme) and decoration aa carried on in the factory* It waa meant to include thooo potters working in studios and schools as well as designers and decorators from

industry*

Hr* bolon and Mr. Rhead - particularly the latter * wore highly influential in determining the early character of the

Diriaion* Mr* Rhead'a background is therefore of significance in understanding the directions the Diriaion was to take*

Frederick H* Rhead was born In Hanley, Staffordshire,

England, in i860. Mis earliest education waa followed, at the age

of nine, by the winning of a scholarship to the Stoke-on-Trent ------5------"An Art Diriaion,N Journal of the American Ceramic Society* III (April, 1920), p. 2bt»*

6 "Ceramic Decora tire Processes Diriaion," Journal of the American Ceramic Soolety, IV (January, 1921), p. 2. 137

Gevtrmw it Art Sobool. He was apprenticed* from 1093 to 1090 to

Brownflelda* In Burslem. During apprenticeship at that pottery*

Hr. Rha*d studied at tha Wedgwood Institute* alao loeatad in

Burslem. Tha praotica of serving par fe-time apprantioaahipa while attending apaolaliaed schools, not uacoiaon in England* had tha affaot of thoroughly familiarising tha young student with commercial praotioaa. Following hla training* Hr. Rhaad served for throe yaara aa an instructor of Daaign in tha Ooverranent Art School at

Long ton. Another three-year period waa a pant aa Art Director of

tha Hardle Pottery at Hanley. Hr. Rhaad alao* with hie father* built and organised tha art pottery for Wlleman and Company, Long ton.

Frederick Rhead came to the United Statea in 1902. His firat poaltlon in thia country waa aa Art Director for the Roseville

Pottery. During thia period he wrote a aerlea of articles covering

"Ceramic Clay-working Prooeasea" for Koraalk Studio. The following

three years* from 1900 to 1911* ware apent in association with

Taxile Dost at People's University* University Cit; , St. Louis.

His Studio Pottery was published in 1910 by tha Lewie Publishing

Company* also of University City. After the failure of tha St.

Louie venture* Ur. Rhaad moved to California* where he maintained his own studio pottery in Santa Barbara for six years. During

this period he published three Issues of The Potter, a small

periodical entirely written and financed by himself. In 1915 he waa awarded a Gold Uedal for "Artware" at the San Diego Exposition. 139 In 1917, Rhead returned to Ohio, beooadng Director of the

Research Department of the Aaerloan Encaustic Tiling Company of

Zanesville, a poeitlon he held for ten years. It waa during thia period that Mr* Rhead waa moat active in the affaire of the Art

Divia ion of the Anerioan Ceramic Society. He served aa Ghairean of the Division in 1922-23 and 1923-21*. Ur. Rhead became, In

1927, Art Director for Homer-Laughlln, a position he held until hie death in 191*2. He eras awarded the 3inne jhedal in 1931*.

The experiences at Mr. Rhead'a life - both in England and the United States - were principally in the decorating departments of commercial potteries. Aa far as the Art Division of the American Ceramic Society was concerned, therefore, he waa particularly inter­ ested in encouraging schools in this country to teach decorative processes and techniques, so that students would be able to enter commercial potteries as skilled decorators. Such training for the

potteries 01' England had long been carried out by the government art schools of that country. It waa Ur. Rhead'a belief that the potteries of this country needed decorators, and that courses in decorating would soon provide a pool of skilled workmen. In an editorial appearing the Journal of the American Ceramic society in 1921, Ur. Rhead proposed apjropriate papers for present­ ation before the Division on Decorative Ceramic Processes. The subjects he deemed appropriate were principally those which would be of interest to designers and decoratora in the industry. 139

He wrotei

At the present time the factory la tha only place where the student Interested in oerantes oan obtain a praotiosl training in the various decora­ tive processes used by the potter* I aa not refer­ ring to the so-called crafts or student work taught in the schools and universities and entirely oat of the range of commercial possibility* •*. I know that there are sane hundreds of these institu­ tions who are seriously Interested in pottery making and decoration. This interest should not remain detached. In fact it should be capitalised by the manufacturer • 7

Mr. Rhead*s attitude, therefore, toward pottery training, as then offered in the schools and colleges of thia country, was one of recognition* The recognition, however, did not extmd to connendatlon. In fairness to Mr. Rhead, it must be said that he presented many papers before the Society in which he carefully set forth explanations of various decorative techniques* be was willing to share his knowledge. The titles of some of his onpers weret o "The Italian Majolica Process and Painting over Tin Enamels," 9 "Under? la se Painting," "Types of Glases Suitable for Decorative

Inlay Processes"1** and "borne Notes on Historical and Modern

Decorative Processes."1^

' F. H* Rhead, "Research in Ceramic Decorative Processes," Journal of the American Ceramic Society,IV (May, 1921), pp. 330-1* & Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, I (Beotember, 1922), pp. 177-30. ^ Journal of the American Ceramic Society, V (June, 192?), PP* 376-TT3T 10 Ibid*. 192?), pp. 259-262.

11 Ibid., '71 (February, 1923), pp. 356-96. 1U0

Dtiplt* the feet that Rhead'a principal intareat wee In the decoration of oommarcial warea, he came to realize the potential of tha achoola and individual pottera of the country aa grounds for the developeent of creativity. He waa instrumental, in 1922, in arranging for an exhibition of atudlo and echool pottery which waa held in conjunction with tha Annual Meeting of the Society.

The participating aohoola and tha name a of their reapectiva in- a true tor a weret New York State College of Ceramics - C. F.

Binna} Iowa State - Paul Cox; Newcomb College - Mary Scherer;

Lewie Institute, Chicago - If. *. ailkinej Carnegie Institute of

Technology - Mabel C. Farren (a former teacher at that school, who submitted photographs)} and the St. Louis Grade Schools. In­ dividual potters and the types of ware submitted weret

Charles Fergus Binnst Stoneware Vases and Bowls Arthur Eugene Baggst Earthenware Russell Crook, South Lincoln, Uasst Stoneware Mrs. F. H. Rheadt Pate-sur-pate panels, Porcelain Miss Overbeck, Cambridge city, Ind.t Earthenware Mabel C. Farren, Pittsburgh! Earthenware and Porcelain Plate, with Underglase Barths R. Pire, Cleveland, Ohiot Earthenware Tile Mr. B. S. Radollff) Chrome-tin Pink Enamels Mr. L. A. Behrendt) Mary Chase Strattons Tiles and Vases in Enamels and Lustres12

Referring to the studio aid individual potters of this country, Rhead wrotet lz F. H. Rhead, "American Ceramic Society Exhibition,** Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society. I (May, 1922), pp. 15- TK u a

•••••the oraft has advanced to a stags where it la poaalbla to nama from a dosen to twenty aohoola and Individual pottars who oan show tha produo to of thsir kilns aids by aids with tha work of Euro- paana pottars of high raputstion without suffaring in comparison, ••• Tha orsdit for thia develop ■ant naturally balooga to tha schools | and, baoauaa these aohoola axw giving dua attention to such im­ portant factors as workmanship, axeoutlon, tech- nlqua, or all thosa conditions that contrltauta to what is good in pottery, the various manufacturers, and others who are actively interested in tha higher development of the industry, oan not do better than to use every available means to anoomcage and support the schools in tha work they are doing*1''

Mr* Rhead, assisted by Janas C* Boudreau and H# s. Kirk, arranged for a similar exhibition for the Annual Heating in 1923*

Called the "second Annual Exhibit at the Convention,** it was evidently intended that the practice should continue, although no references to such exhibits appear in the literature of the

Society of subsequent years* School exhibits ware limited in tha

Second Annual to those from the Carnegie Library and Schenley High

School, both In Pittsburgh where the meeting was held* Art

Division exhibitors included* Arthur Bagga, Marblehead! the

Newcomb Pottery, New Orleans; the Paul Revere Pottery, Boston; the

Overbeck Pottery; the Fulper Pottery, Trenton; Russell Crooks,

Boston; The Wahl Company, Chicago; Munsell Color Company, New York;

Frederick Rhead; Mrs. Frederick Rhead; Bertha Pi re, Weoleyville,

Pa*; Mary Elisabeth Cook, Columbus, Ohio; and the Rookwood Pottery.1^

*3 ibid.* p. 15*

"The Silver Jubilee Convention Exhibit of Ceramic Products,** Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society. IT (April, 1923), p* 35* 11*2

Although Ur. Rhead recognised, In 1922, tho valuable work of independent creative artists and the value of pottery- teaching In the aohoola, he oontlnued to here doubta concerning the suitability of the ooureee offered ineofer aa training artist* for induetry wee oonoerned. Hie familiarity with the English aystea of education in which specialised artiste were trained in government schools for the various "art industries* prompted hia to suggest a slallar system for this country. The difficulties attendant upon vocational training within the public schools of the

United States prior to the passage of the Shith-Hughes Aet in 1917 have been discussed previously in the present work. While it was the perogatlve of the institutions of higher learning to offer

"vocational training,” that was not their deaire. Hence the type of school that was to offer "practical potting" was in question during the 1920's.

Addressing the Ohio Ceramic Industries Association in

January 1925, Rhead said, in parti

What is a ceramic artist? I would like to say that a ceramic artist is an individual who is directly or indirectly oonoerned in the development and production or ornamental and decorated clay products* ... It is an acknowledged fact that the Amerioan ceramic manufacturer has realised the importance of the establishment of technical schools, he have fine technical schools, a great technical society, the most valuable technical Journal published.• *. Now none of these conditions exist in connection with the decorative side of ceramics. Wel£ have no

^•?Mr. Rhead referred here to Ohio, not to the United States. 1U3

schools for the ceramic artist and practical pot­ ter, and to date, the Art Division of the American Ceramic Society has not developed to a point where it can be considered as an important influence in connection with artistic development* ... Practically every town in England and on the continent that possesses a pottery of any size is practically certain to have a well-equipped art and manual training school offering courses of instruction far the decorative specialist* He mist have ceramic art schools in such local­ ities as East Liverpool, Trenton, Zanesville, and other Industrial centers, and by this I do not mean schools where students dabble in elementary problems of surface decoration, but schools where the funda­ mentals of shape construction, design and decoration, modelin> , mold-making, and the other practical problems involved in practical potting are taught, ... Whether these schools be under government or state direction and supervision, as is the case with most European schools, or whether they will be endowed by.industrial association, is a matter of no importance*

Mr. Rhead*s indictment of "dabbling" was not to lessen through the years. He took many occasions to expound before the Society's

Art Division the merits of the English system, on what s aitable courses in ceramic art should ar.d should not be. Making some

"Suggestions on Ceramic Art Education" before the snmma* meeting of the society in 1926, he saldt

Any good art school can train persons to be competent artists and designers, but these have not, and, without special aoplication, can not meet the demands which have come to us for ceramic artists. A skillful designer and decorator would be of lit*le or no value in the average ceramic

Rhead, "What the Industries Want from the Ceramic Artist," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, TV (April, 1^29), pp. 161—L. plant It' he possesses no practical know­ ledge of ceramic processes and materials. ... The research work of ttie decorative ceramist should be confined to execution and not to de­ velopment work In bodies, glases, and colors. Because the work of the decorating ceramic spec­ ialist deals almost entirely with execution, a university course must be one that will permit continuous and consistent production.17

This plea indicated, on the one hand, the need for a strong foundation in materials and processes and, on the other hand, the need for the development of exceptional skill in exec\ition.

Mr. Shead would add, to these two requirements, a third, as indicated in an address delivered before the Art Division in

1923* A designer of table wares.••.must know his­ toric ornament, and he must be able to make highly finished and daintily executed decorations that will be acceptable to the best artistic .1^x3''ment of the day. If he is called upon to make a design for a plate border in Italian Renaissance, the design must be in Italian Renaissance and not a mongrel concoction plainly showing his own ignorance, and advertising his concern to everybody initiated in art as a concern possessing no artistic influence or ideals. ... The trouble with most of our ceramic designers is that the: do not draw enough.19

Materials and processes, skill in execution and a broad knowledge of historic ornament - three phases of ceramic education which, to i.!r. ahead’s thought, were highly necessary for the ceramic

——————— Rhead, ’’.Surgestions on Ceramic Art Education,™ Ibid., V (November, 1^26), pp. hll and :il3* 1*3 Rhead, "Halation of the Art Division to the Other Hvisions? Bulletin------of the American Cer-'mic Society, IT (April, 1 ’23), pp. 61 li*s artist or designer* Any one of these, adequately treated, could well consume all the time any curriculum at the college level could devote to a major c urse of study. Mr. Hhead had been first apprenticed at the are of thirteen. His apprenticeship had been

continuous with specialized art training, covering a period of approximately six years. That such a training period differed radically from the United dtates' public-school-to-university procedure was never, perhaps, fully realized by him.

There were times, how* ver, when ^r. Ahead*s invective was directed to the manufacturers rather than the educators. His address delivered in acceptance of the ;1inns serial, dated 1°3T» was in this vein. He said, in part*

This is non a cri tioism of our fine educational orga' Izr'tions or of the product of their labors, but it is a very definite indictment of our industrial attitude, or absence of attitude, with regard to the develonment and apolication of creative train power..• Our manufacturers are splendid organization men and 3plendid sportsmen. The; will ramble in factories and machines and will cheerful!;, drop a thousand or two at brid^f, golf, or ether s >orts, but they have not yet learned to gamble in creative develoDment, the safest Tamble of rhern all. Today, the schools assume the responsibility. The factory organizations are so cut of touch with school activities that while objecting to 'larre imoortstion of foreign ware, they are using foreign labor to produce a stylistic type which should be truly American. 19

Turning his thoughts once more to the schools, Rherd said,

in 1937*

Rhead, "Industry's Attitude Toward Art Training," bulletin of the American leramic society, XIV (April, 1 9 ) pT“Tt.t :------11*6

Every student in ceramic art schools should be able to execute examples of the known decora­ tive processes and every instructor should know the technique involved in connection wi th agraf- fitto, majolica, underglase decorating on bisque, painting in lusters, the various methods of slip decoration, and so forth. It is sickening to visit the various ceramic schools when one notes the entire absence of process work and the sloppy technique in connection with the elementary work being done. Any student leavinr school to enter the decorctive department of any factory ia absol­ utely unequipped if he does not possess a working knowledge of the known overglase, underglase and slip processes. It is my opinion that there should be some standardization of the ceramic craft work done in the public schools and also in the universities interested in ceramic art work.^O

If the last two statements are comoarfd, Mr. Rhead's sincere interest in the matter of design for the ceramic field is shown.

That he rave much time and thought to the entire matter, both from the industrial and eurational points of view, is evidenced. His personal knowledge was greater industrially than educationally, but he made an effort to give of his knowledge o' what was needed in the factories to help in the establishment of suits o.'e courses of study in schools and colleges*

Die opportunity has been taiten here to consider ;.ir. Rhead'a background and opinions in some detail, in accordance with the amount of influence he exerted upon the Art Division of the

American deramie Society. He was representative of thf men from

57)------Rhead, "Report of the Art Division Committee on Research," Ibid., XVI, (May, 1937), p. 220. 11*7

Industry who h a n bean active in tho Division. Rhead aened as Chsinun of the Division in 1922-23 and 1923-21*. In tho thirty-throo yoars slneo its inception, ninotoon chairmen of tho

Division have come from industry, fourteen have boon educators.

Secretaries of tho Division have included twelve from industry, twenty-one educators. Of the latter, Miss Marlon Fosdlck, who became a member of the Society in 1926, served the greatest number of years as secretary* eight years. Myrtle *errlt French served four years* Charles M. Harder, three years. 'Xhe listing of

Division officers which follows on the next page indicates their affiliations.

Marlon L. Fosdiok has stated that the Art Division during the first twenty years of its existence was composed primarily of those whose principal interests rested in education in ceramio 21 art. The preceding list of officers of the Division corro­ borates the assertion, and indicates that since World War II the character of the membership has changed, industrial members predominating. The American Ceramic Society has not maintained membership listings on the basis of Divisions, so that it is not possible to substantiate statistically the changing character of the Art Division. 22------Statement by M. L. Fosdlck, personal interview. 11*8

American Ceramic Society

Art Division

Chairmen Secretaries

Industry Educators Industry Educators

F. H. Rhead 1922-23 11. C. Farren F. H. Rhead 1923-21* H. S. Kirk Uary Scherer 1921*-25 H. S. Kirk Uary Scherer 1925-26 c. Baldwin Uary Scherer 1926-27 A. E. Baggs E. DeF. Curtis 1927-28 M. L. Fosdick E. DeF. Curtis 1920-29 M. I.. Fosdick E. DeF, Curtis 1929-30 U. L. Fosdick E. DeF. Curtis 1930-31 U. U. French Walter Suter 1931-32 M. M. French Walter Suter 1932-33 Kenneth ^mith L. E. Barri nger 1933-31* E. DeF. Curtis L. E. Barrinper 193l*-35 C. M. Harder L. E. Barringer 1935-36 C. W. Harder L. E. Barringer 1936-37 c. U. Harder C. M. Harder 1937-38 V, L. Fosdick A. E. Baggs 1938-39 c. C. Blngle J. P. Oiorley 1939-1*0 C. Engle Paul Nash 191*0-1*1 c. C. Engle Kenneth Smith 191*1-1*2 M. L. Fosdick J. A. Foster 191.1^-1*3 M. L. Fosdick W. Aeldon 191*3-1*1* V. M. French '«• Weldon 19l*l*-l*5 M. M. ^reneh T. Lenchner 191*5-1*6 V*. L. Fosdick V. Broomhall 191*6-1*7 M. L. Fosdick V. Broomhall 191*7-1*8 Am,► Manker n. Schreckengos t 191*3-1*9 c. Boynton D. Schreckengost 191*9-50 c. Boynton D. Schreckengos t 1950-51 c. Boynton B. G. Yutzey 1951-52 c. Boynton Paul Bogatay 1952-53 c. Boynton Paul Bogatay 1953-51* c. Boynton K. J. Vontury 195i*-55 c. Boynton 1U9

The activities with which the infant Art Division, in 1922,

intended to concern itself were both Industrial and educational.

Three definite activities were set forth in that yeart

1 - Activities in the interest of the novice ceramic artist (artists of school and club) 2 — Activities in the interest of the industrial artist (factory decorators) 3 - Activities in the Interest of the ceramic art and technical schools. ... The promotion of industrial schools, in collaboration with the hhitewares (Dinnerwares) Division, for the teaching of ceramic technology and technique will be one of the activities of the Division.'2

The establishment of the Division, with the purpose of "putting art into" the ceramic industry, aroused the curiosity of fdwin U.

Blake, who devoted an article to it in the Art lAilletin, writing,

in parts

••••from a wider viewpoint it is one manifestation of the rapidly growing movement toward "Art in Industry" ••• In this connection the question immediately arises, are there otho* trade organizations with art divisions? Inquiries addressed to secretaries of some of the trade organizations and to others in a position to know show there is an awakening interest for art and a disposition to seek means to make that interest productively effective, but as yet there is no arrangement similar to that of the ceramists,23

"The Art Division," Bulletin of the American Ceramic boclety, I (June, 1922), p. 3 ^

23 Edwin Um Blake, "The Art Division of the American Ceramic ooeiety," Art Bulletin, VI (September, 1923), p. 19. 150

Th« Division was - and is - somewhat unique. Its over -all purpose was ths raising of artistic standards in domestic osramlo waras. That standards hava rlsan Is not to ba danlad. Can it ba said, as wall, that ths Division has been influential in this rsspsotT It can, but not in ths vary direct way that ths early

nowhere of ths Division hoped. In fact, ths vary separating of

ths Sooiety into divisions - admittedly neofssary with ever­ growing membership - was to have the effect of widening rather than narrowing the ap between deslrnar and manufacturer. In nore

recent years, with ^raster numbers of Division members actively

related to industry* the ap is being narrowed. This is, however*

taking place at the expense of any narrowing of the gap between

the industry and the schools of the nation. Blame for this turn

of events should not be attached to the society. Membership

determines directions* The American Ceramic Society is open to

all Who are interested.

In 19h3 the name of the Art Division was changed to the

Division of Ceramic Deaipn. The term "art" was rejected on the

basis that it was too broad and that the term "design” more properly 2h fitted the character of the Division. The Committee on Classi­

fication and Nomenclature (a committee of the entire society)

nevertheless defined Ceramic Art* in 19U5* ass "The expression

w, laeldon, "Art Division Name Changed to Division of Ceramic Desipn*" Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society* XXII (August, 19U3), p. 271. 151 of beauty throurh a ceramic medium by the appropriate choice of line, color, and surface texture to articles intended for use or 25 ornaments tlon. *

It la of interest to note that papers delivered before the

Design Division in 195b represented very high percentage of

industrial designers as participants. The fact offers further

corroboration of the changing aspect of the membership of the

Division, and - even more significantly - of a change in direction

Insofar as the employment of designers for the ceramic industry in general is concerned. The industrial designer, who today plays

such an active role in the form of mass-produced items, was

virtually unknown in the early days of the Art Division.

It has been prevlo lsly stated that the division was for its

first twenty years much concerned with education in ceramic art«

the traininc of designers for the Industry, of Independent "studio"

potters, and of teachers. During the same period and also to the

present, it has also been concerned with relationships between

design and the market. These two general subjects, education and

desirn, have received primary attention from the Division. Both

are relevant to education in ceramic art. The former is of

greatest relevance and w i l l therefore be considered in detail in ------Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XXIV (January, l$h5)»p. 2&. 26 Bulletin of the aaerloan Ceramic Society, XXXIII (April, 195b), pp.~I5=I7. 152 the following pa^M.

The American Ceramic Society's interest in ceramic education predated the establishment of the Art Division. It hsd been active in supporting the establishment of oeramio departments at Rutgers, 1902) The University of Illinois, 190Uj Iowa State 27 College, 1906-71 and the University of Washington, 1918* These departments, as well as many others subsequently established, became departments of ceramic engineering. The Society's interest was

the training of technicians and control men for industry. At least no differentiation was made between the technical and artistic phases of ceramic education. Beyond the support of programs at

the college level, the Society was active in the promotion of courses of vocational training in secondary schools. These will be discussed in Chapter 5 of this section.

It has been seen that Ur. Mueller, addressing the Society in

1911, introduced the subjeot of artistic merit in domestic wares.

This is not to say that the matter had not been the concern of various Individuals prior to 1911. had such Individuals wished

to find some concrete information upon the subject of educating

American designers, they would have had few sources to which to refer. International Studio, the American edition of England's

Studio, described in 1906, "Ceramic rtork of the fturslera Art School."

"Our Universities." Journal of the American Ceramic Society. IV (January, 1923/, pp7^87-lI7. The departments at The Ohio State University and Alfred Uni­ versity had been established in 1395 and 1900, respectively. 153

The majority of the students there were enployed in the potteries during the day end sttended the school evenings. They decorated fired, glased plates snd tiles in alass, thereby increasing their skill for decorating at the factory benches. A subsequent article, appearing in the sans periodical, cited an increase in working with actual oeranic materials, as opposed to executing designs on paper in watereolor, in learning ceramic decorative 29 techniques. International Studio waa popular in this oountry, and it is to be imagined that articles such as those cited tad some influence upon those Interested in education in oeramic art.

Adding to such information the experienoea and opinions of Mr*

Hhead, the early tendency of the Society to consider ceramic art as a catalog of decorative processes and skills Is easily under­ stood.

Following the establishment of the Art division, with its membership highly composed o£ those interested in education in ceramic art, two developments are notable. First, greater attention was paid to this phase of ceramic education. Second, the nature of the courses offered under the title ** oeramic art"

(or some similar term), be ran to assume a native, national character,

■ " ■ j a ■ E. N. Scott, "Ceramic Mork of the Burslem Art School," International Studio. XXVII (February, 1906), pp. 333-UO. 29 E. N. Scott, "Hanley School of Art,*1 International Studio. XXVI (July, 1905), pp. 69-73. 15il

They were not to be mere duplicates of the Fnplish system, which was admirable for the purposes of England, but Which could not meet

the diverse demands for education in ceramic art in this country.

Just what those demands were and are and how the.v should be met

has long been a matter of discussion,

Theodore Lenchner represented, in 1923, those who continued

to stress the need for trained decorators. He saldi

Considerable training and experience is nec- cessary to qualify as a master decorator, and in this country too few have taken up the work. It is hoped that in the near future, through the un­ tiring efforts of the Art Division of the American Ceramic Society, a keener interest will be created in the artistic and decorative development of our ceramic products, and the writer believes wonder­ ful work is beinc done along this line, When that interest is developed, we shall have many more decorators, not only capable of applying these colors, but also in creating designs with greater artistic expression..,3®

Pleas of this type decreased slightly as it became more evident

that the sort of training that would produce a skilled decorator

was not the training suitable at college level. In other words,

the schools were much more interested in 11 educating artiste

designers'* than they were in "training decorators." The difference

between "educating" and "training" is significant, although the

terms have been utilized as inter-changeable by many. J. Dailey

Ellis of the Carnegie Institute of Technology, also sooke before

55------T. Lenchner, "class Decorator's Palette and Its Pre­ paration," Journal of the American Ceramic Society, VI (0ctober, 1923), p.ToiiO. 15*

the Division in 1923* He described the curriculum of the Institute, which was planned to offer close contact with actual mechanical

experiences in specific manufactures in conjunction with a broad

foundation in art. This, the Institute hoped, would become a general practice in degree courses, replacing the "large number of

schools turning out students, who after they have left school must

gain the experience necessary to make what they have to contribute

of value to the person or to the company in a position to give 31 them a job that will bring in certain amount of return."

Richard F. Bach, of the Metropolitan Museum of Art,

addressed the Division in 192U. The sub-title of his talk was

"America Needs Schoofe of Industrial Art." He saidi

Ihe curious thing, the un-American thing, ... is that design has not received attention from business men. Have they founded or aided schools of industrial art? Do they cooperate with schools by linking t! eory with practice? Yesf one out of 100 has done this. Business will establish a class to teach the care of cutting edges of tools and f’ive never a thought to traininr the artist-artisan whose handcontrols these cutting edges. ...do American manufacturers favor foreirn design? Yes, many do and still persist in buying desirns abroad. Do these same men in a definite practical way aid American designers or advise their instructors? Yet their criticism of existing schools is both plentiful and caustic. When the war began our desi ning rooms were manned by foreirn talent. Ifith the first gun these designers left us as though in a si n^le shipload, he had no substitutes. Blissful ignorance had no

^ J. B. Kills, "Training of Artists for Industry," Bulletin of the iunarican Deramic Society, IT (August, 1923), p rr a r '------156

bulwark against such an emergency. Business talked and prayed and hoped, mostly hoped. Not a sinple school was established. ... As soon as the war ended, the orgy of exportation of raw materials began again and at the same time product* of foreign skill crowded out American products in the stores. America has nothing to show for It - the best opportunity that ever c«me to a country to stud> its own needs. Self-examination is not our leading national trait. Business must keep ahead of ths game. The art trades must lead. Ihe better thing must be ready before the consumer demands it. Provide excellent design and these millions will stay in America. Provide excellent design and the American industry will grow.32

Mr. Bach's "buy American" slant was heard widely following World

War I. Paul Cox said, in 1925t "We need to hire American artists and to make our w«res in American ways and our house decorators need to think out schemes of decoration that are

American and to use our very excellent American decorative potters."33 [/r. cox felt that all too few American designers were interested in designing oer«mic warts. This lack of interest he attributed to the schools of art which "educate their students away from work in the factories."

F. J. M. Koenig also considered "Art and the Manufacturer" and sensed the need for an imorovement of quality production which could stand foreign competition. He stressed four requirementst

------T 9 ------R. t. Bach, "Art in Industry," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, III (August, 19214), pp. 2314, ?dtT"and ^8*3. 73 P. Cox, "American Ceramics for Interior h>ecorntinr," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, IV (September, 192r>), ------157

1 - A greater number of school* for artisans, these to inolude art training* 2 - An Intensive cooperation of the government when traveling exhibitions are held by foreign indus­ trial products, with leotures by ooapetent persons* 3 - Enough Interest froa the manufacturers to hold oonteats to get better models and designs* k - Love and interest from the workmen for their ehosen subject* 3u

The papers cited to this point were concerned primarily with artists for the ceramic industry* Edmund DeForest Curtis, des­ cribing the course in pottery at the Pennsylvania Museum School of industrial Art, introduced the subject of the self-employed potter-craftsmani

bhen the student has completed the full course he is supposed to be able to write a paper explaining in detail ihat, if he had a shop of his own, he would make, how he would make it and whereand how he would sell it* It seems to me that there is a future for the potter-crsi'tsman. **.s great many articles of everyday use now made by machinery and of metal might easily have the craftsman's touch added and be produced in terra cotta or faience without making the ^rloe pro­ hibitive* The F'reatest stumbling block so far in developing this field has been the cost of equipmfnt and the lack of exact knowledge so that the loss may be held down to a reasonable figure and we hope that the work done at the School of Industrial Art will be sufficiently varied in type and use and of a high enough standard of quality to prove that the field may be entered with no great outlay of caoital and with a reasonable chance of success*3?

F. J. K, Koenig, "Art and the Manufacturer," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, V (September, 1926), p* 3b?>* 3 c E. BeF. ^urtis, "The Course in Pottery at the Penns.vlvania Museum School of Industrial Art," Journal of the American Ceramic Society, VIII (March, 1925)* p. Ili57 158

Curtis' suggestion that a ceramic art graduate oould make a success­ ful business of a one-man shop appears to hare been the first mode before the Society* The differences between shat the sohools were attempting to teach and what earlier leaders, such as

Frederick Rhead, had advocated was becoming wore apparent.

Ur. Curtis was not overlooking the need for designers for

Industry', however. A year later, in 1926, he said)

I think that in order to raise the standard of American ceramic art...it is necessary to bring into being the ceramic artist - and we must not underestimate the caliber of such a man. He must have his art tralninr, color, design, history of art, appreciation of beauty, development of taste, and he must also definitely be a practical potter. ... So I urge that in considering any change in the undergraduate work you.•.make adequate provision for the trained ceramic artist, a man who knows what to create, hew to design It so that it measures up with the best of ceramic art, how to design It so that it may be translated into inustry, a man Who can grasp the fact that the pencil, the modeling tool, the kiln, the jigger, the skillsd worker, the unskilled laborer, the pugmi11 and his own cultural background are all tools that he must know and understand and use. Create such a man and it can be done - and in ten years the standard of American ceramic art will be where it ought to be.’°

There can be no question but what there were "ceramic artists" long before Curtis' para on was defined. Yet his definition is an aid In understanding the very broad programs itiich education in ceramic art at the colle"e level have endeavored to administer.

Added to the desirable curriculum described by Curtis was concern

^ E. DeF. Curtis, "Ceramic Art and the Ceramic Artist," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society. V (January, 1926), pp, U3 an3TU5. 159 orer the preparation of tea char a of ceramic art* An editorial appearing in the Bulla tin in 1926 stated!

The Toltuw of requests for high sohool instructors competent to teach the cor sale fundamentals in combinstion with the arts and oraits of ceramic ware production Indiestee that with qualified Instructors ceramic courses in hiph schools would soon be instituted quite generally. Inquiries for summer courses of training in ceramic technology, arts and crafts are frequent and Chatauqua organisations are surveying the desirability of training courses in oeramios. It is economically important that the schools secure through Education aonmlttees of this Society end of every other ceramic organisation a coordinated effort tot 1) have men and women with aptness in teaching take post-graduate work in the oolleglate ceramic schools, 2) establish combination oersmlo science and art coursee, and 3) plan for combination Industrial and scholastio training in preparation far teaching oeramios in these schools.

The Society held, in 1926, a symposium on American Ceramic

Art. Various participants, un-named, took part in a discussion on the “Future of American Ceramic Art."^® One of the partici­ pants, identified as a “Producer of a distinctive Line of Vases," expressed his belief that there was not enough employment for trained ceramic technicians and artists. He blamed the low standards of taste in this country* this, in turn, was blamed on the publio schoole for not developing in young people a

jN "Forward Steps in Ceramic Education," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society. V (February, 1926), pp. 92 and 93* 3d "American Ceramio Art Symposium," Ibid.. (January, 1926), pp. 27-U2. 160 knowledge of end teste for the artietio. A "Manufacturer of

Poroeleln Insulators" eeld thet the pottery industry hed felled to entielpete the oustonere' needs* ^he "President of e Successful

Vhlteware Company* seid that the industry needed oeramlo art schools to train designers. He did not think, however, that students would be tempted to study oeranlo design because their remunerati -n would never warrant the years of study. The wages expected by such designers were too high for the manufacturer, who had to keep his prices down in order to coupe te with imported ware - ware produced with very cheap child labor, a practice not per­ mitted in this country.

The symposium also discussed the development of a dis­ tinctively American ware which could compete successfully with imports, aiggestiona varied from uslnp southwestern Indian pottery as a guide for all American production to following the tenets of

Jay Hambridge and his "dynastic symmetry." A "lismfacturing Art

Potter" said that if more trained Asmrloan potter-craftsmen were actually working to express their own (not Europe's) ideas in clay a distinctive American pottery would result. Looking back over the almost thirty years which have elapsed since the symposium was held, the last surgestion - whether by intention or otherwise - appears to have carried the greater weight.

Mary 0. Scherer presented a report in 1927 on the "Training

Necessary for the Potter-Craftsman." The report dealt with 161 eolligt education In an "Industrial art" - namely, oeramios*

She aaid that if tha atudant was to taka hla plaoa In tha induatrial world ha m a t do ao In ona of thraa vajat (l) aa a oaraalo designer working for a factory or free-lanoe, (2) aa a craftsman executing hla cam designs, or (3) as a teacher* Suggestions wars made concamlng tha way In whioh atudanta could ba flttad moat proparly for tha thraa possibilities* Ona of thasa suggestions west

•••concentrate on a few wall-equipped schools, where at least tha last year's work would ba given, and than one shop running on a regular operating competitive basis run by graduate atudanta for a year and replaced by a new aat the next year* The graduate should be able to earn hia living, he should ba able to build hia shop into a factory, and ha should be able to compete with any country on artistic merit, price, quality and quantity* Later, when the faotariaa realise that art can ba made to pay, we shall have a class of trained people who will carry the artistic spirit into factory routine*39

Ulss Soberer*a experience at tha Newcomb Pottery favored her support of some such plan for a small, graduate-operated, plant*

Edmund Deforest Curtis likewise expressed his opinion that school programs needed to ba brought into closer relationship with industry. A teacher himself, Ur* Curtis recognised that the

"school attitude" justifiably dictated that "we must teach something better than the factories *re doinr or we shall fall short of our

■■■■— * U* 3* Soherer, "The Training Necessary for tha Potter- Craftsman," Bulletin of the Ansrloan Ceramic Society* VI (January, 1927)* pp. 5, 6 and 7. 162 i*o responsibilities! we must not oeter to the Indue try." He nevertheless felt that in holding to auoh an ideal the schools did not learn the real problems that induetry had to meet. He euggeated that the aehoole work on actual factory problems ao that graduates mould be able to earn their way in industry because they would be of real value to it.

The present chapter pertains to the American Ceramic Society and its interest in education in ceramic art* This interest was particularly high during the 1920*8* The greatest number of papers pertaining to oeramio art published in the periodicals of the

Society appeared in the year 1926* It should be said that not all papers delivered before its various branches have been published*

The 1926 peak is, nevertheless, indicative of the high Interest in ceramic art and education then current* In addition to papers and editorials concerning education in ceramic art, the deoade saw the presentation - and sometimes the publication - of many papers dealing *.ith bodies and glases suitable for school and studio use* These papers are outside the present study, but their publication did add to the 1926 peaks they represented the sharing of research results by members of the Art Division, so many of whom were educators* This sharing would not seem particularly surprising - until it is realised that as late as 1921*

liO h* DeF* Curtis, "The Art Division. 1928," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society* VII (Harch, 1928), p* Ii7* 163 an appaal was aada before tha antira Society fort, .less eecreoy and greater exahange of information and ideas."k*

In 1930 tha entire proceeding* of tha Art Division's Ammal

Meetings was published in separata cover as s supplemsnt to ths

Hay issue of that year. This special publication represented the culmination of the sincere efforts of the Art Division during the previous decade to plan suitable programs for education in oeramic art mid to reach some understanding of the needs of the industry. The Trustees of the Society invited certain schools, instructors, and plant executives to take part in a s; mposlum comprising the 1930 meeting of the Art Division, lhe speakers included the following educators• Edmund DeF. Curtis, Philadel­ phia Museum School) Arthur Baggs, The Ohio State University)

Uarion L. Fosdick, Alfred fniversiti) Harold Nash, Cincinnati

University and Paul E. Cox, Iowa.

Hr. Curtis spoke on "The Role of Art in Industrial Ceramics

He optimistically Dredicted that the American ranchine would produce a t; pe at' pottery out-ranking both as to technique and art the finest pottery ever attained. He expressed confidence that the program of education being pursued and sponsored by the American

Ceramic Society would result in the creation of a group of ceramic

J. A. Jeffrey, "Coordinating Research end Technical In­ formation with Plant Control,11 Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society. ITI (May, 192U), p. ISTI ^ E. DeF. Curtis, HThe Role of Art in Industrial Ceramics,** Journal of the American Ceramic Society, XIJI (May, Part II, 1930), Pp. 7-11. designers who would achieve a product finer then the Sung were of Chine* Referring to e pair of Sung vaeee In the Metropolitan he held that there was no quality In them which could not be produced under modern factory conditions except the conception* ouch conceptions would soon be forthcoming from the designers in training* He stressed particularly the fact that "under proper conditions Industrial art is still a medium through Which the creative spirit can shine and that It, aa well as fine art, can portray beauty*

Arthur Baggs and liarlon osdiek presented an Investigation in dlnnerware design problems. Surveying the difficulties of domestic producers in meeting the competition of imports they said i

American manufacturers of earthenware have been severely criticised for lack of initiative and originality In design. It is admitted that much of this criticism is just. A proof is to be found in the relative apeoe given to American and imported wares of this class in the beat stores* Some buyers have made statements that with one or two exceptions there is nothinr in American earthenware worth considering for homes of taste*

The authors asserted that the familiarity of the names of European

producers to the American buying public was in part responsible

for the competitive advantage they enjoyed* They advocated that

b3 Ibid*, p. U .

^ Baggs and Fosdick, "Design Problems of the Dlnnerware Industry," Journal of the American Ceramic Society, XITI (Kay, Part II, 1?5<5;, p7 15. 165

domestic producers advertise on a national aaala to familiarise

tho public with thalr names and products. Aa an outcome of the

Baggs and Foadick survey, a grant from the General Education Board

of the Rockefeller Foundation wma nede a Tellable to provide a taro- 1*5 year acholarahlp In ceramic deairn applied to dlnnerware, This grant waa subsequently awarded to Paul Bopatay, Who carried out

his study at The Ohio State University.

Miaa Foadick alsot during thie symposium, presented a biblio­

graphy of papers appearing in the Transactions, Journal and Bulletin

of the American Ceramic Society which were "concerned with low-

tempereture work and of interest to members of the Art Division."^

Myrtle Merritt ,rranch, speaking on "Art Pottery," discussed

teaching. She said that the greatest contribution of those

engaged in teachinr industrial ceramic art would coma throurh

"...an open-minded, practical, sincere experimental attitude,

emphasising technical principles in class work, but encouraging

ths working out experimentally of original ideas, though at times 1*7 they may promise to be impractical."

H5------Bulletin of the American Ceraado Society, X (June, 1931), P.T55I

U 6 If. L* Fosdick, "Bibliography," Journal of the American Gera ado Society. XIII (May, Part II, 1930), pp. 55-66.

^ If. M. French, "Art Pottery," Journal of the Aawrican Ceramic Society. XITT (May, Part II, 19^0), p.“ 3 6 . 166

D m 1930 symposium was significant In that It brought together ths expressions of the nost active ceramic art educators of ths tins. Of the five specifically mentioned here, three had studied under Doctor Binns, who had played his most active role in the

Society during the first two deoades of the twentieth century - prior to the founding of the Art Division*

Joseph Sinel, addressing the Division in 193U, was out­ spoken in his condemnation of the practice among American ceramic manufacturers of imitating - and actually copying - Europeanwares*

He attributed the practice to an unhealthy attitude on the part of the producers, all of whom, he held, favored "senile" deal ms.

Sir* sinel saw little help for the problem in the designers being trained in the schools* he saidt

There are schools of engineering and technology throughout the country, but there is not one single Institution that is equipped to give adequate training in significant form as applied to the products of Industry* There is at present no real course In industrial art{ and A do not consider the art school the place to train industrial artists* But there should be a collaboration between the art schools and the technological institutes.*.U8

Ur* Sinel*s comments are significant in that they are represent­ ative of those directed to the Art Division through the years by non members or members who were not educators* It has been shown that the Division membership was composed largely of serious, sincere and oonsoientous teachers of ceramic art* Their

^ J, Sinel, "Design lapels Consumer Response," Bulletin of th» American Ceramic Society* XIT1 (November, 193U), p* 29?* 167 efforts to gain a clearer understanding of tho needs of Industry constituted but ona phase of tha teaching thay were supposed to accomplish* If It osn not ba said that thay ware negligent la this phase, It oan ba said that what was axpaotad of thaa frequently seemed bayond the realm of physical possibility* Thay nevertheless persisted In their efforts*

A symposium on "Ceramio Art and Education" was held during tha annual seating In 1936* Lawrence S* Barringer of General

Eleotrio, Schenectady, was Chairman of tha Division at tha tiaa.

As such ha gave an introduction to tha symposium, Including tha following statement! "A rough astlnata made a year or so ago placed the number of studio potters, sohool-group potteries, and similar enterprises at about 2000* Sines than a partial survey conducted with the aid of the members of tha American Ceramic

Society has indicated a total vary cloaa to the original esti- 1*9 mate." This was not to say that the Division numbered 2000 memberst fifty would ba, pezhaps, too high a number* The figure does indicate, however, tha comparatively small number of indi­ viduals engaged in school and studio activities relative to eeraadc art* Thera are few specialised professions which would not have numbered much higher* The fact that tha 1930'e represented a low national inaome should be taken Into consideration. Periods of economic difficulty are not propituoua for either the employed

— ...T « ' --- - L* A. Barringer, "Ceramic Art and Education," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Soolety, XT (January, 1936), pp. 1 and 2. 160 designer or ths producing craftsman.

R. Ouy Cowan of ths Onondaga Pottery, Syraeuse, partici­ pated In the symposium. His opinions were those of a designer engaged in the ceramic industry and therefore of significance.

Ur. Cowan saidt

In the art and scholastic world there is a great deal of talk of the duty of "educating the public to better taste." There is an erident feeling on the part of aome that aataring to the public taste is an aril thing. Such an attitude is not entirely justified. ... If industry is to live it is forced to cater to public opinion. It must mske what people will buy... It is hardly to be questioned that a man, whether artist or not, has a perfect rieht to make that which he desires to make. But does that right extend to the point where he can expeot other men to buy even if it is not what they want? No artist would question this principle if he were buying a motor car or a washing machine. ... Suppose that we can convince the industrialist that it is his duty to educe te the public • Which of the sm y sets of standards of good taste is he to adopt? Are we not treading on dangerous ground when we sacrifice the success of business to s purely personal reaction? After all, is there any proof that we are right and the other fellow wrong? In the past centuries, artists have worked and labored to convince their fellow man that all was not right with the world* Out of the thou­ sands possessing unconventional ideas, a few dozen have changed the outlook of their generation or of the generations which have followed. While it is the contention here that industry must of necessity ramsIn impersonal or neutral to personal ideas of "good taste," ths individual Who believes he has a message for his fellow man should still have a place in the w o r l d . 50

R. 0. Cowan, "Art, Industry and Education in Ceramics," Bulletin of the American Ceramic °ocietyt XV (January, 1936), p p . £ , 6. X69

Cowan continued his rmaarka, directing his attention to tha thraa principal outlata for trained oeramio artiatat

• ••tha Industrial* Thara hara baan parhapa a score of individuals aho have aada substantial oontributlona to American ceramic art* There are parhapa that many aho today are doing orad 1 table aork for oar Indus trlee. Among them, vary few have c o m from our oeramio aohoola. In tha aaeond field, that of oraft oeramios, tha anaaar is sons- ahat batter. Tat if again aa make a list of thoaa aho have been doing the best aork for tha past 2$ years, aa shall find that tha leaders, fcr tha ■oat part, have baan without the benefit of oeramio aohool training. In tha third field, teacher training..••this aork is, in many oases, ona of tha educational fads ahloh increased tha burden of tha taxpayer of today without compensating re­ turns. ...it seems to ba true that tha pottery aork turned out in tha public schools is for tha most part so crude and uninteresting as to fall far short of justifying tha cost of production. Consideration has not baan pivsn to tha faot that most of ths merit (and often tha only merit such pottery possesses) lies in glases and oolors applied by the teacher, who also prepares tha materials and does the firing, the writer knows that there ore exceptions to this general criticism. Our ceramic schools are not in combination with out better art schools. The students with tha greatest genius go to the better art schools. In such schools the> receive the bast instruction and thr result is good art work. Unfortunately, in our ceramic schools, we have not secured students of a high degree of natural talent and they have not had instruction under teachers comparable to those in our better art schools.'7

The lonr quotations from llr. Cowan's presentation seem justified here, since they sum up many of the points of contention betseen men of industry and educators. His position relating

51------Ibid.. pp. 8, 9 and 10* 170 to the manufacturer and public taata ia plausible* hla defense of the artist'a right to proselytise admirable. Hla condemns tion of tha pottery executed in the achoola was evidence of short— alghtadneas and of unfamiliarity with principlee of experimmital education. Lastly, hla statement regarding the caliber of atudanta attending the ceramic achoola and the teaching staffs of those schools seem to have reflected some personal dlsgruntlement.

Cowan had graduated in 1907 from the New fork State School of Clayworking at Alfred, with a degree in cars mi c engineering and technology. Hia work was done there under Ttoctcr Binna. At the time of his address, in 1936, both Alfred University and The Ohio

State University (in the East) offerea mat or courses in ceramic art, and it was presumably to these schools that he addressed his criticism of "ceramic schools." Cowan's own knowledge of art schools was undoubtedly strongest with regard to the Cleveland

School of Art, since his pottery had been very near that city.

His sssoclstes at the pottery had received their training prin­ cipally In art schools. Whether the degree of maturity of these associates influenced his opinion of undergraduates and graduates of the ceramic schools is not knowni it is possible.

The sort of thinking which prompted Mr. Coen's remarks has not been without effect on the undergraduate curricula offered for ceramic art majors. The very same sort of thinking was current in the minds of educators concerned with all branches of education, particularly those branches which pertained to very 171

specialised fields. Thus c a w about a broadening of curricula

for at^inaara and scientists, for artiata In general and for

caraaic artiata, There had baan a period, following tha eatabliah-

. want of formal education in apeoialisad areas, itien it waa eon-

aidarad inadvisable to permit any "extraneous" eouraaa in curricula,

either beoauae there waa ao much technical material to ba covered

in tha aoianeea that no time ran a Ined for history, language and tha

like, or beoauae, aa Hoaa Purdy had aald In 1923i "Elective or

optional oouraea are not practical, for theae do not give opportunity

for the moat beneficial aystematic development of the youth1a

educational poaaibilitieaj it riaka too much to hia unintelligent

erhima, dictated aa theae are by social and other a mbit! one outside

of hia education training.. The faults of over—specialization

became apparent through the years and within the last seven years

there has been a consistent revision of curricula with the aim of

fitting the graduate far his total life - not for his speciality

alone.

Meantime, the problems between the artist and industry

continued. T. 5. Haile, an English potter who had come to Alfred

University in the early 191*0'a, delivered a paper before the Art

Division in 191*2. He asked the question "Is a reconciliation of

tha artlat to industry impossible?," answerlnr with an emphatic

52------R. Purdy, "Education Training in Ceramic doience," Bulletin of the Aawrloan Ceramic Society. II (July, 1923), pp. l^fl-9* 172

"Ho*" There m n , he htld, three conditions In the reoomeiliationi

The first condition Is thst ths industry aust have s desire to improve Its ware assthstloslly for ths ssks of Its prlds In fins craftsmanship and not solsly bsosuss of sconoale pressure. ... The seoond condition Is a nationally organised teaching of art appreciation, not by learning who painted the Sis tine Chapel, but through articles of everyday use... Only thus can Manufacturers, retailers, and the public have their her Isons extended to receive nee advances In design without having their conservative suspicions aroused. ... The third condition is a general recognition of the fact that applied ornament supplied by those who know little or nothing of potting will inevitably result in adulterated fones of design. Training for oeranic design wust be in terns of the materials, tools, and methods used in which­ ever branch of ths industry it is relevant.”

This passage from Halle*s paper contrasts with that previ­ ously quoted froa Cowan's, representing, in degree, the "idealism" or the "lvory-tower attitude" frequently attributed to ths schools by men of business. Industry, conversely, is often indicted for being too praotioal and for being short-aighted, design-wise, by the artist. One solution to the problem was proposed by Paul

Oox and Kenneth Smith, also at the Art Division meeting in 191|2.

In preparing their paper, Cox and Smith mailed fifty letters to the

"more important” producers of decorated pottery and glaasware.

Fifteen of the producers answered ths qiestlons, which pertained to the employment cf school-trained designers.

5 5 ------T. S. Halle, "English and American Ceramic Design Problems.” Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society. XXI (December. 19i*2), p. &UI I 173

The replies were discouraging* So— were bittert they

Indicated that school-trained ceraaio designers ware of little worth and, further— re, that the Art Di Tie ion — s — better*

Coot and — ith proposed that the Art Division oould gain support from the industrial groups within the organisation by producing research papers whioh would arouse the interest of those concerned with increasing sales through the use of decorative processes.

The possibility of building up a fund of literature pertaining to the "technology of oeraaic design" was broached. Curricula in oeraaic art, aa offered at Alfred, The Ohio State University, Iowa and Cincinnati were analysed* Graduate work was advised, aa much as three years* Liberal options were rooom— nded, so thats

•••students who find themselves incapable artists can develop thenselves aa technologists and thoae finding tha— elves incapable technolo­ gists can develop tha— elves as artists* ••• Two types of persona would result, the technology winded and the art winded* The two types would supplement each other if working together. A rioh literature would result in tine* ••• The art product sohools would have a source of tech­ nical Infer— tion for use in oeranlo work, and industries would have a source of fins art re­ search*

While it see— that Smith and Cox were recownending little beyond tha present-day oourses for ceramic technologists

^engineers") and for ceramic artists, their suggestions were actually directed to a greater degree of understanding between

Smith and Cox, "An Arguaent for Technology of Ceraaio Design," Bulletin of the American Ceraaio Society, XXI (September, 191*2 ), p.tst: m technologists and artists. Thalr uss of tha word "incapable" la unfor tuna tat "not challenged” would h a w boon more appropriate.

Thair recommendations lnfar that thara should ba sons oommonallty in tha curricula offer ad for technologists snd artists, with the nuaber of years of studb inorsssod to aoooaaodata tha additional ooursas. Such a procedure would offsr several advantages and several disadvantages. The advantages would includet (1) a greater degree of understanding between technologists and artists, and (2) a batter ground, after one or two years devoted to basic technical and art studies, for choosing between the two phases of ceramic education.

It is to be noted, however, that such a plan would be inoperable in many existing ceramic schools without quite re* volution* ry chan gee. There are many more schools offering ceramic art, in varying degree, than schools offering ceramic engineering*

Closer relationships between departments * where both exist - is advisable.

It may be said that the paper presented by Smith and Cox in 191*2 marks a turning point in the interests of the Art

Tivlsion of tha American Ceramic Society. The paper did not occasion the ohange, however} rather world conditions directed that the attention devoted to education in ceramic art be con­ oantra ted on such education at the non-college level and the character of the membership of the Art Division changed. Since X9U2 the officers of D m Division have infrequently boon oeraaic art educators. This turn of events is further noted in the pqpers which have been presented before the Division in its annual meetings. Orester attention is being directed to oersnle design at the Industrial level and to marketing than is being directed to eduoation in oeraslc art.

The period between lorld Wars I and II, however, was one of vital concern, for the American Ceramic Society, tcmrard eduoation in ceramic art. The Art Division waa eatabllshed.

It fulfilled a need, bringing together educators who diseased their problems. Education in ceramic art as it la known today grew, in part, from their discussions, their suggestions, and from their responses to the indictments frequently made against the schools. Chapter 8

ADELAIDE ALSO? ROBINEAU AND THE CERAMIC NATIONAL

Adelaida Alaop Robineeu has been mentioned previously as one of the Individual potters on whose work public attention was centered Airing the first quarter of the present century* Mrs.

Robineau represented an artist of background and experience very different from that of Charles Fergus Binns. Her principal pur­ poses and desires centered strongly in her own work. Her teaching activities, covering three periods of her life, were dictated by financial cause rather than strong desire to teach. Her

Influence upon education in ceramic art waa and is, nevertheless, strong. Firstly, her students and co-workers were influenced by her. Secondly, the Ceramic National Exhibitions, held in

Syracuse, New York, in her memory, have influenced education in ceramic art not only in the schools but in general, public life aa well.

Miss Alsop waa of Puritan ancestory, born in Middletown,

Connecticut, in 1865. Her family moved west during her childhood and Adelaide received a boarding-school education at St. Mary's

Hall, Faribault, Minnesota. Her art training at the school was limited to drawing, which she greatly enjoyed, as she did water- 176 177 color painting. A china-painting aat waa presented to har upon graduation, and it was with thia and a few guide books that she undertook what waa to become one of her earliest forms of art expressions another was miniature painting cm ivory.

Hiss Alsop returned to St. Mary'a to teach following her graduation. Thia was done to provide financial assistance for a younger alster, a student at the school. During a stunner vacation, she attended the painting school of William H. Chase and

Rhode Holmes Nichols at Shinnecook Hills. This study comprised the principal art-training of her life.

Following her teaching experience in Minnesota, Miss Alsop opened a studio in New York City, where she taught china painting and sold her own work. During this period Miss Alsop began to publish Keramik Studio, a periodical for china painters, in 1899.

The magaslne was published in Syracuse, New York, as was also

Old China,^ whose editor was Samel E. Robineau. Whether the couple met as a consequence of the publishing activities in

Syracuse or In New York la not clear! they were married in 1902.

Mr. Robineau was French, a man of some means, and held investments in France. He was a collector and aporeclator of ceramics, being particularly interested in Chinese porcelains aid glases. The

Roblneaux built a home in Syracuse. A separate building waa constructed to house Mrs. Robineau1s studio.

Published from October 1901 through September 190li. 178

Mrs* Robineau had long been dissatisfied elth the china

"blanks* that were available to decorators* She wanted to learn to wake her own forms. Ur. Robineau was acquainted with Taxile

Boat, a French potter at Sevres. He prevailed upon the latter

to send a series of lessons to his wife. The lessons, translated by Ur. Robineau, were published in Keraaik studio during the veers

1903 and 190U* They described formulas and processes used at

Sevres in the production of comparatively low-fir* porcelain

(21*00° F.). Charles Fergus Binns wrote a series of notes to be published with the lessons, translating French terns and materials

into those available here. The entire series, with Binns* notes, was published in book form in 190$ by Keramik Studio Publishing

Company of Syracuse. The volume was most welcome to those who were attempting to produce pottery with few or no guides. Although

low-fire porcelain was the material set forth, there were many

pointers which were helpful to those working with other clays and

at other temperatures.

The early part of the century also found Urs • Robineau

learning how to make plaater molds and to cast in them, although

this process did not appeal to her. She went to Alfred to study

with Dr. Binns. The two personalities proved somewhat less than

compatible and her atay was of only a few weeks' duration. It

was long enough, however, for her to gain some knowledge of the

throwing prooess, which she proceeded to practice in her own 179 studio. Throwing remained her favorite forming method*

Charles Binns wrote an article for the Craftsmen in

190$, ostensibly concerned with Mrs. Robineau'a work. It served, rather, as a vehicle for an expression of his own philosophy. The references to Mrs. Robineau are limited* In closing, however, he wrotet

One of the evils of manufacturing on a large scale and by machinery is that so many articles are produced which are absolute repetitions. The work of the artiet-potter (thrower) bears to such objects the relationship whloh a painting bears to a print. The lagiression may be a good one, but it Is only one of hundreds, all exactly alike, and is, moreover, a mechanioal reproduction* The Robineau pottery is original and unique* It carries itself as if conscious of artistic taste a*d refined quality. It is, in a word, precious and fit com­ panion of choice silver, rich draperies and dainty books.2

A photograph illustrating "An American Potter and Her

Hone” in a 1910 issue of Good Housekeeping shows Mrs* Robineau at her wheel.^ Garbed in a smock which reached from chin to toe, with a little dust-cap in place, the artist sat before a large, electrically-driven wheel. The author of this article wrote, concerning Mrs. Robineau*s works

2------Charles F. Binns, ”The Art of the Fire,” Craftsman* Till (Hay, 190$), p. 208.

3 Louise dhrlmpton, "American Art Potter and Her Home,” Good Housekeeping* L (January, 1910), pp. $7-63* 160

In general effect and scope Mrs. Robineau *a art, vhll* It frequently shows traces of Japanese or Chlnaaa influence, and whlla In tha uaa of glases it ia a development of tha Sevres move- ■aat, ia neverthelaaa dlatinctly individual. Tha artiat haa solved har problems in her earn way, and tha Robineau poreelain atenda alone, a unique though unassuming product in the history of tha potter'a art.** lira. Robineau waa pointed out aa "leading a well-rounded existence, showing whet oan be accomplished through individual and untiring effort In an art without sacrifice of the home interests and en­ vironment that are ao dear to every woman.

Idas Shrlnpton stated that lira. Robineau*a work waa a develop­ ment of the Sevres movement. This could be anticipated from the fact that her early lessons oame from Dost at Sevres. Anna VI.

Olmsted, however, haa vrit" en that "Mrs. Robineau did not care for the pate-sur-pate process used by Taxlle Doat..."^ Her early methods of decoration included meticulously executed excised carving and piercing, lira. Robineau designed and made her forms, decorated and glazed them. Her husband did the firing.

Interest in this country in the work of Taxile Dost waa greatly lnoreased by the publication of Grand Feu Ceramics.

Ibid.. p. 62.

$ IMd«» P* 63. 6 A. W. Olmsted, "Ceramics, Part II," Encyclopedia of the Arts, p. 167. 181

An exhibition of his work was held her# In 1907, farthering hie renown* In 1909, Doat signed • a on treat with The Lewis Publishing

Company of St* Louie end X. O. Lewis, President of the concern* the services of *• Dost were desired "...in the erection and organisation of a eeranio institute and a oeraaie school supported 7 by the Institution nanedt League of American homan." the con­ tract was for four years, to begin fron the day Dost sailed from

France, that day not to be later than December 1, 1909* hr*

Doat*s salary, payment for a collection of works he was to tring fron France, and his duties were fully outlined in the contract*

He was to have complete charge of appointing professors and of scouring supplies and equipment,

llr* and Mrs. Robineau and Frederick Rhead were associated with Doat at People's University, University City, St. Louis, in the Institute and School* The venture lasted only a few years, disrupted by borld bar I* It was Intended that the artiste-in- residenee should have an opportunity to pursue their experimental work, free of financial worries, while doing soma teaching*

Instruction was given in working with porcelain and high-temperature glases.

It was in St* Louis that Mrs. Robineau produced the now- famous "Scarab Vase," an example of Infinite patience, said to have taken more than one-thou sand hours in carving alone* When ■------"Taxile Doat, Ceramists," (pamphlet, reprinted from the Revue du Tarn, 1908), p. 25* 182 the piece m i fired several large cracks opened end the vase s t s m d doomed. Mrs. Robineau, however, carefully filled the cracks with ground porcelain and glass* The piece was re-fired and emerged in perfect condition* It was sent to Thrln, Italy, were, in 1911, It was awarded the Grand Arise* Other swards received by Mrs* Robineau during tha second decade of the century included!

1912 - Elected Master Craftsman fay tha Boston Society of Arts mid Crafts

1912 - Exhibits accepted at the Paris Spring Sslon and the Muses des Arts Deooratifs, Paris

1913 - Elected member of the Paris Society Internationale des Beaux Arts

1913 - Arthur Heune prise for best craftswork at the Annual Ertilbition of the Art Institute, Chicago

191$ - Special Medal awarded fay the Boston Society of Arts mid Crafts

1915 - Grand Prise, Ceramios, Panama Pacific Exposition, San Francisco

191$ - Special Medal awarded by the Detroit Society of Arts and Crafts

Mrs* Robineau was reputed to be the only person in this country working with porcelain during the early twentieth century*

Jonathan Rawson, Jr., wrote in House Beautiful! "Of individual artists who sre now willing to risk their elaborate hand wcrk on porcelain in the fire, there are now only two - Mrs. Robineau and Taxlle Doat, and Mr* Doat is well along in years and much less 183 g active than formerly."

lira. Kobinaau wrote of her work, In 1917»

I ehall apeak especially of the waking of por­ celain decorated with high fire glazes, the only branch of pottery with which I am per a anally familiar. ... This faaeinatlng work.•.has given me the satis— faction of doing original work, work which haa not been done In thia country before and may not be dona again, even in Europe, aa after the war European Qovwnments will probably be obliged to withdraw the financial aupport which alone haa made it poaaible until now. ... Tha pieoea I have produeed are few in number, but the: repreaent in design and shape the beat that waa in me and I hope that some of them may be an inspiration to some artist of the future, who perhaps will be able to do more and better work than 1 have done.9

In her article, Ur s. Robineau gave all credit to Ur. *5oat and the

Sevres manufactory in reviving the lost art of high-fire por­

celain. She also described her various glazes and gave their

names, but without divulging their compositions. Through the

years she became more Interested in glazes and less in decoration,

concentrating particularly on crystalline glazes during her later

years of active production*

Syracuse University conferred an honorary degree upon Mrs.

Kobineau in 1917« doctor of Ceramic Sciences.*"® The

Robineeux suffered financial loss through their French investments

1 ■ g ~ — Jonathan Raws on, Jr., "Teco and Robineau Pottery,1* House Beautiful, XXXIII (April, 1913), p. 151.

Adelaide A. Robineau, "Asrarioan Pottery* Artistic Porcelain Making," Art World, III (November, 1917), PP* 1^3, 155. 10 "Adelaide Alsop Robineau," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society. VIII (May, 1929), p. l?Ii. 14U during 'A or Id Mar I. Mrs. Robineau joined tha faculty of Syracuse

University in 1920 as an instructor in design. A short tine later she introduced pottery and ceramic design. Student work waa done at low temperatures, but Mrs. Robineau'a own work continued to be carried out at high temperatures. An anonynous article appearing in Ceramics Monthly states that the artist sold about

"...six hundred pieces in a twenty-five year period for approxi­ mately ten thousand dollars, or roughly one dollar a day."11

Mrs. Robineau died in 1929 at the ape of sixty four.

She was cremated in Rochester, New York, and her ashes were placed in an urn which she had made for the purpose. She contributed in several ways to ceramic art in this country* through the pages of Keramik Studio, Which altered throuph the years from a periodical fcr china painters to one for potters, then to one for craftsman

In generalj throuph the publication of boat's Grand Feu Ceramicsi throuph her one-woman pursuit of an idea} through the impression her work made when exhibited both at home and abroad} through the recognition she brought to ceramics aa an art) and through 12 her teaching and the inspiration she extended to others.

"Robineau and the Ceramic National," Ceramics Monthly, I (January, 1953), P* lb. 12 Carlton Atherton, Professor in Ceramic Art at The Ohio State University, was associated with Mr a. Robineau in Syracuse for aome years. It is to him that the present author is Indebted fcr part of the information presented here. 10*

Among the many individual* inspired fay Urs. Robineau ia

Anna Wetherill Olmsted, Director of the Syracuse Museum of Fine

Arts. Misa Olmsted became Interested in Mrs. Robineau*s porce­ lains after being appointed Director of the Museum. She reveals, in a letter to the present writer*

I had been a painter, studying at our Syracuse College of Fine Arts, and when 1 first became Director I was not at all interested in ceramics. But T made it my business to learn about everything in our permanent collection, and I became so fascinated by the story of Mrs. Robineau*s life and by her beautiful porcelains owned fay our museum that it occurred to me to start an annual exhibition in her memory.

The two women had met, but it was not until the last year of

Mrs. Robineau*a life that Miss Olmsted's rreat interest in the porcelains blossomed.

ti'is* Olmsted's first exhibition in memory of Mrs. Robineau was held at the Syracuse Museum In 1932* Various potters of

Mew York otate were asked to exhibit at the same time. Miss

Olmsted wrote, in the Foreword of the Second Annual Robineau

Memorial Exhibit catalog, in 1933*

Our first Annual Robineau Memorial Ceramic hxhlbltlon.• .waa so successful that we have been urged to make our second exhibition national. This, then, marks an annual event which we hope will prove stimulating to the cause of American ceramics. And we are proud to carry on in memory of Adelaide Alsop Robineau, master ceramist and a Syracuse artist of international fame. 13

A. W. Olmsted, "Foreword," Catalog of the Second Annual Memorial Exhibit, inside front cover. 186

Since 1933 the National Ceramio Exhibition (now known aw the Ceramic National) haa continued, with the exception of period of ear Id War II. In 1951* the exhibition became a biennial, and will so continue. The change waa made to proride artists with a longer working period between shows and to permit a longer period for the traveling portions which circulate throughout the country and Canada following the Syracuse tfiowings. In 1933» one hundred and ninetywiine pieces, by seventy—three artists from eleven states, were shomni In 1952, 1*93 ceramists from thirty-nine states sub- mitted 1,171 entries. Growth in the number of entries prompted the establishment in 191*7 of regional juries to carry out a first screening of the works submitted.

A list of the potters, ceramic sculptors and enamellsts who have been awarded first prises in the Syracuse National throughout the years will be found in Appendix C, page 295* An Investigation of the training and experience of each of the award winners would be an appropriate study, with implications, perhaps, for education in ceramic art. Such an investigation is not possible here, al­ though the well-known names of those receiving awards will have meaning for any reader familiar with the field. The awards presented have been made possible by a growing number of ceramic firms. They have increased in total value from one hundred dollars in 1933 to twenty-seven hundred in 1951** Juries far the exhibitions have been drawn from museum personnel, studio artists and teachers. 187

They have noted through the year# improved craf tanmnehip and design. The increasing favoritism shown stoneware ss s medium has also brought forth comment from the juries, who agreed that a certain saneness In over-all effect has been evident. They have advocated the use of brighter color in glases and clays.

The exhibitions are a reflection of work being done in the eahools throughout the country end are, at the sane tine, reflected in the work of the schools. Many, many cf the exhibitors and award winners have been teachers. Their work has illustrated the best of what they are trying to do and teach. The circulation of traveling shows from the exhibits has placed the work before thousands of laymen and students.

The Nationals have done much to increase appreciation for the work of domestic potters. It can not be said that imported items are no longer preferred by some, for there are those who attach greater significance to Imported wares than to domestic.

It may be said, however, that "What it is* and not "Where did it come from?" is being asked more frequently than in the past.

There are pleasures of several types which may come from the possession of ceramic items - just as there are from works in other media. Merely acquisitive pleasures mid pleasures derived through the prestige value of possessions are decreasing. The question today is "hill it function for me?" - and "function" la not used here in the narrow sense. Any item may "work" or "function" in aor* than tha usual physical sanas implied by the ten* It say provida ita crnneor with a daflnlta plaasura in a psychologic* 1 sense.

Doth phyaioal and psychological functioning play thair roles in tha ohoioes of some consumers, these bases for judgment, as opposed to more traditional bases, such as acquisition or prestige, will become more or lass adopted depending on the education of our youth. Exhibitions such as the Ceramic Notional are not without influence in education in ceramic art. Chapter 9

ARTHUR EUGENE BAGOS

Arthur Eugene Baggs waa important In tha field of eduction in ceramie art for several reasons. Ha came under tha teaching and influence of Charles Fergua Blrma. Ha organised tha oouraaa in oeramic art at Tha Ohio State University. Ha was a dedicated teacher and an active member of the American Ceramio Society.

Solomon Aach has written that "...specifically human capacities are rooted both in the potentialities of individuals and in tha preaenoe of a particular social medium.It is appropriate to question the potentialities of the individual - Arthur Baggs - and the social medium within which these potentialities flowered.

Resources for study of Baggs* life are limited. His published expressions were few in number. Personal interviews with colleagues and an investigation of personal correspondence have been made and provided much of the material for the present chapter.

An understanding of Baggs* value-Judgments must be based* therefore, on rsther meager knowledge. Taking his expressions and actions aa self-explanatory would not be Justified, yet it does

"" l 3. E. Asoh, Social Psychology, p. 12$.

189 190 t « « possible to come to s reasonsbis Is t s I of understanding concernix^ his judgments. To ask "WhatT" Is necessary but not sufficient. To ask "Dhyt* in addition to "Whatt" Is to question — and wisely so - the ",..conditions responsible for Individual judgments"2 and, perhaps, to establish the judgments themselves.

Insofar as available information permits, the breadth of knowledge and the past experiences which Arthur Baggs brought to hi a various expressions and actions need investigation, Such facts as are available - not neglecting those "facts" of a locio- paychological nature - oust be examined in their context, far meanings change with context and it may also be said that the reverse is truet contexts change with meaninrs (or degrees of unders tending),

About 1900t The Times

Arthur Eugene Baggs was b o m on October 27, 1886, in Alfred,

Mew York, His grandfather, Elisha Larkin Baggs, had been a school teacher In Rhode Island and was a close friend of President William

Kenyon of Alfred College, Vernon Andre Bagps, son of Elisha and father of Arthur, went to Alfred from Rhode Island to attend college. There he met Mary Green, daughter of John Chandler and 2------Ibid.. p. 232, 191

Emily Sherman Oreen, residents of Alfred. Mary waa alao a atudant at the Coll ope. Thay married end Vernon Baggs remained in Alfred after hie graduation, becoming a war chant in the village.

He waa active in Univwraity affaire and served aa President of the

Board of Trustees. Arthur Eugene waa the only child of Vary and

Vernon Bagga.

Alfred ia now, aa it waa then, a village whose principal

"industry* is Alfred University. Although it is true that Charles

Fergus Binns spent many years of his life in Alfred, he came to the town arid the University a mature man. The life of the village could not have had the same measure of impact upon him that it had upon the present subject.

The villai e of Alfred has undoubtedly changed less in the last fifty or alxty years than have most. Predominantly populated by Seventh-Day Adventists,^ it has always been a "dry" town and an overwhelmingly conservative town, politically. The village is, even today, isolated. No railroad ever penetrated the tiny valley.

In 1900 a three-mile buggy ride would have been required to reach

"Alfred station," an even smaller village, but on the railroad.

A twelve-mile trip would have taken one to the nearest "town," probably then of less than U,000 in population.

^ Which explains the relationship between tlisha 3agps and President Kenyon. Many of the families in Alfred came from Westerly, Rhode Island, where many Seventh-Day Adventists lived, then and now. "In 1900 one-third (about 25 million) of the total pop­ ulation could be found In $U7 cities of at least ft,000 people, an extraordinary change from the 5 million mho in i860 had lived

In 11*1 such cities.In 1900, then, two-thirds of the population vas living on farms or In small villages and "...the simplicity of an agrarian civilisation was still preserved.. Alfred life was surely of such simplicity, although not as much an agrarian simplicity, since farming in the hilly, poor soil was but of small dimension, as a simplicity of a religious commnity. This is not to say that all was prim and several box socials and parties at the Parish House undoubtedly provided the sort of home-made enterta inner: t that, man in that community knew. Spectator sports - professional bnseball, football and basketball - which were

Initiated In the late 19th century and were meeting a demand among city-folk, were far removed from this tiny village. It is doubtful

that the "Traveling stock companies (which) brought every kind of 6 theatrical fare to the opera houses of Main Street." ever reached

this village. Although "...some 500 companies were on the road 7 in 1900...," their "roads" were principally those of rails.

Edward ft. Knight, Fifty Years of Aawrican Education, p. 9*

** Foster Rhea Dulles, 20th Century America, p. 1*7- 193 Alfred iana would have had to travel the twelve miles to Homell to wltneas the melodramas, high comedy, or vaudeville. It ia wore

likely that they anueed themaelves wi th music of their own making, with euoh leoturera aa the University nay have Imported, and with aooiable gatherings in homes and church. Remembering the preaenoe

of the University, a library (open to realdenta of the village,

then aa now) would have provided reading natter. The general public of the tine "...wanted not realism but romance in their readings! To Have and To Hold. Ben Hur. David Harun and When

Knighthood waa in Flower were popular.® Thia was a period of

expansion in both newspaper and popular-priced magailne publication.

Papers from Buffalo and New York were no doubt eagerly awaited

at "the Station" by the lo-al livery's pick-up buggy.

The automobile had, of course, been invented in the 1390*a and "...some 8000 cars were on the road in 1900. But it still o appeared to be an expensive, unreliable plaything." The then

existing economic level of Alfred - a university town - makes

doubtful the presence of the horseless carriage in its scheme

of life. Radio, telephone and incandescent lighting were in the

offing. Illuminating gas provided that peculiar eerie interior

to well-rememberedt its use continued in tiny villages much longer

— ■■■ ^ ■ ■■ ■■ Ibid.. p. 53.

Ibid., pp. 514*5. 19U than a city-dweller would suppose. Indeed, older dwellings In

Alfred frequently maintain the jeta even If they are unuaed aoeept during electrioal fallurea.

Such, then, waa Alfred in 19001 per ha pa a half-dosen at ares j a college of 91* students according to official records) a black­ smith shop and livery) a solid, neat white church. It was into these surroundings that the new-born Arthur arrived. Isolated in degree, yet alive with that peculiar energy that the presence of a college generates, It must, Indeed, have been a near-perfect locale for the growth of a young lad, Arthur E. Baggs.

Early Life and Education

Faotual information concerning Baggs' youthful years is limited. Need it then be assumed that such aa is known of his later life waa the simple result of conditioning throuph those formative years? Or did this new being bring with him certain

.needs and temperamental characteristics.•.highly individual?"*®

The latter point of view ia receiving greater credence today.

Such "needs and characteristics" are of a psychological natural they constitute one part of the self, the other part being the body. The taro parts of the self - biological and psychological - can not, in reality, be separated, either in operation or

lb Asch, op. cit., p. 287. 195 observation. Each la of importance, yet In a biologically "normal" individual within our present society psychological needs nay be uppermost. Biological needs are, for the greater part, mat In our oulture. Physical survival is hardly the problem it has been in some ages, despite ear and threata of war. Psychological needs, however - their changing direction, the evolvemant of new motives and actions - point to a basis far farther study and a need for understanding.

The child, then, has his psychological self, a self of strivings, feelings and actions. Asch has pointed out that the actions of children not under the stress of biological need, show a definite structure. These involves (1) a going out toward things, a participating in them; (2) concerns toward things, which are far from random! and (3) activity which is not Just doing, but which results in making and constructing. He says furthers "Here we discern germs of the highest forms of human endeavor, tendencies that under proper conditions develop into art and science and the elaboration of human needs.As the child's knowledge of his surroundings increases, his interests and activities grow. He has a need to participate and understands a very real need to shape and create now forms ia part of him.

It is not, of course, inevitably the case that the "proper" conditions for successful development of Interest in surroundings

I I ------Ibid., p. 298. 196 prevail. Conditions of the social field and forces sithin the individual can weaken, stifle, or satisfy too easily the need for search, for participation, for understanding. It seeas evident that, in the light of the "profile" of Arthur Baggs here emerging, the "proper" conditions for autonomous development were prevailing in his early youth. His need for creative activity, his interest

In "asking and constructing," signify a well-resolved relationship between hinself and society, his psyohologloal drives and his environment.

Something of the character of the little comrunlty into vftiloh

Arthur Baggs was born has been set forth. He graduated from grammar school there in 1900, from Alfred Academy in 1903. During that period "art" training in the public schools was largely confined to two-dimensional work, of a generally mechanistic nature. Cubberley points out that Grube’s method of learning, which reduced each subject to its elements, resulted in the teaching of art in a mechanical, lifeless and largely ineffective manner. He says, for

instance, that "...in drawing, year after year was spent in studying form, with scientific instruction as to angles and geo­ metric figures and perspective, but without reaching color and expression."^

It is probable that young Arthur availed himself of the art

courses offered in the public school. The New York State "Syllabus

------5 5------E. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, p. 398. 197 for Secondary Schools, 1905," include* "Drawinr end Advanced

Drawing,and confirms the opinion of Cubberley quoted above*

It was not the sort of program to inspire or even encourage creativity* It is doubtful that it served the needs of Arthur

Baggs in an adequate manner* It does seem reasonable, however, that clay may have been considered a suitable medium for expression in the Alfred schools at an early date* There was, before and after 1900, an active though small clay industry in the villare, where roofing tiles end architectural terra cotta works were e produced* The abundance of clay and the possible presence of an

Oswego-trained teacher^ undoubtedly introduced an early interest in its possibilities*

The New York State School of Clayworkinr became a part of

Alfred University in 1900* Arthur Baggs was then fourteen years of age, and we may properly imagine with what Interest he may have attended the construction of the collars, the installation of the equipment* This was a small village! what would a young boy be likely to do in his spare time, the time after school and home chores, the summers? He could - and would - watch with interest the operations at the local tile plant and at the

University* *ftiase interests in his surroundinra, particularly

Education Department Annual Report, 1905» Bulletin 27, State of flew TorJtT

^ The Oswego, New York, Normal School taught the educational concepts of Pestaloszl, who advocated manual work, and those of Froebel, who advocated "doing." 198

If ■ trengthened by • stimulating "art* or "manual training" teacher, undoubtadly engendered a rrowing naad for a greater under- atandlng In the young student.

The opening of tha "School of Clayworklng" praaantad a nan reality. "New objects are realitlea that altar rlvan conditions, inapire new dealrea and create new problems and needs.We oan not be certain Just what relationship of time, place and circum­ stance Imported to Baggs a life-time devotion to ceramic artt we do know, however, that he entered the new school upon hla graduation from Alfred Academy. His study at the collere extended from 1903 to 1905 and later during 1910 and 1911* He received no degree from the Institution until - in 1936 - he waa awarded an honorary degree, Doctor of Humane letters by the university. His collerlate training was directed by Charles Fergus Binns. 1*ro of Binns* greatest concerns ware the arousal of curiosity in students and an exhortation in favor of independent investigation in ceramic materials. His percepts strongly influenced young Arthur, whose attitudes became increasingly, through the years, similar to those of Binna.

Professional Life to 1928

At the end of his sophomore year in college, at the age of

18, Arthur Baggs was recommended by Dr. Binns for a summer pottery ^ Aach, op. cit.. p. 199 job at Marblehead, Massachusetts* The pottery was one department of the Handcraft Shops, part of a therapeutic institution for mentally-disturbed patients. Doctor Robert Hall, the earner of the entire property, was a pioneer In the field of occupational therapy. Bagga did not return to sohool for his junior year, but remained at the pottery, serving as its director from 190$ to 1908. The entire significance of this early work with disturbed patients oan not be defined Insofar as it bore upon feg^s1 later attitudes as a teacher. It is not, however, iapossible that some significance may be attached to those interrelations, coming as they did so early in his life. Certainly working with mentally-disturbed patients is not a field in which one enrages without interest in his fellow man. Bag/a must have had, or must soon have come to have, an understanding of the patients, or their needs and purposes and of ways in which he and his materials could intersect intelligently in behalf of his "students.”

From 1908 to 191$ Baggs served as director of the Marblehead

Potteries. The owner of the sanitarium then dissolved his business and Bagga became sole owner of the pottery. The therapeutio interests, associated as the> were with the doc ton-owner, were discontinued, of course. During this period, two years - 1910 and 1911 - were spent once more at Alfred. He set up a small pottery In the yard of his family home and art'aged in some experi­ ments in materials. 5ome work toward a degree was carried out at 200

the College of Ceramics, but ho eenaed a growing nood to ottond

an art school* From the time of his return to Marblehead in 1911

to 1919, he apent six monthe of eaoh jeer at the pottery, six in art study* These studies included drawing, painting and sculpture at the Art otudente* League in Mew York, lecture courses in design under Denman Rosa at Harvard and museum study at the Boston Museum

of Fine Arts and the Metropolitan Museum in New York*

Arthur Baggs married Helen Dorothy French of Lynn, Mass*

aohusetcs, in 1915* Two sons were bornt Arthur Eugene, Jr., and

Hartwell French* Mrs* Bagga died during the influensa epidemic

of 1919, Hartwell two years later*

From 1913 to 1920, Baggs relinquished part of his time at

the pottery to teach at the Ethical Culture High School and the

School of Design and Liberal Arts, both in New York City* As

Monroe has said, the Ethical Culture School wasi

An Institution which provides instruction from the kindergarten through the high school and main* tains a deportment for the training of kindergarten teaohers* It is an outgrowth of the first free kindergarten, established In New York (1876) by Felix Adler, the founder of the Ethical Culture Seoiety (1676)* The aim of the Society ♦ Is to seek what is good and to promote the moral develop* ment of the individual and society* The school was established as a practical experiment to base education on the principles of the Soolety* It aims to develop persons oompetent to readjust this environment in aooardenoe with moral Ideals and to impart an enthusiasm for progress whloh centers in morsl relations and the diminution of the evils of the world* •••the sohool tolerates 201

no distinction of race, erood or ooelol status. The freedom injoytd toy this oohool hod boon employed In promoting experiments In tho teaahlng of difforont oohool eubjeots, especially in English, In manna! arts, in ohleh tho oohool was o pioneer, ond in hiitory*^

Iho oxoot rolo that Arthur Boggs played In thlo oohool to not oloar• It ooono oofo to ooouno that clay^mrork voo hio ocnoern.

Iho intoroat of tho oohool in tho M n u o l arto and well-rounded

IndiTidualo ia known, however. It la oloar that oxporimontal nothodo and attitudoo wore encouraged! oa auoh tho "now* study of elay-worklng waa undoubtedly inoludod aa a poasiblo aroa of activity.

Iho Ethioal Culture School inouloatod aurny of tho aano a ins ex- proasod by Evelyn Dewey with references to tho Dalton Plant

Educationally, individualism ond donoorooy ore not apposed# They ore tho aano thing. No hove not node good oltd sons when wo have taught every child to read Mid write and salute tho flag. That la not education, but a gilded ignoranoo that loaves unde­ veloped leadership, independence, and initiative, all the qualities that are necessary in a democratic society.17

Prom auoh tenets as these, it Is evident that clay-work, among other hand-crafts, would have played an aotive role in the

Ethioal Culture Sohool. The concepts of this school - or these sohools, if the School of Design and Liberal Arts is included - must have meant the further evolveaent of the interests and motives of Arthur Baggs. Still a young man, hie awareness was broadening

Paul Monroe (ed.), A Cyclopedia of Eduoatlon. p. $00#

Evelyn Dewey, The Dalton Laboratory Plan, p. 16L. 202 as hi* f i*ld of *xp*rl*no* w«* extended.

Production oontinued at Marblehead. Th* pottery wa* more than a on*-nan operation. Qertrude Emereon wrota for th* Craf taaan in 19l6t

Ur. John anlXov, who "throw*" th* pottery, la an Engliah pottar of lone and triad axparlanoa) ha ha a turned tha pottar* a whaal in alaoat every fac­ tory of not* around tha world* Two nan ara anployad to oparata tha kilns, one tend* to tha plain glaslng, and two do the d*alrnlngv Hr* Arthur Ranaaaay and Mr. Bagga.IS

At ita peak of production tha labor foroe oonaiatad of eight pereonat a a mall number, perhaps, by present mass-produotlon reckoning, but not for an undertaking of its type. Tho shop had an adjacent sales-room, fbr tourist customers, and also sold through wholesalers in Boston and Haw York. Tha ware was made of red clay and was classified as "art ware," the line being composed of luncheon sets, tiles, vases and other accessory items. Writers who concerned themselves with contemporary art pottery did not fail to mention tha Marblehead products in complimentary tones, borne of the comments werei "The Marblehead pottary stands for 19 simplicity - all that is blsarra and freakish has been avoided."j

"The ■Marblehead Blue' is as tha sas and sky compounded."^

Oartruda Emerson. "Marblehead Pottery." Craftsman XXIX. (March, 1916), p. 672. 19 Jonathan Rawson, Jr., "Recent American Pottery," House Beautiful. XXXI (April, 1912), p. 11*9.

20 Elizabeth T. Russell, "Th* Pottery of Marblehead," House Beautiful. LIX (Maroh, 1926), p. 362. 203 and "Thi distinguishing charm of ths Martolshssd pottery i m m to lie in tho beautiful simplicity of shop# and design and In tha aoft rlohonsa of oolar**^

In 1925 Paul S. Cox commended tho production, writing1

"Marbiohead has . • • produeod a lino not to be excelled by any importation and Arthur Bagga has shown sows things in lively color 99 that ought to please any do00 rating firm in tho land*.• " Tho shop had run full tins for soma years, but by 192$ it had tapered to a summer business only. In that year Bagga was asked to cease to the R. Guy Cowan Pottery in Rocky River, Ohio, as a research and development man. He moved there with hla second wife, lours

Esther Trowbridge, whom he had married in 1921, their daughter

Mary, and his son, Arthur, Jr. The Marblehead Pottery eventually succumbed to the depression of the 30*e.

The Cowan Pottery produced a luxury line of fairly high- priced acoessory ware and ceramic sculpture* Bagga delved into researoh problems in the development of bodies and glases for production. A number of ceramic artists were at work at the pottery, designing and/or executing "the line" or their own

individual pieoes. Thelma Frasier, Edward winters, Wayland

Oregory, Paul Bogatay, and Alexander Blasey were among those so

* Emerson, op. clt.. p. 673* 22 Paul fc*. Cox, "American Ceramics for Interior Decorating," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, IV (Septonber, 192$), p. UZ1. 20U employed. nils venture, too, subsequently fall Airing tha depres­ sion. Durlt« hla last year or ao at thla ahop (1927), Bagga alao taught pottary at tha Cleveland Sohool of Art*

In 1928 Arthur Bagga baeama haad of tha newly-eatablished

Ceramlo Art program at Tha Ohio State University. Hla aarlier axperiancaa had brought him a number of Tarlad intarralatlonahlpa t with tharapautle oaaaa, with hla aaployeea in semi-industrial produotion, with pre-college youngatara on a rather advanced level, with oollaga atudenta, and, finally, with practicing artlata at

Rooky River. It la not too preeuaptuoua to aasart that thaaa inter­ relationships brought to hla - or reinforced - hla depth of under- atending of his fallow man. In addition to tha broad baala of thla underatending, hla peraonal characteristics and needa nuat not be neglected. It appears that his surroundings aver acted aa motivations toward deeper understandings, that he had, as Asch has put it, "The realization of (himself) aa an eotor and knower (which) permits simultaneously an Increased detachment from the environment and a deepened cognisance of it."^3

Formal Ceramic Education ------

A few words will sat tha scene for Arthur Bagga* arrival in

Columbus, «tth a short recapitulation of faots concerning tha

^ Asch, op. cit., p. 288. 20$ establishment of formal education In ceramics* such education began with the opening, in 189U, of e Ceremlo Engineering oouree at The Ohio State University* This was not, at first, a degree program* six years later, la 1900, the New York State Sohool of

Clayworklag was established at Alfred University* This program, from its inception, offered training for artists aa well aa engineers, and degrees were riven*

Juring this same period the American Ceramlo Society was born* Arthur Bagga became a member of the Society in 1910, when

Director of the Marblehead Pottery* He waa always an active member and its causes were his aa well from that date until the time of his death* Upon his ears, as an active member of the Art Division, fell many pieaa and suggested directions concerning a ceramic education* One such plea, Which he read in a publication of the

Society (although it had been made originally before another organisation} held particularly significance for him* It was a recaamendation made in 19*6 to the Ohio Ceramic Industries

Association by W. Keith McAfee, Chairman of the American Ceramic

Society on bdueationi

Ohio state University has not contributed to the advancement which has been made in ceramic art although within the State the famous Roolcwood and Zanesville Potteries very early led* * *. Ohio can no longer lay olalm to supremacy in artistic merit of its products. ••• Ohio needs man trained in oeramlc art if it is to hold its leadership in ceramic production* since auch training can not be piven in a department of engineering without 206

confusion snd embarrassment and since ceramic art requires Instructors snd Instruction radically different fron those in ceramic engineering it la proposed that Ohio State University have a Department of Cere ale Art.2^

The Interest in establishing a Ceramic Art program at Hie Ohio

State University had, in fact, been evidenced as early as 1923*

Bnggs wrote, In later yearst

In 1923 Ross C. rurdy, general secretary of the American Ceramic Society, began the oampelgn to organise an Ohio Ceramic Indus tries Association* He proposed a program of re sear oh and education at Ohio State University, featuring the establishment of laboratories and degree courses in oeramlo art as one of the most important items* Even before the Ohio Ceramic Industries Association was Tonally organised, Ur* Purdy had enlisted the support of ceramic Industrialists and university officials for a ceramlo art departs msnt* ••• «hen the Ohio Ceramlo Industries Association was organised, the Division of Ceramlo Art In the Department of Fine Arts (at the University) was given unanimous and vigorous support* *5

*Ihe Division of Ceraode Art was formally established In 1928, although it was several years before the laboratories were fully equipped and the program In operation* Circumstances surrounding

the employment of Arthur Boggs in setting up and heading the

Division are not known. His background experience was notably broad and his paper "A Dream Coat True," here quoted In port,

"Education Committee Chairman is Showing the Way," prsnrBulletin of the American Ceramic Society* V (July, 1926), 29 A* E. Bagga, "Ceramic Art at Ohio State University," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society* XV (June, 1936), pp. fe33-b* 207 indicates tha early policies of the Divisions

Aaeriea now has a collegia to course in oeraade industrial arts. This has been long in tha hearts snd Hinds of many leaders in the industry* ***in saerica we have long had courses of instruction in ceramic art* ••• But in none of these schools is the training directed to preparing tha graduate for Industrial leadership and plant management. • •• shat the service engineers ere to eeraaio industrial product manufacturers the oeraaio artists, trained at Ohio State University, will be to m r u - facturers of clay, glass, and vitreous enamel products used in households and in construction* ••• Artists car be developed In the shops to decorate very cleverly but a oerando artist who can oonoeive, produce, and decorate new ware has not heretofore been trained and only occasionally have our American works found a man who had the technical and artistio ability to ores to new ware, to appreciate and fill tha technical and artistic requirements wanted by the trade* We have auoh man in the ceramic industries but they ere found by chance, and only by ohance have they had the opportunities to develop both technically and artis­ tically. Aa salesmen and plant operatives, with the combined training provided in the Ceramlo Art School at Ohio State University, the graduates will soon find openings and the industries that employ them will secure leaders that will make business more steady and more profitable*26

Arthur Bag, a at Ohio State University

Shat were the characteristics of the chosen head of the new

Division of Ceramic Art? Some of his characteristics have been seen in the process of formation throughout his earlier life*

Those manifested during his career at The Ohio State University have been set forth by hie colleagues in personal interviews with

Bsggs, "A Dream Come True." Bulletin of the American Ceramic society* VIZ (August, 1928), pp. 586-7. 206 th* present author. The "profile” which reeulte from Inf creation gathered Indiestee a nan of three primary, outstanding oharacter- iatiosi Interest in technical experieantation, interest in people, and self-effacesmit.

The area of activity which appears to haw* been Bagga* greatest Interest is that of experimentation in caraalo materials.

Whatever curiosity the young Arthur had had concerning his surroundings - and it seems to have been of important dimensions - was never dissipated In his later years. Although a full ground for ascertaining the nurturing and gronth of this interest is not available, it seems proper to ascribe to it "...the fact that we discover in objects properties that directly excite interest and exploration* Motivation thus bften arises In direct response to 27 the experienced properties of things." Arthur Baggs may well be pointed out as exemplifying this tenet. No material, even though outside the usual realm of ceramic materials, cams to his attention without a subsequent interest in its possibilities as a ceramic material. Hence, it was that he investigated suoh diverse materials as wall-paper cleaner and bread-crumbs in combination with kno*n materials.

Many men, with the Interest and ability for research that

Professor Baggs had - but with a differing orientation - would have searched actively for lucrative experimentation, consultive 27----- Asch, op. pit.. pp. 562-3. 209 work ond tho like. He, however, followwd out thoso problems which appealed to hla aa on individual ond oo o teacher, although the doye were newer long enough to work out oil the "intereating" poealblll tlee he saw. He frequently oerrled out aoae bit of research for an individual or a firm, but rarely on a paying basis.

It is quite evident that Bagga* researeh interests were notlvated by several laportant forces. A very real and personal psyoboiogioai need was net by his exploration of his surroundings and by his constructive attitude toward the exploration. At the same time this need for exploratory activity was not Halted to aoae finished "product." This is to say that the undertakings, as they progressed, held Intrinsic Interests and brought about new possibilities throughout their forward progress. It is undoubtedly true, as Asch states, that "the need is for both the activity and yQ the results flowing from it." Yet in Baggs* technical experl- aental work the "result" was not always, or even usually, a finished product. Shat went into the product, the materia1(a) and purpose(s) were of importsnoe. Po, too, was the stimulation of student interest in experimentation a "result" of meaning for

Bag^s. He wrotea "The feeling that m m is exploring, inventing something, is tremendously provocative and exciting| it is believed

that alert-nindedness, looking for new things to try in materials, ZB Ibid.. p. 3U5. 210 prooN9««f or dtaiga idMi is a desirable quality to encourage in a student."^

Arthur Bagga* exploratory intareata carried into tha flaid

of daalgnf although thla did not aaam aa important to hla an

technical axperiaantation. It la poaaibla that he did not faal

aa naich at ease, therefore, in thla area. Ha aada, for aoae year a, a oonacioua attempt to undaratand and gain a feeling far whr?t wee

the eontemporary daaign of hia time* It doaa appear* however,

that ha had aoae feeling of inadequacy in changing hia own basic

ideas in this respect. Persian and Chinese forms appealed to

hia greatly, though these were never copied. The conclusion

follows thet his motivations were not as strong In the direction

of form and design as they were in the direotian of technical

exploration. It may also be true that he fait he had more to offer

to his students and to ceramic art, in general, in this latter

direotlon.

Arthur Baggs had a sincere liking for others. Pome psy­

chological systems hold that affection for others is merely an

affection for one's self, but the theory la not tenable in the

case of Profes3or Bagga. Hia orientation toward others ia a

necessary - but not sufficient - attitude for all teachers. Tha

------Baggs, "Ceramic Art at Ohio State University," Bulletin of the *merican Ceramic Poe is tar. XV (June, 1936), p. 237* 211 fact that hla social orientation did not eventuate In any dealre far personal fame should be stressed• His deep belief

In the dignity and gondnesa of nan was notablet it was virtually inoonceivsble to him that another could be really mean in thought or deed. Thinking in this direction may, perhaps, be considered by acme as a weakness, a failure to see reality, yet Baggs* human

Interrelationships were such as to indicate that his tendency in the matter was productive. His interrelationships were characterised by a deep understanding of individuals and a respect for their views. This is nrt to say that he was constantly yielding to the views of otheras he was, rather, independent, basing hisviews on the values of his experience. It may also be said that his prin­ ciples were well-grounded, that he "stood up" for them.

Poetor Baggs saw his students as individuals and was concerned with their individual problems. He felt that something good was to be found in each student and that, each had some level of artistic ability which could be wrought out. He recognized, never­ theless, problems in this, and saidi

The l->nper I attempt to teach ceramlo art, the less I feel that 1 know how it should be done. Teaching is experimental work. I have been trying out things for several years, but 1 am not yet qualified to give advice about definite curriculum. I have discovered what all teachers know, that a student with exceptional ability and willinrness to work hard will grow and develop and become a useful person, no matter who his teachers are or in Just what way Inform* ation is fed to him. If our schools ware made up entirely of thla t, pe of students, we te- chers would 212

fee 1 1 m s futile. But how can w« take the casual, eourse-passlng lndlvldusl who has no particular urge or ability or Industry end turn him Into s potential industrial designer? I do not know. ... How are we to supply to the majority of our students this steam, plus the elusive thing oailed taste or design instlnet or what you will? ... he must take then as they ooae and try to make then useful. We teachers are trying. we are oonaclous of the urgent need to improve our results, he are eager to receive help and constructive suggestions.™

Hs realized that various lsvela of ability result in legitimate expression at various lsvels of understanding. "As far

« as he is able to do so, eaoh student is encouraged to work out his

own salvation, to ret what ha wants and needs by taking part in some and observing others of the aotivitiM which are constantly 31 going on in an atmosphere of organised industry." He was, however, more than willing to aid eaoh student In "working out his

own salvation.*1 Ihe poorest student received as much - or more —

attention than the best. He gave freely of his wide experiential

basisj indeed, he perhaps had a tendency to be too self-sacrificing,

thereby engendering a oertain dependency in soma students. Those

with initiative and capable of self-direction were, on the

contrary, eneouraged to set and work out problems by themselves.

An early sense of responsibility to the Ohio Ceramic

Industries Association and to the American Ceramlo Society for ------w»r— — ^ Baggs, "Discussion Period," Bulletin cf the American Ceramlo Society, XT (January, 1936), p. 13*

^ Baggs, "Ceramic Art at Ohio State University," Bulletin of the Amsriean Ceramic Society. XV (June, 1936), p. 236. 213

their parts in the establishment of the Diriaion of Ceramlo Art

at The Ohio State University led to a constant questioning of

the suitability of tho curriculum to the svowed purposes of the

Division, m d to its various relationships with industry* These

resulted in several student competitions m d a fellow-ahip con­

cerned with design for industry* The latter oonsisted of a two* year grant for the creation of a scholarship in ceramic (dinner ware) design, which was swarded to Paul Bogs toy in 1930* The grant was made possible by the Rockefeller Foundation through the

American Ceramlo Society*^

Professor Baggs, commenting on the ceramlo artist in Industry,

said that the ceramlo engineer maintains the flow of operation,

the ceramic artist the flow of ideas*33 He believed that to do

this the artist oust ha^ie enough technology to design Intelligently*

He also believed that the market in the mid-301 s was ready for

better design than it was getting* During this period the Art

Division of the American Ceramic Society concentrated ita attention

on the posalbllity of closer relationships between the oeramlo art schools and industry. R. Guy Cowan said, in making some

constructive suggestions for education In oeramlo art* "Carrying

out this idea, the ideal condition to establish, from the 'fins

9 ------Baggs, "Tableware Design Rasesroh at Ohio State Univer­ sity - A Report," Bulletin of the American Caramio Society* X (June, 1931)* P* 1&!>*

^ Baggs. "The Ceramic Artist's Job," Design* XXXVI (January, 1939), P* 16* 211* art' oeramlo viewpoint, would bo to have In oonnootlon with tho school, operating unlta whoro wore lo produced ond actually 32, marketed.” Educators were agreed upon thla point, although Ite implementation poaed many problems. In the disouaaion whloh followed Cowan'a paper, Marion L. Foadiok, of the Mew York State

College of Ceramioa, aaldt

At preeent, the teaching schedule la ao heavy that satisfactory tine can not be given to industrial contacts on the pert of the faculty through indi­ vidual work. This is a part of a more ideal program and should be secured aa soon as possible* 35

Baggs' re-evaluation of the curriculum and his concern over the failure of graduates to go into industrial plants led to his careful consideration of a "pilot plant" setup at Ohio State in the early 1930's* It was some twelve years, however, before any action was taken in this respect* He envisioned the pilot plant aa a bridge over the rap between the olass-room and the faotory* He worked with Roes Purdy, the Amerioan Ceramic Society, the Ohio Ceramlo Industries Association and with the University

Development Fund, seeking funds, support and equipment, pushing through the establishment of the project by sheer persistence in the face of overwhelming odds. The fact that World War II was 3J, R* G* Cowan, "Art, Industry and Education in Ceramioa," Bulletin of the Amerioan Ceramic Society,XV (January, 1936), p. ll*

35 M* L. Foadiok, in a Disouaaion Period, Bulletin of the Amerioan Ceramic Society, XV (January, 1936), p* lj* 215 in progress during the equipping of the pilot plant nado tha taak all the sore difficult. Laolc of fuada was ewer a problent in addition to equipping the plant, funds for full-time, salaried operators, who would keep production flowing, utilising student help and designs, were needed. It was Dr. Bagga’ intent that the production flow should not rest on the shoulders of tired teachers.

Industry proved s one what disturbed by the project! it seemed to fear that some potteries (perhaps sone not belonging to the supporting organisation) would "latch on" to sone "hot" design items and make an economic killing. Then, too, problems con­ cerning retailing arosei the sale of "state-made" oroducta could interfere with the sales of private industry.

It was shortly after these developments that Arthur Baggs died, in 19b7, of complications resulting from having been struck by a oar two years earlier. His fondest dream - the pilot plant, which was to bring forth better-designed wares for the nrnrket

(through industry) at reasonable prices - stands today a monument to his persistence. Its problems are yet to be eolvedj and their solution is being attempted. Ahen, and if, the project becomes operable, it will be so because of a man whose vision had both breadth and depth.

His colleagues found Professor Baggs of a very even and high dlspositioni "the most even and consistently good ever known." « " R. Boyce, in "Discussion Period," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society. XXV (October, 19U6), p. 57T7 216

He was happy in his work, and happiest whan carrying out aoae bit of experimentation, although he never resented the hours taken from thla interest by his active teaching. Hla developed needs,

Indeed, mare of such greater importance to him than mere the

"primary needs •" luncheon and dinner were frequently neglected.

He took little care of hia physical well-being, working frequently to the point of exhaustion - particularly daring the war when hla

Division wpb under-staffed.

This profile would not be complete without reference to those wider activities in the field in which Baggs participated, the awards with which he was presented, and his published writings.

A member of the Amerioan Ceramic Society from 1910, and

Secretary of the New England Seotion in 1923, Baggs was made a

Fellow of the Society in 1931. He was affiliated with the Design

Division and served as Secretary of that Division in 1926 and

1927. He was also a member of the Boston Society of Arts and

Crafts and a member at one time of its Governing Council and

Draftsman's Advisory Council) aa well as a member of the National

Society of Craftsmen, New York) the New York Society of Ceramic

Arts) the Detroit Society of Arts and Crafts) the Artists' Guild,

Chicago) the Cleveland Museum of Art) the Cleveland Society of

Artiste) the Marblehead Arts Association) the Columbus Art League) and of Keramos and Thu sigma Delta. 217

His honors and awards lnoludad tha following t

Honorable mention, at the Boston Sooiety of Arts and Crafts special Exhibition, Copley Hall, Boston, 1907*

Mrs. J. Ogden A m o u r prise for pottery, Chicago Art Institute, 191$*

Boston Society of Arts and Crafts Medal (Master Craftsman), 1925*

Charles Fergus Binns Medal, 1927*

First prise for pottery, Cleveland Museum of Art Annual Exhibition, 1928*

First prise for pottery, Robineeu Memorial Exhibi­ tion, Syracuse Musrum of Fine Arts, 1933*

First prise for pottery, 7th National Ceramic Exhibition, Syracuse, 1938*

Represented in permanent collections at the Metro­ politan Museum, N. T.j Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) Columbus Gallery of Fine Arts) Newark Museum and other collections*

The presentation of an Honorary Degree of Doctor of Humane

Letters by Alfred University in 1936 was made in recognition of

Arthur Baggs* contribution to education in ceramic art.

His published writings were few, including I

1 * "Modem Majolica," Handicraft. May 1912.

2, "A Dream Cone True,*1 Bulletin of the American Ceramlo Society. VllE TXugust, 1928), pp* ^86—7.

3* "Story of a Potter," Ibid.. April and May, 1929*

U. "Things We Should Know about Pottery," Proceed­ ings of the Ohio State Education Conference. i9l*J, Te n t h XnnuaT~5easion, L51-U. 216

S (with Marion Foadiok) "Design Pro bio no of the Tableware Industry," Journal of the American Ceramic Society* H U iftlay, 1^30, **art II), 11- 35} PeelanXXII (April, 1931), 21*9} Ibid*, (Way, 193lJ, lT

6* (with Paul Bogatay) N lb bio war* Progress Report, Shape Cana tructions Series II, Hlueprlnta, Square Shape," Bulletin of the Ansrloan Cereedo Society. X (September. 197177*295-3011 "Serlea TTTT^bld.. XI

7* "Progreaa Report on Reaearoh In Tableware Design," Bulletin of the Aaerloan Ceramlo Society* XII (July, 1933), ------

6* (with Edgar ’Littlefield) "Production and Control of Copper Reda In Oxidising Kiln Atmosphere," Jnumal of the Aaerloan Ceramic Society* XV (BayVlSSVrKtt ------9* "bhitewere at Cone 06 Biscuit, Cone 019 Gloea," Ceramlo Age* XXIV (December, 193U), 163*

10* "The Ceramlo Artist'a Job," Design, XXXVI (January, 1935), l6-7.

U * ''Ceramic Art Eduoation at Ohio State University," Bulletin of the American Ceramlo Society* XV T 7 u n « T l 9l 5 ) T ^ 3l = B : ------

12* "Ceramic Art Production Laboratory," Ohio Ceramic Indiatrlea Association Mews letter, XVI (19U5J, reprinted in Bull di n of the American Ceramic Society, XXIV (September, l9l**>), 32lt-57

13,. Co-owner with cdgar Littlefield of a patent en­ titled "Colorable Ceramlo Composition and Proeesa for Utilising," U. S. Patent No. l,959,li«9 - May 19, 1931*.

What sort of nan was Arthur Eugene Baggat He was a nan of selfless devotion to a form of art expression} a man interested In

Individuals and in his society} In relationships between education

In ceramic art and the industry} a man more interested in the 219 present aid future than In tha past) a aan of definite attitudes and sentiments - but not one to impose theae on otheraj a reaponaible aan} a man deairing to be of service to hla fellow-man. Professor

Baggio "service orientation" m a , Indeed, hla primary character-

1st; He wanted to serve art and man. Hla opportunltlea and experiences, Intelligently utilised, made poaaible the realisation of hla desire. Hla purpoae waa perhaps beat expressed In a personal letter, written during fcorid Her II. The following excerpt puts, In his own words, what thla chapter has drawn Into focus.

Theae are tines when one has to argue with him­ self to stay convinced that art activities are not futile* In the long view, I believe it, but I still would feel more useful If I were a top-notch mechanic working an bomb slphts. The whole war, however, la for the preservation of ideaa and values which seem to ua worth saving. So if we do keep trying to do the unheroio business of conserving and developing soun^artistio ideas perhaps we are helping after

^ Latter to John A. Poster, Detroit, dated October 19, 191*2. Chapter 10

DEVELOPMENTS AT N0N-C0XX>X3E LEVELS

Developments in manual, industrial, snd art aduoatian prior to 1900 hsvs bean discuaaad in Chapter Fire. Although tha principal burden of tha present work la eduoation in ceramic art at the college level, sons consideration should be given to such education In the public schools and In special institutions, and in its relation to adult avocational interests*

It has been shown that the earliest "art education1' in the public schools was concerned quite directly with industry* The introduction of drawing waa baaed upon a desire to apply the skill and knowledge gained to industrial production* Massachusetts displayed drawings from the public schools in the Philadelphia

Exposition of 1976* The exhibit consisted of strairht and curved-line drawing, geometric forms and designs, perspective,

objects in outline and light and shade** Following this exhibition a changing emphasis made itself felt in art education*

The possibilities of art as a cultural or aesthetic study rather

than as a purely industrial aid were considered* Color was

T u 0* Whitford, An Introduction to Art Education, p. 11* 220 221 lntroduoed, supplementing black and whit* drawing, just prior to tho Columbian Exposition held in Chicago in 1393.

This Exposition has been accredited by Million G. bhitford aa giving "•••the country the greatest stimulus for art that it 2 had yet received.1* Thla nay have been true, although tha quality of the stinuiua has been questioned. The re-creation of the splendors of Venice upon the banka of Lake Michigan retarded, in retrospect, the growth of an American art expression. The

Columbian did, nevertheless, attract thousands. It Increased the

"art consciousness" of the country, although "art" meant sone thing far different than the "ri ght way of making things,** a concept which had prevailed in indigenous colonial expression. European study for Amerioan artists, European travels and art collections by wealthy Americana, and the attraction of European art oenters for American teachers combined to de-emphaaiae native creativity in favor of adherence to European cultures, methods, philosophies, and mannerisms.

Hence it was, at the turn of the century, that "art" meant

"fine art*" "Art for Art's Sake" reigned supreme. It was re­ flected in the schools which trained for skills and techniques.

It led to copying museum examples whioh had expressed their times but which did not express early twentieth-century Amerloa. Experi­ mental procedures had yet to be accepted by the public schools,

z ibid. 222 although early assays into the resin of farm snd material were being made in private institutions* Reaction against the "Art for art's sake" doctrine took several forms* It mas brought about by the realization that such a concept of art held little for the mass of students in the public schools, dome educators held that making and doing would be of greatest benefit to the greatest number* Others, holding more firmly to European traditions and American traditions as well, turned their efforts toward "appre­ ciation" as a suitable art activity*

The first group turned its attention to "sloyd" and the manual arts* They were influenoed by the Arts and Crafts Movement, which advocated the union of art and manual training* The St* Louis

Exposition of 190b emphasised this change of direction* The seoond group, stressing "aporeciation," actually contributed little in the sense of aesthetic appreciation* flhat it did do, unfortunately, was to further the concept that "art" meant pictures which were painted, had stories to tell, and which hung in museums. The concept continues to be held by acme to this day and some museums continue to sell small prints for studies in appreciation*

The Jamestown Exposition, held in 1907, indicated, through displays of public school work, that an effort had been made to brinp together "art" and manual training with the intent of improving the quality and design of industrial art products, leading to the adoption of the term "Industrial Arts." The swing away 223 from "Art for art's sales” earrlsd furthest just prior to Vorld

har I. Tha San Francisoo and San Diego Expositions of 191$ emphasized practical industrial art* The work displayed emphasised objects with definite praotloal use - utilitarian snd beautiful - art for every-day use for all*

The National Education Association, at its convention in

Dallas in 1927, stressed "Art for Lift's Sake*" Thla theory took into consideration the growing understanding of psychology, ths needs of the individual student for expression, the needs of the average student as well as of those particularly interested in art*

It represented a point almost equidistant between "Art for art's

sake" and "Art for industry,"

The integration of art with other studies has received

increasing attention. Although the effort has sometimes resulted

in an actual decrease in tha time and consideration given to art per se, it has at least had the results of removing it from the

rarefied atmosphere once accorded it, of making it a more meaningfj1

part of every-day matters* At the same time, the uses of various media - both two- and three-dimensional - as means of personal

expression have been stressed. In discussing this concept of art in

the public schools, Robert Stose Hllpert aaidt

As a reaction against the overemphasis on technique and on Imitation, other groups of art educators shifted the emphasis to "creative expression," ,,, Creative work for the pure joy of the experience is now held by many groups as 22l|

the Justifioation of art In education. To scam, that la oonaidarad a reversion to fra theory of Art for Art*a Sake, but it must be admitted that the nee objective doee take into consideration certain current payoholo^icil and eduoetlon assumptions concerning the individual ahlld aa a * whole - intellectual, emotional, aocial, physical.'*

Emphases in art education have undergone many chanraa in the comparatively *hort time it haa been offered in the public schools.

These changes have been influenced by events in the world of commerce as well aa by a on cep ts in the fields of educational psy­ chology and philosophy.

The industrial progress of the nation is reflected in the courses offered in the schools, although these reflections are manifested slowly, the self-acknowledged poor showings In the

"art industries'* made by the United States in various international exhibitions had the eventual effect of emphasising the need for srt training as an aid to improved domestic production. Royal

Bailey Farnum, whose life has been devoted to art education, has written that Insofar as an American style was concerned!

He seemed to have developed a complete infer­ iority complex until in 1925, when the French authorities invited us to exhibit original American art in their International Exposition of Decorative Arts, we discovered that we had nothing whatever

K. s. Hilpert, "Changing Emphases in School Art Programs," Fortieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of £dua»tlon. p. u£o. 22$

whloh we could send as original* The French International of 1925 did, how­ ever, waken many in our country to the low level of our art output and industrially, at least, we began to realise that froe an. economic stand­ point something must be done.**

The emphasis upon art as an aspect of daily-living has been attributed by Alon Benent and the Cheney* to the difficulty of selling goods following the market disaster of 1929 as well as to the difficulty of obtaining European designers during World War I*

They have pointed out that«

In 1917 the difficulty of obtaining European designers because of the submarine blockade for the first time focused full attention upon the abilities of Amerioan desig ners and rave them an opportunity to prove their worth* ••• Soon thereafter (1923) free-lance designers, without affiliation with any given firm, appeared and achieved minor suooess in services to the indus­ tries. fly 1927 ultra-modern foreign desimers, attracted by takes of the generous fees paid by American industrialists, began to trickle in from Western Europe. They were in the main capable, but were not sufficiently familiar with the taste of the American consumer to warrant sustained acceptance of their creations. Under the circum­ stances therefore, it was only a matter of time before some serious doubt developed in the indus­ tries that had underwritten their talent, with the result that a number of powerful firms de­ clared themselves against designers and redesign­ ing. Fortunately, by this tine the revival of Interest in appearances had developed sufficient momentum to overcome the temporary setback, and by the beginning of 1929 the Amerioan designers had partially reassured industry by bringing cut a number of convincingly good designs.?

** Royal B. Faraum, Fine and Applied Arts, p. U* c Alon Benent and Sheldon and Martha Cheney, "Art in Indus­ try," Fortieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education.p. £6. 226

The "Buy Aaerlean" slogan of ths asoond decade of this century, with Its emphasis on native - rsthsr than laportsd - daslgn was not without offoot upon ths art adueators of this country.

An example of this thinking was sat forth by William G. Whitford as lata as 1937* Ha wrote, with raferanca to a ceramic fire-place sat ting fay Rookwoodt

•. • *a wary Interesting use of distinctively Amerioan motives in architectural design. This is a falanoa mantel in oolored mat glazes In the lobby of the Washington Hotel, Seattle. The entire mantel is made of tile modeled in low relief and terra ootta in bold relief* It la framed with marble to match the archi­ tectural detail of the building* The tile panela at the sides represent giant redwoods irtiose tall vertical lines hsrmonlse perfectly with the structural form of the mantel and the room* The majestic form or Mr* Rainier is elevarly wrought in tile above the mantel* The tile work with its design in the spirit of the great Northwest forma an appropriate background for the two Indian totem poles rendered in terra ootta, and glased with bright colors that give the note of accent and apeoial interest to the composition* •*• The emotional response produced was very similar to that experienced when viewing a canvas of one of the great masters*^

Ur* Whitford's illustration was used to point to the advisability of offering three-dimensional work in various media in the class­ room as well as to emphasise national art*

Art educators have had, nevertheless, a continuing interest in European art training and its relationship to industry* Ur*

?arnum, reporting in 19ul on foreign school-art programs, pointed out that while the general trend here was toward self-expression,

W. G. Whitford, og* cit.* pp* 27-8* 2 2 7 a growing Interest In relating art education to industrial

progress was notable overseas. He saldt

Poland, Csecho—Slovakia, Italy, Germany, Denmark and Sweden are outstanding examples of nations that have advanced to an international recognition of unusual art merit in their industrial products. 4 Sweden probably leads all other countries in her intelligent handling of eduoatlon in art for this purpose. She has not only revived her native handcrafts with great financial and social success, but, through educational programs, she has also related the native characteristics and fundamental principles of these crafts to modern industrial methods. Thus the earliest reasons advanced for the introduction of drawing in general eduoatlon are again finding firm ground for support today.'

Socio-economic Influences, in conjunction with changing

concepts in the fields of educational psychology and philosophy,

have brought varying emphaaes to art education. The principal

concern of the present author is the effect these emphases have

had on experiential education in three-dimensional media —

particularly in clay.

George Ward Nichols, whose Art Education Apoiled to Indus try,

published in 1*^77, has been cited previously in Part I, advocated

modeling with clay, although he did not think the activity could

be carried out in the usual class-room because of the special

equipment needed and the ensuing general muss ahlch would result.

Uary Louisa Hermlone Unwin, Examiner in Clay-Modelling to ths

R. B. Farnun, "School Programs in Other Countries," Fortieth Yearbook of the Nati onal Society hr the Study of Educ^ifon. p. 611. 228

Educational Handwork Union of tag land, wrote hwr Manual of Clay-

Modelling In 189S'. It waa publlahad in both London and Now York*

The prefaoa waa written by T* 0* Rooper, of Balliol Collage,

Ha etatedt

If, than, Art la to be taught in elementary aehoola, what farm of It la moat suitable for tha purpoee? I believe none ia of more universal application or more fundamental than Clay-Modelling* Aa a foundation for artistic training, Modelling is superior to Drawing| for objects which are drawn mist be represented aa they appear, whereas objeote that are modelled must be treated aa a whole just as they are in Nature* The expression of an Object with pencil or brush is a reduction of what la handled in space of three dimensions to the picture plane, which is space of two dimensions* In Modelling, the student deals with the round, with mass, and with bodies as they are fully known to ua*“

The preface stressed further that modelling-lessons should not be

rigid in their routine, that the children should be free to do the

lessons in the way they like best and that they should regard the

lessons as "recreation and pleasure," realising the delirhts of

exercising creative power*

Miss Unwin pointed out that models of the "conventional

type" - by wDich she meant oasts of historical reliefs - had been

favored over models in the round taken directly from nature

because reliefs were easier to work on, not having to be held in

the hand* It waa her belief, however, that fruits, articles of u T* G. Rooper, "Introduction," A Manual of Clay-Modelling* p. vi* ”* 229 clothing and the like, rather than oasts, were prafarrabla.

She agreed that it waa umrlee to hold the work in tha hand and made wary explicit the Tact that an amature should be used for all work - eren by the children of six or seven years. The end to be attained waa a life-like representation of the nodal (peas in a pod, shoe, etc.), not slavishly accurate, although "he should be able to forget in looking at the copy that it is made of clay, 9 so real should it appear." Regarding working with clay in general, Miss Unwin made the following observationst

It has ueen charged against Clay-Modelling that It is liable to spread infeotious diseases in schools. No authentic case of such an occur­ rence has been found,.•• It oust be insisted on that the children coma to the leason with clean hands, and a child having anything the matter with the hands should not be allowed to touch the olayf or, if this is permitted, the clay thus used should not be mixed with the rest, but thrown away. If, however, stronger measures are desired, the oia; may be sorinkled with Sanitas disinfectant instead of water, and then well kneaded up... Clay has been known to develop a disagreeable odour, which has generally arisen from its having been put into a box which was not clean. ... Cla;» Is not an expensive material, and on its developing objectionable qualities should be at once thrown but if due aare is taken this _____will not oc-nir.iO Mary L. H* Unwin, A Manual of Clay-Modelling, p. 5. 10 Ibid., p. 15 230

Despite tha author'a evident baliaf In freedom in modelling lessons, tha stapa for aach problem are carefully eat forth* bona of tha modala suggested* and tha way in whioh they muat ba plaoad on the armature* seem much too difficult for young children* For example* one ia a roe boat* complete with flat aeata - aomething even a atudent vary skilled in the use of clay would find troubleoome. Miss Unwin* neverthelaaa* waa making an initial step in the inolualon of the clay medium. Not that firing of the work waa contemplated* the problema ware to ba modelled and deatroyed.

Anna k. Holland* a teacher in the Boston schools* advocated clay modelling. Her "Progressive Course* was published in 1899.

She wrote* "Can we afford to ignore this common substance (clay) which has been tha means of such wonderful developments* which is the nearly perfect material in which to express form* and which has a fascination beyond an other?*1’*"1' kiss Holland stressed tha importance of what she termed "technical training" in the use of clay, training which roust precede freehand or imaginative work if children were not to become discouraged whan their animals did not look like "real" ones. Ihe lack of "technical training" was responsible* kiss Holland fait, for tha rejeotlon of clay by many teachers aa "too difficult" for child ran to control. While realising 11 Anna k. Holland* Clay Modelling, p. 3. 231 the poiiibli dingtn of meohanical aathoda, U l u Holland advocated a aarlaa of bordar patterns, gi owatrically lay ad out on olajr strips, using compasses and rulers, and pricked with a pointad tool for emphasis. Thaaa problana could ba exaotly taatad against a given working drawing, ao that tha children need not ba without some tangible standards toward Which to work.

Thaaa problana represented the "technical training," and ware to ba followed by "free work," either in relief or in tha round, all of which should ba constantly checked against nodela or working drawings far accuracy of measurement* All this waa, in

Mias Holland's opinion, far better than having tha children be cone frustrated in trying to reproduce natural objeots without success.

Her philosophy was not unusual for her tlnai the art work of children was judged through the ayes of an adult eid adult stan­ dards were held as models for children* In discussing th< use of clay insofar ss health w**s concerned, the author stated! "Clay, being an entirely mineral substance, affords no food for the growth of bacilli) it can therefore be used many times with reasonable care*

I have never had reason to believe that the least danger lurks in 12 the use of clay, even to delicate children."

The Manual Arts Press published, In 1908, Katherine Morris

Lester's Clay .»ork, in which she stated! 32------Ibid., p. 19. 232

lbday in Marly avery course la manual «rtaf olay ia given a place. The natter of firing potiery hae been most eatiafactorlly solved in the advent of the portable kiln* Iheae kilns are quite reasonable in price, ranging fron sixty dollars upward. It is hardly to be supposed that children will do anything with g la sing beyond, possibly, the selection of color. The mixing and grinding of glaaes is a very delicate natter and should not be undertaken by the uninitiated. To nest this necessity, however, a number of pottery shops mix and grind glases of good odor at reasonable prioes.^3

Many of the problems Mrs. Lester set forth were to be done in relief.

She advocated the making, first, of a flat tile, the pattern of the raised portions of the relief were then to be traced from paper onto the clay tile. The outlines of the raised portions were next formed with coils of clay, well worked into the background. f inally, the raised portion - between the coil "dams* - waa flllsd in with small bits of clay packed firmly together. Although the author suggested pottery forms and flat tiles, her principal interest was in relief, bhe wrotet

Nothing can add so muoh to the understanding and appreciation of architectural forms of the pest, as the study and reproduction of these forms in clay. In the intelligent copying of historic ornament, the pupil not only gains better and more definite ideas of form, but here may be developed in him an intellectual and aesthetic appreciation of modem architecture.11*

1 Katherine M. Lester, Clay Work, p. 18

1U Ibid., p. li!>. 233

Ihe attention given to day aa a eo— on medium in "manual arte* oouraea and aa a medium Tor the appreciation of historical ornament, emphasizes the thinking of public school art educators of the first and seoond decades of tha century.

During the same period there was a growing interest in public school eduoatlon which would fit students for industry. It has been mentioned previously that education of this type met with opposition from crganlied labor, which feared the loss of the apprentice system. As the realm of public education became more and mare widespread, however, it became apparent that some vocational trainlnr was not only desirable but needed. Teohnical high schools were opened in many cities. East Technicsl High in

Cleveland, Ohio, opened in 1908 and R. Guy Cowan, who had grad­ uated from iiifred in 1907, was in charge of the lottery in that school. The shop was well equipped and offered the opportunity not only to make pottery forms but to learn how to build and fire kilns. In Cleveland a central public school potterwas main­ tained, from 1910, to which work from the non-technical schools waa brought for rlasing and firing.^ Alice A. Ayers, who received her Bachelor of science in Applied Art from the New York

State School of Clay Aorking was, until her death in 19U6, in

Alice Ayara, "Ceramic Art in the Cleveland Public Schools," Design. XLI (April, 191*0), pp. lU-16. 231* 16 charge of this shop*

Qsorgs C. Qrssnsrt sn instructor in ths North Bsnnstt

Street Industrlsl school in Boston, addressed ths Amerioan Ceramic society in 1913, describing s Jspsnsss school for ceramic worksrs which he had visited. He pointed out that the mein features of the school worst

a. Preotical work, which has meaning to the student, is made the center of interest* b* Active sympathy and cooperation of the state, of employees, of trade unions and leagues are secured* o. The time of instruction ia sufficient in amount and excellent in quality to attract and hold industrial workers. d. fcvery effort is made to make the scholar a dis­ criminating user as well as an efficient producer, to make him a sun and a citlaen who feels the responsibility of his environment, to make him fit in body arid alert in mind and prepare him for the rational enjoyment of hia leisure as well as fit him for earning a comfortable and decent living. 17

The school was described as beln;/ half-school, half-factory, a practical school, with no abstract study. The student body was comprised of both adults and teen-agers. ..hile the conditions to be met in Japan admittedly differed from thoae in this country,

Hr• Greener's address was made before the Ceramic Society at a

time when it waa beginning to interest itself in the establishment of vocational courses - courses which would be "practical" for the

1 "Alice A. Ayars," Bulletin of the American Ceramio Society* V (January, 1926), p. 62.

^ George C. Greener, "A Vocation School for Clayworkers," Transactions of the American Ceramic Society, XT (Febmary, 1913), p. 2&3. 235 future worker*

H. M* Hutsworth, Director of the Orand Rapids School of Art and Industry* addressed the 1918 meeting of the American Federation of Arts* He held that the schools were not giving courses appro­ priate to future workers, that studies offered were too abstract* too unrelated to real life* His condemnation extended even to the manual training courses* He indicated that the passage of the

Snith-Hughea Bill in 1917 made possible the Increase of workers' skills through technical training. He thought this training should be expanded so that the workers would have some understanding of the designers and vice versa* He stated thats

The character of the Nation is dependent upon the esthetic education of the whole population* itare than 90% of our citizens are entirely depen­ dent upon the art education they have received be­ fore leaving the 8th grade, and 1% are likewise dependent upon the taste they have acquired as far as high school (the other 3£ possibly continuing the study). It is evident, therefore, that both grade and high school courses in drawln;-, manual training, or any form of the industrial arts should deal with the appreciation and understanding of the vital things of actual life*..l®

All this was held necessary so that the country could make the best use of its raw materials, thus increasing the worth of its products toward ths highest market value*

The Amerioan Ceramic Society was interested in the Smlth-

Hughes bill as well, seeing in its passage the possibility for

H* 11* Kutsworth, Industrial Art a National Asset, (I. S. Bureau of bducation, Circular No. 3 (ilay,-l$l9), p* ll* 236 the training of work ere far its industry. The bill provided for day-time schools, night schools and part-time schools, local school boards proving space and equipment, the federal and state govern­ ments assisting in the financing of instruction. The first Imcam course established under this act was given evenings in the Newell, best Virginia High School under ths direction of the Department of

Industrial Training at 1he University of West Virginia.1^ The course covered the principles underlying the manufacture of pottery, with as close an approximation to shop conditions as possible.

This course was maintained principally far workers already engaged in tha potteries, as were many of the first courses established under the Smith-Hughes Act.

By 192$ the United States Pot'era* Association and the Ohio

Ceramic Industries had united in sponsoring the introduction of a vocational ceramic course in a high school and for high school students. East Liverpool was selected as the logical place to start the movement, because ceramics "is practically the sole 20 industry of this district." The sponsors proposed to extend the training to other cities depending on the results in last Liverpool and the needs elsewhere. Kenneth fc. Smith, later to be associated with tha University of Cincinnati, Newcomb Colle?e, and now with

- "Ceramics Vocation Course st Newell High School," Bulla tin of the American Ceramic Society, II (December, 1923), p. 306.

2 0 "Vocational Classes in Ceramics to be Established," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society. IV (July, 192$), pp. 237 the iMri oan Art Clay Company, waa tha lna true tor ohoaan for tha

East Liverpool course, which was publiolsad as the "first high school ceramic course" - meaning that a student could major in 21 ceramics. It was a four-year course end could be taken either as a vocation or college preparatory course, the two having differing curricula, miitbin the next few years similar courses were offered at the high schools in Wheeling, West Virginia and Sabring, Ohio - both pottery centers.

These rather specialised forms of ceramic education differed, of course, from what was taking place In the public schools in general, ttoyal Bailey Farnum prepared An Annotated List of Books on the Arts for the University of the State of Mew York in 1917*

Mr. Farnum was at that time State Specialist in Art Education. His list was intended for use by the public school teachers of the state. He listed under "Pottery"* Charles F. Binns - The Potter's

Craft (1910)j George J. Cox - Pottery for Artists, Craftsmen and

Teachers (191U)J Katherine II. Lester - Clay Work (1908)j Louis

M. E. Solon - The Art of the Old English Potter (l885)j Judson T.

Webb - Pottery Making* An Illustrated Text Book (1911*) and Mary

White - How to Make Pottery (190b)* Mr. Farnum's listings were quite complete, so that it is safe to assume that these were the prinoipel texts then available, although Solon'a work waa a

21------"First High School Ceramic Course," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society. IV (October, 1925), pp. 5t>6—HT history rather than a taxt. Tha Pottara1 Craft, whieh ha a baan referred to in Chapter 1 of this section, waa tha flrat of lta type to ba published In this country - a comprehensive treatment of tha subject of pottery-asking. It waa not written specifloally for public-school instructors, of course, nor waa such education

Doctor Blnns' principal interest. Ha did, nevertheless, listen with interest to two addresses given before tha Amerioan Ceramic

Society's Art Division in 1921 and 1923.

The speaker on both occasions was James C. Boudreau, now

Dean of Pratt Institute. Hr. Boudreau had studied art in Boston,

New York and Paris, education pt Columbia University and the

University of Pittsburgh, and ceramics at Alfred University and the Univerait; of Pittsburgh. In the 1920'a his particular interest in aeramie art education waa as it functioned in the elementary and high schools. He was with the public schools in Pittsburgh at that time.22 Ur. Boudreau's address before the first meeting of the Art Division, in 1921, was not well received. He discussed ceramics as an aid toward appreciation in art rather than aa a vocational study. Reflecting later upon the event, he realized that the members of the Art Division had been, in 1921, mainly interested in "practical matters" and could see little of practical worth in the sort of education he was talking aboutt education which

5 5 ------"Biographical Sketch - James C. Boudreau," Bulletin of the Amerlean Ceramic Society. Ill (January, 192U), p. XU. 239 would not haw* any worth for tha future worker. They could not see that better domestic ware could c o m about through a greater diaorlnlmtlon in the buying public of the future - the students of the present. Mr. Boudreau set forth at the 1923 meeting the uae of clay in all twelve grades of ths Pittsburgh public schools, emphasising art appreciation, an understanding of the material and an understanding of the industry. H# saidi "Objectives are stated in terms of the growth of the child and not in terms of objective results (products). We are not working for products.• ."23

These were, of course, strange words to those o craniate concerned with the industry. Frederick Rhead, for example, said with regard to the 1921 addresst

The first Art Division meeting was very cut and dried. ... be read these papers and trans­ acted our business! then this young man stood up and talked along these lines. I am interested in the industrial side. X have gone through the curriculum of the English Art student but never realised his (Boudreau's) point of view at all. After the meeting We discussed these new ideas that were being thrust upon us. he couldn't understand them at all. ... The wisdom of teaching art to someone who would not use it seemed dubious. Now we are so enthusiastic about this phase of the possible w r k of the Art Division that we have divided (its) activities into the educational side and the industrial work and LLr. Boudreau is going to direct the educational aide...2b

^ James C. Boudreau, "Clay as a Medium Through which Educa­ tional Ideals May Be Effectively Presented," Journal of the American Ceramic Society. VI (June, 1923), p. 7<&. 2U F. H. Rhead, "Discussion," Journal of the American Ceramic Society, VI (June, 1923), p. 769. 21*0

In oonneotion with Mr. Boudreau 'a paper, Charles !• argue

Blnne ealdi "I have never heard a better presentation of the ideals and work of a grade and high school art program* *. I would like to see this address distributed far and wide. • • The schools need it, and if these ideas oan be carried out we shall have accomplished a good deal."^ Literature of the American Ceramic Sooiety provides no d u e to the action taken by the Art Division on the

"educational side" as it pertained to public school eduoatlon in oeramica.

During the 1920's and early 1930's working with clay was utilised - particularly in small schools with insufficient funds - as a m a m s of stimulating interest in apathetic students, of giving more meaning to academic studies.A few resourceful teachers helped their students to dig native clay and prepare it for use.

The Art Division of the American Ceramic Society devoted part of its attention to ceramic eduoatlon at the secondary level

2 5 ------C. F. Binns, Ibid.

26 B. Barclay, "Experiment in Clay Pottery," School Arts. XXIV (October, 1921;), pp.

V. Evans, "When a Desert Box-Car School Tried an Activity Program," School Life. XVI (Uarch, 1931), pp. 131-3*

L. Amos, "Pottery in a Country School," New Era, (London), XVIII (December, 1937), pp. 313-6. ?U1 in the 19301 a. Mabel C. Brady, in 1936 Chairman of tha Depart­ ment of Ceramics at Haaren High School in New York City, waa honored by the society, A letter whioh she wrote to the Society 27 at that time was published in the Bulletin, It related her training and her experiences in introducing clay work Into the public schools of the city, kiss Brady's academic education and the beginning of her art training were rained at the State Normal

School in Cortland, New York, She studied painting and modeling while teschlr*; in New York City and alao traveled in Europe and

Africa, during which she collected native ware. Mia a Brady worked with clay - as a mean^ of relaxation - at Greenwich House for a period of eight years. During that time she was made one of the art supervisors of the city, appointed to a district of twenty-three schools. The 800 teachers with whom she dealt had many problem cases. Miss Brady wrote*

As an experiment 1 carried with me into several schools boxes of clay - tr. ing out the so-called 'bad e^gs* in pottery and modeling. The almost instant reaction taught me something snd I went froai school to school saying 'Give your problem boys some clay and they will become lambs,' There is something soothing in clsy to the high-strung, temperamentally maladjusted, misunderstood boysi they beam when they have created something, For five years I begged various prorresaive principals who stood for creative expression to let me introduce clay work - but - but -

Mabel C. Brady, "Creative Education through Ceramic Art," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society» XV (March, 1936), pp. 96-d. 21*2

but all the * touts' I heardj the expanse and the displeasure of the east.o.'’lan if the floors were dirty were the most frequent excuses. ••• At th,jt time there was no hope of Introducing it Into the lower grades and Junior high schools. In September, 1930, I went to Hsaren... As I had hoped, the authorities were convinced of the value of the work and in 1933 I received an electric kiln. ... the superintendents, even the most pedagogical, are impressed with the results other than art. while those in charge of srt are convinced of Its value. Nearly all of the high schools are now making an effort to have kilns installed,...2S

lilas Brady's experiences in the 1920's were typical of those who felt the suitability of clay work as a means of expression as well as a means of arousing Interests. Her several references to

kilns are of particular significance, since without firing facil­

ities clay work offered in the schools could not go beyond modeling.

Kilns for ceramics, at the industrial level, were tradi­

tionally large, "built-in," and, in this country, fired with

coal. During the early years of this century some concern was shown, as revealed in the American Ceramic society publications, with small kilns - not for individual users, but for "pilot

plant" or oontrol operations in industry. Daring this same

period, gas was replacing coal as a kiln fuel, and by 1920 oil was

also being utilised. "Portable" gas and oil kilns were available

to schools m d individual potters, but the. were bulky and

expensive, so that only well-equipped studios were able to afford

or house them.

Ibid., pp. 96-7. 21*3

The first references to eleotrie "furnaces" were made In

Amerioan Ceramic Society literature in 1921*. The "furnaces" were not then capable of achieving temperatures high enough for them to be utilised aa "kilna." Through the latter 1920's electric kilna were mentioned, but the;, were primarily decorating kilns. In 1936, a paper entitled "Small Kilns for School and

Studio Service" waa published.^ 9 B y 1936 a great amount of interest had been generated in small electric kilna, but it was not until

191*0 that such kilns were generally available for schools and studio potters. The advent of electrical power, combined with the development of efficient, lirht^welght insulating brick were technological necessities far the widespread establishment of school courses in ceramic ert.

The 1936 convention meetings of the Art division of the

American Cermnlc Society were devoted to ceramic art in the public schools. At that time H. R. Bacher saids

The most severe criticism of the majority of crc' t and school work in making vessels is that they are porous and of lcsr strength because they are far from vitrification. Attempts to use body fluxea for low maturing body compositions, because of their narrow range, result in excessive deform­ ation in the usual studio or school kilns. The problem then becomes closely related to suitable kilns.

r Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XV (March, 1936), pp. 116-25. 30 H. ft. Bacher, "Ceramic Texts and Materials to Aid Schools and Craftsmen,n Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XV (March, 1936), p. 127. 2Ui

Gordon O* Wilber, of the State Normal School at Oswego,

New York, explained that the principal reason ceramio art waa not offered in more public schools was the difficulty of finding 31 sources of information concerning supplies and materials. It is Indeed true that the establishment of supply houses itilch were adapted to saall-quantity sales was necessary before ceramio art in public schools could become widespread.

lake t', Bewkerman, of the Scarsdale, New York, public schools contributed five problems facing those interested in intro­ ducing ceramic art work in (secondary) schoolst

(1) The equipment is too expensive and the price of kilns is prohibitive. (2 ) Material prices (particularly prepared glases) are too high. (3) A clearing house is needed where those kio are interested can get in touch with those who are trained in ceramics and available to teach. (U) A bibliography of ceramic reference material which can be furnished to school libraries and teachers is needed. (5) A book on ceramics, written in the simplest terms, is needed for students and laymen.32

Design magazine conducted in its pages a symposium, also

In 1936, on "Crafts in Education." It was concerned principally with crafts in the public sohools. Ceramic art received particular attention. The high degree of attention given to this

Tj 1’ '-- --- Gordon 0. “liber, "Discussion," Ibid., p. 128.

32 L. Bemkerman, "Ceramic Craft Work in the Secondary Sohools," Ibid., p. 126. 2US phase of eduoatlon in ceramic art in tha lattar 1930*a may ba attributad to a numbar of faotorai

1. A growing concern, in art education, far the advis­

ability of axpcrianoa with three-dimensional madia.

2. Similar concern for individual, psychological need

for expression.

3. The increasing availability of supplies snd kilns.

i*. A realization of the possibilities of ceramic art

study as a means of appreciation and of consumer

training.

9. The general Interest stimulated by the founding of

the National Ceramic Exhibitions held at Syracuse,

discussed in Chapter 3 of this section.

A survey of "Course Requirements for Teachers of Art in

Fifty institutions" was reported hy «Velter E. Hager and Edwin

Ziegfeld, both of Columbia Teachers' College, in 191*1.33 Despite the general growth of interest in three-dimensional arts - pointed out by the interest in ceramic art shown herein - the surveyors found that future art teachers were receiving only a small amount of einphaais on art experiences with three-dimensional materials in their college training, they reported that Crafts, Modeling

(Sculpture), and Industrial Art were the only three categories in

^ baiter E. Hager and Edwin Ziegfeld, "Course Requirements," Fortieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pp. 735-E3. . 2h6 which student* were assured work with three-dimensional materials.

Crafts wsre found required in twenty-seven of the institutions studied* The Crafts were subdivided as follows)

Bookbinding (required in 3 institutions of fifty) Metal Aork and Jewelry (3 " " * ) Pottery (11 * " " ) Weaving (i* " " * )

The authors concluded that "art training in schools at all levels has had a tendency to become largely a paper-and-pencil* two- dimensional matter*

J. Sheldon Carey* then of Teachers' College, Columbia* reported on ceramic art in the public schools to the Art Division of the American Ceramic bociety in 19U3* He deplored many of the articles appearing in art magamines on the use of ceramics in the public schools* stating that the;, did more harm than good lnasnuch as they advocated using shcm-oard colors for decorating and coloring pottery and figures* He said)

Ninety-two of the 160 Junior aid senior high schools in New York City teach some form of clay work for its creative value* Of these 92 schools only sixteen have facilities for firing their ware* It would be interesting to know haw much experience these teachers have had in the medium before attempting to teach it*... The deficiency* however* is not always the fault of the teacher* buoh work is often foroed upon them* and their superiors think that ceramic art is like mathe­ matics of a language and all a teacher has to do is to keep a few pages ahead of the student* •••

5C------Ibid., p. 71*1. 214?

A brighter picture is painted when we consider what could be and what is being done in schools that have teachers vho have had extensive training in ceramics. Approximately thirty-five of the one- hundred and fifty rraduates in ceramic art from the New York State College of Ceramics in the last ten years are teachers. In response to an inquiry* they state that generally they are allowed to teach clay work as they please. They have very little trouble proving its value and they have been quite successful in obtaining equipment. Yet they often indicate that they have had to educate their superiors before they could teach the c h i l d r e n . 35

Although the introduction of clay work in the public schools has often met with difficulties* there is evidence that the number of art teacher training courses which offer some ceramic art continues to increase. The graduates of these courses will give their atu-ients some experience with the clay medium. It is to be noted that the 19U8-50 Biennial Survey of Education showed that

22*9 per cent of public secondary day school pupils studied art in

1915* whereas only 9*0 per cent did so in 19U9.^ This could be interpreted as indicating that a smaller percentage of seconds ry students gained experience with elay. The increase in attention to three-dimensional materials, from 1915 to 19ii9, ho/.ever* could indicate that the number oarticipating in clay work had actually increased. In addition* the emphasis placed upon social studies in the lower grades* the emphasis upon the "world about us" - our 55----- J. S. Carey* "Educational Aspects of Ceramic Art," Bulls tin of the American Ceramic bociety. n i l (February, 19U3)* p* 3^*

U. o. Office of Education Biennial Survey of Education, 19i43-50, p. 108. 2148 industries, eto. - may well have some influence on the understanding of oeramios in the citiaena of the future. Further, the interest in clay aa a material for •‘doing" will, in some, carry on into later life.

Art education in ceramics haa found its place not only in the publio schools and the colleges of our country, but in special types of education as well. Among these may be mentioned tlM ceramic programs of the borka Progress Administration and

National louth Association of the Roosevelt administration. Both agencies supported educational programs which could train workers for industries not then over-crowded as well as train low-5ncome groups in crafts which could be carried out in the home and supple­ ment incomes, liany of the ceramic training programs began as work for unemployed youths in the 16 to 2b ye'u* a^e group. The table­ wares they produced were used in federal establishments, including nurseries, NYA resident centers and the like. In the early 19140*8 dinnerware was produced for army and navy bases, when this country became fully enraged in world Viar 71 and unemployment virtually ceased, the need for the projects ceased as well.

One of the fullest accounts of such a program was presented by Jack K. Smoot of Milled''evllle, Georgia, before the American

Ceramic Society in 19U2. The experience he related, differing from that of public school or college education in ceramic art,

included the foil owing t 21*9

After the flrat kiln of pottery was fired off in the month of February, 1939, it waa decided that little would be accomplished until an art program waa developed* It would be of small value to the workers if they learned only the manipulation of the equipment a d no Idea of the artistio value of the work they were performing* Louis Block, art consultant for all NTA work, came to Habersham to start the art program* He gave all persons pencils, oainta, and paper and directed them to berin designing anything that they chose to do. The:' were allowed a free hand and were given no instruction in color, proportion, or design) no one waa to prejudice the youth in any way, and they were to do their own work. A young lady who had received her art training at Sophie Newcomb College was placed in charge of this group, and for three months this program was followed* This plan of development is practiced in many public schools where a young child is quite easily charmed vd th colors and likes to draw the things which hi a small mind imagines* Youn" men and women, however, who had reached eighteen years of age, found it difficult to become interested in this sort of work, and at the end of three months openly rebelled at the thought of attending this period* It beoame evident thet this system waa not working* Before formulating new plans, the young people were asked to give their reactions to this art program* Five opinions were given, namely* (1) They could not draw) (2) they were not interested in trying to draw) (3) they felt that they were wasting their time) (!*} the.\ wanted to spend all their time in the ceramic department doing other work) and (5) they could see no practical application what they were doing* It was evident that the actual construction of aeraadc ware was being presented in an interesting manner but that the plan had definitely failed to interest the workers in the artistic aspects of this work*’7

Jack 1. bmoot, "Development of an Art Program at an NYA Resident Project," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Boolety, XXI (May, 191*2), p. 77. 250

The art propram was subsequently taught by "old fashioned eethods - copying drawings of vases, through studying forms In nature and using these as springboards for their earn designs."

The workers then became Interested and no longer complained of the waste of time devoted to art development.

This experience, as well as others of a similar nature, points strongly to, the problems which arise in working with adult classes in ceramic art. The particular socio-economic system prevailing in the United States has brought forth unique problems

In daily living, principally that of leisure tins. Although the averare layman would soarcely reply, upon questioning, that leisure­ time was any "problem," sociolorists have considered It so in evaluating the hours spent sway from regular employment. The advent of assembly-line production and of the shift from country or small-town life to cit; life have affected the individual and the use of his leisure-time. The workman has, in the larger sense, been divorced from the product whloh he helps to manufacture in his working day. The loss of a close association with product - from conception to completion - has infected many workmen with a vague sense of dissatisfaction. It has meant the denial of psychological fulfillment through conception and construction. It hms meant, too, that many workers are required to call upon only one or a few of their actual capabilities■ their powers are not utilised fully in their work. The denial of expression of these factors has 251 influenced the areas to which nan tarn in their leisure-time, end the amount of leisure-time available increases through the years. This is true not only for working men but for housewives as well. Some may argue that the inhabitant of the United

States la prone to spend his leisure-time as a spectator, and it is true that audiences increase yearly> yet it may also be shown that adult participation in creative fields increases yearly as well.

Ceramic art courses - pottery and, more recently, enameling - have drawn workers from diverse fields into special adult classes.

Hie classes are offered in extension proproms in both high schools and colleges, in special shortterm summer workshops, and in private studios. The number of these students 1*10 go on to establish their own small shops - either for personal pleasure or as small businesses which often grow to supplant the original vocation of the owner — is .'ratifying. Hie same could be said for other avocational pursuits which become more meaningful for the individual than his every-day job ever was or will be.

borne of the earliest experiments in adult education were carried out in the settlement houses of New York and other cities.

Greenwich House in New York offered, as early as 1900, pottery 38 lessons for children — two lessons for five cents. Parents of 38----- Uaude hobinson, "Ikidpies for Grownups," Journal of Adult Education. I (June, 1929), pp. 285-7. 252 the children naked to be included in the classes and ware. They began making pottery, but their interest extended even further than that of the children. They wanted to learn more drawing, chemistry and history, so that they could make better pottery. Their deal re indicated the quality of the teaching they enjoyed aa well as the personal need to understand what they were about, from con­ ception to completion.

Lulu Soott Backus, a graduate of Brockport State Normal in New York, The Rochester Athenaeum and Mechanics Institute, and at one time a student of Doctor 3inne at Alfred, headed the

Craft and Ceramic Department of Mechanics Institute in Rochester 39 for many years. Ceramics waa one of the crafts utilised in rehabilitation work, an area in which the Institute had long been a leader. Following World 'Aar I many soldiers studied pottery there. Throughout the depression unemployed people came - not to produce ware in competition with industry - but as a profitable way to fill eqpty days.

Working with claj hrs long been looked upon as of ther­ apeutic value for the blind, the crippled, and the mentally dis­ turbed. Viktor Lowenfeld employed clay in working with the blind in Austria aa early as 1926 far its importance in developing the sense of touch.**0 He wrote, in 191*21

W " — * "Lulu beott Backus," Bulletin of the American Ceramio society. XXI (Uay, 191*2), pp. &l-lu.

Peuia Arnold, "Teaching the Hlind to Model," Contemporary Review, CXLI (February, 1932), pp. 198-203* 253 , • • there remains the sad and depressing experienee that the "seeing taste" of physically normal edu­ os tore la determining the way of expression and production for the abnormal. It la time to realise that the most primitive ores tire work born In the mind of a blind per a on and produced with hia cam hands la of greater value then the moat effective Imitation.^1 the therapeutic quality of working with clay la generally agreed to, yet It should be stated that the results of ouch work may often extend beyond expectation. Visible and apparent physical and mental handicaps may be aided, but It Is also true that vaguely- sensed dissatisfactions may be aided as well. In the sense that happiness implies a pleasure - a "losing of one's self* in one's occupation - avocational pursuits all have certain therapeutic value. Ibis is to usr the term "therapeutic" in its broadest sense, in answer to anticipated charges that its use reduces all enterprise - creative or not, aesthetic or not - to mere therapy.

At the level of special and adult education in oeramic art thera­ peutic values are of importance. Creativity and aesthetic under­

standing engendered are matters of degree.

The so-called "hobby potters" have been a thorn in the side

of many a professional studio potter or ootter-teacher. Donald

A. Rowland, reporting to the Ceramic Educational Council of the

American Ceramic Society last year, made the following observationsi

^ Viktor Lowenfeld, "modeling as a Means of Pelf-Expression in oohools for the Blind," Harvard Education Review, XII (January, 19h2)» p. 6. 2*1*

Hobty potters cover a vast field and have been indireotly responsible, by observation of the lay­ man, in classifying oeramics as a hobby. These same hobby people, if guided, can do a great deal to oorrect ths impression people now have* There are a number of aagasines directed to these people whose editors should be approachable to a program of enlightenment for their readers, llany of the supply houses, where the hobby people obtain their materials, may be invited into the program (i.e., establishing the true meaning of oeramics), using ons or more pages of their catalogs to describe ceramics fully. ••.ceramics as it should be known. A glass plant foreman recently told me that "Ceramics, * is the making of fancy pottery by people as a hobby.

* It is to be noted that this report was delivered to an bducntlon

Council whose main concern is ceramic engineering, not ceramic

art. It reflects, Indeed, the classification oi ceramics as a

hobby by many laymen. It is to the benefit of the ceramic Industry

to make the term "ceramics" more fully understood. It is also true

that terms have changed in meaning among some groups, /or example,

in one part oi the country (and among non-industrial participants)

"potters" are thoae who make ceramic vessels, "ceramists" are those

who do lace-draping on figurines. How important, however, are

these distinctions? The hobby potters - groups and individuals with avocational interest in ceramics - represent adults who have

found certain satisfactions in three-dimensional work of varying

degrees of unle rate riding and creativity, Their motivation can be understood in terms of man's psychological needs. Iheir enthusiasm r y — - ■■■ Donald A. Rowland, "Promotion of Ceramic Education," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XXXIII (December, 19$ii), P» 335* 255 and pleasure is heartening* If their products would not sll stand

the critical eye of a national ,1ury, are their efforts worthy only of acorn? The activity is doing much for them as individuals and it may be said, as well, that increasing interest in ceramic art is more fruitful of gain in appreciation of the work of others and of the work of our ceramic industries than it is an embodiment of decadence*

rihe term "ceramics" is new heard and read in every-day

conversation, in newspaper, radio and television* Its use in

this manner is a recent development. Understanding is increasing*

>duoation in ceramic art in elementary and secondary public schools,

in special prog rams of instruction for workers within the industry

and in adult classes has had its influence in making "ceramics"

a oart of our vocabulary* The present position and continuing

growth ot such education argues for ever-increasing understanding

and, through understanding* appreciation* PART III

SURVEY

Chapter 11

EDUCATION IN CERAMIC ART AT THE COLLEGE LEVEL

A NATIONAL SURVEY

'Ihe over-all purpoae of thla survey was to place in per­ spective the present position of education in ceramic art at the college level. Broad relevancies included! where Is ceramic art offered, to whom, In what degree, and by Whom? More specific

purposes are revealed through the questions presented in the

questionnaire, which ap >ears on pages 257, and 259 of this

chapter.

Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary lists two thousand and

one hundred "United States Colleges and Universities. "*■ Ihe

listing includes Junior colleges and other schools not offering degrees, medical schools, theological seminaries and other in­

stitutions which would not logically include ceramic art in their

curricula. A less comprehensive and more selective listing was

sought and found in "Art Schools and College and University Art

Departments in the United States," appearing in the American

^1953 edition, G. and C. IJerriam Company, pp. 1160-1172. 256 *57 2 Federation of Arto Directory for 1955* Listing in the Directory

indicates both degree- and non-degree-granting institutions* Only

those granting degrees ware covered In the present survey. Three

hundred and sixty-fire questionnaires were sent out. The number

returned was 285,3 a return of 76*08 par cent. Although results

by states were not a priaary objective, It may be well to point

out here that those states falling beloe a fifty percent return

were t Idaho, Mew Jersey, and Wyoming * no re turns | Alabama and

Minnesota - thirty-three per cent*

A copy of the questionnaire appears on the three pages

following* Replies to the various questions will be treated

individually, following the Questionnaire, hach will be preceded

by its respective numbering in the questionnaire.

Published by n. H. Bowker Company, Mew York.

^ Following the tabulation of this survey, eleven additional replies were received, a total return of 296, or 8l.l per oent.

f 258 QUESTIONNAIRE

SurTty of Education In Ceramic Art

I. Does your school offer ceramic art in its curriculun - either as a separata course of study or aa part of sons other courseY

Yes No

(IF ANSWER lb NO, WOULD YOU PLi'ASE ANSWER QUESTION II ONLY, RhT'lRNING THIS FOia IN THE ENVELOPE PROVIDED?)

II. Is your school planning the inclusion of ceramic art in its curriculum

In the near future? In the future?

If the inclusion of ceramic art is anticipated, will it be

______In response to a demand from in-coming or present

students? OR (other reason)

III. If oeramic art is offered in your school, please check the appropriate course types a^id to whom offeredi

A. As a major course of study, with the degree or degreest

B.A. 3.F.A. B.Sc. U.A. iti.F.A. Ph.D.

B. As required credit for*

1. Art Education Majors (Elementary Ed.) 2. Art Eduoation Majors (secondary Ed.) 3. Eduoation Majors (Elementary Ed.) It. Education Majors (Secondary Ed.) 5. Sculpture Majors 6. Crafts Majors 7. Industrial Design Majors 8. Interior Design Majors 9. Occupational Therapists 10. Home Economics Majors 11. 12.

C. As an elective. IV* State, if possible, the number of years that Ceramic

Art has been offered in your school* _ _ _

V* Ceramic Art studio spaoet (check one)

la separate from other art activities

is not separate from other art activities

VI* Forming Processes Taughti (check those offered)

A* Handbuilding

B. ______Throwing

C. ______Plaster Model and Mold-making

D. Casting

E. Ceramic Sculpture

which of these five receives greatest emphasis?

A 8 C P E

VII. Technical Foundation offeredt (check as offered)

A* Raw Materials

B* Olase Calculation

C* Olase Preparation

D. Clay Body Composition and Preparation m i . History of Ceramics - is it taught*

A* With general history of art?

B* As a special and separate course?

C* ______Not taught as such? *60

IX. Instructors*

A. Ceramic Art is taught fay (hoar many?) lnatruotoraf _ _ _

B. Of these, (hoar many?) _____ taaoh ONLT Ceramic Artt

C. Of thoaa teaching only Ceramic Art, la the average

teaching achadula 1231*56789 10 half—days par vaakt (Circla)

O. Regardless of the nuaber of houra per student, approxi­

mately (how many?) ______etudente work in Caraaie Art aach weak?

E. Background of teaching staff (Give number of instructors)i ftlOTEt in the event that one person holds several degrees, place hla according to his higher degree ONLT

____ have Bachelor* a Degree with major in Ceramic Art.

____ have Master * a Degree with major in Ceramic Art.

_____ hove Ph. D. with major in Caraaie Art.

______have Bachelor*a Degree with minor in Ceramic Art.

have Master'a Degree with minor in Ceramic Art.

have Ph. D. with minor in Ceramic Art.

____ have studied at non-degree-granting institutions (aueh aa art achoola)

have gained ceramic knowledge at summer achoola, special workshops, study with private instructors, eto.

______have gained cersmlo knowledge from reading, ob­ servation, etc.

(other) ______261

1* Ttaro hundred and twenty-one returns (77*51*$) stated that ceramic art Is offered, sixty-four (22.1*6$) that it is not. Thus, better than three-fourths of those replyin offer sows eduoation in ceramic art, rerardless of intensity or depth.

II. The sixty-four institutions not offering ceramic art were requested to indicate whether present plans called for Its inclusion in either the "near future" or "future." Thirty-eight of the sixty-four (59*375$) replied "NO" in both cases. Twenty- six (1*0.625$) replied five - "near future," twenty-one

"future." Comments as to the reason for future inclusion of a course in ceramic art indicated that it is considered essential for a well- rounded program in three-dimensional instruction.

III. oixty-five of the 221 schools inciudinr ceramic art in their curricula offer it as a ma.jor course of stud;,, granting decrees as follow*

Number of Schools Percentare

Undergraduate Degrees only . . . 35 53*85

Graduate Degrees o n l y 5 7*69

Undergraduate and Graduate Dsf1 rees ..•*•«*...*«* 25 38.1*6

Five schools offer d e r e e work at the graduate level only. They include undergraduate ceramic art in a eneral art curriculum or 262 offer it on an elective beala.

Many achoola offert either a B. A. or B. F. A. with a major in ceramic art} either an M* A. or A. F, A. with a major in oeramio art* Othera offer only one degree for eaeh level* the number of achoola offering the varioua degreea are aa follows

35 schools offer a B. A* with ceramic art major

29 w M B. F. A. it « it it

15 n M u. A. w w a it

18 n ft U. F. A. it it n it

1 it It Ph* D. with concentration in ceramic art

A few aohoola prant the Bachelor of Science (6 achoola), Bachelor of Education (2), Bachelor of Arta in Education (1), Vaster of

Arta in Education (1), and Uaater of Science (1), all with maj ora in ceramic art*

One hundred and eighty-one achoola (63* *>% of the 221 offering oeramio art) reported that it ia offered aa an elective* In fifty- aix (I9.65t> of the 181) of these it is offered only on this basis*

Mine of these fifty-six, however, permit "election" of ceramic art to the point of a major oourae of study, with degree(a) offered*

In addition to determining the percentage of schools granting degrees in ceramic art aa a major course of study, * question pertaining to ceramic art aa a required course for those majoring in varioua other fields was included in the survey* One 263

hundred and fifty-three (1*1.92$ of tho 221 aehoola offaring ceramic art) stated that soma ceramic art la required of students majoring

in certain other fields. The results are arranped hers In descending

order, according to the number of schools requiring such oeramio art study from majors in other areast

1. Art Education Majors (preparing for teaching at the secondary level) 11$

2. Art Education Majors (preparing for teaching at the elementary level) 102

3. Crafts Majors 5U

i*. Sculpture Majors 1*1

5. Art Majors (general art) 32

6. Industrial Design Majors 30

7. Occupational lherapis to 28

8. Interior Design Majors 27

9. Education Majors (Elementary, non-art) 17

10. Education i ajors (Secondary, non-art) 9

11. Home Economic Majors 7

12. As part of first year, "Foundation Study" 5

13. Commercial Art Majors 3

11*. Pre-dental Majors 3

15. Industrial Arts Majors 2

16. Advertising Design Majors 2

17. Fashion Majors 2 261*

IS, Photography bailors 1

19* Architectural Majors 1

IV* Question IV Inquired into the number of yeare ceramic art had been offered in each school* The purpose of this question waa to determine possible fluctuations in interest in ceramic art as indicated by the establishment of courses st the college level* Tbo hundred and seven schools replied to the question* fourteen of the

221 schools offerin’ ceramic art omitted a reply*

Number of Years Corresponding Number of Schools Ceramic Art Offered Calendar Tear (earlier ones named)

69 1386 1 - Thlanet Sophie Newcomb College 60 x895 1 - Moore Institute, Philadelphia 55 1900 1 * Alfred University 51 1901* 2 - University of North Dakota Philadelphia Museum School 50 1905 5 Illinois State Uni­ versity, Normal, SI* Maryland Institute, Baltimore, Md* Ohio University, Athens, Ohio Museum Art School, Portland, Oregon Oberlln Collere, Oberlln, Ohio 1*9 1906 1 California College of Arts & Crafts, Oakland, California 1*5 1910 2 Pratt Institute Eastern Oregon College of Ed*, La Grande, Oregon 265

Number of Tears Corresponding Number of Sohools Ceramic Art Offered Calendar Year

1*0 1915 3 39 1916 38 1917 1 37 1916 1 36 1919 35 1920 3 31* 1921 33 1922 1 32 1923 1 31 1921* 30 1925 12 29 1926 1 20 1927 2 27 1928 1 26 1929 3 25 1930 8 2 k 1931 23 1932 1 22 1933 1 21 1931* 20 1935 11 19 1936 2 18 1937 5 17 1938 2 16 1939 3 15 191*0 16 lit 191*1 1* 13 191*2 1 12 191*3 2 11 191*1* 2 10 191*5 26 9 191*6 8 8 191*7 16 7 191*8 U* 6 191*9 10 5 1950 9 h 1951 2 3 1952 11 2 1953 9 1 1951* 0 1955 1*

Beglnninp January, 1956 266

When these figures are translated Into percentages, according to

how many aohoola offarad earaale art ty a oartain data, differ*

antiala ara mada elaar aa follows

Number of Sohoola Offering Caramle Art______Differentials

13 by 1911 - < 6.28%) 3.36% 21 by 1921 - ( 10.11*%) 11*. 01 % 50 by 1931 - ( 21*. 15%) 19.31% 91 by 191*1 - ( 1*3.96%) UU.hSt 183 by 1951 - < 83.1*1%) 207 by 19$6 - (100.00%)

The names of achoola Included in the listing on pare 261*

hare been aat down aa a matter of record. The number of yeera each

claimed aa having offered ceramic art haa not bean checked beyond

the returning of their questionnalree. The early undertaking* of

Newcomb College in ceramic art have been treated in earlier chapters

of thjs work. If the date 139$ is correct for Moore Institute, the

early history of that school la worthy o: further inveaLi cation.

The date does not seem improbable* the Philadelphia School of

Design for Woawn waa established in 183$, with aiaa much the aame

aa those of Newcomb. Moore Institute waa founded in 181*1*. It was -

and is - a school for women. It undoubtedly fostered ceramic art

for ladies aa did Cincinnati and New Orleans. Referances to 267

Uoore in oonneotion with early ceramic training hare not been found In reaearoh done for the preaent study. The questionnaire reply waa the first indication of a lonr period of education in ceramic art at that school.

It must be admitted that the knowledge of those replying to this question - particularly in the case of the earlier- established courses - is not shewn to be overly accurate. For example* the replies seem to have been couched frequently in terms of five-year periods. Hence 1905* 1910* 1915* and so on* appear to have been "big” years insofar as establishment of ceramic art courses are concerned. This was probably not the case. When a course had not been established within the memory of the instructor or department head responding* an "about" answer was forthcoming.

The replies are not, however* without validity. Ihey

Indicate clearly surges between World Wars I and II and, particular­ ly, since the latter war. frlor to 19^5* 100 courses were established. From 19U5 to 1956* 107 have been instituted. While this reflects* in oart, the growth of all educational facilities at the college level and the rrowth of colleges of education* the percentage inorease in education in ceramic art is greater than that in education in general. On a regional basis, the increase of the past ten years has been general. That 1st dividing the nation very roughly into quarters, the number of newly-established courses does not vary significantly by region. It is not possible 268 to say, on the basis of the returns, that activity is greater in this connection in the Southwest, for example, than in the

Northeast. It is rather the case that s general, nation-wide quickening has taken place*

V* A question concerning studio space was Included In the questionnaire* It asked merely whether separate studio or studios is or are maintained for ceramic art. Two hundred and twenty of the 221 schools offering ceramic art replied* Of these, 163 (7h*l^) stated that separate quarters were malntalnedt 57 (25*9^) stated that they are not.* The fact that three-quarters of the schools do maintain separate facilities for ceramic art indicates to some extent the depth of the courses offered* When ceramic activities are carried on in a classroom cr shop with other art activities, it is safe to assume that the breadth and depth of aeramlc study are not great* trfhen separate quarters are maintained a more profound study is probable*

VI* This survey did not. attempt to analyse course content to any extent, although a question pertaining to methods and processes taught was included for a brief view of the factor* Two hundred and twenty of the 221 schools offering ceramic art answered ttia query. Results were as follows 269

Number of Schools Number of Schools Tbught By Emphasising

A* Handbuilding 21U (97.3*)* 121 ( 5 - . 0 O

9. Throwing 197 < 8 9 * 5 0 102 (L6.ii*)

C. Plaster Model & Mold-making 181 (82*3«) 15 ( 6.8*)

D. Casting 170 (77.3*) 13 ( 5.9*)

E. Ceramic Sculpture 187 (85.0*) 51 (23.2*)

Percentages based on the 220 schools replying*

Replies to the second part of the question — concerning emphasis - were seldom limited to one method of forming* That is, the respondent checked more then one ps receiving "greatest emphasis," usually with a notation to the effect that the same emohasis was given to the several checked*

The high percentages resulting in the case of handbullding

reflect the fact that, as question IV of the survey pointed out,

Art Education majors are required to study ceramic art in the

majority of schools where the latter study is available* oinoe

these students are preparing to teach in public school systems where equipment and space may be limited, their ceramic eduoation

in oollerre is frequently limited to handbuildin* — a method ehich will supposedly be most useful in their subsequent teaching* 270

Throwing received the seaond freetest number or oheeke •• a forming method taught* The figure indie*tea that a large percentage of the achoola surveyed la equipped el th wheels* It

■ay be said further that - according to notations added to the questionnaires • it la to throwing that the greater majority of elective students turn if given the opportunity, equipment and free choice of forming methods* The choice of throwing as a favored activity, however, may also be related directly to the orientation of the instructor*

VII* As a further insight Into the depth oi' ceramic art courses being oifered throughout the country, a question concerning technical foundations in ceramic art waa included in the survey*

Twenty-seven of the 221 schools offering ceramic art failed to answer this question* Although 19U did make some reply, it is evident that their under standing of the terms used was not clear*

*'or example t "C - Glase Preparation** waa intended to mean

"Students compound their own glaaes from various raw materlalsi weigh materials, hand or mill grind, etc*" To many of the respondents, however, it meant "Students add wr>ter to commer­ cially compounded glasses," and they made notations to this effect in some oases. The validity of the replies to this question is therefore in doubt* More explicit wording and a wider choice of alternstivea should have been employed in preparing the 271 question* The rtiulti received weret

Number of Schools Percentage of Offering Schools Offer­ ing, based on 19u answering

A* Raw Materials 158 81* U%

3. Glass Calculation 126 61t.9*

C. Glass Preparation 160 82.5*

s. Clay Body Composition and Preparation 13li 69.1*

Till* A question concerning the teaching of History of Ceramics was included for the purpose of determinings 1) to shat degree this phase of education in ceramic art is stressed and 2) whether or not it should be stressed in the training of thoee ceramio artists who expect to tesoh at the college level in the future*

Two hundred and eleven of r,he 221 schools offering ceramic art answered this question, as follows

Number of ochoola Percentage of Replying Schools Replying

A* Included with general history of art 97 U5.9«

B* As a special and separate course 12 5.7*

C. Not taught as such 102 ij8.it* 7TL TSttm

An error was made in not including a fourth possibility, 272

•D* As psrt of the ceramic art course or courses," Severs 1

respondents noted that the history of ceramics is briefly treated

in ceramic art lectures or laboratory. The replies do, nevertheless,

Indicate that the subject Is not given particular stress. It is

very unlikely that many - If any - schools would require a oeramio historian on the staff. Ten of the twelve respondents stating

that ceramic history Is offered as a special and separate courae

are schools offering a degree with oeramio art as a major. There

are 65 such schools, so that the 10 offering a special course in

ceramic history represent l£.it£, or approximately one-seventh of

the total.

It seems appropriate, in relation to responses received, that

undergraduate ceramic majors - particularly those who may become

future teachers at the college level - should have some grounding

in the subject. The teaching of ceramic history is undeniably

more meaningful when taurht by a ceramist than when taught by a

general art historian whose oeramio experience is limited or non­

existent.

IX* The final question of the survey oovered the ceramic art

teeohlng staff*

A* Two hundred and nineteen schools replied as to the

number teaching oeramio art. The total number of

instructors was 3U2 . These are concentrated as followi 273 153 schools have 1 instructor

U9 ** " 2 instructors

a ft 3 a N a h N

school has 5 w

* w ft m

It N 9 m

N W 10 * N If 18 n

Schools listing greater numbers of instructors ere principally colleges of education, where many students are given very short units (perhaps only a week or two) of "ceramic art" by many instructors.

B. Eighty-three (21*. 7^) of the 3l£ instructors in ceramic

art teach only that subject. These $3 are located in

60 schools.

C. The average number of half-days teaching per week is

U. 39- D. Two hundred schools responded to the average number of

students studying ceramio art each week - regardless of

the number of hours per week per student. Hie average

number was 39.3 students. 2ii schools have from 0 - 1 0 a tudenta/week studying ceramic art 7 1 ...... - 20 3 3 ...... - 30 20 * . . * • - ao 1 7 ...... - 50 9 .... - 60 6 ...... - 70 a ...... - 30 3 ...... - 90 6 ...... - 100 1 ...... - 110 1 .... . 1 ...... 1 ...... 1 ...... l...... i .... .

* Ihe larger numbers Imply vary short-term courses, principally in taachera' ooLieges.

Background of Teaching Staff* The total number of instructors whose academic standings ware riven was 332, follows

Degrees, Major in Ceramic Art

Bachelor * * . • ...... 17) ) Masters • • • ...... 72) 91 - 27.UrS ) Doctor of Philosophy* * . • 2)

Degrees, Minor in Ceramic Art

Bachelor ••••••••• 1U) ) 53 - 15.96;? Masters ...... 39) 275 E. (eon timed)

Non-Degree, but formal study Tn Ceremlc Art • • • • ...... 30 - 9.0U*

Noe-Formal Study In Ceramic Art. • • 31* - 1 0 . 21**

Degrees, not in Ceramic Art. • • • • 12U - 37.35*

On the basis of the returns, approximately two-thirds (62.65*) of those teaching ceramic art have had concentrated study in it. Of the 208 having had suoh study* 1U* (69*23*) hold degrees, 61*

(30.77*) do not. Those holding degrees but not majoring or minorlng in ceramic art hold, primarily, degrees in education.

Whether these degrees are in art education, or in primary, or in secondary education was not requested.

CONCLUSIONS

The over-all purpose of this survey was to place in per­ spective the present position of education in ceramic art at the college level. The questions and their replies have been treated individually in the foregoing pages. Although some conclusions have been drawn with regard to specific question, more-inclusive conclusions are needed.

The survey has shown that, approximately three-fourths of those schoolst 1) listed in the American Federation of Arts 1955 276

Directory u 2) granting degrees and 3) bavin? Art Department* and U) replying to the submitted questionnaire! offer ceramic art study* Of those not offering such study, three—fifths do not plan its inclusion in the foreseeable future, the remainder do so plan*

More than one-fourth, but less than one-third, of the res­ pondents offer degree-atudy in ceramic art* Almost two—thirds of the schools offer ceramic art as an elective study, and one- fifth offer it on this basis only*

Art Education Majors, preparing for teaching in elementary and secondary schools, comprise the greatest number of students not majoring in ceramic art but required to study it as part of their curricula* Crafts Majors comprise the second largest group! Sculpture Majors, thirdj and General Art Majors, fourth.

The survqy indicates that an Investigation of early activity in education in ceramic art at a number of schools would be a profitable addition to the present history* It indicates, also, the large number of schools which continue to include ceramic art in their curricula*

Almost three-fourths of the respondents maintain separate quarters far ceramic art study* this reflects the increase in plant facilities in education institutions in general and the greater stress that is being placed upon education in ceramic art as an important uhese of three-dimensional study* 277

The large number of students preparing themselves for

teaching in elementary and secondary schools Is reflected in the number of schools teachinr handbuilding as a primer. forming method*

Ceramic Sculpture takes second place| throwing» third} plaster model and mold-making, fourth} and casting, fifth*

Of those who teach ceramic art in the schools responding, a little over one-fourth hold degrees in ceramic art, but almost

two-thirds have had concentrated study in the field* The number

teaching only ceramic srt is lowt a litle less than one-fourth

do so* They teach approximately half-time (i*e*, 5 half-days per week) and each averages 35 students per week.

The results of the survey indicate an encouraging present

and future for education in ceramic art at the collere level*

Interest in it appears to continue rising* A peak of interest and

subsequent decline have not been evidenced* Hie number of colleges

and universities continuing to teach ceramic art, planning

expansion of existing courses and facilities, and planning to include

such study in the future gives promise of ever-increasing in

ceramic art study at the college level* CONCLOSIOV

The foregoing chapters have sat forth a oonaldarabla body of factual material. Tha data haa confirmed, in some instances, what haa bean regarded aa "fact" by those interested in ceramic art. It haa been said, for example, that ceramic art as it ia known today had a partial basis in the ladylike activity of china a painting. The lives of Mary Louise MaLsughlin and Adelaide Ala op

Robineau confirm this. Moreover, influences not stressed in the

past have been revealed. One such influence, for example, was

that exerted by Frederick Rhead through the American Ceramic

bociety.

Confirmation and revelation, then, have been broight about

through the historical portion of the present Investigation. Each

chapter has presented one or more fsotars which have Influenced the

character of education in ceramic art as it is currently conceived,

practiced, and taught. The data, though summarised and inter­

preted broadly at the conclusion of each chapter, may now be

viewed more pene tra tlngly.

The development of this study had its basis in three

questions proposed in the Introduction. They werei (1) How

278 279 haa education in ceramic art at the collag# level achieved ita preaent position?! (2) What la the preaent position?! and (3)

What future position nay be anticipated? Separate consideration will now be given to each of the questions.

How haa education oerasd.o art at the college level achieved ita preaent poaltlonT

Chapters One through Ten dsamatrated that education in ceramic art at the college level achieved ita present position through persons and institutions. That the particular persons and institutions Involved came forth at the times and places they did is significant. What would have been the fate of ceramic education had not Orton and Binns been men of vision and tireless energy? what would education in ceramic ert in this country have been had

Frederick Rhead established all the curricula for such atudy? What would have happened if the ceramic Industry had been complacent about its showing at Philadelphia in 1876? The entire concept of education in oeramio art might have died in infanoy.

The events which took place - and their Juxtaposition - led, instead, to an expanded interest in ceramic art and in the teaching of that art. It can not be denied that the twentieth century haa been favorable to eduoation of all types and at all levels. Yet the increase in attention given to ceramic art seems even greater than

the quickening of education in general. How, then, is this to be explained? 280

One explanation nay reat In the fact that oeranle art la

three-dimensional art. Greater recognition is being given to the

fact that the need for personal expression is met effectively by three-dimensional activities. It may be true, also, that the dual character of the art - "technical" and "artistic" - holds a strong and sustained challenge. When one individual finds that

challenge and finds personal reward in meeting it, he wants others

to share the experience. Thus it has been that potters - from

Mary 1. McLaughlin's time to that of Arthur £. Baggs and beyond - have spread, and are spreading, the art. Individuals and insti­ tutions (such as education, the press, and the American Ceramic society) have been responsible far the arrival of education in

ceramic art at its present position.

What la the present position of education in ceramic art?

The national survey of education in ceramic art at the

oollepe level presented in Chapter Eleven has provided a partial

answer to this query. It indicated that an ever-increasing number

of schools, colleges, and universities are offering study in ceramic

art. 'Die present position, according to the survey, is stronger

than ever| y*t it should not be viewed merely in terms of its magnitude. There are other factors of importance. Education in

ceramlo art may be a reall ty, but what of the quality of that

reality? 281

A quality of "service to the Individual and society* ia

of the utmost importance. Education Implies a service-orientation.

Ia "service* one of the qualities of education in aeramie art?

ihia question may be answered, at least in part, by reviewing the areas of vocational endeavor for which ceramic art educators aim

to prepare students who major in the art. These educators have frequently stated that ceramic art graduates have three possi­ bilities open to them* (1) as teachers, (2) as producing potters

in their own shops, and (3) as designers for industry.

If ceramic art educators have felt that each of these

three vocations is a possible field of endeavor for graduates, how

have the graduates actually fared? During the 1920*s and 30's many graduates turned to teaching at the secondary level. Concepts of >lph school education were changing from academicism, broadening

in character. The concept of "art education" was also broadening

to include more three-dimensional work. During the 191*0*8 ceramic art majors continued to be drawn into the teaching profession*

before ttorld bar II into high school teaching and, later, into oollege teaching. The demand for teachers at the college level has Increased as new art departments have been established and as existing departments have expanded. Stress on broader art experiences at all levels has been reflected in the greater number

of teachers needed - particularly in the three-dimensional arts. It aay be stated, then, that the Majority of ccranio art graduates who desired employment have been absorbed by the

teaching profession. Aside from the avenue taken by those who majored In ceramic art, there are many students Who, either In secondary school or college, are introduced — however briefly - e» to the subjeot. Their introduction has come about through shifts

in educational philosophy which had their beginnings in the nine­ teenth century. fthen the purely academic system had to give ground

in that century for an emphasis upon technical studies, the move was heralded as a boon to our technological society. "Trade

schools," "vocational schools," and "technical high schools" were

founded. Universities, too, were influenced. The emphasis was

found, eventually, to result in men who were too narrowly special­

ised. In later years - particularly since Viorld Aar IJ - the

system has been under criticism and adjustments are being made to

consider the "whole ran." This shift in educational policy has

meant that a greater number of students are gaining at least

limited experience in areas heretofore regarded as non-essential.

The arts are not be!nr overlooked and, as an art, ceramics is being

included in more curricula.

Education in ceramic art has the quality of service to the

individual and society in the sense that teaching - or, broadly,

education - implies that quality. Education in ceramic art has

provided teachers vfr’ose task has been not to provide more teachers

only, but to bring a number of students to the pleasurable reward 283 of expressing themselves three-dimensionally.

Cere ml o art educators have stated, second, that a graduate should be prepared to establish his own shop and produce unique wares for sale, should he desire to do so. Has this been done, and can such activity be claimed to be helpful to the individual or to society? bone graduates hav become individual potters, producing for sale in their one-man shops. The period during and since world War II has been a good period, economically, for such ventures. Depending upon the inclination of the individual, the shop has frequently expended and become a small factory, tducation

In ceramic art has made it possible for the individual potters to go into business for themselves. Thus, the training is not without benefit to the persons participating, furthermore - and perhaps more important - in those oases where the individual potter has expended hia business, the wares produced are better designed than those oi'lered by the very large, commercial concerns. The lstter, to their credit, hove not failed to note this fact and to take advantage of details, such as textursd bodies and glazes, freer surface patterns, and the like.

If all this activity has resulted from education in ceramic art - if items produced by individual or industrial potters have improved and if consumers themselves are more alert and demanding - then it may be asserted that education in ceramic art has been of service to the society. Ceramic art educators have stated, third, that graduates may become designers for "the industry," which ia to asy that graduate designers may be taken into specific firms as full-time designers.

Education in ceramic art placed particular stress upon the training of "artists for Industry" in the 1930's. Die emphasis may be seen as a culmination of the opinions expressed by Frederick Rhead and other men of industry before the Art Division of the American

Ceramic Society during the 1920'a. Curricula in ceramic art at both the New York State College of Ceramics at Alfred University and The Ohio State University included studies of decorative techniques and processes used in the whitewarea industry. An understanding of these was thought indispensable to designing

intelligently for the industry.

Emphasis In the schools upon industrial means mid methods did not have the effect anticipated. Ceramic designers who had been trained in the schools were not absorbed by industry. This fact, however, can not be blamed upon the schools and their curricula. It is, rather, a result of two factors. First, the majority of graduates were drawn into the teaching profession because of the steady expansion previously noted. Second, the industry found it more advantageous either to move their own workmen up from the shops to the design office or to employ free­ lance "industrial" dealgners of national reputation. In the first oase, workmen from the factories who are promoted to designers know what the plants can do, they are more or less content with the 265 type of were currently produoed, and they do not present "unworkable11

Ideas to the management. In the second case, the name of a nationaxly-known designer ia of importance to the industry as a sales item. Each increase in competition means sn Increase in advertising! "name" designers can sell products.

Despite the sohism between the schools whloh seek to educate ceramic designers and the Industry, there have, of course, been some ceramic artists who have gone from the schools to the industry.

In the sense that these people influence the design of mass- produced wares far the better, education in ceramic art continues, thereby, to have a quality of service to the society.

Education In ceramic art is, then, maintaining a service- orientetion by providing teachers, b;< encouraging small-shop pro­ duction of good design, and by providing the Indus try with some inspiration - either through graduates actually employed or through the character of individually-designed wares.

The foregoing consideration of the quality of eduoatlon in ceramic art was undertaken in an effort to ascertain the present position of sutdi education. That position, as pointed out by

Chapter Eleven and the foregoing, is one of increasing importance.

Education in ceramic art is offering a greater number of students at all levels three-dimensional experience in a challenging medium. It is not without effect on both individually- and mass- produced ceramics. 286

D w present position, seemingly valid fran many points or view, in not without its detractors. As with many an "activity"

or "art study," osrsmio art has been attacked as an expensive

luxury9 completely unnecessary in our educational system. It is

true that the equipment and materials required for a ceramic studio are expensive — but it is Just as true that equipment and

materials fcr a medical school are expensive. Does this deter the

teaching of medicine? Psychologists continue to add to our fund

of knowledge concerning man's needs. Their findings Indicate

that psychological needs are as real ar.d as preaent as our physical needs. One such psychological need is c need for self—expression.

Ihis may take many forms and it is not surprising that many find

their media to be ceramic art. This fact alone seems an adequate

Justification for the present position.

hhat future position may be anticipated for educetlon in ceramic art at the college level?

Although it is not possible to predict what the future will

hold, a suggestion of some possibilities for education in ceramic

art is not amiss. That the future of education In ceramic art will

be tied to economic, psychological and sociological developments

is assured. If the economic level remains high, consumption will

increase. This will be favorable to potters, both individual and

Industrial, and, henoe, to education in ceramic art. There may be, 287

under such circumstance*, a possibility that sons ceramic fins nill establish a research center comparable to that recently opened

in Detroit by General Motors* If this were true, and the number

of ceramic art graduates increased beyond the demand for tesohers,

a oloser alliance between the schools and industry might corns about*

It such a center ceramic designers would be free to experiment with

the material and the sponsor would be free to Utilise any designs

in which he found possibilities for mass-production*

If the economic level should drop, retrenchment in both

schools and industry would be inevitable. The arts are particularly

susceptible to de-emjhasls in such periods, although the validity

of de-emphasis in the future will come under closer scrutiny because

of our greater understanding of man's needs and drives. Psycho­

logical and sociological discoveries, in the future, may be expected

to provide such understanding.

what has been learned thus far about the psyohologioal need

fcr self-expression, for example, indicates that avenues for such

expression will become more - not less - important in education*

tohat sociologists have determined about dissatisfaction with

routine jobs, for example, also carries implications for education.

Ifesks wrloh do not call upon the full capabilities of an individual

may become even more routine with automation* further studies

related to the problems of leisure time will be encouraged*

Education in ceramio art will be influenced by each of the

three realms - economic, psychological, and sociological - as these 288 interact* In the light of anticipated developments within and among theae realms, as 3uat discussed, will the stated alas of ceraadLc art educators remain valid? It appears that the training of ceramic artists, at the collage level, as teachers, studio potters, or desirners for industry will not only remain valid hut will become increasingly important.

Some graduates will continue to become studio pottersj others will design for industryf but it ia In the field of teaching that the future seems to show the most demand for ceramic artists. The type of education with which these graduates will be concerned, however, will not be principally that of the public schools - or even the colleges - but in tbs increasing number of leisure-time programs which will be established as the working day is decreased in length.

There are some ceramic educators who believe that teachers for recreational or non-formal programs do not need the technical or design backfround deemed necessary for teachers in more formal programs. A little knowledge of prepared clays and places for low- tempersture work and the name of a kiln manufacturer is considered sufficient. Conclusions of this oharaoter are fallacious In several respects, however. First, teachers in programs of this type deal with students who have widely varying backgrounds of technical experience. Second, it is they, particularly, who are

In a position to broaden the public's concept of the art. Thus, 289 the need in the recreational or non-forma1 program ia for teaohera who have a depth of understand!ng sufficient to brine to their teaching a quality beyond mere therapy or aimless activity*

The future ia bright elth promise for an increasing interest in oeraaio art* The interest will manifest Itself not only in education at all levels but In the activities of a growing number of laymen* As interest widens, knowledge and understanding should deepen. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing only when it is taken to be the end of all knowing* APPENDIX A

RECIPIENTS OF THE CHARLES FERGUS BINNS MEDAL

1926 - Marlon L. Foadick 191*2 - H. Varnum Poor

1927 - Arthur E. Bagga 191*3 - ) ) Not presented, 1928 - Frank G. Holmes 19U* ~ ) restrictions on ) bronze 1929 - Stanley G. Burt 191*5 - )

1930 - Myrtle French 191*6 - Ton Schreckengoat

1931 - R. 0. Cowan 191*7 - Mary Chase Stratton

1932 - A. F. Hottinger 191*8 - Edward Winter

1933 - Frederlok Carder 191*9 - Glen Lukene

1931* - r. H. Rhead 1950 - Bernard Leach

1935 - Leon Solon 1951 - Margaret Cable

1936 - Carl Walters 1952 - Paul Cox

1937 - Charles Harder 1953 - halter A. Weldon

1936 - Viktor schreckengost 1951* - Paul Bogatay

1939 - Wayland Gregory 1955 - C. Katherine Nelson

191*0 - None 1956 Clarence •*. uerritt

191*1 Harold Nash

290 APPENDIX B

A CHRONOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PUBLISHED WRITINGS OF

CHARLKS FERGUS 3INNS

Books

(1) Ceramic Technology (ed.). Londons Soott# Greenwood and Company, IS97* 2nd ed.# I698% 3rd ad., 1901*

(2) The Story of the Potter# being a Popular Account of the Rise and Prop re a a 0/ the Principal Manufactujrea of Pot­ tery In all Parts of the World# with Some Description on M o d e m Practical Potting. London: George Newnea, Ltd.# 1898*

(3) "Notes on the Use of American Clays for Porcelain and Ores#1* in Grand Feu Ceramics# by Taxile Dost. The preface to the work is also by Binns. Syracuse! Keramik Publishing Company, 190$. (These "Notes'* originally appeared in Keramik Studio# 1903-U).

(It) The Potter's Craft, A Practical Guide for the Studio and Workshop. New Yorks D. Van Nostrand Company# 1911. 2nd ed., 1922; 3rd ed.# 19^7.

Periodicals

(1) "The Use of Equivalent heights in Ceramic Compositions," Transactions of the American Ceramic Society# I (1899), 7-lb.

(2) "Monosllieate Glaaes," Ibid.# II (1900)# 151-60.

(3) "Report of Committee on Equivalent weights," Ibid., 196.

291 292

(i«) "Opportunities for Research in a Factory," Transaction! of the Aaerican Ceramic Society, IV (1902), 82-5.

(5) "The Progress of Ceramic Art," Ibid,, 20-U.

(6) "The Development of the 'Mat' QIaae," Ibid,, V (1903), 50-3*

(7) "The Grinding of Flint and Spar," Ibid,, 231-2,

(8) "Improvements in Apparatus for Clay Analysis," with £• S, Babcock, Ibid., 355*

(9) "Education in Clay," The Craftsman, IV (June, 1903)* 160-8.

(10) "Building in Cla; ," Ibid., 303-5.

(11) "Clay in the Potter's Hand," Ibid., VI (May, 190U), 162-8.

(12) "Hie Future of Ceramics in America," Ibid., VII (February, 1905), 563-6.

(13) "Lessons from the St. Louis Exposition," Transactions of the American Ceramic society, VII (1905), 1*7-53.

(1L) "The Art of the Firt," The Craftsman, VIII (May, 1905), 205-10.

(15) "Notes on the Rational Analysis," Transactions of the American Ceramic Society. VIII (1906), 198-7397

(16) "Craft of the Potter," The Craftsman, IX (March, 1906), 35U-6. a (17) "Sulphur and Sulphates," The Clay Y.orker, XLVII (January, 1907), 76-7.

(18) "Tiles, Decorative and Sculptural," Architectural Record, 1*11 (July, 1907), 72-8.

(19) "The Possibilities of Clay," International studio, XXXII (August, 1907), 75-81 (sup.).

(20) "The Arts and Crafts Movement in Americat Prise Essay," The Craftsman. XIV (June, 1908), 275-9.

(21) "The Function of Boron in the Glase rornula," Transactions of the An* rloan Ceramic Society, X (1908), 158-7U. 293 (22) "A Flea for Bone China," Transactions of tha toaioan Ctrulo Society. XII (19l0),

(23) "Tha Behavior of Oranular Limestone in Burned Clay," with Marla A. Coati, Ibid., XIV (1912), 218-26,

(21*) "Tha Nomenclature of Clay," Ibid,, 815-21,

(2$) "Diacoloration on Brick," Brick and Clay Raoord. XL (February 15, 1912), 186| (May 1, 1912), 1*15* (Reprinted in Brick and Pottery TTadea Journal, XX (May 1, 1912), 2271 (September z, 1*13*

(26) "A Kota on Rational Analyala and Olaza Fit," Transactions of tha American Cara ado aociety, XV (1913), 177-83*

(27) "Efflorescence and Hoar To Stop It," Brick and Clay Record, XLIII (November 18, 1913), 1017-8*

(28) "Reply to J, C, Boss," (Scumming and efflorescence) Ibid., XLIV (February 3, 1911*), 370.

(29) "Scum ^noe More," Ibid.. (May 5, 1911*), 101*9-50.

(30) "A Comparison of some Kaolins in Kespeot to Grain Size," Transactions of the Amerioan Ceramic Society, XVII (1915), 356-7T7

(31) "Pottery in America," Amsrican Magazine of Art, VII (1916), 131-8.

(32) "The Production of China from Domestic Materials," with Oeorce Blumenthal, Transactions of the American Ceraado Society. XVIII (1916), 619-91.

(33) "Efflorescence and Hoar To stop It," Brick and Cla\ Record, L (November 27, 1917), 659-61.

(31*) "Vermillion Color from Uranium," with Frobisher Iyttle, Journal of the American Ceraado Society, III (November, 19'gQT, 9T3-TT.------(35) "Low Fire Porcelain,” with T. Burdick, Ioid., V (January, 1922), 25-7*

(36) "New York State School of Clay ftorklng and Ceramics," Ibid., VI (January, 1933), 90-3* 29U

(37) "Ih« Art of Manufacture and tha Manufacture of Art,* Bullatin of the American Coraaic society, IT (April, i9zJJ, 5$=?.

(38) "E Conoreaatlone Confinaatio," Bulletin of the Aaerican Ceraeio Society. IV (July, 192$;,

(39) "A Chromlua Red Glaae," with K. Craig, Journal of the Aaarioan Ceraaiic aoclttyt X (February, 19Z7}, 73-U*

(1*0) "Colored Bodiea," with H. E« Gardner, Ibid., 75-6.

(1*1) "The Oeneala of the Greek Blaok Glaae," with A. E. Fraaer, American Journal of Archeology. XXXIII aeoond aerlea, (1^29), 1-77

(1*2) "Experiment in Egyptian Blue Glaae," with XI e* and Uott, Journal of the American Cera ado Society. XV (May, 1932), 271-2.” APPENDIX C

AWARD WINNERS« CERAMIC NATIONALS

Second Annual - Spring. 1933

Arthur E. Baggs, Columbus, 0., First Prise for Pottery Wayland Gregory, Bloomfield Hills, Mich., First Prise for Ceramic Sculpture

Third Annual - spring. 19 3U

Edgar Littlefield, Columbus, 0., First - Pottery Russell B. Altken, Cleveland, 0., First - Sculpture

Fourth National - Fall. 193$

Edgar Littlefield, Columbus, 0., First - Pottery Arthur E. Baggs, Columbus, 0., Second - Pottery Charles Harder, Alfred, N. Y., Third - Pottery Paul Bogatay, Columbus, 0., First - Ceramio Sculpture

Fifth National - Fall. 1936

Glen Lukens, Los Angeles, Cal., First - Pottery liai,1a Grotell, Nee York, N. Y., Second - Pottery Paul Bogatay, Columbus, 0., First - Sculpture

Sixth National - Fall, 1937

Roger Corsaw, Norman, Okla., First - Pottery Richard V. -'mith, Skaneateles, N. Y., Second - Pottery Aloys Sacks teder, Sandusky, 0., Third - Pottery Nathilde Parmelee, Greenwich, ^onn., First - Sculpture Ruth Rands 11, Syracuse, N. jf. ) F. Jean Thalinger, Cincinnati, 0. ) Second - Sculpture H. Edward Winter, Cleveland, 0., Special Award, Enamels

Seventh National - Fall, 1938

Arthur E. Baggs, Columbus, 0., First - Pottery Herbert Sanders, Sen Jose, Cal., Second - Pottery 295 296

Edgar Littlefield, Columbia, O. ) Qian Lukens, Loa Angelas, Cal. ) lhipd ' P o tte ry Viktor ScKreokengost, Cleveland, 0., First - Sculpture Carl L. Schwits, New York, N. Y., Second — Sculpture Thelma Frasier, Cleveland, 0., Third — Sculpture Russell 3. Aitken, New York, N. Y. ) 1_ H. Edward to In ter, Cleveland, 0. ) tlrst "

Eighth National - Oct. 1 through 30. 1939 (Since 1938, awards have not be^n desTgnated as "First, " "Second," etc.)

Pottery Karl Drerup, Rockville Center, N. Y. Gertrud and Otto »atxler, Los Angeles, Cal. Henry Varnum Poor, New York, N. Y. Harold K. Kieg er, Perry, N. Y.

Sculpture Sascha Brastoff, New York, N. Y. Thelma Frasier, Cleveland, 0. David fl. seyler, Cincinnati, 0.

Ninth National - Oct. 13 through Nov. 191*0

Pottery Paul Bogatay, Columbus, 0. Warion L. Fosdick, Alfred, N. Y. Gertrud and Otto Nataler, Los A-igeles, Cal. v.inifred Phillips, nauwatosa, Ais. ) Edwin and M . r y icheier, Durham, N. H. ) n l v W e d *M r d

Sculpture Pe tor Ganine, Hollywood, Cal. Adolf Odorfer, Fresno, Cal.

Enamels Edward Winter, Cleveland, 0.

Tenth National - Oct. 19 through Nov. 16, 191*1 (Entitled "Contemporary Ceramics of the Liestern I^emis >here," work from soNinm and c e n t r a l , as veil as northern America were lnoluded)

Potterj_ :rueita T. Cruz, Albuquerque, N. M. Thomas S. Haile, Alfred, N. Y. Gertrud and Otto Natzler, Los Angeles, Cal. 297

Edwin and Mary Scheier, Durham, N. H. Don Schreckengost, Alfred, N. Y.

Sculpture Lyman s. Carpenter, Chicago, 111. Bernard E* Frasier, Lawrence, Kan. ■. H. swallow, Allentown, Pe. Vally Wieselthier, New York, N. Y.

Ena male Karl Drerup, Rockville Center, N. Y. Ruth Raemlaoh, Providence, Ft. I.

Eleventh Natlonal - Fall, 19U6

Pottery Laura F. Andreaon, Los Angeles, Cal. Paul Bogatay, Columbus, 0. Sandro 0iefnpietro, Cumninf ton, Mesa. Maija Grotell, Bloomfield Hills, Mich. Gertrud and Otto Natsler, Loa Angeles, Cal. Henry Varnum Poor, New York, N. Y.

Sculpture William W. Swallow, Allentown, Pa. (2 awarda) Carl Walters, Woodstock, N. Y.

Enamels Kenneth F. Bates, Euclid, C. Edward Winter, Cleveland, 0.

Twelfth National - Fell, 19U7

Pottery Rachel Buegeleisen, Detroit, Mich. Murray Douglas, Bloomfield Hills, Mich. Marion Foedick, Alfred, N. Y. Irene Kolodsie.1, Columbia, Mo. Wayne Lonr, Whittier, Cel. Christine Miller, Berea, Ky. Minnie Negoro, Alfred, N. Y. ) Glidden Parker, Alfred, N. Y. ) Divided Eileen and Rossi Reynolds, Sen Francisco, Cal.) Award Edward and Mary Scheie-, Durham, N. H. ) Mary F. Setterly, Toronto, Canada Viktor Schreckengost, Cleveland, 0. Sculpture n t ^ Border, Baltimore, Md. Winslow B. Eaves, Utica, N. Y. Nancy V. Leitoh, Pittsburgh, Pa. Thorns McClure, Alfred, N. Y. Adolph Odorfer, Fresno, Cal. Miguel oopo, Syraouae, N. Y.

Enamels Karl Drerup, Compton, N. H. Charles Jeffery, Cleveland, 0. Lisel Salzer, Near York, N. Y.

Thirteenth National - Fall. 191*6

Pottery bascha Brastoff, Los Angeles, Cal. Margaret Jipp, Oakland, Cal. Thomas McClure, Norman, Okla. Harold Riegger, Mill Va JLey, Cal. Randolph Webb, Alfred, Y. Nancy Wickham, New York, N. Y. Donald hood, Columbus, 0.

Sculpture Alexander Archipenko, New York, N. Y. Netty Davenport Ford, Birmingham, Mich. Bernard Frasier, Tblsa, Okla. wayne Lonr, ahittier, Cal. Henry Rox, oouth Hadley, Maas. Viktor Schreckengost, Cleveland, 0. Egon Weiner, Chicago, 111.

Enamels Doris Hall, Lakewood, 0. Michael Nstko, Chardon, 0.

Fourteenth National - Fall, 19h?

Pottery Mai,1a Orotell, Bloomfield Hills, Mich. John s. Howald, Columbus, 0. Charles Mosgo, Cleveland, 0. Edwin Scheier, Durham, N. H. Glidden Parker, Alfred, N. Y. , . Mary Scheier, Durham, N. H. ) Award David weinrib, Stroudsburg, Pa. Sculpture Paul Bogstay, Columbus, 0* Mer Carter, CMoago, 111* Bruno Uankowskl, New York, N. Y. Cerl Schmitz, New York, N. Y. k. k. Swallow, Allentown, Pa* Thelma F* kinter, Cleveland, 0*

Enamels Arthur Ames, Claremont, Cal* Jackson kooley, La Jolla, Cal*

Fifteenth National - Fall, 1950

Pottery Vfhltney Atchley, San Francisco, Cal. Charles Lekofaky, Bawling Green, 0. Folia Pillln, sun Valley, Cal. Antonio Prieto, Oakland, Cal* Lee Rosen, New York, N. Y* Viktor Schreckengost, Cleveland, 0* Donald Siegfried, San Francisco, Cal* Peter Voulkoa, Bozeman, Mont.

Sculpture Betty D. Ford, Ontario, Cal. Lois Mahler, Baton Rouge, La* Thomas McClure, Ann Arbor, Mi oh* i.illiam McVey, Bloomfield HilJs, Mich* Adolf Odorfer, Fresno, Cal. Henry Rox, South Hadley, Uass.

Enamels Karl Drerup, Compton, N* H.

Sixteenth National - Fa .1* 1951

Pottery David Gil, Bennington, Vt* Paul Holleman, Arlington, Mass* Karen Karnes, Alfred, N* Y* Less McVey, Bloomfield Hills, Uich* Charles Nosgo, Cleveland, 0* Stephen Polohert, Milwaukee, nis. li* Pur kiss, Fullerton, Cal. Edwin Scheier, Durham, N. H. Robert Turner, Alfred Station, N. Y* Peter Voulkoa, Helena, Mont* Sculpture tiflillam McVey, Bloomfield Hills, Mich. John Cavanaugh, Columbus, 0. Adolph Odorfer, Fresno, Cel,

Enamels Arthur Ames, Cla reaont, Cel, Jean Amea, Claremont, Cel,

Seventeenth National - Fall, 1952

Pottery Fong Chow, Alfred, N. Y. Elisabeth B, Greene, West Warwick, ft. I, Charles Lakofsky, Bowling Green, 0, Elizabeth Meaner, Rochester, N. Y, Elena M. Netherby, Bloomfield Hills, Mich, ) Divided Stephen Polchert, Oakland, Cal, ) Award Philip Secrest, Alfred, N, Y, Theodore Randall, riel lsvl lie, N. Y.

Sculpture Anne Chapman, Cleveland, 0, Betty W« Feves, Pendleton, Ore, Betty D, Ford, Ontario, Cal, George Stark, Holland, N, Y, «», W Swallow, Allentown, Pa,

Enamels Elisabeth kadley, Pasadena, Cal, Llsel salzer, Seattle, Wash, H. Edward winter, Cleveland, 0,

Eighteenth National - Fall, 195U (First Biennial)

Pottery Nancy Wickham Boyd, Woodstock, Vt, Walter and Mary Kring, Worcester, Mass. Hui Ka Kwoi*, New York, N. Y, Harvey Littleton, Verona, Wis, Robert Uelnhardt, Sturbridpe, Mass, H, Varnum Poor, New York, U, Y, Robert Ttirner, Alfred Station, N. Y. Jayne Van Alstyne, Rozeman, Mont, Pater Voulkoa, Los Angeles, Cal, Dean Strawn, Los Angeles, Cal, Sculpture Betty *• Fevea, Pendleton, Ore. ttayne Long, Los Angeles, Cal. John Risley, New York, N. X* Viktor Sohreckengoat, Cleveland, 0. - also special award, Architectural Sculpture

Enamels Arthur Ames, Claremont, Cal. Raymond Yoehida, Chicago, 111. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Chapter 2

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Chapter 3

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Fryatt, Mias F. £. "Pottary In tha Unitad States," Harper 'a. LXII (February, 1881), 357-69.

Hunt, Robert, "Tha Chemistry of Pottery - Clay*" Art Journal (London), XII (August, 1850), 237-8.

• "Tha Chemistry of Pottary - Earthenware." Ibid.. (TKftober, 1850), 313-5.

Langenbeok, Karl. "Chemical ConsideratIona of tha Pottary Industry in tha United Status,” American Chasdoal Soelaty Journal, XV (November, 1893), 651-51 (December, 1893), 6y5-7r03.

. "Tha Chaniatry of tha Pottary Industry,” Journal of tha Franklin Institute, CXLIII (May, 1897), 321-37.

La Prlnoa, Marla. "History of tha Haw York Soelaty of Ceraalo Arts,” Bullatin of the American Caraale Society, XIX (January, l?ii£j, U^-6 .

Longfellow. Henry A. "Karamoa,” Harper's, LVI (Peoeaber, 1877), 65-78. ------

"A Lost Art in Porcelain," Art Journal (London), XII (March, 1850), 95.

Luokhurst, Kenneth h. Tha Story of Exhibitions. Londoni Studio Publications, 1951.

Mailstt, J. W. "Brief Review of the Most Important Changas in Indus trial Applications of Chemistry within the Last Few Years," American Chemical Journal, II (April, 1880), 66-7.

Mourey, Gabriel. "Tha Potter's Art; with Espeoial Reference to tha ftork of August Delaherohe," Studio (London), XII (Noveaber, 1097), 112-8.

"A Maw Portable Gas Kiln,” Tha Art Amateur, X\ (March, 1888), 60.

Pella tt, M. P. "Essay on Pottary and tha Flo tils Art - Historically, Chemically and Practically Considered,” Art Journal (London), VI new series (February, 1851*), 33-7.

"Precious Pottary," The Spectator (London), LVII (June 21, 188L), 811*—6 .

Preston, Thoaas B. "Potters and Their Craft," Chautauquan, XIV (November, 1891), 171-5. 307 Riordan, R. "A Collection of Chlneee Poroelalne," Harper*a, LXX (April, l eS5), 679-86.

Sargent, Irene. "Pottero and Thoir Produota," Craftoman, 17 (Juno, 1903), 11*9-160.

______• "so*# Pottara and Thoir Producte," Ibid.. (July, 1903), 51*8=57. "Secrete in Pottery," Journal of tha Franklin Inat ituta, XII, now aarias (July, 1b 33)»^9-61| 1ZB-32.

Sikea, A. "Dutch Falanoa," Harper1a, L7II (Juna, 1878), 15-29. bnively, John H. "Tha Caramio Art," Appleton1 a Journal, X (October 11, 1073), l*61*-6$ (October lb, 1*96-8 j (November 1, 1873), 559-62.

"Tha Story of a Common China Plata,” Littall'a Living Ago, XXV (May 1*, 1850), 209-13.

Sturgia, Auaeell and Krahbial, H. Bibllopraphy of Fine Art. Boatont American Library Association, lo977

"Tachnical Prooaaaaa, Henry II Kara," American Art Raviaw, I (January-Deoember, 1880), 75-00.

Tilton, Stephen billia. Deaigna and Instruotiona for Daoorating Pottary. Boatorn S. a. Tilton and Company, 1877.

Walton, «iUianu "Charlaa Volkmar, Potter," International Studio. XIVI (January, 1909 aup.), LXV-iJtxxT.

Vrheatley, Hanry B. A Handbook of Art Induetriaa in Pottary and tha Pracioua Me tala. loniSotu Sampaon, LowT^Ma r a ton, dearie and Rivington, 1886.

Young, Jannia J. "Caramio Art at tha Exhibition," Lippincotfa, XVIII (Deoember, 1676), 701-16.

. Tha Caramio Art. Naw York* Harper and Brothera, 1878.

______• "Tha Caramio Art in America," Atlantic Monthly, XLIV (November, 1879), 588-98.

. "Pottery, Old and Naw," Contemporery Review, XLV (February, 189L), 190-209. Chapter

Avery, C. Louise* "Bowl by C* F* Binns,” Bulletin of the Metro­ politan Museum of Art* XXX (October* lyjbj, 198-707

• "A Memorial Exhibition of the rtork of Charles F* 5IKne," Ibid.* (Msy* 1935)* 106-8 .

"Binns Awarded Honorary Degree*" Bulletin of the Afrl flW Society. IV (July, 1925), 336-9*

"Binns Memorial Service," Bulletin of the Afftrf ffP Ceramio Society. XIV (July, 1935), 261.

"Binns* Lectures at the Metropolitan," Bulletin of the American Ceramio 5S2ltiK» IV ( Deo ember * 192** J , 7C9 •

Binns* Norah. "Charles F. Binns," Journal of the AMCAfilfi Ceramic Society. VI (January* 19^3), 23-6*

"Chrrles *. Binns," Design. XXXIX (November, 1937), 35.

"Charles *. Binns," Desirn. XXXVI (January, 1935), 16-7.

"Charles Fergus Binns," Bul3e tin of the American Ceramic Society. XIV (January, 1935), 26-5.

"In Recognition," Journal qL Itbfi American gxrgjflff PSQlaXff* V (April, 192?, Part IT>, 16 .

McMahon, J. F. "Charles Fergus Binns," Bullatin of the American Ceramic Society. XVII (April, 1938), 176-6.

Montgomery, E. T. "Recent Developments and Improvements at the New York State School of Clay ftorking and Ceramics," XfrapiicttPM fit Aha Aatrlonn Ctrxalfi 3b s 1s & , x v i (February, 1916), 371-81.

Norwood, J. Nelson. Fifty Yaara Cara ml« JMfclCBllfltt. Alfred, New Yorkt Alfred University, 1950. "Paul L. Cox, Master Potter," Ceramic Age. XLIV (December* 1969), 398-9.

* Exclusive of the published works of Charles F. Binns, whic) are listed in a chronological bibliography in Appendix "B", page 2' 309

Preston, Thomas, "Potters and Thalr Crafti" Chautauquan, XIV (November, 1891), 171-5.

"Richard "illiam Binns," Craftsman, VIII (April, 190$), 78-01*.

"School of Industrial Art, Trenton," Journal of tha Aaarioan Caramio Soolety. IV (January, 1923), ll|E

"Tribute to Booths C. Davis," Bulletin of tha Amerloan Ceramic Society, XII (June, 1933)# i61-3.

Chapter 6

Armstrong, Irena, "Pottary Taught in a Practical Workshop," School Arts, XXIX (October, 1929), 77-30,

Bargangran, Ralph, "A Master Potter of Thoughts," House Beautiful. XXXVII (May, 1915), 179-01.

Chard, Louisa, "A Sculptor as Potter," Craftsman. Ill (January, 1903), 2l*l*-6.

Cret, Paul, "A Comparative Study of the Sevres Method," Craftsman. VI (July, 1901*), 355-60.

Crowley, Lillian H. "It*s Now tha Potter's ftim," International Studio. LXXV (September, 1922), 539-US.

Da Kay, Charles, "Art frcm the Kilns," Munsey's. XXVI (October, 1901), 1*6-53.

Deubner, L. "Modern merman Ceramic Art," International Studio. LIII (September, 1911*), 105-201,

"The Frackleton 'Blue and Gray'," Craftsman. Ill (January, 1903), 255-6.

"Glen Tor Pottery* Che Aomen's Contribution to Practical Beauty," Craftsman, XXVIII (July, 1915), i*2i*-6.

Joor, Harriet, "Pottery-Making without a wheels Designs," Craftsman. XIX (November, 1910), 20i*-6,

j 310

Manning, Alloa* "Home-made Pottery,” Good Housekeeping, LI (October, 1910), 1*57-61.

"The Overbeck Pottery,” Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, X'lII (May, 191*1*), 15

"The Paul Revere Pottery,” Craftsman, XXV (November, 1913)* 205-7.

"The Paul Revere Pottery,” House Beautiful, LI (January, 1922), 50f*

Plumb, Helen* "The Pewabio Pottery,” Magasine of Art, II (January, 1911), 63-6*

"The Potters of Americat Examples of the Best Craftsmens ftork,” Craftsman, XXVII (December, 1911*), 295-303*

"The Potters of Americat Craftsmen's tfork for Garden Decoration,” Ibid., (January, 1915), 377-65.

"A Revival of Stoneware,” Craftsman, XXIV (September, 1913), 61*3-5.

Robinson, G. T. "Fictiles," Arts and Crafts Essays, 3rd ed. London* Longmans, Green and Company, 1903.

Ruge, Clara. "American Ceramics,” International Studio, XXVIII (March, 1906 sup.), XXI-XXVIli:

Sargent, Irene. "A Recent Arts and Crafts Exhibition," Craftsman, IV (May, 1903), 69-83.

. "Chinese Pots and Modern Faience," Ibid., (September, 1953), 1*15- 25 .

Shugio, G* "Ceramic Artists," International Studio, XLI (October, 1910), 286-93.

Stratton, Mary Chase. "Pewabio Records,” Bulletin of the American Ceramic «>ociety. X vV (October, 191*6), 3&b-5.

Sturgis, Russell. The Artist*e ftay of horklng in the Various Handcrafts and Aria of besign. 2 Vols.7 T7ew"York* bodd, Mead and Company, 19T5•

• "American Pottery." Soribner's, XXXII (November, 195?), 637-1*0. Wright, L. "Girl*' Club Establishes Potter;," Art world, II (September, 1917), 57*-9.

Zueblin, Rho Fisk. "The Arts end Crafts Moveraent," Chautauouan, XXVI (October, 1902), 57-61j (November, 1902), 167-731 (Deoember, 1902), 281*-8j (January,1903), 1*09-11*) (February, 1903), 506-13) (Uaroh. 1903), 622-7) XXXVII (April, 1903), 59-66) (May, 1903), 172-7) (June, 1903), 266-72.

Chapter 2

Andrews, A. I. "Departments of Ceramio Education and Their Work at the Present Time," Bulletin of the American Ceramio ooclety. X.VII (Deoember, 19l£), l*H9=9i:

"American Ceramic Art Symposium," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, V (January, 1926), 2?-U2.

"Art Division Name Changed to Division of Desirn," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XXII (August, 191*3), 271.

"An Art Division," Journal of the American Ceramic Society, TTI (April, 1920), 263-U.

"The Art Division," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, I (June, 1922), 29-3(5.

Bach, Richard E. "Art in Industry," bulletin of the American Ceramic society, ITI (August, 19^1*), 77-85.

Barrs, Arthur E. and Fosdick, ti. "Design Problems of the Dinner- ware Industry," Journal of the American Ceramio society, XII (May, 1930, Part IT), 11^?1*.

Barringer, Lawrenoe fc. "Introduction to Symposium Ceramic Art and Education," Bulls tin of the American Ceramio society, XT (January, 1936), i-Z.

Blake, Edwin LI. "The Art Division of the American Ceramic Society, Art Bulletin, VI (September, 1923), 17-9.

Cable, Margaret K. "The Development of Ceramic fork at the Univer* of North Dakota," Journal of the American Ceramic Society, V (March, 1922), lEST^ "Caramio Decorative Processes Diriaion," Journal of the American Caramio Society, IV (January, 1921), 5.

"A Caramio Uuaaum," Journal of tha American Caramio Society, IT (September, 1919), tab,

"Complete Proceedings of the Art Division Meeting, 1930," Journal of the Amerloan Ceramio Society, XIII (May, 1930, Part II, published extra and separate)

Cowan, ft, Ouy. "Art, Industry, and Education in Ceramics," Bulletin of the Amerloan Ceramic Society, XV (January, 1936), 5 = 1 T. ------

Cox, Paul, "American Cermnics for Interior Deooratlng," Bulletin of the American Ceramio Society, IV (September, 1925),

Curtis, E, deforest, "The Art Division," Bulletin cf the American Ceramic Society, VIT (Uaroh, 1928), 1*5-9,

, "Ceramic Art and the Ceramic Artist," Ibid,, V (January, 1926), U2-1*.

» "The Course in Pottery at the Pennsylvania Museum School of Industrial Art," Journal of the Amerloan Ceramic society, VITI (March, 1925)7335=1*2,

, "The Role of Art in Industrial Ceramics," Ibid., XITI (Hay, 1930, Part II), 7-11.

, "sill Surpass SunpT," Art Digest, VII (January, 1933) 557“

"Design Division Program," Bulletin of the American Ceramio societ; XXXIII (April, 195U), 15-17.

Ellis, J, Bailey, "Training of Artists for Industry," Bulletin of the American Ceramio Society, II (August, 1923), 21*9-51.

Enthof, Edward A. "Problems of Designing for Industry," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XVIII (December, 19^9), 559=55,

"Forward Steps In Ceramic Education," Bulletin of the American Ceramio oooiety, V (February, 19^6), £1-3. I 313

Fosdiok, Marion L. * BibliographyJournal of tha Amerioan Caramio Society, XIII (May, 1930# Fart ![I), 59^56T

French, Myrtle M. "Art Pottary#" Journal of tha Amarioan Caramio Society. XIII (Hay# 1930, Part It), 3 V T T "

Halle, T. s, "English and Amerloan Caramio Daalrn Problems," Bulletin of tha Amarioan Caramio Society, XXI (December. 191*2) 317-20.

Hill, Charles A. "Opinions of a Factory Han on Ceramio Education#" Bulletin of the American Ceramic society. v (January# 1926), 7—10.

Holmes, U. E. "Ceramio Art Education in the Colleras." Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XV (January# 1936} 2-1*.

Jeffrey# J. A. "Coordinating Research and Technical Information wit Plant Control," Bulletin of the American Ceramio Society. Ill (Hay, 1921*), 1 1 0 ^ 5 7

Koenig, P. J. H. "Art and the Itenafacturor," Bulletin of the American Ceramio Society. V (September, 1926), 363-5*

Lenchner, Theodore. "Glass Decorator's Palette and Its Pre­ paration," Journal of toe American Ceramic Society. VI (October, 19$3)#’ 10l*G.

Magonigle, H. "A Potter and His ..ork - Leon v. ^olon," Archi­ tectural Record. XLV (April, 1919), 303-10.

Matson, r. n. "Technological Ceramic studies," Co lege Art Journal. I (January, 191*2), 25-B.

Mueller, Herman C. "The Relation between the Artist and the Chemist in Ceramic I.ianufacture," Transactions of the American Ceramic Society. XIIT (Februer*, 1911), 97-101.

"Mueller, Herman C.," Journal of the American Ceramic Society. VI (January, 1923), 29.

Orton, Edward, Jr. "Histarical Statement of the Origin of the American Ceramic Society," Journal of the American Ceramic Society, VI (January, 1923)# 2-10.

"Our Universities," Journal of the Amerloan Ceramic oociety, IV (January# 1923), b^-il77 31U

Purdy, Hoc9 . "Education Training in Ceramic Science," Bulletin of tha American Caramic Society, II (July, 19X3), 197-201,

"Remolding of the Art division into Design Institute," Bulletin of the Amerloan Ceramic Society, XVU (July, 191x3), 2UU-6 .

"Report of the Committee on Classification and Nomenclature," Bulletin of the American Ceramic society, XXIV (January, 1^1*5), Z6.

"Rhead, Frederick H#," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XXI (December, 191277755-77

Rhead, Frederick H, "American Ceramic society Exhibition," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, I (l&ay, 1922), E r a s : ------

Rhead, Frederick H# "The Art Division of the American Ceramic Society," Journal of the American Ceramic society, V (February, 1922)f “57-557

______. "Industry's Attitude toward Art Training," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XIV (April, 1935), 1R2.

. "The Italian Majolica Process and Paintinp over flin Enamels," Ibid., I (September, 1922), 177-80#

. "Notes on shaoe Construction." Journal of the American Ceramic Society, A (June, 1927), 389-U61.

______• "Organization of a Decorative Ceramic Research Department," Ibid., V (November, 192?), 758-87.

• "Painting in Cnderglase Colors on 3iscuit," Ibid., C3une, 19?2), 376-83.

. "Relation of the Art Division to the Other Divisions," bulletin of the American Ceramic -»ociet;:, II (Aoril, 1923), 5 *5= 7 5 :------

* "Report of Art Division Conmittee on keseach," Ibid., X7T”(iiay, 1937), 216-20.

. "Research in Ceramic Decorative Processes," Journal of the American Certmlo society, IV (May, 1921), 326-31*# 315 » ttSont Not«« on Historical and Modern Decorative Proceases," Ibid., VI (February, 1923), 356-96.

______. "Suggestions on Ceramic Art Education," Bulletin of1 ihe American Ceramio Society, V (November, 1^6), 1*10 - 6 .

. "Types of Clases Suitable for Decorative Inlay Pro­ cesses,” Journal of the Ceramio Society. V (May, 19?2), 259-62.

. "'Ahat the Industries Want from the Ceramio Artist," BuTTetin of the American Ceramic Society.IV (April, 1925), 1^5 -61*.

Scherer, Mary 0. "The Training Necessary for the Potter- Craftsnan,” Bulletin of the American Ceramio Society. VI (January, 192/5, 5-8•

Scott, E. N. "Ceramic Work of the Burslem Art School," Inter­ national Studio. XXVII (February, 1906), 333-1*0.

• "Hanley School of Art," Ibid.. XXVI (July, 1905), 85=73. "The oilver Jubilee Convention Exhibit of Ceramic Products," Bulletin of the American Ceramic «*ocietv. II (April, 1923),

Slnel, Joseph. "Design Impels Consumer Response," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society. XIII (November, 193U), 291-2.

Smith, K. and Cox, Paul. "An Argument for Technology of Ceramic Design," Bulletin of the American Ceramio Society. XXI (September, 191*2), 190-1.

"University of Cincinnati," Ailletin ©£ *&£ ACeramic society. VII (July, 1928), 210-1*.

"University of Southern California Offers New Ceramic Courses," tin of the Anr**< f n Ceramic Society. XIII (November, 1931*), 321*7 Walker, Francis W. "Address of the Retiring President," Trans­ actions of the American Ceramic Society, VII (January. i t o ------316 t«av«r, llartha T. "Asmrican Art for A— rloa," ftillotln of tho A— rloan Ceramic Society, V (January, 19%;, 03-7*

Weldon, W. "Art Divio ion Nana Changed to Division of Ceramic Design," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Soelatar, XXII (August, 19U3), 2717

Whitfcrd, William U. "Ceramic Art at a Century of Progress Exhibition," School Arte, XXXIII (October, 1933), 99-106.

"Will Ceramio Education PayT," Bulletin of the Amarioan C v m i o Society, IX (July, 1930), 211-2.

Chapter 8

"Adelaide Alsop Robineau," Bulletin of the American Ceramio Society, VIII (Hay, 1929), 121=Zu

"Adelaide Alaop Robineau," Deaign, XXXIX (November, 1937), 36.

"Adelaide Alsop Robineau," Deaign, XLIII (December, 191*1), 8-9.

Binns. Charles F. "Ihe Art of the Fire," Craftsman, VIII (May, 1905), 205-10.

Olmsted, Anna W. "Ceramics, Part II, History of Pottery and Porcelain,” Eno: olopedia of the Arts. Runes and Sohrickel, eds. New York« PhilosopKIc library, 191*6, 159-69.

Rawson. Jonathan. Jr. "Teoo and Robineau Pot ery," House Beautiful, XXXIII (April, 1913), 151-2.

Robineau, Adelaide Alsop. "Amerloan Potteryi Artistic Porcelain Making,” Art World, III (November, 1917), 153-5*

"Robineau and the Ceramio National," Ceramics Monthly, I (January, 1953), 12-5. ohrimpton, Louise. "Amerloan Art Potter and Her Hoorn," ^ood Housekeeping, L (January, 1910), 5^-63.

"Taxile Dost, Ceramists," (Pamphlet, extracted from Revue du TSrn, 1906) Reprinted by Albi, Paris, 1909. 317 Chapter £#

"Arthur Eugene Bagps," Bulletin of the A— rloan Ceramic Society, III (January, 1921*;, l3*

"Arthur Eugene Baggs," Bulletin of tha Ana rloan Caranlo Society, H V I (Uaroh, 191x1), 105-6.

Asch, Solomon. Social Psychology. New York* Pre.itice-Hall, Inc., 1 9 5 3 . ------

Atherton, Carlton. "Arthur Baggs - Distinguished Ceram lat," Daalgn, XLVIII (Uaroh, 19i*7), 10-11.

Boyce, K. "Discussion Period," Bulletin of tha American Caramio Society, XXV (October, 19W , 371-2.

Cowan, ft. Ouy. "Art, Industry and Education In Ceramics," Bulla tin of the American Ceramic Society, XV (January, 1936), 5-13.

Cox, Paul. "Amerloan Ceramics for Interior Decorating," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, IV (September, 192577 lilfl-2 3.

Cubberley, Ellwood. Public Education in the United States. New Yorki Houghton, Mifflin Company, l93U.

Department of Pine Arts at The Ohio State University. (Brochure, n.d. - about 1939.T~

Dewey, Evc.lyn, The Dalton Laboratory Plan. New ^orkt E. P. Dutton and'Company, 1921.

Dulles, Foster Rhea. Twentieth Century America. New Yorkt Houghton Mifflin Company, l9l*5.

"Educational" Committee Chairman Showing the hay," Bulletin of the American Ceramic society, V (July, 1926), 32 *-6.

Educational Department Annual Report, 1905* Albany* state of ------B S T T o r l < ~ :fji.------

"Excluding the personal writings of Arthur Burps, which will be found on page 217. 318

Kiseraan, Gertrude* "Marblehead Pottery," Creftemen, XnIX (Uaroh, 1916), 671-3.

Faulkner, Harold U. Ayrloan Political and Social Hietory. 9th ad. New York? Appletoo-Century-Oro/ta, Inc., i9hB.

"Forward Steps in Caramio Education," Bulletin of the Awe rloan Gertie Society, V (February, 1926^ 91-3*

Foadick, Marion. "Discussion Period," Bulletin of the American Ceramic society, XV (January, 193b), 13*

Knlffln, Herbert R. "Art Education Exphasizing Creative Imagin­ ation - Ethical Culture School, New York," Survey (June, 1926), 316-7.

Knight, Edward. Fifty Yeara of American Education. New Yorkt Ronald Press tiompany, 1952.

konroe, Paul (ed.)• A Cyclopedia of Education. New Yorkt Macmillan Company, l9l>.■

Munroe, u. S. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Educational Research. Macmillan and Company, 1$£6.

Rawson, Jonathan, Jr. "Recent American Pottery," Houae Beautiful, XXXI (April, 1912), lliQ-'iO. > Russell, Elizabeth 1. "The Potter' of Marblehead," House Beautiful, LIX (March, 1926), 362-6.

Chapter 10

"Alice A. Ayara," Bulletin of the American Ceramic society, V (January, 1926), 6 2 .

Atchley, Whitney, "Jork of Professional and Service rivision, V«PA, in Ceramics," Bulletin of the nmerican Ceramic Society, XVTTT (December, 193^), L60-2.

Ay are, Alice A. "Ceramic Art in the Cleveland Public Schools," Design. XLI (April, 19ij0), 1U-16.

Amos, L. "Pottery in a Country School," Raw Era, (London) XVIII (December, 1537), 313-6. 319

Arnold. Paula. "Teaching tha Blind to Modal," Contemporary Hariaw, CXLI (February, 1932), 190-203.

"Art in the Makinr," Design, XXXVIII (November, 1936), L3-U.

"Arta In Therapy," Museum of Modern Art Bulletin, x (February, 19U3), 1-21.

3achar, H. H. "Caramio Texts and Materials to Aid Schools and Craftsmen," Bulletin of the American Ceramic society, XV (March, 1936;, 1^7.

Barclay, 3. "Experiment in Clay lottery," school Arts, XXIV (October, 192L), ^9-9.

Bement, Alon, and Others. "Art in Industry, I,” Art in American Life and Education. *ortieth Yearbook of the" National Society for the Siudy of Education. Bloomington» Public School Publishing Company, 19hl.

Beriau, Oscar. "Peasant Potters of Beauce," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XXIII (April, l M ) i 1^5-?T"

Beokerman, L. F. "Ceramic Craft t.ork in the Secondary Schools," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XV (March, 1936), 1?7-B.

Biennial survey of Education, 19U3-50. Aashinrton* IJ. s. GovernmentTriniinp Office, 1951.

Bookheim, Arnold. "Values Derived from Hi.ch School Ceramics," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XTTT (October, Tfft), 271=3:

Boudreau, James C. "Clay as a Medium through idiich Educational Ideals Lay Be Effectively Present*d," Journal of the American Ceramic Society, VI (June, 1923), 763-5.

"Boudreau, James C.," 3ulletin of the American Ceramic Society, III (January, 19? U), ill.

Brady, Mabel C. "Creative Expression through Ceramio Art," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XV ('fareh, 1936), 96^5.

Carey, J. Sheldon. "Educational Aspects of Ceramic Art," Bulletin of the American Ceramic society, XXJI (February, 19L3J, 35-7 • 320

"Ceramio Craft ttork In Secondary Schools," Bullatin of the American Ceramic Society. XV (March, 1936), 125-7.

"Ceramic Modeling Taurht by the Art League of Ellwood City," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society. IV (October. 1925), ------

"Ceramics at sabring Hiph School," Bulletin of the American Ceramics society, VII (July, lt?2d), ^U*-7”

"Ceramics In "heelinr, W. Vs., Hiph School," Bulletin of the American Ceramio Society, V (January, 1926), 8U-5.

"Ceramics Vocational Couraea at Newell High school," Bulletin of the American Ceramio Society, IT (December, 1923), 3^6-7*

"Crafts in Kducation Symposium," Design, XXVII (February, 1936), 3-9.

Cutten, Barton. The Threat of Leisure. New Haven* Yale Uni- verslty Press, 1926.

Ivans, V. "when a Desert Box-Car School iried on Activity Program," School Life, XVI (Uaroh, 1931), 131-3*

Ewertz, Henry. "Ceramics for the Cripple Child," Bulletin of the American Ceramic society, XXIII (June, 19l*ii)» 190*2.

Farnum, hoyal Bailey. An Annotated List of Books on the Arts for the Teacher an? student.""" University of tKe State of Hew forte, Bulletin No. 633* Albany* The University of the State of New York, 1917.

. "Ihe Early History of American Art Education," Art in American L ^ e m d Education, fortieth Yearbook of the National society for tKe Study of Education. Bloomingtont Public Sohool Publishing Company, 19U1* l*i*5-7.

. "School Programs in Other Countries," Ibid., 607-18.

. Fine w d Applied Arts, Vocational and Professional Monographs, No. 36. Boston* Bellman Publishing Company, 19L1.

"First High School Ceramic Course," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, IV (October, 19&5), 55^8. Gltter, Alio* J. "Ceramics In NYAr A War Emergency," Bulletin of the American Ceramic Society, XXZ (October, L912)V’? 3 ------Greener, George C. "A Vocational School for Claywarkers," TTans- actione of the Amerloan Ceramio Society, XV (February, xyi3>f 279-BC7

Ha^er, Walter E. and Ziegfeld, Edwin. "Course Requirements for Teachers of Art in SO Institutions," Art in American Life end Education, fortieth Yearbook of the National society far the Study of Education. Bloomington* Public School Publishing Company, 19L1. 735—1*3*

Kilpert, Robert Stoae. "Changing Etaphases in School Art Programs," Art in American Life and Education. Fortieth Yearbook of TKe National society for the Stud; of Education. Bloomington* Public School Publishing Company, 19L1. LL7-53.

Holland, Anna U. Clav Modelling. Boston* Ginn and Coapeny, 1699.

Hope, Herford. "An Experiment in Ceramic Education," Transactions of the (tff-rinan Ceramic society. XV (February, 1913), 62- 70.

"Jobless Fine Outlet in Ceramics," Jfrilletin qf the Apurican Ceramic Socle to. XV IT (April, 193*), 1*1-2.

Kurtsworth, H. U, Industrial Art as a National Asset. U. S. Bureau of Education, Industrial Education Circular No. 3 (May, 1919).

Lester, Katherine Morris. Clay Work. Peoria* Manual Arts Press, 1908.

Lomenfeld, Viktor. "Modeling as a Means of Self-Expression in schools for the Blind," Harvard Educational HftYlflE* XII (January, 19U2), l*-6.

"Lulu Scott Backus," Bulletin Jfefi American Ceramio Society. XXI (MSy, 19b2), 61-L.

"Laltman's Green Pottery," Nee Era (London, XV (December, 193b), 2LL-5.

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I, Dorothy Vilioa Perkins, m i born In Hannoadi Indiana,

September 20, 1917. I received my secondary school education in the public schools of Wellsville, New York. My undergraduate m training was obtained at the New York State College of Ceramics,

Alfred University, from which I received the degree Bachelor of

Fine Arts in 1939. In September, 1939, I received an appointment as University Scholar at Ohio State University, from which I received the degree Master of Arts in 19^0. I married Lyle H«

Perkins in June, 19U0. I have taught at the Hilton S* Hershey

School, Hershey* Pennsylvania; for the Pennsylvania Guild of

Craftsmen, Harrisburg; summer sessions at Alfred University; and at the Rhode Island school of Design, where I am an Assistant

Professor in the Department of Ceramics. Study leading to the degree Doctor of Philosophy was begun at Ohio State University in the summer of 1951* I was appointed a University Scholar for the year 19^ii—5* while on e year's leave of absence from Rhode Island

School of Design.