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Challenges against Xi Jinping: an ASEAN Perspective

Abdullah Dahana Bina Nusantara University, Indonesia Kelly Rosalin Bina Nusantara University, Indonesia

Abstract Since the death of in 1976 and in 1997, factionalism and power struggle as the characteristic of change in China has ended. Although factionalism still exists, it has been converted to collaboration among all factions within the Chinese (CCP). The election of Xi Jinping to the presidency of the People’s of China (PRC) and to the position as General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is therefore, as the result of cooperation among factions. This paper discusses various challenges, including as the most serious issue faced by Xi Jinping as a leader elected through compromise.

Keywords: Xi Jinping, factionalism, current Chinese nationalism.

Introduction (CCP) as the result of the 18th Congress of the party in November 2012 and his Change of leadership in countries appointment as the President of the practicing single party is People’s Republic of China (PRC) as the usually marred with power struggle. China, outcome of the 14th National People’s especially during the era of Mao Zedong Congress (NPC) on March 14, 2013 (1949-1976) and Deng Xiaoping (1978-1997) consolidated his position, because in was not exception to this rule. The causes of addition to the General Secretary of the this phenomenon could be personal CCP and the President of the PRC, he is also ambition, personal relationship among Chairman of the Military Commission. leaders, policy differences, fragmentation Transition of leadership from the 4th to the within the or more popularly 5th generation of leader is therefore, known as factionalism, and other factors. complete and he is the most powerful Post-Mao/Deng China, however, seems not person in the country of 1,4 billion people. to follow this tradition anymore. Even if However, even though the change of power struggle persists, it is no longer an leadership can be said as smooth. It doesn’t “open warfare” known to the public but mean that dissent among various wings of carried out within closed doors. the Party has gone. In the past, Mao and The election of Xi Jinping as General Deng eliminated any different opinion Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party within the ranks by harsh means. Series of

Journal of ASEAN Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1 (2014), pp. 29–41

© 2014 by CBDS Bina Nusantara University and Indonesian Association for International Relations ISSN 2338-1361 print / ISSN2338-1353 electronic

30 Challenges against Xi Jinping

political campaigns during the era of local and national official before occupying Mao(1949-1976) and 1989 suppression of his present number one position. Tiananmen are proofs on how in the Even Nicholas Kristoff (2013), a senior past different opinions were denied. analyst that usually very critical Post–Deng/Mao leadership however, perspectives of Chinese , has a regard different opinions within ranks and positive impression of Xi Jinping and refers files as positive as long as differing opinios to him as a genuine reformer. Kristoff’s do not develop into what Mao called as opinion is based on several factors. First, Xi “antagonistic contradiction” (diwo maodun). already has the spirit of a reformer Dissent is therefore tolerated as long as it is implanted in him. He has inherited this within “party lines.” With the reemergence from his father, the late Xi Zhongxun, a of factionalism, all big decisions, like the pioneer in who appointment of leaders, formulation of openly condemns the ’anmen Square policies and their actualizations have to be massacre in 1989. His mother chose to stay discussed among factions. in Shenzhen, the most capitalistic region. Xi Thus, the appointment of Xi Jinping as also sent his daughter to Harvard of China, is therefore the result of University, which, Kristoff said, proved his compromise among factions. So is his personal perception of the importance of policies. Based on the above considerations English and his admiration for the and facts, this paper deal with American education system. Kristoff also challenges faced by Xi from both within and speculate about the possibility of Xi without the Party. These will include releasing Liu Xiaobo, the critical author and factionalism itself, Xi as the leader, and Nobel Prize winner who is now languishing other factors he has to deal with. in jail. Xi is also quite attentive and listens This paper is written based on to public demands for a more transparent qualitative method and supported by data, . In fact, it is likely that he will both English and Chinese sources, available abolish detention and punishment not through library and internet search. preceded by judicial process. Kristoff further speculates that one of his main programs is to move the body of Mao which Who is Xi Jinping? is preserved and now still on display in the mausoleum in Tiananmen Square. This is Western Press and of course China’s meant to eradicate the tradition of the cult own media have all dubbed Xi Jinping as a of personality in the Chinese political great diplomat who has been able to system. influence and gain the trust of all circles With the election of Xi Jinping for a including the army. And because Xi is the period of up to 10 years, the leadership of descendant of let’s say a “lord” in the the party and the country has moved from dynasty of Chinese leaders, the Chinese 4th to 5th Generation. One of the press have named him the ‘crown prince of characteristics of the 5th Generation is the the people’. Therefore, his appointment as fact that they grew up, experienced and Secretary General and as president this, was suffered during the Cultural considered the right choice. As an (C.R.) launched by Mao (1966- “aristocrat” in the Chinese leadership, he is 1976). Xi is not exempt from this known to all the levels of the , phenomenon because of the effects of the coupled with his impressive as a massive campaigns which occurred over the longest period in the of Mao’s

Journal of ASEAN Studies 31 leadership involving not only ordinary Shaanxi province to do forced labor and to people but also the elite and their families. "learn from the peasants”. Even Deng Xiaoping, the architect of Towards the end of the Cultural reform, and his family, suffered. Revolution, he avoided the frantic Holding various positions in the party atmosphere of the capital because everyone leadership over that period of 25 years, his was jockeying for a position to show case career continued to soar (Callahan, 2012). At themselves as to get Mao’s first he was made the party secretary in attention and get good positions in the Hebei province (1983-85), a backward and party and government. His career poor province. Then he was placed in the continued to escalate and in 1983 he chose a two prosperous provinces of Fujian (1985- career that would place him in the regions. 2002) and Zhejiang (2002-07). In both In rural Shaanxi, due to his provinces, he managed to launch an anti- organizational skills, he was able to secure corruption campaign earning him the the peasants’ admiration who then nickname "Mr. Clean." appointed him party secretary of the village In 2007, he was stationed in Shanghai he was working in. Because of his and in this Metropolitan city of South capabilities, towards the end of the CR he China, he was considered to have obtained a recommendation to study at a succeeded in eradicating corruption. Due to university – an opportunity that is rarely those success stories he was called to Beijing obtained by a descendant of a "counter- to take over the party leadership. His career ". continued to rise with his appointment as After earning an engineering degree vice president under Hu Jintao in March from Qinghua University, one of China’s 2008. leading university in Beijing, he was Xi Jinping was born in Beijing in 1953 appointed Deputy Secretary of the CCP in when his father was serving as head of the Zhengding county, Hebei province, a place CCP's Central Department and that was still very backward. concurrently Deputy Minister of Education However, an opportunity arose which and Culture. Thus from his childhood Xi Xi so cleverly used. Zhengding had been junior grew up in an elite community and used as the setting of a television series school environment. He was a member of adaptation of the classic Chinese novel the so-called cynics of "the red ". Honglou Mengor better known in the West Westerners called them “princelings” or as the Dream of the Red Chamber. The taizi in Chinese. Their number today is television serial which was spiced up with estimated at 300 people and they were the slight episodes of sex became very popular ones who used their positions or guanxi entertainment for the people. Xi cleverly (connections) and networking to get quality turned the former TV series production education, which in turn secured them into a tourist object making Zhengding a promising career paths in various fields. successful tourist destination. However, Xi Jinping made an At that time all development programs extraordinary move. When other members were still under central planning and tourist of the aristocracy plunged into business to destinations were limited to the Forbidden reap abundant , he used those City, the Summer Palace, the Great Wall or connections to achieve a position in politics. Bataling (burial place) of the Ming emperors When the C.R. erupted, Xi Jinping was just in Beijing. Because of his expertise, the 15 years old, and as a "child of counter- Chinese media praised Xi as a person with a revolutionaries" he was sent to the rural soul and spirit of a reformer and pioneer.

32 Challenges against Xi Jinping

Chinese media also praised Xi as a leader called a radical wing versus a moderate who embraced the of reform. wing. And because the position of He continued what his father had "Chairman Mao" as "a great leader of the pioneered by turning several cities in the revolution" was so dominant, south into "special economic zones." As the always had the upper hand. Mao was mayor of Xiamen in 1985 he encouraged the therefore able to determine all policies development of trade relations with freely and arbitrarily in all areas. The basis Taiwan, which was just opposite the city. Xi of all decision-making was also simple held that position for 17 years and the because the only reference was . economic chain between the two sides of Factionalism within the CCP is now the Taiwan Straits grew rapidly, in spite of much more complex. Its appearance is their ideological . In 2002 he based on place of origins, education and brought this pioneering and reformist spirit training, and family background, although to the Zhijiang province whose economy there are also groups who their was growing smoothly. movement on ideology, especially . Xi’s leadership became more open and With the changing times, today in the post- more reformist as reflected in his acceptance Mao/Deng PKC there are least four main speech after his election, "Our people love factions that competing each other. First is life and hope for better education, steady the Shanghai , known as Haipai, who jobs, better incomes, reliable social security, gather around Jiang Zemin the PRC high standards of healthcare, as well as President and the CCP General Secretary pleasant living conditions and environment. during the 1992-2002 period, the former They expect their children to grow, work, boss of the Shanghai CCP branch who was and live better lives. People long for a life personally designated by the late Deng that is good and beautiful; that's what we before his death to succeed him. must strive for" (Xinhua, 2012). This faction is known as a champion for However, looking at the constellation of increasing the fruits of development. The forces within the CCP, this praise may be main idea of the Shanghai group is somewhat exaggerated and its validity essentially to keep the rate of economic remains to be tested. There is still a lot that development at the highest level. According he needs to do in order to secure a to them, in order to maintain China’s productive leadership, and it obviously will position as a world economic power when take time. One of the main causes of this is global is so tight, coastal areas none other than the factionalism within the should remain a priority as the machine of CCP and various other challenges faced by economic development. him. This is the for their lack of concern for segments of society and regions of China that are still lagging behind in Factionalism various fields. The concepts of this group are focused on the ideas of Jiang Zemin First it should be noted that the CCP is about the Three Representatives (san ge not a monolithic organization because it daibiao) which suggests to give the was always plagued by factionalism—this is opportunity to entrepreneurs (read: no strange matter for a party with no rivals. capitalist) emerging after the launching of In the Mao era there were only two factions the reform, to become members of the CCP. which were always competing to determine The Shanghai faction conceptually policy. That is what experts outside China competed with the Young Communist

Journal of ASEAN Studies 33

League alumni group, one of the party’s regional and central or by organizations whose primary objective was engaged in bureaucracy and business. to prepare young people to become future Bo Xilai, the former party boss of leaders. In Chinese politics they are called Chongqing, is another taizi figure who the Faction League or tuanpai. Political joined the group aspiring to maintain the analysts from the West often referred to teachings of Mao Zedong. He was eager to them as "populists." The principles adopted revive all Mao’s teachings in the city he led. by tuanpai are strengthening and Unfortunately, behind this mask of Maoism, consolidating the power of the central he was involved in degrading practices leadership, preserving and maintaining such as violations of human and social stability, trying to distribute the fruits corruption. of development to eliminate significant Linked to Bo Xilai, there was another differences between developed areas and elite group aspiring to preserve the underdeveloped areas, reducing the wide teachings of the late Mao which emphasized gap between the poor and the rich, and ideological purity and the concept of healing every social disease caused by the equality in a . The initiators capitalization of the Chinese economy. of this movement are mainly senior The group is led by former Party chief revolutionaries who fear that the Hu Jintao and the concept of the introduction of Deng’s reforms will lead the fruits of development was incorporated into society further away from the ideals of his theory of creating a "harmonious initiated by Mao. However, society" (Leonard 2008). By using this since the fall of Bo Xilai, the group is now in discourse, they emphasized the importance a much weaker position and their influence of eliminating the gaping differences is receding. Thus in China's political arena between the advanced and the backward there are now two main groups competing, regions and classes. the Shanghai faction and the faction In addition to the two wings that hold supported by most of the league of the opposing concepts, there is another group "princes". The Shanghai faction actually of younger people who are often referred to represents the concept of thinking of those as the "princes". As a group within the outside the in Beijing, Chinese political scene they got the name while the league reflects concepts of what taizipai and Western observers referred to must be done to manage the dynamics of them as princelings. This group consisted of the central government in developing the about 300 people with an average age of 50- Chinese community in connection with 60 years. They were the sons/daughters of China's entry into the arena of . veterans who were comrades of Mao Interestingly, the rivalry between these Zedong during the revolution to establish two schools has its own historical the CCP and the PRC. background. China is a country with such a Due to their position as the elite, they vast territory that is has a diversity of were fortunate to obtain a good education, geographic and human features. Thus, the and thanks to their guanxi, they successfully of a central government in the occupied important positions in the party North is a necessity for maintaining unity and government. However, it should be and political unity. noted that the strategic positions they However, throughout history, political occupied were not merely due to heredity unity has often been disrupted and in some or guanxi alone, but came with education, cases even developed into separatism. This business, and experience they acquired as occurred because some regions have their

34 Challenges against Xi Jinping

own ambitions and interests. Not Keqiang—a follower of tuanpai. Thus, the infrequently this led them to achieve their present is, in fact, a leadership. ambitions by cooperating with outside Gone are the days of dominant leaders or forces. The case of warlordism (1924-1927) dictators of Mao and Deng Xiaoping's in China is an example of this pattern. caliber. Tensions between the centralist and regionalist groups in the past have led to increasing conflicts between the North Various challenges facing Xi Jinping based in Beijing and the South led by Shanghai. There are still many issues to be dealt In the Mao era, Shanghai which is with in China under the leadership of Xi. As located in the South was known as a center a person who has just made his entrance of radical extremists under the leadership of into the stage of leadership, he still needs Mao's wife, Jiang while the North time to consolidate his power. For that he (Beijing) was a fortress of those who were still has to use " give and take" tactics in stamped by Mao as bureaucrats and order to secure his position and to gain the revisionists. When he felt his position was support of the opposing factions, especially coming under escalating political pressure, tuanpai and haipai. Based on the analysis Mao usually went to the South (Shanghai) that Xi Jinping’s leadership is the result of a to gather power and returned to Beijing to compromise, the following are the greatest reclaim his influential position. challenges he will have to face. From a modern perspective, this conflict is characterized by the conflict of ideas Politics and Ideology between Hu Jintao and Jiang Zemin as reflected in the conflict between the ideas of On the surface, the fall of Bo Xilai, who the elitists versus the populists. However, if glorified Mao Zedong and desired to revive the first discourse was concerned with his teachings, was a blow to the Maoism political opposition and the revolution, it revival movement. Hence, long before the has now turned into an economic discourse. opening of the Congress of the CCP, It is also important to keep in mind that international observers predicted that the although there are conceptual differences as CCP congress would, among others, throw a result of factionalism and opposing out Maoism as it was no longer relevant to perceptions, every conflict is always the reform path taken by China. debated behind closed doors and not However, Mu Chunshun, a Chinese transformed into antagonistic analyst has come up with a different contradictions. This is important to ensure opinion. Mu endorses the idea that reform that the public sees the CCP as a solid and is no longer linked to Maoism, but he monolithic organization. argues that observers are going too far or With the entrance of this factionalism, being too wishful when they think that the although it seemed that the Shanghai CCP will abandon Maoism. Because, said faction had the upper hand with the Mu futher, if they do that, its social impact election of Xi Jinping, he still is the result of will be huge. Disposing of Maoism will give a compromise between the two factions. the party a bad image in the eyes of the The distribution of power between the two people, since if that happens, it will only go factions is reflected by the election of Xi to show that the leadership of the Party is who had to be accompanied by a figure not monolithic. Mu said that the reason who would become prime minister, namely was that Maoism is the symbol of the unity

Journal of ASEAN Studies 35 of national leadership regardless of whether market economy". has pushed it is relevant or not to present-day China / to the back seat and (Mu 2012). to overcome this tendency, the Chinese Abandoning Maoism will also cause authorities have tried to promote dissatisfaction among the army. It must be nationalism among the masses and the noted, Mu added, for example, that the youth, particularly after the 1989 doctrine adopted by the People's Liberation Tian’anmen incident. But this has brought Army (PLA) has never been changed. It is its its own problems which will be the concept that "political power comes out discussed in the final part of this paper. of the barrel of the gun, but the gun must remain under the control of the Party" (Mu Economy 2012). It is important to keep in mind that the The next challenge is the economy. army, together with the Party and the Analysts generally say that in the last two bureaucracy, is one of the pillars of political years of the reform era that has actually power in China. PLA acts as the security been going on for more than three decades, guard or body guard of the Party, and it is there has been a tendency of a slowing evidenced by the way it did not hesitate to down in China's economy. suppress demonstrations that threatened This is not caused by mismanagement of the Party in June 1989. the Chinese leaders, but rather caused by In other words, Maoism is still relevant. the global economic crisis, particularly in Those are the ideological challenges Xi will America and Europe as the lifeblood of face. The speculation of Western observers China’s economy depends to a greater part were way off target. The results of the on exports to both those continents in Party’s Congress barely touched issues particular. During the crisis, the two relating to ideology. However, this does not continents that are China's export targets mean that the problem of ideology has been are no longer able to absorb all the Chinese resolved, because the main problem lies in commodities as in previous years. its position among the people and leaders of Economists believe that one solution to China. overcome this is to increase the ability of The introduction of economic reforms domestic consumers to accommodate that actually implement a capitalist system China's own products. The old slogan has resulted in a race to pursue material "made in China" must now be replaced by a gains among the people and also widened new "made by Chinese for the Chinese ". the gap between the rich and poor, between However, to achieve this, the government urban and rural areas. should first of all make efforts to increase As a result there has been an erosion in the purchasing power of domestic ideology which in turn poses a threat to the consumers. The population which is position of the CCP because the ruling approaching 1.4 billion people is a paradise party's monopoly of power is based on the for their own products. principles of -- Mao However, increasing the prosperity of Zedong’s Thoughts. the will be a subject of debate This threat will continue to overshadow among the elite, i.e. those who want to the CCP even if it is trying to mask the enlarge the “pie of development” in implementation of this capitalist principle opposition to the populist faction that behind such terms as "socialism with aspires to improve the living standards of Chinese characteristics" and"socialist the people by distributing the results of

36 Challenges against Xi Jinping

development more evenly. But, given the Demands for "" importance of strengthening the purchasing power of domestic consumers, there is a Increasingly strong demands of the possibility that Xi’s economic policy will grassroots for a system of government that lean towards the League faction. is more open, more "democratic" and more However, in order to maintain the attentive to public interests also need to be image of a monolithic leadership, he will dealt with. Dissatisfaction was associated also have to pay attention to the Shanghai with a violation of civil rights, such as faction. According to analysts, Xi’s punishment without trial, the appropriation economic policy will be more inclined of the people’s rightfully owned land in the towards the Shanghai faction, although he form of "freeing" of land for the sake of also has to listen to the expert advice of the "development" and various other violations. tuanpai (Steinbock 2012). It should also be noted, there were This has to do with the collective violations of the rights of the minorities in leadership system will inevitably require Xi Tibet and Xinjiang. to consider the opinions of his colleagues. This is closely linked with the Closely related to the question above, is constitution that had actually been how to educate Chinese consumers to better approved by the National People's appreciate their own domestic products. Congress (NPC) in 1982. The process began Changing consumer attitude is quite a big with disappointment and upheavals over challenge. various violations of laws during the Restructuring the roles of Cultural Revolution campaigns (1966-1976). enterprises in the Chinese economy will CCP leaders who survived the atrocities also pose a challenge. According to and that took place during the statistics, at present, state owned enterprises campaign concluded that it was essential account for more than 60% of the economic for China to have a constitution that activity and circulation of money. In other respects rights and also ensures words, the PRC are implementing a state that rulers be subject to this rule of law. The capitalist system. And similar to conditions times when could exercise power in other developing countries, state and control irresponsibly should be enterprises are also a source of corruption in terminated. It should be noted that this China. attitude was not implemented as a direct There are many more economic criticism of the policies adopted by Mao. problems that Xi must face. Among others, In fact the constitution was never the swelling debts and the effective and various offenses were still aging population of China which will committed by people in power. But, now become a burden for the economy. It has the demands for the realization of a state been argued that the one family one child and a government that follow the rule of policy should be changed into two children law are more forceful. Actually for each family. However, this change in these demands are a reaction to Xi’s various policy will lead to huge economic and social speeches which invariably stressed the need consequences because even with the present to enforce the enactment of the constitution. policy the country's total population has In line with this, approximately 72 reached approximately 1.4 billion. intellectuals submitted a petition to push the Party to uphold the constitution." We are in agreement that should be a central issue in the reform

Journal of ASEAN Studies 37 program," said Zhang Qianfan, professor of instance, the gap in wealth between the law at Beijing University who drafted the coastal and inland regions. Actually, the petition. government has made many breakthroughs He further stated that economic factors to bridge the gap between the rich regions were far too dominant in the reform and the backward regions, particularly by program in the past. But, from experience building infrastructures. over the last 20 years, Zhang said that the Many remote areas are already open economic reforms could go wrong if they and connected to the urban areas (Johnson were not offset by meaningful political 2013). However, China is so vast with a reforms which imply constitutional reform population so large that many more efforts (Wong and Ansfield 2013). should be made to overcome this. In the The echoes of these demands were Mao era, political campaigns were carried reverberated even louder by the out to bridge the urban-rural gap. Now this newspapers and other media supporting method can no longer be used. reforms, including a journal issued by the Closely related to the above is the rich- central party cadre school once headed by poor gap. Only few Chinese people with the Xi Jinping. But the petitioners were actually capacity to be global player that are able to stimulated by a speech in which Xi said that enjoy the fruits of economic reform. In a among others, that the constitution should capitalist system in which the rules of the be a legal weapon for the people to defend game have not been fixed like that of China, their rights. money synergizes with power. Deng Yuwen, a newspaper editor, has There are allegations made by the lower boldly said he has not seen Xi take any classes that in such a wild system, where concrete steps to make the constitution the rich are getting richer and the poor work. "The Constitution cannot be poorer, a contributing factor is corruption. implemented by mere talk,"said Deng This will all lead to jealousy and social (Wong and Ansfield 2013). unrest. How to overcome a habit that has Indeed, since occupying the highest been embedded in the system for over 20 position in the country, although he has years is a big challenge for the CCP and its talked a lot about the importance of leaders. , Xi has placed more emphasis on Another common phenomenon is the the importance of internal . clearing of slum areas in urban districts to He keeps reminding people that China be turned into modern residential areas and should avoid repeating the fate that led to business centers. The evictions to free those the break up of the Union. slum areas have resulted in and Thus, the issue of freedom will again social tensions. One of the events that got stumble into something very basic: Deng the world’s attention is the displacement Xiaoping only introduced economic reforms that occurred in a small town, Wukan, near since his ultimate goal was to preserve the Guangzhou, in the Guangdong province. power of the communist party. His As a result of the massive protests of the successors continue this principle. local residents, the evictions were postponed. This is described as the Social Issues people's victory over the capitalization of residential areas. Because she has embraced the capitalist system, China has also been infected by the various diseases of capitalism. Take for

38 Challenges against Xi Jinping

Party Relations and the Masses in 1999 when American planes accidentally bombed the PRC Embassy in Belgrade. Xi Jinping faces another big task no less However, the demonstrations were important, namely, putting back the CCP in eventually stopped because there were the hearts of the people. In the past, visible signs that the Chinese government especially when Mao was still alive, the was also becoming one of the targets of the party was still very close to the people. To demonstrations. maintain such a relationship Mao created a Strict control over all kinds of mass concept known as the mass line (cunzhong action was applied after the 1989 zhongxian). The cadres were instructed to Tian’anmen demonstrations which almost listen to all complaints and wishes of the caused the breakup of the CCP due to masses so that the party would not be internal conflicts. Thus, one of the major isolated from the people. Internally, Mao tasks that Xi Jinping must shoulder is applied the Leninist principle known as putting the party back in the hearts of the democratic centralism (Waller 1981). people without threatening the CCP The concept demanded the leadership monopoly of power. of the Party to inform all levels of administration under their supervision of the plan-making policies to be pursued. Nationalism Thus, all units were asked to discuss the party's policy plans and submit suggestions Nationalism emerged at the end of the or objections. However, once a decision had 19th century when there was a hot debate been taken, all party elements ranging from among Chinese elite regarding the question the highest to the lowest units had to on how to come out of national crisis and comply with the policies and implement humiliation. All parties basically agreed them. that the fundamental reason for the crisis During the time when the CCP was in was the presence of Western control, in the framework of the mass line and the weakness of Qing Dynasty. concept, Mao always involved the masses in On how to come out of the crisis, all political campaigns pertaining to both however, they have different opinions. domestic and international issues. Some thought that the main cause was the Starting in the early 1950s until his backwardness of Chinese military and death in 1976, Mao and his supporters weaponry power, and thus they launched a series of mass campaigns. As a campaigned for “learning from foreigners” result, on the one hand people became very (read West) or yangwu yundong and “Self literate in politics, but on the other hand Strengthening Movement.” Others urged they also became tired of the never-ending for “keeping Chinese thinking as national mass campaigns. identity while using Western for After Mao's departure and after Deng practical means”(Zhongxue wei , Xixue wei Xiaoping came to power, the number of yong). mass campaigns was greatly reduced. There were also groups which However, because the masses were not advocated , while two Confucian involved, politics became an elite scholars, Kang Youwei and his disciple movement. Liang Qichao, spread the idea of Occasional mass action was launched constitutional system copying but under very tight control. An example of from England. Of all the popular ideas this was the anti-American demonstrations which came out at that time, mostly wanted

Journal of ASEAN Studies 39 to maintain monarchy system. It was during Deng Xiaoping introduced reform and these fierce debates Dr. Sun Yatsen came up opening of China up as well as the capitalist with a radical thought: the Qing Dynasty economicsystem (Tyler 1997). As a result, was a foreign conquerer and a colonialist because of the cruelty of the Maoist system, power, it had to be overthown and China almosteveryone in China welcomed reform should establish a republic state based on and was encouraged to pursue material Chinese nationalism. gains. Consequently, socialist It was under the leadership of Dr. Sun were marginalized. the Qing Dynasty was abolished by 1911 With the end of the Cultural Revolution Revolution (Xinhai Geming) and a republic era and the introduction of the capitalist was later created (Lin 2011). However, system, some segments of Chinese society, Chinese nationalism remained buried for particularly students and intelectuals quite a long time and only reappeared on tempted to follow an Western liberal Mainland China in the last 30 years, . This culminated in a series of particularly after the introduction of Deng demonstrations during the Spring and Xiaoping’s reform. It is important to note Summer of 1989, followed by the that since the PRC was founded in 1949, the Tian’anmen massacre, in June 1989. That is only ideology for the government and the understandable because Deng’s main people is Communism/Socialism or better objective to introduce reforms was precisely known as Marxis-Leninism and the to preserve and strengthen CCP’s grip over Thought of Mao. Chinese society. However, Marxism-Leninism and the In the aftermath of the Tian’anmen Thought of Mao seems not have anymore massacre, nationalism that had long been place in the hearts of most of the people as a neglected secured a place for itself again. result of Mao's policies that imposed the The state played an important role in its principle of "politics in command" resurgence. The general public, especially especially after 1957. school children, students and young Since then for the next 20 years, Mao for children were brainwashed with the sake of realizing his ideals of creating a nationalism and a sense of pride in being socialist society, launched a series of mass Chinese. campaigns ranging from the Great Leap The Army, wherever they are, usually Forward (Da Yuejin), the Socialist Education has a high sense of nationalism and Movement, the People's . The switch to nationalism was (Renmin Gongshe), which peaked in 1966 relatively easy, because the Chinese are with the start of the Cultural Revolution traditionally known as a people who are (Zichanjieji Wenhua da Geming). highly chauvinistic. The success of China The last campaigns was the greatest, hosting the Olympics Games in 2008, was longest (about 10 years), and with a large regarded as the pinnacle of the Chinese number of victims and only stopped after government’s success in inculcate this Mao’s death. During the series of mass nationalist sentiment. campaigns all the elements of society that However, an overdose of nationalism opposed Mao were considered "counter- will lead to xenophobia and could backfire. revolutionaries" and put to jail or killed. The Anti-foreign nationalism could turn into a victims included his comrade in arms in mass movement against the government if fighting to establish the CCP and the PRC. the authorities are considered not Only two years after Mao died in 1976, "assertive" enough or seen as to be weak after successfully eliminating the Maoists, under foreign pressure. For example, in

40 Challenges against Xi Jinping

1999 when the American bombers his influence among party leaders as well as accidentally dropped bombs on the Chinese the army and masses. embassy, mass anti-American There are opinions that the claim on the demonstrations were staged in many major South China Sea is a legacy of Hu Jintao. cities. American representative offices were There is a custom in China for a leader vandalized; pelted with stones and Molotov stepping down to leave "a legacy" to be cocktails (Sina News 1999). continued by his successor. Mao’s legacy Demonstrations became increasingly was his thoughts, Deng Xiaoping’s was his violent when the Chinese government reforms, Jiang Zemin left his three seemed to lack force in its protest against representations, and Hu Jintao bequeath the America. Worried that the demonstrations concept and claims over would turn into anti-government such as the Diaoyutai (Senkaku). those in Tian’anmen in 1989, the authorities Thus, in this case Xi seems to be facing took immediate measures to stop the mass a difficult choice. With the nationalist action. Since then it seemed that all the mass sentiment surging, especially among the movements were orchestrated by the youth and army, taking no compromise will government. put him in a difficult position. If he takes a step that is considered a compromise, he will have to answer to his own people. Conclusion If he chooses confrontation, not only the will the world suffer from the This paper deals with series of obstacles consequences, but also China itself. The faced by Xi Jinping as new Chinese leader strategy he is using in ASEAN is divide et and we can conclude that there are many impera or divide and rule. Through enormous challeges he is facing. One of the economic aid, Xi has successfully obstacles that he has to deal with is the fact, “persuaded” Cambodia to dismiss the although seems to be powerful, he is still a agenda to discuss the issue of overlapping leader emerged as the result of compromise claims in the South China Sea at the ASEAN among factions within the CCP. summit recently. Consequently, decision making will take But, if this policy is maintained, more time since it has to be discussed neighboring countries who strongly among factions. support the agenda, especially Vietnam and So, how should Xi Jinping, as the new the Philippines, will certainly turn to the leader, face public pressure in China’s US. China gain the image of a big country conflict with Southeast Asian countries and that wants to restore its hegemony in the Japan over overlapping claims in the South Southern Hemisphere. China Sea and East China Sea? In A confrontational attitude would also be accordance with the principle of collective contrary to the principle of peaceful rising leadership and the principle of propagated since China's rise to "consultation and consensus", in all issues, , both in terms of military and both domestic and international, he must economic power. The principle states that obtain the of both factions holding China’sascent into a world power is to seek political power today. Whatever steps Xi through the principle of peaceful takes, he must have the blessings of all the coexistence with other countries, not to factions and because he has only been in practice hegemony. The situation in China this new leadership, Xi needs time to spread faced by Xi Jinping regarding the role of ideology is reflected in an ancient saying:

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