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Birds of Prey of

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Birds of Prey of Georgia

Tbilisi 2013

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2 ილიას სახელმწიფო უნივერსიტეტის ზოოლოგიის ინსტიტუტი Institute of Zoology Ilia State University

Alexander Abuladze ალექსანდრე აბულაძე

Birds of Prey of Georgia საქართველოს მტაცებელი ფრინველები

Materials towards a Fauna of Georgia Issue VI

ნაშრომი დაფინანსებულია შოთა რუსთაველის ეროვნული სამეცნიერო ფონდის მიერ. გრანტი № 1-201

Tbilisi 2013

3 UDC 598.2|9 ა -206

© A.Abuladze ა.აბულაძე

Printing House “Lasha Khvichia”, 2013 გამომცემლობა „ლაშა ხვიჩია“, 2013 Tbilisi, 0102, Tsinamdzgvrishvili Str. 24/11, : 295 31 60, e-mail: [email protected] თბილისი, 0102, მ. წინამძღვრიშვილის ქ. 24/11

ISBN 978-9941-0-5397-9

4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENS

The beginning of the research of Birds of Prey in Georgia and Caucasus was initiated in 1972 by my Mentor Professor Vladimir Flint (1924-2004), an outstanding Russian ornithologist, zoologist and conservationist, Member of the International Ornithological Committee, Honorary Life Member of the British Ornithologists’ Union, and First Honorary President of the Russian Bird Conservation Union. All the field works within the limits of Georgia, expeditions to Northern Caucasus, and Armenia, as well as participation in numerous ornithological conferences, congress, workshops, meetings, visits and work with collections in various zoological and Nature History museums, ringing centers, libraries, trainings, etc. from 1973 till 1992 and in 2009–2012 were supported by the Institute of Zoology of Academy of Science of Georgia, later – of Ilia State University. During all stages of my researches great support was given by the former Director of the Institute of Zoology in 1970’s-1980’s, Academician, Professor, Dr. Boris Kurashvili (1912-2007). Special great thanks are given to my Mentor, Colleague and old good friend - Professor Dr. Vladimir Galushin for great help on the all stages of work, scientific consultations and helpful recommendations. I would like to thank my friends, former researchers from Institute of Zoology of the Georgian Academy of Sciencie, (Ilia State Unuversity) Benjamin Eligulashvili, living presently in Eilat, Israel and Georgi Rostiashvili, living in Moscow, Russia, for their field assistance in all fieldworks, carried out in 1980’s. I am very thankful to my colleagues and friends Andrei Kandaurov and Alexander Bukhnikashvili for great help on the all stages of work, including active participation in field works, collecting of data, comments on the manuscript, editing and preparing of materials for publishing. Special complements should be addressed to my colleagues and good friends Dr. Lena Lebedeva-Hoft (The Netherlands) and Jevgeni Shergalin for his help in translating of some parts of text and making my English more readable and for valuable critical comments and helpful consultations. Arthur Green (The Hawk Migration Association of North America) is thanked for correcting the English in manuscript. Also, I am grateful to Dr. Evgeni Koblik, ornithologist from Zoological Museum of Moscow State University for his drawing used for cover illustration. I wish thank Giorgi Beruchashvili (WWF Caucasus Programme Office, Tbilisi, Georgia) who prepared two maps for this book. I also think Mzia Kokhia and Nino Beltadze, who helped in work during preparing of collected materials and analyses of literature.

5 In 1970’s – 1980’s field works in many regions and provinces of Georgia and Caucasus (, Ajaria, , Samegrelo, , , , , Gudamakari, , , Truso gorge, -Table land, Djavakheti Upland, Nature Reserves of North Caucasus, Talysh Mountains, Zuvand, Shirvan and Gobustan semi- deserts and Nature Reserves in Azerbaijan, Khosrov Nature Reserve northern Armenia, etc.) were carried out together with my colleagues and friend - researchers from the Institute of Zoology of Academy of Sciences of Georgia (presently of Ilia State University) – Severian Kokhia, Vakhtang Pitskhelauri, Valeri Negmedzianov, Eristo Kvavadze, Mzia Kokhia, Georgi Bakhtadze, Edisher Tskahdaia, Gia Edisherashvili, Galina Enukidze, Severian Salakaia, Yuri Verba, Revaz Janashvili, Nodari Kavtaradze, Alexi Arabuli, Edisher Jankarashvili. In 1975 – 1980 a series of field works in sources of River, in Pshavi, Khevsureti, at Ridge, Iori Table-land and in Abkhazia were conducted in co-operation with Georgian zoologists Arnoldi Gegechkori, Michail Perov and Mikhail Bakradze (Tbilisi State University). In 1977-1978 field work in , Tacha, Khevsureti, Pshavi, Gudamakari, Mtiuledti, and provinces were conducted in assistance with Gvanji Mania and Tite Chikovani. Prey remains were identified mostly by the researchers of the Institute of Zoology. Osteological materials of mammals were identified by Severian Kokhia, Irina Morgilevskaya, Galina Enukidze, Tina Begelauri and Alexi Arabuli, remains of reptiles and amphibians were identified by Teimuraz Muskheliushvili, Vakhtang Pitskhelauri, Valery Negmedzianov, fish remains – by Rostom Elanidze and Mikheil Demetrashvili, invertebrates by Avtandil Cholokava, Nadezhda Japaridze, Gans Rekk, Nino Rekk, Madlena Jambazishvili, Lamara Gurgenidze, Eristo Kvavadze, Edisher Tskhadaia. In 1980’s practically all pellets and prey remains were collected and developed by my assistant and good friend, late Alexander Mtatsmindeli (1963-2012). The summarized data on numbers of raptors, trapped in Ajaria and some site of Guria Region by “bazieri” – local falconers, were provided regularly in 1979–1991 by Chairman of the Association of hunting birds of Georgia, late Mr. Givi Chogovadze. Additional data were provided by several falconers from Ajaria, Abkhazia, of Samegrelo, Imereti, and Tbilisi (Abduli Bagratishvili, Ramiz Beridze, Mevludi Sarkhanidze, Ioseb Jgamadze, Givi Nodia, Gogi Vacheishvili, David Tsarielashvili). The ringing data and general information on the numbers of killed by poachers raptors in country were provided in 1970’s-1980’s by late Mr. Levan Guniava – former Deputy Chairman of the “Monkavshiri”, Hanter’s Society of Georgia. In 1973 – 1979, the similar data, collected at the territories of Army Game farms in Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan were provided by huntsman of the All-Army Military-

6 Hunters Society and the Regional Council of the Trans-Caucasian Military Region, late Mr. Donat S. Tsygankov. From 1977 to 1986 the data on raptor mortality due to electrocution and due to collisions with power lines at the territory of Georgia were regularly provided by regional branches of the Ministry of Energetic. I thank the some foundations, in first turn International Scientific Foundation, National Scientific Foundation, George Soros Foundation, WWF, BirdLife International, UNESCO Scientific Programme “Man and Biosphere”, Deutsche Naturschutzbund for financial support, enabling me to participate in the conference, workshops and meetings as well as visits in various museums, libraries. In 1994-1995 field works were carried out with the help of the grant from George Soros Foundation. In 1992-1993 the field works in Caucasus, participation in some conferences and workshops, visits in museums, libraries ringing centers has been sponsored by my colleague and friend, former researcher from the Institute of Zoology of Georgia, Georgi Rostiashvili. I am grateful to Dr. Yuri Milobog (Krivyi Rih State University, Ukraine) for financial support, enabling me to participate in the conferences on Birds of Prey and Owls in Ukraine in 2008 and 2012. During the collecting of data within the limits of various protected areas great help and field assistance were provided by many colleagues in Nature Reserves and other protected areas in Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Northern Caucasus of Russia. In Georgia these persons were: Shota Eriashvili, Irakli Shavliashvili and Pavel Akimenko (Lagodekhi Nature Reserve), Teimuraz Baratashvili (Borjomi Nature Reserve, Ridge, Surami Ridge, Chachuna Game Reserve), Jumberi Jobava (Kintrishi Nature Reserve), Zaal Sikharulidze (Saguramo Nature Reserve), Paata Khumarashvili, Viktor Zaldastanishvili, Jondo Vasadze, Gocha Tsotskhalashvili (Vashlovani Nature Reserve), Kote Tsikhiseli (Chachuna Managed Reserve), Tariel Kapanadze (Gardabani Managed Reserve); in Russia – Dr. Petr Tilba (Caucasian Biosphere Nature Reserve), Dr. Vladimir Polivanov, Anatoli Vitovich (Teberda Nature Reserve ); in Armenia - Boris Geilikman, Armen Unanian (Khosrov Nature Reserve); in Azerbaijan – Raisa Abdullaeva (Zakatala Nature Reserve), Kyamal Damirov (Mingechaur meteorological station). Field works has been possible thanks to great help, assistance, hospitality and support of the many persons living in areas where field works has been conducted. These persons were – Shota Giorgadze (Prone River valley, Akhalgori and Znauri districts, Shida Region), Artur Grigorian and Revaz Chumburidze (Kumisi Lake, , Krtsanisi Dendropark, Iaghluja Ridge), Temuri Siradze (Akhaldaba Forestry and Borjomi Gorge), Teimuraz Piliev (Truso gorge, Tergi River sources), Evgeni Voronin ( valley, Ritsa Lake, Yupshara River Gorge, Avadkhara area, Gudauta 7 district in Abkhazia), Igor Chernikov (Djavakheti Upland, Tabatskuri Lake), former researcher from Tbilisi State University Dmitri Kobets (Gombori Ridge), Yuri Lefterov, Boris Spirov and Valeri Spirov (Tsalka district), Gia Abuladze (Khanistskali River gorge, Sairme, Zekari Pass), Vasili Krikunov (Madatapa, Bugdasheni, Khanchali lakes), Nikolai Anastasiadi ( Batumi, Ajaria), Abduli Bagratishvili and Ramiz Beridze (Mtsvane Kontskhi, Ajaria), Gogi Vacheishvili (Chokhatauri, Guria Region), Vakhtang Zhordania (Upper Abkhazia), Tamaz Karapetian (Samtskhe-Djavakheti Region), Valeri Pakeliani (Svaneti). Bird-lovers and amateur naturalists Grigori Korzhenevskii, Pavle Rostomashvili, Alexander Gertsvolf, Yevgeni Kashta, Rostislav Shilov, Alexander Goderidze regularly participated in our field works and counts of wintering and migrating raptors in Georgia. Besides that, numerous inspectors of regional branches of the former State Committee of Nature Protection, game managers, huntmans and inspectors from the former Department of Nature Reserves and Hunting Industry of Georgia, regularly participated in surveys carried out in 1970’s–1980’s. For the collecting of statistical data, regarding to raptors mortality, in 1978–1985 special questionnaires were prepared and distributed to all regions, Autonomous Republics and districts of Georgia, to all regional inspectors of State Nature Conservation Committee, zoologists in Nature Reserves, regional branches of hunters and falconers societies, universities, pedagogical institutes, colleges, nature history museums, as well as to local amateur naturalists, bird-lovers and school teachers. Totally more than 8700 copies were distributed during seven years. Appeals to participate in the counting works along with instructions were published in central and local newspapers, journals, information was distributed also via radio and TV. As a result about 520 responses, including detailed information on number of raptors, killed by poachers, died on power lines, trapped by falconers, poisoned by chemicals, etc. were received, altogether giving data on more than 3300 death cases of 19 species of birds of prey, that was great help for better understanding of threats and limiting factors.

8 PREFACE The present book is a brief survey of the existing knowledge of Birds of Prey of Georgia. Materials presented in this book are the results of the 40 years of complex studies of birds of prey in Georgia as well as in adjacent parts of Southern Caucasus and in some regions of Northern Caucasus, carried out since 1973. The current publication will be the first in the series on the Birds of Prey of Georgia. In this book we are going to concentrate mostly on breeding raptor specie. The structure of the current issue does not present information on all the species in equal proportions as the special issue will be published on migrations and wintering of Birds of Prey in Georgia. The basic volume of materials on species, which are considered as transit migrants and winter visitors will be presented separately for each species. The patterns of the seasonal migrations of Birds of Prey across Georgia will be presented in the next issue, which is under finally preparation at present. Besides that, another separate issue will be dedicated to wintering of raptors within the limits of Georgia. The results of 40 years investigations of four vulture species (Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus, Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus, Eurasian Griffon Gyps fulvus and Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus), which were collected in the whole Caucasus from the middle of 1970’s till early of 1990’s with an additional materials collected during last 15 years, also will be summarized, analyzed and presented to interested parties in the separate forthcoming issue. One more separate issue from this series, which is under preparation, comprises of the materials on the falconry in Georgia, its past and present, as well as possible directions of the development and regulation of falconry in country. Finally, the last issue in the series will be dedicated to analyses of threats and limiting factors for Birds of Prey in Georgia as well as in adjacent regions of the Caucasus, importance of this region for raptors and problems of conservation. Birds of prey of Georgia Georgia has a rich and varied Avifauna and diurnal Birds of Prey Falconiformes are no exception. 40 species have been recorded Georgia, with a territory of 69700 sq.km, that is a very rich diversity for such a small area. Based on the analysis of data systematically collected during last 40 years the main results of complex study of raptors in Georgia and in adjacent regions of the Caucasus are presented. Monitoring of breeding populations, populations of migrating raptors using the counts in migration corridors and monitoring of wintering raptors during National surveys were started in 1975. One of the basic aims of the project was to get information on breeding raptors’ numbers and 9 population trends needed for the conservation of Birds of Prey. The main volume of data, regarding on regional patterns of breeding biology, were collected in 1977–1991. 40 raptor species were registered at the territory of country since 1975, 34 species are considered as regular elements, while 6 species are vagrant. In the 20th Century breeding was confirmed for 28 species, but, unfortunately, 2 species - Osprey and Lesser Kestrel extirpated as a regular breeders. 3 species should be considered as occasional breeders The basic data on species composition, status of presence, numbers and population trends for last four decades are presented in Table 1 and Table 2. More detailed information is presented lower in species accounts in separate reviews for each recorded raptor species. Table 1. Species composition and status of presence of Birds of Prey in Georgia Abbreviations: YR-R - (year-round resident); SB - (summer breeder, migratory); OB - (occasional breeder); FB - (former breeder); PM - (passage migrant); WV - (winter visitor), OV - (occasional visitor, vagrant) N Raptor species Status of presence 1 European Honney-buzzard, Pernis apivorus SB, PM 2 Crested Honney-buzzard (Oriental), OV Pernis ptylorhynchus 3 Black Kite, Milvus migrans YR-R, PM, WV 4 Red Kite, Milvus milvus OV 5 Pallas’s Fish Eagle, Haliaeetus leucoryphus OV 6 White-tailed Sea Eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla YR-R, PM, WV 7 Bearded Vulture (Lammergeier), YR-R Gypaetus barbatus 8 Egyptian Vulture, Neophron percnopterus SB, PM 9 Eurasian Griffon Vulture, Gyps fulvus YR-R 10 Cinereous Vulture, Aegypius monachus YR-R 11 Short-toed Eagle, Circaetus gallicus SB, PM 12 Western Marsh Harrier, Circus aeruginosus YR-R, PM, WV 13 Northern Harrier (Hen Harrier), Circus cyaneus PM,WV 14 Pallid Harrier, Circus macrourus PM, WVoccasional 15 Montagu’s Harrier, Circus pygargus SB, PM 16 , Accipiter gentilis YR-R, PM, WV 17 , Accipiter nisus YR-R, PM, WV 18 Levant Sparrowhawk, Accipiter brevipes SB, PM 19 Shikra, Accipiter badius OV 20 Eurasian (Common) Buzzard, Buteo buteo YR-R, PM, WV 21 Long-legged Buzzard, Buteo rufinus YR-R, PM, WV 22 Rough-legged Buzzard, Buteo lagopus PM, WV 23 Lesser Spotted Eagle, Aquila pomarina SB, PM 10 N Raptor species Status of presence 24 Greater Spotted Eagle, Aquila clanga PM, WV 25 Steppe Eagle, Aquila nipalensis SV, PM, WV 26 , Aquila heliaca YR-R, PM, WV 27 Golden Eagle, Aquila chrysaetos YR-R 28 Bonelli’s Eagle, Hieraaetus fasciatus SB, OV 29 Booted Eagle, Hieraaetus pennatus SB, PM 30 Osprey, Pandion haliaetus PM, WV?, FB 31 Lesser Kestrel, Falco naumanni PM, FB 32 Eurasian (Common) Kestrel, Falco tinnunculus YR-R, PM, WV 33 Red-footed Falcon, Falco vespertinus OB, PM 34 Merlin, Falco columbarius PM,WV 35 Eurasian Hobby, Falco subbuteo SB, PM 36 Eleonora’s Falcon, Falco eleonorae OV 37 Lanner Falcon, Falco biarmicus OB, YR-R 38 Saker Falcon, Falco cherrug OB, PM, WV 39 Peregrine Falcon, Falco peregrinus YR-R, PM, WV 40 Gyr Falcon, Falco rusticollis OV (old data)

Table 2. Numbers and population trends of Birds of Prey in Georgia in 1975-2012 Abbreviations and signs: ↔ stable, ↑ increased, ↓ decreased, ● (1956) – extirpated as breeding species (year of last known breeding), ? – no factual data.

Numbers of breeding pairs

N Species Years Trend 1975-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2012 1 Pernis apivorus 20-40 35+ 100-300 200-450 ↑ 2 Milvus migrans 900-1100 600-800 500-700 400-500 ↓ 3 Haliaeetus albicilla 0 0 1-2 2-3 ↑ 4 Gypaetus barbatus 20-25 21-23(25) 18-22 20-22 ↔ Neophron 5 90-100 100-120 100-120 105-110 ↔ percnopterus 6 Gyps fulvus 34-71 56-91 44-61 40-45 ↓ 7 Aegypius monachus 10-15 11-17 10-15 9-14 ↓ 8 Circaetus gallicus 4-7 5-10 12-14 15-20(25) ↑ 9 Circus aeruginosus 60-80 45-60 75-100 110-130 ↑ 10 Circus pygargus 0 0 ? 15-30 ↑ 11 Accipiter gentilis 200-225 220-235 220-250 240-250 ↔ 12 Accipiter nisus 400-550 500-600 500-750 750-800 ↑ 13 Accipiter brevipes 0 0 15-20 45-60 ↑ 14 Buteo buteo 1300-2000 1300-1700 1200-1800 1250-1600 ↔ 15 Buteo rufinus 50-60 40+ 45-50 55-60 ↔

11 Numbers of breeding pairs

N Species Years Trend 1975-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2012 16 Aquila pomarina 85-100 75-85 70-80 60-75 ↓ 17 Aquila heliaca 5-10 7-11 15-20 30-35(40) ↑ 18 Aquila chrysaetos 20-25 20-25 25-30 25-30(35) ↔ 19 Hieraaetus fasciatus 0 1 case 1? ? ? 20 Hieraaetus pennatus 130-145 120-140 80-120 70-100 ↓ 21 Pandion haliaetus 0 0 0 0 ● 1957 11(1995); 600-700 22 Falco naumanni 250-600 97 (1994); 0(?) ● 1996 (800) 115 (1991) 23 Falco tinnunculus 1500-2500 1200-1800 1500-2000 1500-2000 ↔ (↓) 24 Falco vespertinus 0 0 0 1 case ? 25 Falco subbuteo 300-350 275-320 250-300 230-250 ↔ (↓) 26 Falco biarmicus ? 1-2 1(2) ? ? 27 Falco cherrug 0 0 0 1 (?) ? 28 Falco peregrinus 0 2-5 15-25 35-80 ↑ Migrations of birds of brey through georgia According to data systematically collected since 1973, 35 raptor species were recorded during passages within the limits of study area. 28 species are regular typical migrants: European Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus), Black Kite (Milvus migrans), White-tailed Sea Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus), Short-toed Eagle (Circaetus gallicus), Marsh Harrier (Circus aeruginosus), Hen Harrier (Circus cyaneus), Pallid Harrier (Circus macrourus), Montagu’s Harrier (Circus pygargus), Goshawk (Accipiter gentiles), Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), Levant Sparrohawk (Accipiter brevipes), Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo), Long-legged Buzzard (Buteo rufinus), Rough-legged Buzzard (Buteo lagopus), Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina), Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga), Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca), Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis), Booted Eagle (Hieraetus pennatus), Osprey (Pandion haliaetus), Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni), Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), Red-footed Falcon (Falco vespertinus), Merlin (Falco columbarius), Hobby (Falco subbuteo), Saker (Falco cherrug), Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus). Six species - Crested (Oriental) Honey Buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchuson), Red Kite (Milvus milvus), Shikra (Accipiter badius), Bonelli’s Eagle (Hieraaetus fasciatus), Lanner (Falco biarmicus) and Eleonorae’s Falcon (Falco eleonorae) are occasional passage visitors. Two species – Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) and Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetus) are typical year-round residents with local altitudinal movements outside of breeding period. Two other species 12 Eurasian Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) and Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) are nomadic species with wide movements outside of breeding seasons; their movements on long distance are caused generally by a presence of food resources in concrete regions. The territory of Georgia has a special importance for migrating raptors because of its specific location on the cross-roads between Europe and Asia on the way from breeding grounds in Fenno- Scandinavia, European Russia, Ural, West Siberia and Kazakhstan to the Mediterranean, the Middle East, African and South Caucasian wintering grounds. The most important fly-ways and “bottle-necks” in Georgia are: Eastern fly-way with a well known “Batumi bottle-neck” (up to 1000000 individuals of 34 species); “Mtkvari valley” (250000+, 26 spp.)’ “” (150000-200000+, at least 24 spp.); “Central Caucasian or ” (200000+, at least 25 spp.), several sites at watershed areas at Main Caucasian Ridge. Black Sea Eastern coastlands have a specific importance for migrating raptors. Particularly intensive is the autumn passage with three well- distinguished waves. During last decade up to 2,000,000 individuals of 35 raptor species per autumn season and up to 700,000 individuals of 34 species per spring were considered to migrate across Georgia. Especially three raptor species are widespread and very numerous fall migrants - Honey Buzzard (250,000-700,000 individuals per season), Common Buzzard (200,000-600,000) and Black Kite (80,000-170,000). During the last two decades (since the middle of 1990’s) the numbers of migrating birds of prey has increased, but numbers of Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) and Saker (Falco cherrug) has decreased. The main threat is illegal shooting of migratory raptors; the practices of hawks and large falcons trapping for falconry also present one of the major raptors conservation problems in Georgia. Wintering of birds of prey in georgia The territory of Georgia has a specific importance for wintering raptors, which are presented by 23 species. 18 species may be classified as regular winter visitors, 3 species are irregular winter visitors and 2 raptor species as occasional winterers. The total numbers of wintering raptors greatly fluctuated from 4,400 in hard, cold, snowy winters to 14,700 in mild, warm, snowless winters and directly correlated with the concrete general meteorological situation in surrounding regions, especially in foothills and steppes of North Caucasus, lower parts of Don River and Volga River valleys. Raptors are distributed at wintering habitats unevenly and prefer areas, favorable from point of view of food resources abundance and prey getting conditions. The most preferred wintering habitats are located in areas with warm and snowless winters, 13 especially at western parts of Kolkheti Lowland, Black Sea coastlands, in lower parts of large rivers’ valleys of Black Sea basin (, Inguri, , Bzypi, , , Chorokhi rivers) and basin (Mtkvari, Iori, Alazani, rivers), around the non-freezing large lakes, at Iori Plateau, in semi-deserts of south-eastern areas, at Kartli Plain. The vertical limits of wintering habitats are 0–1000 meters above sea level, usually up to 600 meters above sea level. Solitary wintering raptors (goshawks, sparrowhawks, harriers, peregrines) were recorded in warm winters higher – up to 1700 meters above sea level. Sometimes wintering conditions are more favorable in anthropogenic landscapes, than in wild habitats (stable food resources, low level of weather impact, hampering feeding). Usually birds are concentrated in mosaic biotopes, thickly alternated by small forests, which are used as shelters against bad weather and night roosts. The Kolkheti Lowland should be considered as the most important wintering area, holding up to 60-70% of the wintering raptors, Black Sea coastal lowlands in Abkhazia and Ajaria hold up to 10-15%; other areas hold 15-30%. Highest numbers of wintering in Georgia birds of prey occurred from the late December to late February with a maximum in late January – first half of February. Black Kite always was by far the most numerous wintering raptor species to Georgia (from 3000 to 12000 individuals). It has adapted to almost all lowland landscapes. Hen Harrier practically in all winters dominated in Eastern Georgia (600 to 1700 individuals). The order Falconiformes is a group of about 290 species of birds that comprises the diurnal Birds of Prey. According to the latest data the Avifauna of Georgia includes a total of 40 species of Birds of Prey or about 13.8% of all Falconiformes species. The following is the List of Birds of Prey of Georgia: ORDER: FALCONIFORMES - Birds of Prey (Diurnal Raptors) I.FAMILY Pandionidae - Ospreys The Pandionidae family contains only one species, the Osprey. The Osprey is a medium large raptor which is a specialist fish-eater with a worldwide distribution. 1.Osprey Pandion haliaetus II.FAMILY: Accipitridae - Hawks, Kites and Eagles Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey and include hawks, eagles, kites, harriers and Old World vultures. These birds have powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons, and keen eyesight. There are 233 species worldwide and 29 species (about 12.45%) which were recorded in Georgia. 2.European Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus

14 3.Oriental Honey-buzzard Pernis ptilorhynchus 4.Red Kite Milvus milvus 5.Black Kite Milvus migrans 6.White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla 7.Pallas’s Fish eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus 8.Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus 9.Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus 10. Eurasian Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus 11. Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus 12. Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus 13. Western Marsh-Harrier Circus aeruginosus 14. Northern (Hen) Harrier Circus cyaneus 15. Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus 16. Montagu's Harrier Circus pygargus 17. Shikra Accipiter badius 18. Levant Sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes 19. Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus 20. Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis 21. Eurasian Buzzard Buteo buteo 22. Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus 23. Rough-legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus 24. Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina 25. Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga 26. Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis 27. Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca 28. Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos 29. Bonelli's Eagle Aquila fasciatus 30. Booted Eagle Aquila pennatus FAMILY: Falconidae - Falcons Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles, and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their feet. There are 62 species worldwide and 10 species (or about 16.13%) which were recorded at the territory of Georgia. 31. Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni 32. Eurasian Kestrel Falco tinnunculus

15 33. Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus 34. Eleonora's Falcon Falco eleonorae 35. Merlin Falco columbarius 36. Eurasian Hobby Falco subbuteo 37. Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus 38. Saker Falcon Falco cherrug 39. Gyr Falcon Falco rusticolus 40. Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrines Species accounts The species accounts are presented in the systematic order according to the Clement’s 6th edition (The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World. 6th Edition. 2012. Clements, James F., Diamond, J. (Preface); White, A. (Foreword); Fitzpatrick, J.W. (Introduction)//Cornell University Press. 855 pages, 8 1/2 x 11, 2 tables. ISBN: 0-8014-4501-9) The separate accounts provide the following basic data: - Common (English) names, scientific (Latin) names for species and subspecies, Georgian names. The Georgian names of raptors are based mostly on the book of Dr. Mironis Kutubidze “Birds nomenclature terminology, 1975”. In several cases synonyms or parallel common- English and Georgian names are added in brackets while the first name is preferred. - Status of presence at the territory of country; - Distribution in Georgia and habitat selection – data on territorial distribution in Georgia and habitats in which raptors are occured; - Population size – number of pairs with known population trends. This data based mainly on the Author’s own long-term studies, but all opinions, suggestions, remarks of Georgian ornithologists were taken into account; - General data on breeding biology – dates of arrival and departure, nest-sites selection, description of nests, egg-laying, duration of incubation, fledging, size of clutches, eggs, diets, etc. are presented; - Brief description of seasonal movements and wintering – the times of transit migration of passage visitors, their numbers, migration phenology, some details of passages as well as data on wintering are given; - Threats and limiting factors; - Conservation status. For occasional visitors list of known records are given with information on dates, localities, numbers of observed individuals, etc.

16 ORDER: FALCONIFORMES - Birds of Prey (Diurnal Raptors)

FAMILY PANDIONIDAE - OSPREYS

Osprey Pandion haliaetus Subspecies Pandion haliaetus haliaetus occurs in Georgia Georgian name: შაკი Transcription: [shaki] The Osprey is one of the most widespread birds of prey, it occurs on every continent except Antarctica. Worldwide four subspecies are recognized. In Europe only subspecies Pandion haliaetus haliaetus occurs. The European population was estimated at 7500 to 11000 breeding pairs, of which more than 80% were in Scandinavian countries and eastern part of Europe, especially in Sweden, NW Russia and Finland. Status of presence: Formerly nested, but extirpated as a breeding species. At present Osprey is widespread and regular, but very rare passage visitor. The Osprey is an occasional winter visitor to Georgia; solitary individuals several times were recorded at the Black Sea shores in extreme mild winters. Formerly, before the end 1930’s – beginning of 1940’s, Osprey was a local breeder in small numbers at coastal lowlands along the Black Sea coast and at western part of Kolkheti Lowland – on various in flood-plains of some large rivers, on banks of large lakes. The Osprey extirpated as a regular breeding species in the territory of Georgia in the middle of 20th Century. No nests known since the end of 1950’s. Last occupied nest was known on bank of Inkit Lake in Abkhazia in 1958 (Bernatski, 1958). The analyses of materials published in the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries help us to restore the former range of the breeding distribution of Osprey in Georgia. According to Konstantin Satunin this raptor species was “widely distributed over the whole Caucasus and in a number is recorded in all water-bodies rich by fish” (Satunin, 1907). Modest Bogdanov mentioned on the breeding at banks of Rioni River and Mtkvari River (Bogdanov, 1879). Ignati Mikhalovskii reported on the records of Osprey in summer 1878 near , where it “… was soaring often over Rioni River …”, “… near Akhaltsikhe town along banks of Potskhovi River and over (Mtkvari) River near Surami village …“ (Mikhailovskii, 1879). Gustav Radde observed “… every year numerous breeding pairs along the Mtkvari River near Borjomi, on River and in lower part of Rioni River…“ (Radde, 1884). Anton Guldenstdedt recorded breeding Ospreys on Rioni River much earlier – in the 1771-1772’s (Güldenstädt, 1787). This species was 17 recorded by Nikolai Dinnik for the upper parts of Rioni River in the 1880’s (Dinnik, 1884). Theodor Vil’konskii informed that Osprey in the middle of 1890’s was “… a common breeding raptor species in Ajaria and Guria … “. Their nests were discovered near Gonio village, along the banks of Chorokhi River, Ajaristskali River near Koda, River, River. According to this Author, at the same period this species already extirpated at Paliastomi Lake and in lower part of Rioni River valley (Vil’konskii, 1897). The breeding of Osprey in 1862 on Khrami River was recorded by Filippo di Filippi (Filippo di Filippi, 1865), but Yevgeni Tsvetkov conducted permanent observation here in 1890’s, already did not record this species on breeding (Tsvetkov, 1901). An analyzes of the historical data allows suggest that before the beginning of the 20th Century the Osprey was widespread and regularly breeding raptor species for some regions of Georgia. Taking into account the patterns of habitat selection and breeding biology of Osprey, it can be supposed, that the most optimal conditions existed then along the banks in lower parts of large and medium sized river’s valleys of the Black Sea basin – Rioni River, Inguri River, Chorokhi River, Ajaristskali River, Kintrishi River, Supsa River, Natanebi River, Khobi River, Bzypi River, Gumista River, Kelasuri River and some large rivers of the Caspian Sea basin – Mtkvari River and its tributaries. There are not exact data on the beginning of the Osprey disappearance and numbers reduce in Georgia. It can be assumed that it happened in the 1920’s – 1930’s as a result of rapidly increasing human activities. It should be mentioned that in Georgia, where the peculiarities of relief limit the possibility of of some forms of economical activities. In the first turn, particularly natural habitats on lowlands - coastal wetlands, flood-lands of rivers, lakes, were transformed i.e. the most preferred breeding habitats of Osprey. The wide-scale meliorative works were conducted here, considerable by area forest massifs were logged. After construction of dambs on series of rivers the fish reserves were reduced considerably, that undermined the food base for Osprey. As a result of powerful increase of human population the level of the human disturbance increased too. In the 1930’s the organzed exterminatuion of birds was begun that lasted up to the 1970’s. The use of pesticides played an important role. Prolonged and increasing effect of these limiting factors for Osprey led to the population decline and later to the complete disappearance of the species in Avifauna of Georgia. It should be noted that the in the Red Data Book of Georgian SSR, published in 1982, the Osprey was mentioned as a breeding to Georgia “on lakes of Djavakheti Upland, Ertso Lake, Paliastomi Lake and in Chorokhi River mouth”. Naturally, during field works, specific attention was paid to above listed areas. But in these areas, as well as in other 18 parts of country, the Osprey was recorded only during seasonal passages and if in the Paliastomi Lake basin and Chorokhi River mouth this raptor is regular transit migrant in spring and autumn, then at the lakes and wetlands of Djavakheti Upland and Ertso Lake, the Osprey undoubtedly should be considered as a very rare accidental visitor. The absence of the Osprey on breeding on Ertso Lake is quite understandable, because there are no fish in the lake. Besides that, the shores of the Ertso Lake and lakes of Djavakheti Upland in mountain steppes of the Lesser Caucasus are completely tree-less and that does not give an opportunity for Osprey to breed here. Undoubtedly, the information on the breeding of Osprey in the above listed areas, should be considered as an erroneous. During 40 years of field works carried out by Author in the territory of Georgia, the Osprey in summer was recorded only one time – on July 8, 1983 on bank of Kintrishi River in about 3 km of river mouth, SE vicinities of , Ajaria. Habitats: The Osprey recorded during seasonal movements on the Black Sea shore, on large lakes, fish-ponds, reservoirs, along the large deep rivers at sites with a regular supply of large fishes. Seasonal movements: The Osprey is widespread, regular, but very rare passage migrant across country (Abuladze, Kandaurov, Eligulashvili, 2011; Cel’min’sh, Bergmanis, 1990; Paakinen, Rantanen, Rantanen, 1981; Sojamo, 1982; Sojamo, 1983; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011). It is known, that in contrast to peculiarities of migration of majority of raptor species, the Osprey passage goes by wide front. By opinion of many researchers just this peciluarity explains a low number of Osprey during the count of migrating birds of prey on fly-ways and in bottle- necks from the constant count-points. The similar data were collected and in Georgia – the average number of counted Ospreys compiled in the average from 0.163-1.660 individuals per one day of counts, and their part of the total number of migratory birds of prey was quite insignificant. This raptor is a more common during the autumn passage, less in spring. Migrating Ospreys occur mainly on the Black Sea shore, coastal lowlands, wetlands of Kolkheti Lowland, in the lower parts of large deep rivers valleys (Rioni, Inguri, Chorokhi, Khobi, Bzypi, , Natanebi rivers), on lakes, fish-ponds, reservoirs, occasionally on alpine lakes of Javakheti Upland, on wetlands of the eastern part of country (Abuladze, 1985b). At the same time, vagrant individuals were recorded in very unusual habitats – in Udabno and Eldari semi-deserts (2 records), in the watershed areas and on passes (Klukhori, Mamisoni and Jvari), in Tergi River and Aragvi River valleys in highlands of the Main Caucasian Ridge and its spurs (7 records), in the watershed areas of

19 Trialeti Ridge, Meskheti Ridge and Arsiani Ridge at Lesser Caucasus (3 records), in mountain steppes of Djavakheti Upland (2 records), in Tsalka Hollow (1 record). Up to 95% of all migrating Ospreys, observed in country from 1973 to 2012, were recorded in Western Georgia, i.e. in the Black Sea basin, mainly along the sea coast, rarely on coastal wetlands. In Eastern Georgia, or in the Caspian Sea basin, this species should be classified as an occasional visitor. Most of records in this part of Georgia were in autumn at large lakes and reservoirs. According to the ringing data (n = 4), birds from Sweden, Finland and NW part of Russia migrate through Georgia. Spring passage usually takes place from the middle of March through the late April, with a more-or-less visible peak in early April. First observations of spring transients were between March 7, 1981 and March 19, 1999 at the Black Sea coast; last transient individuals were observed on April 28, 1991, April 30, 2010 and May 1, 1995. At least 2/3 of total migrating across Georgia in spring Ospreys, were counted in the late March – first week of April. The spring migration goes through in a more dense dates, birds seldom stay for several hours at sites favourable for feeding. The autumn migration is distinct by a bigger intensity, while its dates are more extended. Autumn transit runs from middle of August to middle of November. Earliest transients were recorded on the Black sea coast and coastal wetlands on August 14, August 17 and August 18, usually from August 25-30. The latest transients typically were observed in the last week of October, with solitary individuals recorded up to the second half of November on the Black Sea shore and coastal wetlands (November 19, 1982 and November 21, 1995). At least ¾ of migrants were counted in the second half of September – first half of October, with a slowly visible peak in the last days of September. From 300 to 500 individuals were considered to migrate per autumn season, mostly along the Black Sea coast and various coastal wetlands. Always solitary migrating individuals were recorded, never observed in flocks. But, birds, if they are not disturbed, can stay for several days at sites suitable for feeding (river mouths, lakes). So, several times 2-3 Ospreys simultaneously were watched in some halting places on the Black Sea costal wetlands – on Inkit Lake in Pitsunda Cap, Abkhazia, on Paliastomi Lake, on fish-ponds south of Batumi, Khidmaghala and on Narionali lakes (Japana fish-ponds), Guria Region. Threats: The habitat destruction and transformation due to drainage of coastal wetlands, high level of human disturbance in suitable breeding habitats, cutting of trees that Ospreys can use for their nests in the 1930’s-1950’s, using of DDT and some other heavy pollutants in the 1950’s-1960’s together with shooting were the major threats to species. 20 Illegal shooting was a serious problem for Ospreys migrating through Georgia (Abuladze at al., 2011d). From 1973 to 2012, at least 11 cases of illegal shooting were registered – 8 during autumn transit, 2 during spring transit and 1 in winter - on December 26, 1989, in Batumi Zoological garden the injured Osprey bird was brought, died later on the next day. This bird was shot by poacher on Kakhabery Lowland in Batumi surroundings. All these birds were shot on the Black Sea coastlands – 2 in Abkhazia, 2 in Paliastomi Lake basin, 1 in Natanebi River mouth, Guria Region and 6 in Ajaria. Conservation status: SPEC 3; CEE 1; BERNA 2; BONN II; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC) Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk. The Osprey was under legal protection in Georgia from the middle of 1960’s and was included in the 1st edition of the Red Data Book of Georgia published in 1982.

FAMILY: Accipitridae - Hawks, Kites and Eagles

2. European Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus Linnaeus, 1758 Georgian name: ჩვეულებრივი ბოლოკარკაზი [chveulebrivi bolokarkazi] Synonym ირაო - [irao] The European Honey Buzzard has a large global range, with an estimated extent of occurrence of 10,000,000 km2. The world population is estimated to be up to 1,000,000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001). This species breeds in most European countries, including Britain, southern Scandinavia, Baltic countries, Spain and the Mediterranean, the European part of Russia out to western Siberia, Turkey, the Caucasus, and Iran. This raptor is classified as completely migratory, and spends the winter in equatorial and South Africa – in Sub-Saharan areas from Guinea-Bissau to eastern Sudan and Ethiopia south to South Africa. Status of presence: The European Honey Buzzard is widespread but an uncommon migratory breeder with an extensive breeding distribution. Widespread and abundant during spring and autumn passage, it is the most numerous of any raptor species in Georgia. Distribution and habitats: Widespread throughout Georgia, but detailed range of distribution is insufficiently known. Will avoid treeless areas during breeding season. Nests predominantly in mature and middle-aged broad-leaf and mixed forests at lowlands, plains, foothills, plateaus, and in arid and semi-arid woodlands. In eastern parts of the country, recorded more frequently in mature broad-leaved forests, usually at plains and foothills in low altitudinal belts – typically from 21 400 to 700 meters above sea-level, but rarely up to 1100 meters above sea-level. Two nests were found in artificial fields enclosed by protective tree-line of poplars and acacia in 1991 and 1999 in SE part of country; one nest was found in a large dilapidated garden near southern bank of Tbilisi reservoir in 1990, N environs of Tbilisi City. For some regions of Georgia, no known records of occurrence during the breeding season, but species undoubtedly present. Population size: Once a rare breeding species in the country. Total number for Georgia in 1970’s-1980’s was unknown, perhaps a total of 50 - 70 breeding pairs (Abuladze, 1994), from which 20-40 pairs were counted in eastern part of Georgia, i.e. in Caspian Sea basin (Abuladze, 1985e). Moderate increase was recorded in the first half of the 1990s. By the second half of the 1990s, 100-300 pairs were estimated to breed in Georgia. The present breeding population (2005-2012) has been estimated at perhaps 250-450 breeding pairs with remarkable fluctuation over the years even if overall numbers have increased in recent decades (Abuladze, 2008a; Edisherashvili, 2011); according to other authors (Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005), 200-600 breeds in Georgia Like in other parts of its breeding distribution, the actual number of breeding pairs in Georgia may be some higher, but this is hard to assess given their secretive nature during the breeding season and the Honey Buzzard’s superficial similarity to Common Buzzards. Breeding biology: The first birds coming to Georgia to breed arrive at the beginning of April – the earliest record dates from 4 April in Black Sea basin and 7 April in Caspian Sea basin. Most birds arrive later – usually toward the end of April (first week of May in lowlands). Age of first breeding is not well-known. According to some published data, Honey Buzzard probably do not breed until at least three years old, with nonbreeding, younger birds remaining in Africa through the summer (Mebs, Schmidt, 2006). Can apparently breed at two years of age, but is thought to rarely do so (Bauer et al. 2005). The home range tends to be large – usually from 10 km² to 20 km² – sometimes larger, and often overlapping with the range of neighbouring pairs. The distance between pairs typically ranges from 1.7 km to about 3.0 km. The territory immediately adjacent to the nest is defended against all other raptor species. Nest building presumably starts shortly after arrival of the pair on the breeding territory. All known nests were located in trees. The nests are located on large branches of high broad-leaf trees, usually 10-15 meters above ground. Pairs normally construct new nests, but sometimes the old nests of other species are reused (e.g., Carrion Crow – 3 records, Common Buzzard – 1 record). Nest construction is done primarily by the female, who completes the task in about two weeks. 22 According to data collected by Author, clutch size is two eggs (n = 7). The female lays both eggs with a three to four day interval sometime in the second half of May. Dates of egg-laying were recorded in Georgia for four nests – 16 May and 19 May 1980; 20 May and 24 May 1981; 14 May and 17 May 1988; 24 May and 28 May 1991. The sizes of six eggs were measured from three nests: 51.5x41.0 mm and 50.5x40.3 mm; 53.0x42.0 mm and 52.5x40.5 mm; 52.0x42.0 mm and 51.5x41.5 mm; 52.0x42.3 and 51.0x41.5 mm. Incubation time spans approximately 35 days (± 2 days) and the young stay in the nest for approximately 39-45 days before fledging. Only one brood a year is raised by a pair. But a replacement clutch after egg loss was recorded in June 1984 at a nest in Ajameti Nature Reserve, Imereti Region; the young birds from this nest successfully fledged. Local breeders depart from the country in mid- August, but some pairs with juveniles stay near nests until 5-10 September. The phenology and patterns of breeding biology are similar to other Southern Caucasus populations (Adamian, Klem, 1999; Patrikeev, 2004). Diet: Materials collected by the author (from eight nests in Eastern Georgia and from two nests in Western Georgia in 1970s-1980s, and from four nests in Eastern Georgia in 1998-2001 and 2010) show the dominant prey item are social insects – various species of wasps and bees – with wasp larvae being the principle food item for nestlings. Additionally, the remains of twenty-two small passerine birds (Anthus spp, Fringilla coelebs, Passer hispaniolensis, Carduelis carduelis, Carduelis cannabina, Carduelis spp., Emberiza spp.), fourteen small rodents (Mus spp., Microtus spp.), twenty-seven lizards (Lacerts spp.) and eight frogs (Rana ridibunda, Rana spp.) were found directly in, under, or around nesting sites. Typically feeds on the ground, but aerial hunting of flying bees has been observed several times. Seasonal movements: The Honey Buzzard is a widespread and very common transient during passage. Species is more numerous during autumn passage, especially at Black Sea coastlands and at Kolkheti Lowland. Number of migrants utilizing the eastern Black Sea fly-way estimated at up to 600,000 individuals per autumn season, with at least 150,000 more individuals passing through continental parts of the country. Dates of passage: The Honey Buzzard is one of the latest spring raptors to migrate through the country, with birds typically migrating in very large flocks during peak migration. Spring passage usually takes place from the second week of April through the middle of May, with a peak in early May. First observations

23 of spring transients were between 30 March and 11 April at Black Sea coastlands and in semi-deserts; last transient individuals were observed between 17 May and 26 May in the highlands of the . Autumn passage observed from the first week of August to second week of October. Earliest transients were observed at passes of the Greater Caucasus from August 5-10. At least four-fifths of migrants will pass through Georgia from the third week of August to the first half of September, with peak movement in the closing days of August and first week of September; the last transients can be observed passing through until the second week of October, with solitary individuals occasionally recorded as late as October 20-25 at the Black Sea coastal lowlands. During the last 30 years, the numbers of Honey Buzzard migrating through Georgia has increased significantly, and now exceeds the numbers of Steppe Buzzard Buteo buteo vulpinus migrating through the country. Since the late 1990s, up to 750,000 individuals were estimated to migrate through the country per autumn season, with approximately 75% of those using the eastern Black Sea fly-way (Abuladze, Kandaurov, Eligulashvili, 2011; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011). More detailed data on the results of long-term migration studies carried out by the author with the assistance of many colleagues from both Georgia and abroad, as well as analyses of all available materials collected through the present day will be presented in a forthcoming book on the migrations of Birds of Prey in Georgia (in preparation). Threats and limiting factors: The most serious threat to this species in Georgia was illegal shooting. Despite to legal protection, illegal shooting is still a problem, especially during autumn passage along the East Black Sea flyway in the coastal lowlands in Ajaria and in some sites in Guria, Samegrelo and Abkhazia (Abuladze, et al., 2011d; Maanen, Gavashelishvili, Goradze, I. & Goradze, R. 2001a; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011). Nest disturbance due to human activities is also believed to have a negative impact on breeding success, although the scale of this problem is not well-studied in Georgia. Electrocution at power lines was identified in 29 cases as a reason of mortality. Conservation Status: Non-SPEC; CEE 1; BERNA 2; BONN II; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk.

24 3. Crested Honey Buzzard Pernis ptilorhynchus Synonyms: Oriental Honey-buzzard, Asiatic Honey-buzzard, Eastern Honey Buzzard Georgian name: Absent. Direct translating აღმოსავლური ბოლოკარკაზი [aghmosavluri bolokarkazi] The Crested Honey Buzzard is Asian raptor species. It breeds from central Siberia east to Japan and winters in tropical southeastern Asia. Status of presence: Occasional visitor. All known records were in September and only one in May. The population origin of individuals recorded in Georgia is unknown. Distribution and habitats: All records were at the Black Sea coastlands during seasonal migrations. There were three reports from non-professional naturalists about observations of solitary individuals: - The Crested Honey Buzzard was shot in the end of May 1976 in flood-land of Rioni River near Samtredia town, Imereti Region. This record was verified by factual material – some parts of the body (head, foots, wings, etc.) were puts in formaldehyde and sending to the local Department of Hunters Society and later to Administration of Georgian Union of Hunters and Fishermen “Monkavshiri” in Tbilisi, where were positively identified by ornithologists; - on September 2, 1984 single was observed in large flock of migrating European Honey Buzzards at right bank of Chorokhi River near territory of Batumi Airport; - on September 17, 1990 single was watched in flock of 25-30 European Honey Buzzards 3–4 km west of Ozurgeti, Guria Region. Unfortunately, these two visual records were without confirmation by factual data. The presence of the Crested Honey Buzzard in Georgia was confirmed several times in 2007-2012 by the by members of the Batumi Raptor Count (BRC) Project (Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011; www.batumiraptorcount.org). Recorded in Ajaria individuals were with typical characteristics to accept the identification. Besides that, several counters (Johannes Jansen, Michiel Dusselier and other) managed to make good photographs. First record of positively identified individual was in autumn 2007. Two individuals were counted in autumn 2009. In 2010 there individuals were seen – on September 9 (adult female), on September 10 (adult female) and on September 11 (adult male). Five solitary individuals were counted in autumn 2011, all records were in September and all birds were observed at “Shuamta” counting station: on September 6,

25 September 18, September 22, September 23 and September 24. Eight individuals were counted in autumn 2012, all records were in September at “Sakhalvasho” counting station on September 4, September 7 and September 11 (2 individuals). All occurrences at the territory of Georgia are of great interest and should be documented. Numbers: In all cases only solitary individuals were recorded. Threats: No data. Conservation status: CITES II.

4. Red Kite Milvus milvus Subspecies: Monotypic, no subspecies Georgian name: ბორა [bora] The Red Kite breeds only in Europe; a very small population is known in Morocco. It occurs from Spain and Portugal over France and , occasionally nests in the Netherlands, eastwards to Poland, in some areas in Baltic countries, sporadically breeds in the western Belarus, western Ukraine, and southwestern Russia. In the north the Red Kites occurs up to the southern part of Sweden and south down to Moldova, Romania, and Sicily, Italy. Breeds in UK, thanks to recent and very successful reintroduction programs in England and Scotland. Status of presence to Georgia and Caucasus: The Red Kite with absolutely reasons attribute to one of the most "mysterious" species of the Avifauna of Georgia and Caucasus. Brief reports about several records of this raptor in several localities and four bagged individuals (Radde, 1884; 1999; Vilkonskii, 1897; Satunin, 1913; Bauer, 1941; Chkhikvishvili, 1952; Bernatskii, 1958; Janashvili, 1958) - that was all data on species in the region during last 130 years. At the same time, based on these fragmentary materials, the Red Kite was included in many summaries, reviews, basic ornithological books, papers and guides as breeding at Caucasus. Later some authors compilationly added the Red Kite to the list of breeding birds of Georgia. Probably on the base of sightings of single occasional summer non-breeding visitors, Georgian ornithologist Mironis Kutubidze included this species in the list of breeding birds of environs of Tbilisi, Borjomi gorge and in the guide of the birds of Georgia (Kutubidze, 1966; 1968; 1985). Listing of the Red Kite in ornithological literature as a “probably breeding” in Atheni gorge and at the Lesser Caucasus (Chkhikvishvili, 1949; Zhordania, 1962) one for Georgia, undoubtedly, should be considered also as erroneous. It is not clear, what could be confirmation or base for such assertion, mistakes in identification not excluded. The mistake in identification is not excluded. It is well known, that much confusion has often occurred with pale, especially immature Black Kites Milvus

26 migrans, and undoubtedly many published records from Northern Caucasus, Southern Caucasus and northeastern part of Turkey are erroneous. Based on the all available data and 40-years field works in Caucasus, carried out by Author, the Red Kite should be considered as an occasional visitor to Georgia. The factual data on this species in Georgia as well as in other parts of Southern Caucasus, Northern Caucasus and in adjacent regions of Turkey is very scant (Adamian, Klem, 1999; Belik, 2010; Kasparek, 1992; Kirwan, Martens, 1994; Kirwan et al., 2008; Patrikeev, 2004). This raptor was several times recorded during passage – on March 28, 1976 in pre-alpine meadow in Tsey gorge at 2850 metres above sea level; on April 13, 1976 in Kasarskiy gorge and on April 11, 1978 in Kurtatinskiy gorge and this species was mentioned for North-Ossetian Nature Reserve as a “rare passage visitor” (Komarov, 1985). Last record in North Ossetia was on October 17, 1982 (Belik, 2010). The Red Kites several times were recorded in Azerbaijan (Agaeva, 1969; Patrikeev, 2004; Radde, 1884). In Armenia this raptors were recorded three times (Adamian & Klem, 1999; Dement’yev & Gladkov, 1951). Last record in Armenia was on April 22, 2000, when 4 migrating birds were watched (Sandgrouse 23-2, 2001). The population origin of Red Kites observed at the territory of Georgia as well as within the limits of Caucasus is not known. There are published reports on the seven individuals of the Red Kites bagged within the limits of Georgia for the last 130 years, but only four skins are kept in museums: - On September 14/26, 1884 near Tbilisi (Radde, 1899). Unfortunately, bird skin is not saved in Museum; - In spring (?) 1916 near Telavi (?); Skin of this bird is kept in the Zoological Museum of the Moscow State University (Collection of P.V.Serebrovsli); - In 1935-1936 (?) near Tsikhis-Jvari village, Borjomi district, (Bauer, 1941). Bird skin is not saved in Museum; - Adult male was bagged on June 8/21, 1893 on the Goderdzi Pass, Arsiani Ridge, Ajaria (Chrabryj et al., 1989). Skin is kept in the ornithological collection of the Zoological Museum of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Sankt-Petersburg; - Adult male was bagged on September 15, 1892 near village, Rioni River valley, (Chrabryj et al., 1989). Zoological Museum of the Russian Academy of Sciences, (collection of A.Yakovlyev); - Female was bagged by ornithologists G.I.Bernatski on April 14, 1948 at the Black Sea coast in the vicinity of Pitsunda, Abkhazia (Bernatski, 1958). Skin is kept in the zoological collection of nnAbkhazian University in . 27 - Male was bagged in the middle of July (in late 1950’s) in Zekari gorge, Lesser Caucasus (Zhordania, 1962); skin is not saved. - Besides that, there are published data or skins of Red Kites bagged in adjacent areas, some of skins are kept in ornithological collections: - On September 1898 adult female was bagged in vicinity of Vladikavkaz, Northern Ossetia, Russia (Boehme, 1926; skin is not saved in Museum; - Adult female was collected on March 18, 1901 in Sarybash village near Kakhi town, Azerbaijan (Chrabryj et al., 1989); Skin is kept in the ornithological collection of the Zoological Museum of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Sankt-Petersburg; - Adult female was collected on September 06/19, 1916 in vicinity of Vladikavkaz Northern Ossetia (Buturlin, 1929); Skin is kept in the ornithological collection of the Zoological Museum of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Sankt-Petersburg; - Male was shot on September 16, 1917 near Vladikavkaz, North Ossedtia, Russia (Boehme, 1926); skin is not saved in museum; - Single was bagged by Kh.Veitsman on August 16, 1926 near Vorontsovka village, vicinity of Sochi, Krasnodar Territory, Russia (Buturlin, 1929); skin is kept in the Zoological Museum of the Moscow State University. The ornithologist G.I.Bernatski, working in 1940’s-1950’s in Pitsunda Nature Reserve, Abkhazia, two times recorded the Red Kites during spring transit at the Black Sea coast in Abkhazia and one individual, female, was collected on April 14, 1948 directly at the Black Sea shore at Pitsunda Cape. One year late, on April 10, 1949, another solitary individual flying along the Black Sea shore to northern direction was observed from a close distance and positively identified as a Red Kite (Bernatski, 1958). During the 40-years period of the field works at the territory of Georgia, carried out by Author since 1973, there were only seven registered occasional visits of solitary individuals of the Red Kite. Besides that, two times these birds were observed by Author in the other regions of Caucasus. Most of records, 6 out of 7 records, were in western parts of country – at the Black Sea coastlands and Kolkheti Lowland. Five records were in autumn, one in spring and only one in summer. The most interesting record was on July 18, 1977 in Aragvi River valley near Zhinvali – during 5 hours of observations solitary three times was watched flying along the river banks. All records were in open habitats, at sea shore, coastal lowlands, near wetlands, in fields and meadows. 2 observations date from the 1970’s, 3 - from the 1980’s, 1 - from the 1990’s, and one record was in 2000 - on August 26 in SW part of Kolkheti Lowland. Bird was observed with 10x50 binocular in

28 sunny weather near Natanebi town, Guria Region flying to western directions at height 80-100 meters. Last known record was in autumn 2008, when single was recorded in Ajaria by members of the “Batumi Raptor Count” Project (Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011). Besides that, the Red Kite was reported for two sites at the Black Sea shore in 1992 and 1996 (Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005). Unfortunately, these reports are without additional details on dates, localities, details and conditions of observations. The origin of individuals recorded in Georgia is not known. Taking into account the status of the Red Kite to Georgia and Caucasus and lack of factual data, detailed documentation is necessary for all sightings. Conservation status: SPEC2; CEE 1; BERNA 2; BONN II; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Near Threatened (NT); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Near Threatened.

5. Black Kite Milvus migrans Subspecies Milvus migrans migrans occurs in Georgia Georgian name: ძერა [dzera] The Black Kite breeds through most of Europe, Africa, Asia, some parts of Indonesia, New Guinea and Australia except deserts, high mountains and the extreme north. Six or seven subspecies are recognized at present. The subspecies Milvus migrans migrans is the only one that occurs in the most European countries, except Great Britain, Ireland, Island and most of Scandinavia, east to Western Siberia and Central Asia and south to Middle East. (Cramp & Simmons, 1980; Dement’yev & Gladkov, 1951; Ferguson-Lees & Christie, 2001; Gensbol, 2004; del Hoyo et al., 1994; Mebs & Schmidt, 2006; Stepanyan, 1990). Status of presence: The Black Kite is widespread and uncommon to common, but decreasing, year-round resident, probably partly migratory breeder. Widespread and fairly common on transit passage across Georgia. Common, locally in some winters very common, winter visitor to western areas, especially at western part of Kolkheti Lowland, rare to uncommon winterer in eastern areas. Distribution and habitats: Nests in deciduous forests of various types in flood-lands, at lowlands, plains, foothills, pre- and low-mountains. The most preferred nesting habitats are located in old (50+ years) poplar forests, named “tugai”, in the flood-lands of large rivers - Rioni, Inguri, Khobi, Bzipi, Kelasuri in Western Georgia, Mtkvari, Alazani, Iori in Eastern Georgia). Vertically distributed from sea level at Kolkheti 29 Lowland up to 800 meters above the level at Lesser Caucasus and up to 1000 meters above the sea level at Great Caucasus. Avoids tree-less areas in table-lands, mountain steppes, semi-deserts, alpine meadows. Population size: The local breeding population estimated presently at 400-500 breeding pairs and decreasing since late 1970’s (Abuladze, 1994) from 900 to 1100 pairs in the middle of 1970’s, from 600 to 800 pairs in 1980’s and from 500 to 700 in 1990’s (Abuladze, 1985e; Abuladze, 2008a). It should be mentioned, that according to other estimation, the numbers of breeding pairs of Black Kite in Georgia is 100 - 300 (Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005). Breeding biology: The nests are normally built in forest close to the edge. Nests are located on old trees (44 of known 47) mostly at heights from 10 to 20 meters above the ground. In 1974 in locality Armazi, near Mtskheta town and in 1976 in River gorge, W environs of Tbilisi City, were found occupied nests in cliff ledges. In 1983 in Okumi River flood-land near Okumi village, Abkhazia, one occupied nest was found in pylon of power line. Two nests of the Black Kites were found in 1981 in Kobuleti district in Ajaria directly in colony of more than 20 pairs of Grey Herons, Ardea cinerea. Nests were located at height 22-25 meters above the ground. Seven years later, in 1988, in the same colony only one occupied nest was found. During next visits in 1991, 2003, 2010 and 2012 nests of the Black Kites in this colony could not be found. The distance between pairs in the flood-lands of large rivers in Western Georgia ranged from 350 - 400 to 1500 meters (500-1000 meters typical); in flood-lands of large rivers in Eastern Georgia – from 1000 to 5000 meters, usually 2000- 3000. In suitable habitat several pairs nest close to each other, up to 5 pairs. For example, the breeding of 5 pairs were recorded in 1983 at left side of Okumi River. Four nests were located in trees along the 200 m section of river bank and one nest was on the tower of transmission power line in 50 meters from river bank. Some additional data on selection of nest-trees and location of nests are presented in Table 5-1. The most of the known nests were in mature woodlands on old (40+ years) trees normally close to the meadows, fields, glades, clearings, forest edge. The height above ground ranged from 6.6 to 25 meters, more often from 12 to 20 meters. The nests are made from sticks and twigs lined with softer material, often comprised of plastic things, various wires, rags, cords. Eggs are laid in the second – third decades of April, mostly between April 15 and 25. The clutch size is two to four eggs, typically two - three. Out of 27 known complete clutches, controlled during study, 21 had two eggs (about 77.8%), in five clutches were three eggs (18.5%) and in one full clutch were four eggs (3.7%). Average clutch size was 2.48. The data on eggs size (n = 19) and weight (n = 11) was collected

30 on two nests in Eastern Georgia and six nests in Western Georgia. Sizes were the following - length (51.0-58.0 mm), width (41.2-44.0 mm), weight of eggs was from 45.5 to 52.3 g. Eggs are incubated by the female for 32 (± 3) days. Hatching was recorded between 11 May and 2 June. The young fledge after 45 (± 3) days, sometimes up to 55 days. First fledged young Black Kites were watched in Western Georgia – in Rioni River flood-land between 4 and 12 July and one week later in Eastern Georgia. After fledging, the adults care for the young for 15 - 40 days until the young can live without parents. The data on breeding success were collected and analyzed on monitored territories and nests in Western Georgia for four season – in 1978, 1979, 1980 (in Rioni River flood-land, lower Vani town, Imereti Region) and in 1983 (in Okumi River valley, Gali district, Abkhazia). The basic data on breeding success are presented lower in Table 5-2. Diet: The Black Kites have broad, carnivorous diets and will hunt for food, but more often act as scavengers. Their diet includes a variety of fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds, small mammals. Favored hunting habitats are located along the forest edges, shores of rivers, lakes, canals, ponds, in various wetlands, cultivated fields. Besides that, the Black Kite often feed on damps, especially in winter. Many times birds were watched feeding of carrion. Data on the Black Kite diet during breeding seasons were collected mostly in 1970’s in Western Georgia – in flood-lands of Rioni, Inguri and Khobi rivers. Some materials were collected in Gardabani Reserve, in Mtkvari River flood-land, south-eastern Georgia. The analyzes of food remains (about 170) and pellets (n = 232) collected from 19 nests as well as about 60 direct visual observation on successful attacks, shows that diet of species in Georgia consist of various large insects, fishes, frogs, occasionally other amphibians, various lizards, small and medium sized snakes, more often Ring Snake, Natrix natrix and Water Snake Natrix tesselata, small to medium sized birds, small sized mammals, mostly rodents. Mammals and birds contributed at least ¾ of prey frequency and more than 95% of prey biomass. Amphibians and reptiles were the most prevalent prey items during breeding, but they constituted only a little part of prey biomass, less than that of mammals and birds. The most common prey among mammals included small rodents, among birds included associated with wetlands species, fledged corvids, thrushes, some other species. Several times remains of domestic birds were recorded under nest-sites. The materials collected by Author suggest that patterns of breeding biology of Black Kite in Georgia were similar with populations from other regions of the Caucasus (Adamian, Klem, 1999; Patrikeev, 2004). Seasonal movements: The Black Kite is widespread and quite common passage migrant across the whole country (Abuladze, 1998c; 31 Abuladze, 1999c; Abuladze, Edisherashvili, 2003; Abuladze, Kandaurov, Eligulashvili, 2011; Cel’min’sh, Bergmanis, 1990; Migrations of Birds of Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. Falconiformes-Gruiformes, 1982; Paakinen, Rantanen, Rantanen, 1981; Sojamo, 1982; Sojamo, 1983; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011; Welch & Welch, 2007). According to Author’s estimations, based on count data collected during long-term studies, up to 100000 individuals per spring season and from 150000 to 200000 individuals per autumn season, probably in some years more, crossed territory of Georgia. The basic fly-ways located at Black Sea coastlands, in valleys of large rivers of Kolkheti Lowland, i.e. in the Black Sea basin. In Eastern Georgia, or in the Caspian Sea basin, the main fly-ways are located at some passes of Main Caucasian Ridge, in Tergi River valley, Mtkvari River valley, Aragvi River valley, Alazani River valley, Tergi River valley, Liakhvi River valley. The flocks of 10-50 individuals, rarely more, stop at night to roost in the trees in the flood-plains of large rivers, around lakes, wetlands. The most important roosting sites in the Black Sea basin are located at coastal lowlands, in western part of Kolkheti Lowland, in flood-lands of Rioni, Inguri, Khobi Natanebi, rivers, in Paleostomi Lake basin, at Kobuleti Lowland, in some other sites. In eastern Georgia roosting sites were recorded in “tugai” forests in Mtkvari River flood-land lower Rustavi and in Alazani River flood-land, occasionally in other sites. Dates of passage: in spring – from late March to middle of April with a peak in first week of April; in autumn – from late August to the end of October with a two visible peaks - in the second decade of September and in the late September - 1st week of October. Comparison of results of regular surveys conducted by Author with assistance of numerous persons in 1970’s – first half of 1980’s on the main fly-ways with a latest observations and results of survey, carried out by the members of Project “Batumi Raptor Count” in 2007-2012 (Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011), suggest that the numbers of migrating across Georgia Black Kites has seriously decreased. Wintering: The Black Kite is the most common wintering raptor species in Georgia, particularly in the Black Sea basin. It has adapted to almost all lowland landscapes in Western Georgia. The total area of wintering habitat in the country ranges from 5000 km2 in colder winters with stable snow cover to 12000 km2 in warmer snow-less winters. The most important wintering habitats for the species are wetlands of western part of Kolkheti Lowland and some sites at the Black Sea coastal lowland, especially Paleostomi Lake basin and flood-land of Rioni River valley in lower part. These together hold usually about 70 - 75%, and in some winters more, of the wintering population. Flood- lands of some other large rivers of the Black Sea basin hold about 20% of the population. Flood-lands of Mtkvari and Alazani rivers hold up to 32 5% of the wintering population. Some conditions for wintering Black Kites around in vicinities of towns, villages, fish-ponds, agriculture areas are better than that at natural habitats. Wintering numbers declined since the 1980’s. According to the mid- winter counts of raptors, conducted in Georgia in 1977-1991, it was established that the number of wintering in country Black Kites was from 2500 up to 8000, usually 5000 (±1000) individuals (Abuladze, 1999b; Abuladze, Edisherashvili, 2008b; Abuladze, Eligulashvili, Shergalin, 2002; Abuladze et al., 2003; Abuladze et al., 2011). From 1000 to 3000 individuals are currently estimated to winter in the country, the bulk of which wintered in the Black Sea basin - at Kolkheti Lowland, the Black Sea coastlands and in some sites in flood- lands of large rivers in SE Georgia. The best time for counts of wintering Black Kites is first half of February, because the winters in Georgia typically are warm and snowless during first half, with abrupt fall of temperature, snow-falls and strong winds from late January to mid-February. During such weather raptors are concentrated at small areas, little move, that considerably facilitate their counts, increases accuracy and efficiency. Some results of mid-winter counts conducted in Georgia are presented in Table 5-3.

33 Table 5-1. Nest data of Black Kite in Georgia Tree species Location of nest in tree Height above ground, meters Number of nests

Top Crown Branch <10 10-15 15-20 20+ Poplars (Populus spp.) - 14 4 - 4 11 3 18 Black Alder (Alnus barbata) 1 5 2 1 3 4 - 8 European Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) - 3 2 - 4 1 - 5 European Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) - 2 1 - 1 2 - 3 European Elm (Ulmus carpinifolia) - 2 1 - - 3 - 3 Oaks, (Quercus spp.) 2 1 - 1 2 - 3 Oriental Beech (Fagus orientalis) - 3 - - - - 3 3 Caucasian Zelkova (Zelkova carpinifolia) 1 - - - 1 - - 1 Total: 2 31 11 1 14 23 6 44

Table 5-2. Data on the breeding success of Black Kite in Georgia Indices Years 1978 1979 1980 1983 Occupied territories (with pairs) 4 6 5 5 Territories with eggs 3 6 5 5 Number of eggs by nests 2,2,4 2,2,2,2,3,3 2,2,2,2,3 2,2,2,2,3 Number of successful nesting 3 6 5 4 Number of unsuccessful nesting 1 0 0 1 Percentage of successful nesting 75.0 100.0 100.0 80.0 Number of young capable of flying 6 9 8 6 Number of young capable of flying/ successful nesting 2.00 1.50 1.60 1.50 Number of young capable of flying/ occupied territory 1.50 1.50 1.60 1.20 Number of young capable of flying/established nesting 2.00 1.50 1.60 1.20

34 Table 5-3. The number of wintering Black Kite in Georgia Years / month / days Coverage of wintering Numbers of counted individuals by regions grounds, in % West Georgia East Georgia Total Black Sea basin Caspian Sea basin n % n % n % 1981 / I / 22-29 85-90% 7019+ 83,909 343+ 20,129 7362+ 73,188 1986 / I / 6-12 80+% 5114+ 65,979 339+ 12,282 5453+ 51,879 1987 / I / 21-27 W Georgia About 75% 4547+ 81,884 4645+ 67,929 1987 / I / 30 – II / 3 E Georgia About 90% 98+ 7,626 1988 // II / 1-6 >85% 7121+ 84,262 337+ 14,083 7458+ 68,775 1989 / I / 21-25 80-85% 5061+ 79,376 148 8,660 5209+ 64,428 1990 / XII / 17–23 50-60% 2287+ 77,657 31 4,139 2318+ 62,750 1991 3832+ 81,654 I/29–II/3 W Georgia > 40% 2029+ 79,725 I / 24-27, E Georgia > 50% 46 5,049 1991 823+ 47,353 XII/16-21,W Georgia 25-30% 769+ 67,694 XII/10-14, E Georgia 40-50% 53 8,804 1995 / II / 17 - 25 40-45% 2462+ 63,599 36 5,547 2498+ 69,505 1998 – Febr 18 - 22 About 50% 7725+ 85,22 16 0,18 7741+ 85,40 1998 / XII / 10 - 14 70-75% 2004 / II / 2 - 7 60-70% 1096+ 79,363 39 8,744 1135+ 62,124 2006 / II / 7 - 22 About 70% 2686+ 88,232 163 17,639 2849+ 71,836

35 Several small communal roosts of 3-5 individuals were found in January 2011 near Kumisi Lake, Marneuli garbage damp and in lower part of Alazani River valley. The roosts are used in turn and become active by the middle of November. The Black Kites number reflects culmination and end of autumn transit. Remarkable increasing were found in the end of January – middle of February with a maximum usually in the second and third pentads of February and a minimum in the end of February. Nothing is known on population origin of Black Kites wintering in Georgia. Threats and limiting factors: In some areas, especially in large river’s flood-lands in Eastern Georgia and in some parts of Western Georgia, the Black Kite numbers is considerable decreasing during last 30-35 years. Reasons for the decrease are not clear. Probably one of the most important reasons are reducing and transformation of breeding habitats due of sharply increased level of human activities in the most preferred breeding habitats of species – in the mature woodlands in flood-land of large rivers and around wetlands as well as high level of human disturbance. From 1973-2012, over 800 cases of mortality were documented and in about 775 cases reasons were identified (Abuladze, 1986a; Abuladze et al., 2011d). Poaching is regarded as the major threat to the Black Kite in Georgia and is a serious problem for all seasons, particularly during autumn transit (at least 355 individuals were killed) and on wintering grounds (at least 290); about 70 individuals were killed in breeding seasons and more than 50 during spring passages. Unfortunately, during recent two decades, 100-150 individuals are shot annually at wintering quarters and fly-ways, that is some less than in 1970’s-1980’s. The Black Kites may be shot because they are wrongly considered by local people to be a threat to chickens and other domestic birds. Besides that, in 31 cases electrocution and in 2 cases collision with power lines were reasons of mortality; 12 individuals were found poisoned by chemicals on garbage damps. Conservation status: SPEC 3; CEE 1; BERNA 2; BONN II; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC). Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk.

36 6. White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla Subspecies: Monotypic, no subspecies. Georgian name: თეთრკუდა ფსოვი [thethrkuda phsovi] Synonym თეთრკუდა არწივი[thethrkuda artsivi] The most western populations of the White-tailed Eagle are at western shore of Greenland and western shore of Iceland. A reintroduced small population in Scotland increased at present. In 2006 a pair started breeding in The Netherlands. In Scandinavia breeds mostly along the North Sea and Baltic Sea shores. Breeds in Denmark, Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, , Poland; small populations are in some parts of southeastern Europe. In Eastern Europe occurs from Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus via the Russia eastwards to the Pacific Ocean, south to Turkey, southern shore of the Caspian Sea, Mediterranean region and Persian Gulf and east to Pakistan, northern India, southeastern China, and Japan. Most White-tailed Eagles are year-round residents with a local seasonal movements or partial migrants. But birds in northern populations are migratory and winter in more southern areas. The Eurasian population of the White-tailed Eagle has increased during last decades. Status of presence: Rare passage visitor and winterer to Georgia (Abuladze, Eligulashvili, 1996; Abuladze, Kandaurov, Eligulashvili, 2011; Paakinen, Rantanen, Rantanen, 1981; Sojamo, 1982; Sojamo, 1983; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011). Former breeder at the Black sea coastlands and in flood-lands of large rivers but extirpated as a breeding species in 1950’s-1960’s. In the middle of 1990’s after 30-40 intervals again became to nest in Georgia. The present distribution and numbers not well-understood, but probably 3-5 pairs breed in country during last years. Further study of the White- tailed Sea Eagle in Georgia is needed. Distribution and habitats: Recorded at the Black Sea coast, along the shores of large rivers and lakes, around marshes, fish-ponds, reservoirs, surrounded by agriculture areas, meadows, wetlands, cultivated fields, pastures, small woodlands. Most of time observed close to water; often seen sitting on tops or dry branches of single high dead trees, pylons, stones. Population size: A great number of works in the ornithological literature of the 19th to early 20th centuries affirm that the species was common and widespread at that time throughout the Caucasus, occurring all along the shores of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea, on large lakes, marches and in flood-lands of large rivers. The total number was unknown, but we can presume that in Caucasus between 1890’s and 1920’s it could be estimated at perhaps several hundred pairs, including 20-40 pairs in Georgia. The decline of the White-tailed Sea Eagle’s

37 Caucasian population has been marked everywhere in the region since the 1930’s. This process was typical and similar also for other European populations. The Black Sea and the Caspian Sea coastal populations decreased between 1930’s and the 1950’s and the inland population from 1940’s to the 1960’s. The main causes of their decline and extinction in the Southern Caucasus at that time were: - habitat loss (reduction of flood-lands, forested areas around large wetlands); - disappearance of nest trees; - direct extermination by man; - drainage and reclamation of lakes, marshes and swamps; - management of rivers; - lack of food; - increased mortality due to death in traps near animal carcasses and from poisoned baits, especially on wintering grounds; - high level of human exploitation of environment. After the 1950’s the main causes of decline became habitat loss, mostly due to creation of reservoirs, human persecution, especially in 1950’s – 1970’s, using of pesticides from the middle of 1950’s to middle of 1970’s, recreational pressure at Black Sea shore from 1960’s. Before the middle of the 20th Century, the White-tailed Sea Eagle was regarded as a rare but regular year-round resident, passage migrant and winter visitor to Georgia. A precipitous drop in their numbers was recorded by the end of the 1940’s and early 1950’s due to breeding habitat loss, human disturbance, and widespread persecution. By the 1960s, this species was extirpated in Georgia as a regular breeding species. In the western part of Georgia the species became extinct in the 1940’s. Probably only 1-2 pairs bred in the 1950’s in the western part of Kolkheti Lowland. Later, in the 1970’s - 1980’s and early 1990’s only solitary wintering and migrating birds were observed with none breeding records. Between 1973 and late 1980’s there have been only about 25 records of these eagles, Most of records were in winter and usually solitary individuals were watched. For more detailed information on the earlier status of this species in Georgia and in Southern Caucasus, see: Abuladze, Eligulashvili, 1996. Several sightings of adult individuals with young birds during breeding periods and post-breeding movements in 1995-2012 seem to confirm limited breeding success in country. Probably 2-3 pairs breed in the Black Sea basin – at wetlands of western part of Kolkheti Lowland and 1-2 pairs in the Caspian Sea basin – in the flood-lands of Alazani River, Iori River and Mtkvari River. During collecting of data in 2000-2012, at least six occupied territories

38 were identified and four fledged juveniles were seen. More detailed study on the present status of species is recommended. Seasonal movements: The duration of seasonal movements of White- tailed Sea Eagle are the longest among all raptor species migrating across Georgia and it is one of the most late-autumn and early-spring transit migrant. During seasonal movements they are always recorded by solitary individuals, only three times two birds simultaneously were observed – adult with juvenile (1 case) and two adults, probably pairs (2 cases). Small groups consisting of from 3 to 6 individuals were recorded in autumn in some halting places in Western Georgia, more often in Paliastomi Lake basin. In Eastern Georgia several times 2-3 individuals simultaneously were observed at Jandari Lake and in Gardabani Managed Reserve in Mtkvari River flood-land, SE Georgia. In recent decades, the number of migrating individuals increased. In recent years, the number of migrating and wintering birds was increased significantly. From 25 to 40 individuals are now estimated to migrate through the country during the spring season. Up to 70 individuals, of which about ¾ in the Black Sea basin and about ¼ in eastern areas, are now estimated to migrate through the country per autumn season. At least 4/5 of the observed transients were adult birds. Nothing is known on the population origin of the White-tailed Eagles migrating through Georgia. Wintering: The most important wintering areas are the Black Sea coastal wetlands, western part of Kolkheti Lowland, especially the wetlands of the Paliastomi Lake basin and some sites in valleys of Rioni River, Khobi River and Inguri River. These areas are of outstanding importance for the species, presently accommodating 60-70% of the known wintering population in Georgia, with the flood-lands of the Mtkvari River, Alazani River, Iori River presently retaining another 25% of the country’s wintering population. Solitary wintering eagles were also recorded at Jandari Lake, Kumisi Lake, along the banks of the Khrami River (eastern areas) and on some reservoirs and rivers in West. From the late 1980’s – early 1990’s, the number of wintering individuals increased significantly. The latest wintering population estimates now range between 30 and 45 individuals, a remarkable increase from estimates of 4-11 individuals in the 1970’s and 7-22 individuals in the 1980’s. Wintering birds were observed from middle of December to early March; highest numbers occur sometime from late December to the middle of February. About 4/5 of the White-tailed Sea Eagles, observed at wintering grounds in Georgia during recent decades, were adult individuals. There is no information on the population origin of wintering birds. Diet: It was found that birds were the most important prey (n = 56) in the composition of the White-tailed Sea Eagles' winter diet, with a frequency of occurrence of 4/5 (Mallard – 10, Coot – 7, Great Crested

39 Grebe – 7, Tufted Duck – 4, Pygmy Cormorant – 3, Little Egret – 3, Great Cormorant - 2, Grey Heron – 2, Black-necked Grebe, Great White Egret, Northern Shoveler, Gadwall, Armenian Gull, Water Rail, Common Moorhen (by 1). Diet at two areas in wintering season differed: in the Paliastomi Lake basin (n = 39) ducks, grebes and gulls dominated by numbers, while in SE Georgia cormorants, coots, egrets and herons were the main prey (n = 15). Feeding on carrion, including 1 case of feeding on died dolphin and several cases of feeding on died fishes as well as hunting on injured birds, were observed in winter. Several times hunting together by two adult individuals and adults with juvenile were observed in Paliastomi Lake basin. Threats: Habitat destruction and human disturbance are the primary threat to this species. Illegal hunting during migration probably is not a huge problem during recent decades but can still occurs in some regions of Georgia, mostly on the Black Sea coastlands and Kolkheti Lowland . From 1973 to 2012 14 cases of illegal shooting were counted in Abkhazia, Guria and Ajaria – 8 during autumn, 1 - during spring transit and 5 in winter. Conservation status: SPEC 3; CEE 1; BERNA 2; BONN I; CITES I; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk; The White-tailed Sea Eagle was under legal protection in Georgia from the middle of 1960’s and was included in the first edition of the Red Data Book of Georgia, published in 1982 and Red List of Georgia in 2006.

7. Pallas's Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus Georgian name: გრძელკუდა ფსოვი [grdzelkuda phsovi] The Pallas’s Fish Eagle occurs in Central and Southern Asia, from Iraq, Kazakhstan east to Mongolia and northeastern China, south to Pakistan, northern India, Bhutan, Bangladesh, southern China and Burma. Possibly still breeds in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, but no factual recent data. It is a migratory species, and may be found as a migrant or as a winterer in Central Asia, Iran (south Caspian shore, Seistan, Persian Gulf), Afghanistan, Nepal. Accidental records were in Saudi Arabia, Oman, United Arab Emirates, European Russia, Ukraine, the Caucasus, probably in Turkey and Bulgaria. The preferred habitats are flood-lands of large rivers, shores of lakes, freshwater wetlands, reservoirs with a presence of large and medium sized fishes, mostly at inland locations, although occurring rarely on sea coasts in winter.

40 Status of presence: The Pallas’s Fish Eagle for the Avifauna of Georgia as well as for the whole Caucasia is extremely rare accidental visitor (Abuladze, 1997; Khokhlov, 1995; Patrikeev, 2004). The only several records of solitary individuals were noted in Caucasus over the past few decades. Thus, in January 1940, this eagle was bagged in the vicinity of Stavropol, Northern Caucasus (Resnick, 1940). In 1966, one bird was caught in the area located between and Kuma rivers, eastern part of Northern Caucasus. One individual was observed in 1981 in the lower part of Terek River valley in the vicinity of Staro- Terechnoe (Varshavski, 1986). One bird was shot in June 1985 in Kizilyurtovski district of Dagestan, the skin of this individual is kept in the zoological collection of Dagestan University (Pishvanov, Prilutskaya, 1988). Besides that, there are published data on the historical records on the Caspian Sea shore in eastern Azerbaijan. An adult female was shot on 2 May 1866 near Kumbashi, presently within Kyzyl Aghach Nature Reserve (Patrikeev, 2004; Radde, 1884; Satunin 1912). The Pallas's Fish Eagle was reported for two sites along the south-eastern border of Georgia in 1997. Unfortunately, these reports are without details of observations, dates, localities and other details of records (Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005). All known records of this raptor species in Northern Caucasus and Southern Caucasus, except one, were noted in the period from the beginning of October (October 9, 1988) to the middle of April (April 12, 1976) and were confined to the open, dry landscapes, mostly to the semi-deserts, including the Caspian Sea shore and coastlands. The population origin of birds, recorded in Caucasus, is not known. In some scientific-popular issues, this raptor species was listing as a migrating and wintering one for Caucasus, but undoubtedly the such opinion should be considered as a mistakenly. During the 40-years period of the field works at the territory of Georgia, carried out by Author since 1973, there were only registered accidental visits of solitary individuals of the Pallas's Fish Eagle. Records were from extreme southeastern part of Georgia: - On April 4, 1983 Pallas’s Fish Eagle was observed from a distance 120 - 200 meters flying in field near the border of Vashlovani Nature Reserve in semi-desert at the southeastern end of the Iori Plateau, Kakheti Region, SE Georgia; - On March 30, 1991 flying was watched from a distance 100 – 200 meters on the slope of Udabno Ridge facing towards the Jandari Lake, 1.5 km of eastern shore of Jandari Lake, directly at Georgia- Azerbaijan border. - Besides that, during collecting of data on the Caucasian Birds of Prey in 1973 – 2012, the Pallas Fish Eagles were recorded five times within the limits of Caucasian Isthmus:

41 - - on April 12, 1976 near locality Tomullu, at northwestern shore of Mingechaur reservoir in Western Azerbaijan. Probably the same individuals were observed three days later, on April 15, 1976, at Acinohur Golu Lake, about 70 km west of the first site. This individual was observed for several minutes flying at height about 100 meters along the SW bank of lake; - - on December 17, 1978 at the Caspian Sea shore in locality Kenaramesha, south of Lankaran; - - on November 7, 1989 at the Caspian Sea shore between Ullubiyevo and Chaika, north of Izberbash town, Dagestan. Conservation status: BONN I; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - VU.

8. Bearded Vulture (Lammergeier) Gypaetus barbatus Sub-species Gypaetus barbatus aureus occurs in Georgia Georgian name: ბატკანძერი [batkandzeri] Synonym კრავიჭამია - [kravichamia] The Bearded Vulture is distributed in high mountainous regions from Europe through much of Asia and Africa. In Eurasia occurs in the Pyrenees, Alps (reintroduced population), on Crete, Corsica and on the Balkan, Turkey, Israel, south-west of Arabian Peninsula, Great and Lesser Caucasus, Zagros Mountains, Alborzs, Altai, Himalayas, western and central China. In Africa breeds in the Atlas Mountains, the Ethiopian Highlands and down from Sudan to Zaire, Tanzania, and Kenia. An isolated population inhabits the Drakensberg in South Africa. Status of presence: The Bearded Vulture is rare year-round resident Georgia. This raptor species occurs in the highlands of Great Caucasus and Lesser Caucasus (Abuladze, 1981b; 1994b; 1995; 1998b; Darchiashvili, 1998; 2001; Edisherashvili, 2009; 2011; Gavashelishvili, 2001; 2005; Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005; Kutubidze, 1985; Zhordania, 1962). Distribution and habitat: The Bearded Vulture in Georgia as well in the whole Caucasus and other regions of Eurasia, is species-indicator of high mountainous areas and recorded mostly above the tree line. It is typical year-round resident, but young individuals can disperse widely, leave highlands and many times were recorded in winter on lowlands, especially in semi-deserts in south-eastern part of Georgia and Western Azerbaijan. During breeding periods occurs in the upper belts of mountainous forests, pre-alpine and meadows along the all of Great Caucasus and in some parts of the Lesser Caucasus. At the Great Caucasus during breeding periods adults and young individuals were recorded at the macro-slopes of the Main Caucasian Ridge and its northern and southern spurs. These ridges are - Gagra, Bzipi, Chkhaltha, Kodori, Svaneti, Egrisi, Germukhi, , Kharuli, Alevi, Mthiuleti,

42 Piriqita ridges, in northern parts of Gudamakari, Karthli, Kakheti, and Likhi ridges. At Lesser Caucasus birds were recorded during breeding periods mostly in western and central parts of Meskheti Ridge and it NW spurs, at Shavsheti Ridge, Erusheti Upland, in southern part of Arsiani Ridge, in upper part of Khrami River gorge. Solitary adult and immature individuals several times were recorded in summer at Samsari and Djavakheti Ridges, in Tsalka hollow and on northern macro-slope of Trialeti Ridge, but it were nomadic birds coming to find food. Population size: In Georgia during last 40-years, since the middle of 1970’s, population has been estimated from 20 to 27 breeding pairs, probably a little more. According to collected data, present numbers of the local breeding population can be characterized as stable. There were not essential changes in the numbers for study period at the adjacent parts of the Great and Lesser Caucasus – in Russia, Azerbaijan and Armenia (Abuladze, 1981; AQbuladze, 1985e; Abuladze, 2008a; Abuladze, Shergalin, 1998c). Unfortunately, we have not data on situation in Abkhazia and (South Ossetia) after 1991. Due to lack of older, before the 1970’s, data on numbers and population trend in Georgia and in the whole Caucasus, we cannot estimate the general population long-term trend. Taking into account, that the known pairs have been regularly returning to their nesting sites for many years, therefore we consider their status stable. Breeding biology: The data on regional patterns of the Bearded Vulture breeding biology in the Caucasus were collected mostly in 1977-1991 in all regions of Northern and Southern Caucasus. The main volume of data was collected in Georgia and Western Azerbaijan. In the Caucasus as well as in other regions, this griffon is a solitary nester. The breeding by single pairs, high level of residentness and presence of the constant hunting territories are typical for Bearded Vultures of Caucasian population. Typically monogamous, but phenomenon of the polyandrous trios, two males and one female, were recorded in the Pyrenees and Corsica. About 15% of the breeding territories in the Pyrenees were occupied by trios, which have similar reproductive success to that of the neighbouring pairs. It should be noted, that all monitored pairs in Caucasus were monogamous. The nests of the Bearded Vulture were found in the Caucasus at an altitude spanning from 815 to 2200 meters above sea level: 1140-2320 meters above sea level on the Great Caucasus and 815-1770 meters above sea level on the Lesser Caucasus. Nests are typically situated in various cavities and on ledge of cliff at height from 30 to 250 meters from the foot of the cliff, usually at 50 – 150 meters. Nest construction is large, high pile of sticks and branches lined with mammal hair, wool, rhododendron twigs, grass (Abuladze, 1981b; 1994a; 1995c Gavashelishvili, McGrady, 2002; 2006c; Komarov, Veinberg, 1981;

43 Lipkovich, 1988; Veinberg, Komarov, Lipkovich, 1983; Vitovich, 1983; 1984; 1985). The measurements of three nests were the following: outer diameter 100-125 x 130-160 cm, inner diameter 60-80 cm, height from 30 cm to 70 cm and depth of cup 15-20 cm. Eggs are laid typically in the first half of January. The dates were identified for three nests at Great Caucasus: on January 12, 1977, Dvaleti Ridge, Great Caucasus; on January 17, 1981, vicinity of Zakatala Nature Reserve, NW Azerbaijan; on January 15, 1985, in Tergi River valley, northern macro-slope of Main Caucasian Ridge. Both adults participate in incubation. The duration of incubation is 55-60 days. The dates of hatching were recorded for 6 nests in the beginning - middle of March: March 7, 1977, March 10, 1977, and March 10, 1978 in two nests in Tergi River valley, northern slope of the Main Caucasian Ridge; March 14, 1982 in Samkuristskali River sources, Akhmeta district, Great Caucasus; on March 10, 1984 at SW slope of Mt. Bazarduzu, Main Caucasian Ridge, Azerbaijan; on March 17, 1991 in sources of Aragvi River, southern macro-slope of the Main Caucasian Ridge, Dusheti district. Duration of fledging in monitored nests was from 110 to 120 days. Fledging was observed typically in the second half of June – first half of July. The earliest fledging of young has been recorded on June 17, 1977; the latest – on July 11, 1981. The young have been very often observed near the nests together with parents and typically remain in the area until the beginning of the next breeding cycle in December - January. Breeding success and productivity of the Bearded Vulture were examined mostly at the Great Caucasus – on the territory of Georgia, western and northern parts of Azerbaijan and southern parts of Dagestan (Russia). A total number of 94 nesting attempts were recorded betwen 1975 and 1993 for 38 pairs (Abuladze, 1995). The average percentage of successful nestings was about 82 per cent, the average of fledged young per successful nestings was 0.81, number of fledged young per occupied territory was 0.66 and number of fledged young capable of flying per established nesting was 0.70. The main characteristics of the Bearded Vulkture’s breeding success in central and eastern parts of Great Caucasus during the period 1983-1991, when the most accurate data were collected, are presented in Table 8-1. It should be mentioned, that a lot of pairs, presented in the typical breeding habitats, non-breeding or unsuccessful, probably due to disturbance from human activities.

44 Table 8-1. Indices of the breeding success of Bearded Vulture at Great Caucasus Indices Years 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Checked territories 10 11 10 9 12 11 9 7 4 Occupied territories (with pairs) 8 10 10 8 10 10 7 7 4 Territories with eggs 8 9 10 8 9 10 7 6 4 Number of successful nestings 7 8 10 6 8 8 7 5 4 Number of unsuccessful nestings 1 1 0 2 1 2 0 1 3 Percentage of successful nesting 87.5 88.9 90.0 75.0 88.9 80.0 100. 83.3 75.0 (D/C) Number of fledglings 5 7 8 5 6 6 6 4 3 Number of fledgings/ successful 0.71 0.88 0.89 0.83 0.75 0.75 0.86 0.80 1.00 nesting (G/D) Number of fledglings/ occupied 0.63 0.70 0.80 0.63 0.60 0.60 0.86 0.57 0.75 territory (G/B) Number of fledglings/ established 0.63 0.78 0.80 0.63 0.67 0.60 0.86 0.67 0.75 nesting (G/C) Territories with no activity 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 No data 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 0 0

45 Diet: The diet of the Caucasian Bearded Vultures consists of bones and flesh. Feeds on carrion, from medium to large carcasses of wild (8 of 117 visual observations) and domestic (109 of 117 observations) animals. In the Caucasus, the main food is sheep. Occasionally takes live prey - large birds, such as Caucasian Snow Cock (Tetreaogallus caucasicus), Black Caucasian Grouse (Tetrao mlokosiewiiczi), probably chicks of other large birds and small mammals (Abuladze, 1989a). Threats and limiting factors: The basic reasons of mortality of Bearded Vulture at the Great Caucasus were studied in 1980’s, based on analysis of data collected by Author and using the materials from archives of nature reserves, nature protection departments, hunters’ societies of Georgia, Azerbaijan and North Caucasian autonomous republics of Russian Federation. In total, 61 cases of mortality were registered during study period; at least 9 cases were documented in Georgia. The most important cause of mortality of Caucasian population was loss in traps with meat bait for predatory mammals - wolves, jackals, foxes, at least 33, or 54% of all cases, were recorded. Poisoning baits, also, was serious danger, 12 individuals, or about 20% of all cases, were found to be poisoned. Unfortunately, despite legal protection of species in the former USSR, 11 cases, or 18%, were documented in Caucasus in 1975-1991, including 5 cases in Georgia. At present the principal threats in Caucasus for the species seem to be similar to those registered in previous decades: illegal shooting by poachers, death in traps with meat baits for predatory mammals, poisoning from poisoned baits, disturbance (Abuladze, 1984; 1986a; 1995; Abuladze, Shergalin, 1998c; Abuladze et al., 2011d). In the 1960’s-1980’s one of the main threat to the Caucasian population of Bearded Vulture was human disturbance due of high level in some areas of recreational pressure, caused by tourists. In this period the Caucasus was very popular tourist region for numerous visitors. But after 1980’s this factor practically absent. Unfortunately, the new, until 1990’s unknown in Caucasus danger for this raptor, commercial exploitation was noted. Our correspondents, local inhabitants, unformed us about two cases of illegal taking of eggs by dealers for foreign collectors, about two cases for taxidermy and about a case of trapping of a bird by using bait in Dariali gorge, Tergi River valley. According to indirect information this bird was captured fo0r a Zoo. The main danger from this new threat is that events become known only after a long period of time, when it is impossible to confirm these facts. In conditions where the conservation of wildlife in general and birds of prey in particular are practically absent, all these cases are not punished. The lack of food resources should be classified as a great threat, particularly acute during the winter time, when herds come down from highlands to lower altitudinal belts to be kept indoors or move to other areas out of the species breeding range. 46 Other threats include the latest changes in traditional to Caucasus the distant sheep-breeding and livestock practices, which have resulted in fewer available carcasses of domestic animals. Besides that, the number of wild large mammals during the last 20-30 years in some areas has declined significantly. Among new factors, collision with constructed of transmission power-lines and human disturbance due of transmission power-lines and roads construction and increasing recreational pressure (mountain sports, rock-climbing) in some sites at Great Caucasus and Lesser Caucasus may be a threat during last years. Conservation status: SPEC 3; CEE 1; BERNA 2; BONN 2; CITES II; AEWA; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk; Red List of Georgia – VU. Species was including in the 1st edition of the Red Data Book of Georgia (1982).

9. Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus The nominal subspecies Neophron percnopterus percnopterus occurs in Georgia Georgian name: ფასკუნჯი [phaskunji] The Egyptian Vulture occurs is Southern Europe (Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Greece), Balkan countries, some Atlantic islands (Canaries and Cape Verdes), Turkey, Caucasus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Arabian Peninsula, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tadjikistan, India and Nepal. In Africa the Egyptian Vultures occurs in North Africa in the Sahal Band (Senegal to Ethiopia) and south to Kenya and Tanzania. Very rare or even extinct in Angola, Namibia, Mozambique, South Africa (Mebs & Schmidt 2006; Ferguson & Christie 2001). Extirpated in Ukraine (in 1950’s) and Moldova (in 1970’s). Status of presence: Uncommon breeding summer visitor in eastern areas and rare in Western Georgia. Most common vulture during the breeding season. Very rare to rare on passage. Distributed along the southern slopes of Main Caucasian Range and its spurs, at the Likhi Ridge, Iori Table-land, Tsiv-Gombori Ridge, along valleys of large rivers in Eastern Georgia. Occurs in open, arid areas in upland, foothill, low and mid-mountain belts. Georgian population estimated at ca. 150 breeding pairs. Since the early 1970’s there were no essential changes in numbers in eastern areas, probably decreasing in Western Georgia (Abuladze, 1979b). Rare in small numbers transit migrant. Dates of passage: in spring – from middle of March to middle of April, in autumn – from 2nd decade of September to the end of October.

47 During the last 30 years, the number of migrating across Georgia Egyptian Vultures is stable. Up to 600 individuals, from which 150-200 are young birds, were considered to migrate per autumn season, mostly across eastern areas. A small part of the breeding population in Azerbaijan sometimes winters in Kura- valley, at Bozdag Ridge and in Nakhichvan (Laister, Sosnin, 1942; Patrikeev, 2004; Radde, 1884; Vinogradov, & Tcherniavskaya, 1965b) Distribution and habitat: In Caucasus occurs in open and semi-open habitats, arid woodlands, semi-savannahs, semi-deserts with rocky areas, deep ravines, canyons and gorges with vertical cliffs, depressions, cavities, crevices, etc. suitable for building nests, sometimes nests in vicinities of villages and towns, temporary human settlements, near seasonal farms, pastures, garbage damps. Avoids dense woodlands and highlands, but during post-breeding movements often recorded on pre- alpine and alpine meadows. Often visits garbage damps, riparian forests, corridors along the railways, motor-roads. Vertical limits of breeding distribution are from 300 to 2000 m above the sea level, typically 500- 1500; during post-breeding movements recorded up to 3000 m. Breeding biology in the Caucasus: Data on the regional patterns of breeding biology were collected mostly in 1973-1991 in Georgia, Western Azerbaijan and in eastern part of Northern Caucasus, mostly in Dagestan. Arrival at nesting habitats in these regions has been recorded in the late March – early April, with extreme dates of March 3 - April 12. Birds from nests are appearing by pairs always, obviously, forming of new pairs is going still on wintering grounds. Soon after arrival (from 1 to 3 days) the birds start to repair old nest-sites or build new ones and this process takes from 2 to 7 days. All known nest-sites were located in the natural, rarely in artificial, caves, niches or on ledges on the vertical precipices, rocks, in walls of canyons and ravines. Exposures of the 48 known nesting niches was distributed as the following: SE – 15 or 31.2%, S – 14 or 29.2%, SW – 10 or 20.8%, E – 6 or 12.5%, W – 2 or 4.2%, NW – 1 or 2.1%. In Caucasus nests solitarily, but seven nests were found in- or close to colonies of the Eurasian Griffon Vulture, Gyps fulvus. Courtship was observed on April 2-7 in Georgia (n = 2) and Western Azerbaijan (n = 1). Four cases of copulation were observed just in period of repair or building of nests. However, we observed copulation sufficiently later too, in period of egg incubation, and one time even time after hatching of nestlings. The egg-laying start in early April, rarely in the end of March; the extreme dates in central part of Southern Caucasus dates being March 19 and April 18. Full clutch typically consist 2 eggs, very rare 1 egg. Out of 57 controlled clutches in 31 controlled nests (23 in Georgia, 4 in

48 Azerbaijan, 1 in Armenia, 2 in Northern Caucasus, and 1 in Kopet-Dag, Turkmenistan) 53, or about 92.1% of total clutches, were of two eggs and in 4 clutches, or 7,9 % of total clutches, were of one egg; the average clutch size being 1.93. The sizes of 27 eggs from 15 clutches and weight of 19 eggs from 11 clutches were measured in 1973-1991 (Abuladze, Shergalin, 1998), more detailed information are given in Table 9-1. Incubation time spans from 41 to 44 days, the duration of incubation was identified for three clutches. The young stay in the nest for approximately 80 (± 5 days) before fledging. The duration of incubation period was reported as 42 days, as 70 -90 days (Gavashelishvili 2005). The breeding success and productivity of South Caucasian population of Egyptian Vulture (mostly in Eastern Georgia) have been monitored since 1978 till 1983 and since 1989 till 1991. The total number of occupied territories controlled each breeding season ranged from 3 to 10 in 1976-83 (2 plots 284 sq. km) and from 11 to 14 in 1989-91 (3 plots, 681 sq. km). In the central parts of the Southern Caucasus the average percentage of successful nestings was 74,08; -average number of young capable of flying per successful nesting - 1,09; -average number of young capable of flying per occupied territory - 0,78; average number of young capable of flying per established nesting - 0,84. A lot of known pairs were unsuccessful, probably due to disturbance from human activities during incubation period. The some results of study of breeding success are presented in Table 9-2. Diet: The Egyptian Vulture in Southern Caucasus typically scavenges and feeds on carrion, wastes and also takes an alive prey, mainly small- sized vertebrates. The wide variety of prey taken includes mammals (at least 14 species) up to the size of a baby European Hare, Lepus europaeus, feral cats and rats, birds (at least 27 species), reptiles, lizards, snakes (at least 7 species), amphibians (at least 2 species) and all kinds of large insects. Unlike other griffons, live prey in diet of Egyptian Vulture is a regular and important part. However, carrion is the main food also for Egyptian Vulture. In prey remains dominant elements were rodents (mostly voles and mice), Hedgehog, reptiles (Caucasian Agama, various lizards, small snakes, Mediterranean Turtle), large insects. In June, various fledged birds often recorded in prey remains; for some pairs fledged birds were dominant prey for this period. In some regions of Georgia and Western Azerbaijan (Kvernaki Ridge, Iori Table-land, Bozdag Ridge, etc.) the Mediterranean Turtle, Testudo graeca, Caucasian Agama, Laudakia caucasia and various lizards were a major food source. Dung, fecal matters are also taken. Feeding on dead fishes was recorded in Mingechaur reservoir. More detailed data on prey composition in the Southern Caucasus are shown in the Table 9-3.

49 Table 9-1. Size and weight of Egyptian Vulture in Southern Caucasus Size - length x width (mm) Clutch and weight (g) Dates Location /egg Size Weight I-1 66.8 х 48.0 86.3 April 28, 1973 Nest of vertical rock, southern exposure, 14 m above ground; central I-2 65.3 х 46.8 83.5 part of Kvernaki Ridge, Shida Kartli Region II-1 70.0 х 48.4 - April 17, 1975 Nest of vertical rock, SW exposure, 21-22 m above ground; western II-2 67.5 х 48.0 - edge of Kvernaki Ridge, Shida Kartli Region III-1 71.5 х 50.3 88.3 April 30, 1978 Vest in cavity on precipice, 15 m above ground; SE edge of Iori III-2 68.0 х 47.2 81.8 Plateau, SE Georgia IV-1 68.0x48.5 87.0 April 21, 1979 Nest in wall of ravine, 15 m above ground, N slope of Bozdag Ridge, IV-2 64.3x48.0 83.0 W Azerbaijan V-1 72.5x51.7 - May 7, 1979 In niche at precipice in Katekhchai River valley, Zakatala district, V-2 71.3x50.0 - NW Azerbaijan VI-1 70.2 x 49.5 90.0 April 23, 1984 Nest in artificial cave, about 30 m above ground; Krtsanisi, SE environs of Tbilisi; VII-1 65.0 x 46.8 83.2 April 29, 1984 Nest in niche on precipice, southern border of Vashlovani Nature VII-2 63.5 x 46.5 82.0 Reserve, SE Georgia VIII-1 69.0 x 47.3 87.4 May 3, 1986 Nest in old sand-pit, 10 m above ground, Jaghludja Ridge, SE VIII-2 60.0 x 46.8 81.5 Georgia IX-1 71.5x51.0 90,6 May 12, 1986 SW slope of Mt.Olmezdag, about 520 m a.s.l. Turianchai Reserve, IX-2 65.2x50.0 85.3 W Azerbaijan

50 Size - length x width (mm) Clutch and weight (g) Dates Location /egg Size Weight X-1 65.5 x 48.5 - April 25, 1987 In niche on precipice, 16 m above ground; right side of Alazani X-2 64.0 x 47.5 - River floodplain XI-1 68.0x48.2 87.5 April 22, 1988 Nest in cavity on rock, NE slope of Mt.Lalvar, Alaverdi district, N XI-2 63.5x46.5 82.3 Armenia XII-1 70.0 x 49.8 - May 4, 1989 Nest in cavity at rocky slope in Khrami River valley; about 20 m XII-2 66.8 x 48.0 - above ground XIII-1 67.5 x 47.5 84.8 April 16, 1990 Nest in cave at southern slope of central part of Kvernaki Ridge, Shida Kartli Region XIV-1 68.3 x 47.0 85.0 May 8, 1991 Nest in cavity, SE exposure, 25-30 m above ground, Gombori Ridge, XIV-2 64.0 x 46.5 82.2 Kakheti Regions XV-1 67.5x48.2 83.8 May 9, 1991 Nest in cavity on rock, NE exposure, 20 m abpve ground, SW of Kazakh, W Azerbaijan Min 60.0 x 46.5 81.5 X Max 72.5 x 50.3 90.0 X Average 67.2 х 48.3 85.0 X (n=27) (n=19)

51

Table 9-2. The breeding success of the Egyptian Vulture in Southern Caucasus

Indices Years 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1989 1990 1991 Checked territories 4 5 5 8 8 10 16 15 12 Occupied territories 3 5 5 8 8 10 14 12 11 Territories with eggs 3 5 4 7 6 9 14 12 11 N of successful nestings 3 3 3 5 5 6 11 9 9 N of unsuccessful nestings 1 2 1 2 1 3 3 3 2 % of successful nestings 75.0 60.0 75.0 71.4 83.3 66.6 78.6 75.0 81.8 N of fledglings 4 3 3 6 7 6 10 10 8 Number of fledglings 1.30 1.00 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.00 0.90 1.10 0.90 per successful nestings Number of fledglings 1.30 0.60 0.60 0.75 0.88 0.60 0.71 0.83 0.73 per occupied territory Number of fledglings 1.30 0.60 0.75 0.86 1.10 0.66 0.71 0.83 0.73 per established nesting Territories with no activity 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 No data 1 0 0 1 2 0 2 3 1

52 Table 9-3. Data on the prey composition of Egyptian Vulture in Southern Caucasus Prey species Number N % European Hare, Lepus europaeus (young) 4 0.497 Hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus L. 32 3.980 Unidentified shrews, Sorex spp. 4 0.497 House Mouse, Mus musculus 33 4.104 Wood Mouse, Apodemus sylvaticus 19 2.363 Mouse spp., Mus/Apodemus 36 4.478 Brandt's Hamster, Mesocricetus brandti 1 0.124 Grey Hamster, Cricetulus migratorius 1 0.124 Unidentified hamsters spp., Cricetinae 5 0.622 Water Vole, Arvicola terrestris 8 0.995 Common Pine Vole, Microtus majori 9 1.119 Common Vole, Microtus arvalis 28 3.482 Social Vole, Microtus socialis 70 8.706 Unidentified voles, Microtinae spp. 41 5.099 Persian Jird, Meriones persicus 11 1.368 Norvey or Brown rat, Rattus norvegicus 18 2.239 Unidentified rats, Rattus spp. 11 1.368 Unidentified small rodents 53 6.592 Unidentified small mammals 9 1.119 Feral cat, Felis domesticus 3 0.373 Mammals, Mammalia - total: 392 48.756 Domesticated Turkey, Meleagris gallopavo 2 0.249 (juveniles) Chukar, Alectoris chukar (chiks) 3 0.373 Long-legged Buzzard, Buteo rufinus 1 0.124 Domestic Hen, Gallus domesticus 8 0.995 Little Ringed Plover, Charadrius dubius 1 0.124 Northern Lapwing, Vanellus vanellus 1 0.124 Common Snipe, Gallinago gallinago 1 0.124 Great Snipe, Gallinago media 1 0.124 Green Sandpiper, Tringa ochropus 1 0.124 Unidentified Tringa spp. 2 0.249 Black-headed Gull, Larus ridibunus 1 0.124 Armenian Gull, Larus armenicus 3 0.373 Unidentified gulls, Larus spp. 3 0.373 Unidentified terns, Sterna/Chlidonias spp. 1 0.124 Feral Pigeon, Columba livia domestica 8 0.995 Scops Owl, Otus scops 1 0.124 Common Swift, Apus apus (juveniles) 3 0.373 House Martin, Delichon urbica (juveniles) 5 0.622 Crested Lark, Galerida cristata 4 0.497 CalandraLark, Melanocorypha calandra 2 0.249 53 Prey species Number N % Sky Lark, Alauda arvensis 3 0.373 Unidentified larks, Alaudidae spp. 4 0.497 Unidentified pipits, Anthus spp. 3 0.373 Yellow Wagtail, Motacilla flava 2 0.249 Pied Wagtail, Motacilla alba 2 0.249 Common Starling, Sturnus vulgaris 6 0.746 Jay, Garrulus glandarius 1 0.124 Magpie, Pica pica 10 1.244 Eurasian Jackdaw, Corvus monedula 1 0.124 Carrion Crow, Corvus corone (juveniles) 14 1.741 Unidentified small Passeriformes spp. 19 2.363 Unidentified birds, Aves spp. 7 0.871 Birds, Aves - total: 124 15.423 Mediterranean Turtle, Testudo graeca 48 5.970 Glass-snake, Ophisaurus apodus 12 1.492 Caucasian Agama, Laudakia caucasia 97 12.065 Five-streaked Lizzard, Lacerta strigata 10 1.244 Unidentified rock lizards, Lacerta saxicola spp. 39 4.851 Unidentified lizards, Lacerta spp. 88 10.945 Caucasian snake, Elaphe hohenackeri 1 0.124 Unidentified Rat snakes (young), Coluber spp. 4 0.497 Reptiles, Reptilia - total: 227 34.453 Lake Frog, Rana ridibunda 47 5.846 Iranian Wood Frog, Rana macrocnemis 8 0.995 Unidentified frogs, Ranidae spp. 18 2.239 Amphibians, Amphibia - total: 73 9.079 Remains of large insects, Insecta spp. Not counted Total, alive prey: 804 100.000 Threats: For the 40-years period of collecting of materials in 1973 – 2012, 73 cases of mortality of adult Egyptian Vultures were recorded in Caucasus, Central Asia and Kazakhstan, major part of data were collected in Caucasus, mainly in Georgia (35 in Georgia, 9 in Azerbaijan, 2 in Armenia, 8 in Northern Caucasia, 18 in Central Asia - Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan and 1 in Kazakhstan). The results are summarized in Table 9-4. As it is seen from this table, the main threats to the species are illegal shooting, poisoning on garbage damps and death in traps. Besides that, several cases of nest robbing were noted. In some areas, particularly in the vicinities of settlements, the human disturbance is threat of breeding sites.

54 Table 9-4. The reasons of Egyptian Vulture’s death in Caucasus, Kazakhstan and Central Asia, collected by Author in 1973 – 2012 Reason Number of cases N % Shooting 44 60.3 Poisoning on garbage damps 19 26.1 Deaths in traps and on the poisoned baits 6 8.2 Loss on Electric transmission lines 2 2.7 Unidentified reasons 2 2.7 Total: 73 100.0 Conservation status: SPEC 3; CEE 1; BERNA II; BONN II; CITES II; AEWA; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Endangered (EN); Status Global Raptor Information Network – Endangered; Red List of Georgia – VU. According to the laws on wildlife protection and hunting, operating in Georgia, the Egyptian Vulture was legally protected raptor species in Georgia from the 1970’s. Fines have been established in 1983 for the killing of protected bird species. However, we know no cases, when this regulation was kept to.

10. Eurasian Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Subspecies Gyps fulvus fulvus occurs in Georgia Georgian name: ორბი [orbi] The Eurasian Griffon Vulture has an extremely large range. Breeds locally from Iberian Peninsula, southern France and northwestern Africa eastward through Balkans to Turkey, Middle East, Caucasus, Iran, Arabia, Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Nepal. Currently two subspecies are recognized. Status of presence: The Griffon Vulture is rare year-round resident with a wide seasonal movements outside of the breeding period. Some young individuals may migrate from Southern Caucasus to the southern directions across Turkey, Iran, Iraq to Persian Gulf and Arabian Peninsula or to the northern directions to Astrakhan’ Region of Southern Russia (Gavashelishvili, 2005; Gavashelishvili, Ghasabyan, 2011; McGrady, Gavashelishvili, 2006). Distribution and habitats: Inhabits lowlands, plains and table-lands with low vegetation, semi-deserts, semi-savannah, canyons, pre-alpine and alpine meadows above the upper tree-line, river valleys, mountain steppe. Avoids dense woodlands and wet habitats, but vagrant individuals were recorded in quite unusual habitats including the Black Sea coast (Abuladze, 2002). In the Caucasus were recorded from the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea shores and up to 5,300 m above sea- level. It needs high vertical cliffs with caves and ledges for breeding, roosting and resting. The most preferred habitats are in large areas for

55 foraging and with large numbers of grazing animals, provided abundant food resources. The peculiarities of relief should support the creation of mid-day thermals for soaring and gliding (Abuladze, 1979b; Abuladze, 1984; Gavashelishvili, 2005; Gavashelishvili & McGrady, 2006b: Gavashelishvili & McGrady, 2006c). Population size: According to Author’s estimation, at least 75 pairs were at the territory of Georgia in the late 1970’s, from 60 to 90 pairs in 1980’s and 45-65 in 1990’s. The present breeding population is estimated at between 40 and 45, probably some more (Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005). Unfortunately, after 1991 nothing is known about number in Abkhazia, where in 1970’s-1980’s three colonies were monitored. Some more detailed data on the numbers of breeding pairs in monitored colonies are presented in Table 10-1. Table 10-1. The number of breeding pairs and known colonies of Griffon Vulture in Georgia Year Number of Number of pairs Average colonies size of Know In Solitar Total colonies Visited n colonies y 1975 4 4 37(42?) 2 39(44?) 9.25 1976 4 4 34(38?) - 34(38?) 8.75 1977 7 7 42(44?) 1 43(45?) 6.00 1978 9 9 57(61?) - 57(61?) 6.33 1979 10 10 71(75?) - 71(75?) 7.10 1980 11 10 54 (57) 1 55 (58?) 5.40 1981 11 8 64 (67?) - 64 (67?) 8.00 1982 11 10 67 (73?) - 67 (73?) 6.70 1983 12 12 61 (64?) - 61 (64?) 5.08 1984 12 7 44 (51?) - 44 (51?) 6.29 1985 12 12 68 (73?) 1 69 (74?) 5.67 1986 12 10 64 (66?) - 64 (66?) 6.40 1987 12 11 89 (92?) - 89(92?) 8.09 1989 12 10 67 (70?) 1 68 (71?) 6.70 1990 12 11 78 (81?) - 78(81?) 7.09 1991 12 10 72 (77?) 1 73(78?) 7.20 1997 5 4 18 (22?) - 18 (22?) 4.40 1998 5 5 23 (27?) - 23 (27?) 4.60 Breeding biology: The Griffon Vultures in Georgia as well as in other regions nests colonially. Known colonies in Georgia typically contain 5- 10 pairs, ranged from 2 to 22. But during collecting of data in 1973- 2012 at least 6 cases of solitary nesting were recorded in southern parts of Georgia. Several large colonies, up to 50 pairs and more, are known in western part of Northern Caucasus. The average size of the monitored colonies in all the years of research in Georgia was 6.37 pairs/1 colony 56 with yearly fluctuations from 4.50 (1997) to 9.25 (1975). The highest number of pairs in one colony was recorded in two monitored colonies in eastern part of the Iori Table-land. At least 14 pairs were counted in one colony in 1976, 22 pairs in 1979 and 16 pairs in 1983; in another colony 15 pairs were in 1979, 18 pairs in 1982 and 12 pairs in 1989. Nests are located in various cavities, ledges and recesses on precipices, cliffs. Nest is large platform of branches usually lined with thinner branches, twigs, dry grass, rags, feathers, hairs. 12 nests were measured, measurements were the following: outer diameter – 60 to 90 cm, inner diameter – 30 to 50 cm, height – from 40 to 70 cm, depth of cup – 5-10 cm. 11 cases of copulation were observed between February 12, 1988, in Chachuna Managed Reserve and March 24, 1982, in Tergi River valley, more often in late February. 9 of 11 copulations observed were directly on the nests in colonies and 2 in surrounding areas, but at close distance from nests. Duration of the observed copulations was from 15 to 50 sec. Only one egg is laid at the late February – early March. The dates of egg-laying in monitored colonies in eastern part of Iori Table-land and at Gombori Ridge were identified in 7 cases: February 20, 1989; February 21, 1977; February 24, 1991; February 28, 1976; March 1, 1989; March 3, 1977; March 7, 1983. The data on sizes of 6 eggs and weight of 4 eggs were collected in colony at Iori Table-land in Chachuna Managed Reserve and are presented in table 10-2. Table 10-2. Eggs data of Griffon Vulture in central part of South Caucasus Number Sizes (mm) and weight (g) of eggs Dates of of eggs measurement length width weight 1 89.5 69.0 - March 17, 1977 2 94.0 71.0 234.7 March 19, 1977 3 92.8 70.1 233.5 March 9, 1979 4 97.0 72.5 238.3 March 14, 1979 5 91.5 69.5 - March 23, 1987 6 90.4 69.0 231.8 March 10, 1990 Min 89.5 69.0 231.8 x Max 97.0 72.5 238.5 x Average 92.53 70.18 234.58 x n =6 n =6 n = 4 The egg incubated by both the female and male. Duration of incubation was fixed in 3 controlled nests and was 49, 50 and 53 days. According to the published data, duration of incubation in Caucasus ranged from 48 to 55 days (Gavashelishvili, 2005; Geilikman, 1966). 57 The duration of fledging period ranged from 105 to 120 days and after leaving the nests, fledglings recorded near the colonies for 1-1.5 months, sometimes up to October and is dependent on the parents. Food: The Griffon Vulture is typical scavenger. It feeds only on the soft issues and internal organs of medium and large-sized domestic and wild mammal carcasses. In Georgia the main food are carcasses of the domestic species, rarely wild mammals. One was observed feeding together with several gulls on a carcass of died dolphin directly at the Black Sea coast. Threats and limiting factors: The death of 16 Griffon Vultures in four episodes of poisoning at poisoned baits preparing for predatory mammals were noted during collecting of data. In one case, on December 7, 1983, at least 11 died birds were found on a carcass of cow in Eldari semi-desert near Vashlovani Nature Reserve. Two died adult birds were found on January 31, 2004 at garbage damp near Marneuli, Kvemo Kartli Region. In 2 cases reason was death in traps with meat baits. Besides that, at least 11 cases of illegal killing by poachers and taking of one egg and one chick from nests were noted since 1973. Conservation status: Non-SPEC; CEE I; BERNA II; BONN II; CITES II; AEWA; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk; Red List of Georgia – VU. This species was including in the first edition of the National Red Data Book (1982).

11. Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus Subspecies: Monotypic Georgian name: სვავი [svavi] The Cinereous Vulture occurs in Spain, Portugal, France, Greece, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Russia, Caucasus, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, China, Mongolia Korea and Japan. Species extirpated from several European countries due to reduced food supply, habitat destruction and transformation, persecution, poisoning, etc. Status of presence: The Cinereous Vulture is fairly rare year-round resident and partly dispersing. Outside of the breeding seasons widely nomads at long distances. Young birds may migrate from Caucasus to Iran and Arabian Peninsula (Gavashelishvili, 2005; Gavashelishvili, Ghasabyan, 2011) The basic limiting factors which threaten the survival of this raptor are habitat loss, food shortage, small population size, death on poisoned baits and in traps, human disturbance (Abuladze, 1983; Abuladze, Shergalin, 1996). Population size: The population of Cinereous Vulture in central part of South Caucasus was regularly, every year, monitored from 1975 to

58 1991 except only one year – 1988. Later, in 1995, 1997, 1998 and 2001- 2002 counts were conducted only at the territory of Georgia. Since 1973 regular breeding was confirmed in two areas and irregular bereeding in one area. Population estimated about 20 pairs. Slow decline marked in Georgian population. Table 11-1. Results of counts of breeding pairs of Cinereous Vulture in Georgia (1973-1991, 1995 and 1997-1998) and in Western Azerbaijan (1977-1991) Number of breeding pairs by regions Years Eastern Western Other areas Total Georgia Azerbaijan 1975 14+ ? 1 ? 1976 15+ ? ? ? 1977 12 19 (22?) 1(2?) 32 (36?) 1978 15 (16?) 25 ? 40 (41?) 1979 14 22 ? 36 1980 16 28 ? 44 1981 18 21 2 41 1982 19 21 ? 40 1983 17 26 ? 43 1984 19 18 (19?) 1 38 (39?) 1985 16 23 (24?) ? 39 (40?) 1986 19 26 (27?) ? 45 (46) 1987 15 24 1 40 1989 19 (20?) 23 ? 42 (43?) 1990 19 27 ? 46 1991 17 21 1 39 1995 11 ? ? ? 1997 11 ? ? ? 1998 14 ? ? ? 2001 9 ? ? ? 2002 7 ? ? ? Breeding biology: The fragments of Savannah-like arid landscapes at dry hills, table-lands and in semi-deserts are the most optimal breeding habitats in central parts of Southern Caucasus. In Vashlovani Nature Reserve these forests contain a high number of "Mediterranean" elements, such as Juniperus foetidissima, Juniperus rufescens, Jasminum fruticans, Periploca graeca, Punica granatum and Cotinus coggyria, along with Central Asiatic elements as Pistacia mutica and Caragana grandifolia, whereas Euro-Siberian elements, like Euonymus verrucosus and Cornus sanguinea are restricted to more humid gorges. All nests of Cinereous Vulture in central part of Northern Caucasus were found in pine forests in middle- and high mountain forests.

59 The occurrence of know 116 nests according to the slope exposition were the following: northern – 6 nests (5.17%), northeastern – 9 nests (7.76%), eastern – 17 nests (14.65%), southeastern – 33 nests (28.49%), southern – 26 nests (22.41%), southwestern – 12 nests (10.34%), western – 9 nests (7.76%), northwestern – 4 nests (3.49%). Some detailed data on occurrence of nests according to the edge habitats are presented in Table 11-2. Table 11-2. Occurrence of nests of Cinereous Vulture in Caucasus according to the edge habitats (N = 116) Number of Habitats nests Comments N % Solitary tree 4 3.49 All in eastern and central areas of Azerbaijan Scattered trees 15 12.93 11 in Azerbaijan and 4 in SE Georgia Open forest 24 20.69 All in W Azerbaijan and SE Georgia Semi-open 66 56.90 Everywhere forest Closed forest 7 6.03 6 in North Caucasus and 1 in Georgia Total: 116 100.00 Caucasian Cinereous Vultures nest exclusively in trees, most often are used old Junipers Juniperus ssp. - in 91 cases out of recorded 116. The Foedit Juniper Juniperus foetidissima Willd. is the most preferred nest tree in the central part of Southern Caucasus (n = 69). Nesting in Greek Juniper, Juniperus polycarpos was observed rarely, twenty-one nests was found during collecting of data. Besides that, nests were found in Pistachio-trees Pistacia mutica (n = 7) and Eldar Pine, Pinus eldarica (n = 6). The nesting in other tree species was recorded only four times and may be classified as occasional (for details see Table 11-3). All known five nests of the Cinereous Vulture in the North Caucasus were placed in pine trees, always in tops. Table 11-3. Nest-tree selection by Cinereous Vulture at Great Caucasus (N = 116) Height of nest above ground (m) Nest -tree No -2 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 10-12 12-15 15+ Foedit juniper 69 1 10 23 26 7 2 - - Greek juniper 21 - 2 10 8 1 - - - Juniperus 1 - - 1 - - - - - rufescens Pistachio tree 7 - - 1 5 1 - - - Eldari Pine 6 - - 1 3 1 1 - - Other pine species 9 - - - 1 1 4 2 1 Other tree species 3 - - - 1 1 1 - Total: 116 1 12 36 44 11 8 3 1

60 The sizes of 116 nests in central part of South Caucasus and 8 nests in other parts of Caucasus were the following: outer diameter: 120-215 cm, inner diameter, 40-85 cm, height 40-120 cm and depth of cup 15-40 cm. Copulation of Cinereous Vultures in central parts of South Caucasus was observed between 27 February and 16 April. 52 cases of copulations observed being divided into three groups: -A. successful copulations - copulations with cloacal contact; -B. unsuccessful copulations - copulations without cloacal contact; -C. undetermined copulations - all those cases of copulations, could not be classified as either of the A or B groups. At least 36 or about 3/4 of all the copulations observed were classified. 29 copulations were identified as a successful. 25 of 29 successful copulations were watched on the nest or not far from them (3 observations) and one in 120 m from nest. 1-4 copulations per day were noted for each monitored pairs. Duration of the observed copulations was from 10 to 30 seconds. Single egg was laying at the end of February-beginning of March. Case of egg-replacing by new one instead of the lost one was recorded only 2 times. The complete clutch consists of 1 egg that is recorded in 502 cases for the South Caucasus and in 9 cases for the other regions. Only in one case in the Vashlovani Nature Reserve, clutch of two eggs was discovered. Probably it was the joint clutch of 2 females in 1 nest. Sizes of eggs (n=61) of the birds from central part of South Caucasus were the following: length 84.0-96.3 mm, width 64.5-72.5 mm, weight (n = 34) 225.7-236.3 g. One egg was considerably larger - 98.3 x 73.0 mm, 247.3 g, and three eggs were considerably lesser: 78.5 x 62.5 mm, 218.2 g; 80.0 x 65.0 mm, 222.1 and 81.5 x 65.0 mm, 221.5 g. Duration of incubation was recorded for 25 clutches. Incubation, that begins just after the laying of egg, lasting 53 (n = 2), 54 (n = 16), 55 (n = 6) or 56 (n = 1) days and the both parents take part in it. Incubating bird sits in nest always by back towards sun. Chick hatching is going in April and at monitored nests were between April 11 (1990) and April 30 (1977). The data on breeding success were collected and analyzed on monitored territories and nests in SE Georgia and Western Azerbaijan for 19 season – in 1976-1987, 1989-1991, 1995, 1997, and 2001-2002. The main results of monitoring are presented lower in Table 11-4. Food: The Cinereous Vulture in Caucasus is typical carrion-feeder. It feeds on carrion of all types and sizes. The carrion of domestic animals is most important food for Caucasian population, rarely feeds on carcasses of wild animals. Searches food from flight and dependent on sunny weather. Usually observed feeding in flocks together with other species of griffons, especially with European Griffon Vulture. 61 Beside that, 214 pellets were collected at nests in Caucasus during study. It should be mentioned, that in one pellet (from nest at Bozdag Ridge, W Azerbaijan) was discovered scales of large fish. Also, in one pellet from nest in Vashlovani Nature Reserve was recorded hair of the Brown Hare, Lepus europeus Pall. Table 11-4. Breeding success of Cinereous Vulture in the central part of Southern Caucasus Year Indices A B C D E F G H I J K 1976 7 7 7 6 1 85.71 5 0.83 0.71 0.71 0 1977 12 12 12 9 3 75.00 3 0.33 0.25 0.25 0 1978 15 15 14 11 3 78.57 4 0.36 0.27 0.28 0 1979 14 14 14 10 4 71.43 4 0.40 0.29 0.28 0 1980 16 16 15 11 4 73.33 4 0.36 0.25 0.27 0 1981 18 18 18 12 6 66.67 7 0.58 0.39 0.39 0 1982 19 18 18 15 3 83.33 9 0.60 0.50 0.50 1 1983 24 24 23 21 2 91.30 11 0.52 0.46 0.48 0 1984 29 27 27 23 4 85.18 16 0.69 0.69 0.59 2 1985 36 35 33 31 2 93.94 17 0.55 0.48 0.51 1 1986 39 36 34 31 3 91.18 14 0.45 0.39 0.41 3 1987 35 34 33 30 3 90.91 11 0.37 0.32 0.33 1 1989 33 31 31 24 7 77.42 12 0.50 0.39 0.39 2 1990 29 28 27 25 1 92.59 18 0.72 0.64 0.67 1 1991 31 31 31 23 8 74.19 10 0.43 0.32 0.32 0 1995 11 10 8 7 1 87.50 3 0.43 0.30 0.37 1 1997 11 10 9 7 2 77.78 5 0.71 0.50 0.55 1 2001 9 9 9 7 2 77.78 5 0.71 0.55 0.55 0 2002 7 7 7 5 2 71.43 ? ? ? ? 0 Indices: A - Checked territories; B - Occupied territories (with pairs); C - Territories with eggs; D - Number of successful nestings; E - Number of unsuccessful nestings; F - Percentage of successful nestings (D/C); G - Number of fledgings; H - Number of fledgings / successful nesting (G/D); I - Number of fledging / occupied territory (G/B); J - Number of fledging / established nesting (G/C); K - Territories with no activity Threats and limiting factors: Human disturbance during the breeding season is a very serious threat and can have a very negative effect on the breeding success. Destruction of nests, taking of eggs (n = 2) and chick (n = 1) by poachers were registered in 1980’s in Vashlovani Nature Reserve. Poisoning is also a serious threat. Three died adult Cinereous Vultures and 11 Griffon Vultures were found on December 7, 1983 on a carcass of cow in Eldari semi-desert at southern border of Vashlovani Nature Reserve. Unfortunately, despite of legislative protection, at least five cases of illegal shooting were noted. Besides that, collision with power line (n = 1) was recorded.

62 Table 11-5. Feeding on carrion by Cinereous Vultures in Caucasus (282 observations) Number of Carrion Regions observations Individuals Wild animals 33 58 X Badger Meles meles 1 1 Vashlovani Reserve, SE Georgia Bear Ursus arctos 1 1 Aragvi River sources, Great caucasus, E Georgia Common Fox Vulpes vulpes 1 1 Environs of Mingechaur town, Western Azerbaijan Caucasian Red Deer Cervus elaphus 4 11 (4,3,3,1) Lagodekhi Reserve, NE Georgia (3); Kavkazskii Reserve, NW Caucasus (1) West Caucasian Tur Capra caucasica 2 2 Svaneti, NW Georgia; Teberda Nature Reserve, (NW Caucasus) East Caucasian Tur Capra 16 21 Eastern Georgia (9); Western Azerbaijan (2); Dagestan, NE cylindricornis (4,4,3,3,2,2,1,1,1) Caucasus (5) Chamois Rupicapra rupicapra 1 1 North-Ossetian Reserve, N Caucasus European Sus scrofa 2 3 Western Azerbaijan (1), Eastern Georgia (1) Roe Deer Capreolus capreolus 1 1 Lagodekhi Nature Reserve, NE Georgia Saiga antelope Saiga tatarica 3 15 (10,3,2) Kalmykia, Russia (Pre-Caucasia ) Goitred Gazelle Gazella subguturosa 1 1 Shirvan Steppe (Azerbaijan) Domestic animals 249 462 X Domestic sheep Ovis dom. 193 331 everywhere Goat Capra hircus 16 21 everywhere Cattle 17 61 everywhere Domestic pig Sus scrofa dom. 3 4 (3,1) Eastern Georgia (2); N Ossetia (2), N Caucasus Horse Equus caballus 4 11 (5,3,2,1) Eastern Georgia (2); Western Azerbaijan (1) Donkey Equus asinus dom. 4 18 (9,5,3,1) Eastern Georgia (2); Western Azerbaijan (2) Domestic dog Canis familiaris 12 16 Eastern Georgia (9); Azerbaijan (5); Dagestan, N Caucasus (2) Total: 282 520 X

63 Table 11-6. Groups of Cinereous Vultures observed on carrion in some regions of Caucasus Carrion and Number Location and dates number of Other species of birds carcasses 12 Beloe Ozero, Kalmykia, Russia; 16/12/1993; Horse (1) 9 Griffon Vultures 10 Samur River sources, Cattle (1) 7 Griffon Vultures, 2 Bearded Vulture, 1 W Dagestan, Russia; 9/07/1993 Neophron percnopterus 10 Kalmykia, Russia; 22/01/1987; Saiga antelope 22 Griffon Vultures (7 carcasses) 9 Turianchai Reserve, Azerbaijan; 1/04/1976 Donkey (1) 4 Griffon Vultures and 2 Neophron percnopterus 8 Guton Reserve, Dagestan, Russia; 11/08/1980; Horse (1) 1 Bearded Vulture and 14 Griffon Vultures 7 Iori table-land, SE Georgia; 22/06/1981 Domestic sheep (3) 11 Griffon Vultures and 1 Egyptian Vulture 7 Mt.Chobandagh, W Azerbaijan; 5/11/1985 Domestic sheep (4) 12 Griffon Vultures 7 N slope Mt.Bazardyuzyu, Great Caucasus; 7/07/1986 East Caucasian Tur 1 Bearded Vulture, 3 Griffon Vultures and 1 (4 carcasses) Egyptian Vulture 7 Iori table-land, SE Georgia; 25/07/1988 Horse (1) 8 Griffon Vultures and 2 Egyptian Vulture 6 Bank of Ajinour Lake, W Azerbaijan; 23/12/1977 Cattle (1) 11 Griffon Vultures 6 Near Shamkhor reservoir, W Azerbaijan; 6/05/1985 Domestic sheep (2) 1 Griffon Vulture 5 Bozdag Ridge, W Azerbaijan; 7/11/1981 Domestic sheep (3) 5 Griffon Vultures 5 Near Mingechaur reservoir, W Azerbaijan; Cattle (1) 3 Griffon Vultures and 1 Egyptian Vulture 30/04/1982 5 Baksan valley, N Caucasus; Russia; 27/11/1983 Goat (1) 3 Griffon Vultures 5 Iori table-land, Georgia; 12/01/1987 Domestic sheep (4) 2 Griffon Vultures 5 Near Mt Jeiranchol, W Azerbaijan, 16/08/2001. Donkey (1) 7 Griffon Vultures 1 Egyptian Vulture 5 Bank of Alazani River, SE Georgia; 7/03/2003 Horse (1) 2 Griffon Vultures

64 Conservation status: SPEC 1; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Near Threatened (NT); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Near Threatened; Red List of Georgia – EN. The Cinereous Vulture was under legal protection in Georgia from the 1973 and was included in the 1st edition of the Red Data Book of Georgia (1982).

12. Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus Gmelin, 1788 Subspecies: Monotypic, no subspecies Georgian name: ძერაბოტი [dzeraboti] The Short-toed Eagle has a wide distribution, depending on the abundance and availability of reptiles, mostly snakes. Occurs from southwestern Europe (Spain, France), northwest Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya) along the Mediterranean shore (Italy, Greece), in eastern regions (Hungary, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Romania) north to the Belarus and sporadically to Gulf of Finland, and across southern part of European Russia (across Volga basin and Ural (up to 52 northern latitude) east to northern Kazakhstan (up to 49 northern latitude) and Central Asian countries; breeds in Turkey, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Iran. Sedentary populations occur on the Indian Subcontinent and in Southeast Asia (Lesser Sunda Island). Western populations of the short-toed snake-eagle are migratory. Most spend the winter in in the Sahel zone of sub-Saharan Africa, but small number remains in southern Spain. Birds from eastern populations are year-round residents (Dement’yev & Gladkov, 1951; Fergusson-Lees & Christie, 2001; Forsman, 1999; Gensbol, 2004; Mebs & Schmidt 2006). Status of presence: The Short-toed Eagle is rare migratory breeder in Georgia and widespread and regular, but in small numbers, passage migrant across country. Distribution and habitats: The Short-toed Eagle uses a wide range of habitats – light forests, various woodlands in low altitudinal belts, arid grassland, semi-savannah, semi-desert, mountain steppe. It generally prefers mixed habitat that combines open areas, rich in reptile prey, with tree cover for nesting. There are the most optimal conditions for the species breeding in the study territory in the South-East of Georgia and along borders of Azerbaijan. Here, in Mtkvari River valley, not high (from 300-400 to 800-1000 meters above the sea level), strongly eroded and slightly afforested ranges, ridges plateau, are divided and dismembered by wide plain lowering, former and dry river-beds of seasonal flows, canyons, ravines. The breeding habitats are attached to the fragments of the saved arid sparse forests (Savanna type), mainly juniper-pistachio-pine, alternated with open plots and “tugai”-type forests in flood-lands of the largest rivers of the region – Mtkvari, Alazani, Iori, Khrami. The most optimal habitats for the Short-toed 65 Eagle breeding occupy in Georgia comparatively small area – from 5600 to 5800 sq. km. The species can be found rarely on wooded mountainous slopes. For more detailed information see Abuladze, Beruchashvili, 2012. Population size: According to unpublished data provided by Georgian zoologists, working in 1930’s-1960’s, the Short-toed Eagle was widespread and more-or-less common raptor species in arid areas of Eastern Georgia. At the middle of 1970's their number dropped catastrophically owing to excessive use of pesticides in agriculture and as result of sharp degradation of the reptiles populations. In 1970’s the Short-toed Eagle was one of the most rare breeding birds of prey in Georgia and we estimated its number at 4-7 pairs (Abuladze, 1985), distributed mostly in semi-deserts along the south-eastern borders of country. Little-visible increase of number was begun since the second half of 1980’s, when in Georgia there were according to Authors’ estimations already up to 10 pairs (Abuladze, 1997), 10-12 pairs in the early 1990’s, about 15 pairs in late 1990’s, up to 20 in 2001-2006 (Abuladze, 2006). 4-8 pairs in 1970’s – early 1980’s, about 10 breeding pairs in the beginning of 1990’s, about 14 pairs in the first half of 1990’s and 15-20 pairs were nested in Georgia in 2001-2006. The largest breeding group of the Short-toed Eagle if central parts of Southern Caucasus at present occurs in Eastern Georgia Western Azerbaijan, i.e. in the Caspian Sea basin, and numbers of breeding pairs decrease to West and North. According to Author’s expert estimation, in 2008-2012 the number of breeding pairs of the Short-toed Eagle compiled at least 20 and slowly continued to grow (Abuladze, 2008a). At the present time within the limits of Georgia there are at least twenty- five breeding pairs, probably up to thirty pairs: at Iori table-land – 8-10 pairs, at least four pairs were counted in lower part of right-side of Alaszani River’s flood-lands (along the frontier with Azerbaijan) in springs/summers 2003, 2004 and 2007; at least two pairs regularly nested in 2004-2012 at Kvernaki Ridge, Shida Kartli region; three occupied territories were identified in summer 2001, in 2010-2011 in watershed part of Trialeti Ridge, Lesser Caucasus; the presence of one breeding pair was confirmed by regular observations during summer 2001 in NW part of Tsalka Hollow. It should be noted that in 1970’s – 1980’s this bird was not registered. Breeding of 1, probably of 2 pairs, was confirmed in southern part of Gombori Ridge, Kakheti Region. Occupied territories were identified here in July 1999 and in May 2012. Sporadically single breeding pairs can be discovered in other points of Eastern Georgia, sometimes in direct neighbourhood with settlements. So, breeding of one pair was recorded in 1996 in northern surroundings of Tbilisi City, near Tbilisi reservoir. Nest of this pair was found after fledging of young. Nest was located on Eldari Pine, on branch in central 66 part of crown at the height 6.3 meters above ground. Inspite of negihbourhood of road with intensive traffic (about 100 meters) and permanent presence of people near, the pair could successfully rear up an offspring. Thus the total number of breeding population compiles in the last years in Georgia at least 25 pairs with an average density at 4.0- 4.5 pairs at 1000 sq.km. Several times these raptors were recorded during breeding seasons in Western Georgia, i.e. in the Black Sea basin, but in all cases were observed solitary individuals (Abuladze, Beruchashvili, 2012). At least 20 pairs of Short-toed Eagle were nested along the western frontiers of Azerbaijan in the first half of 1980’s. Later we did not conduct studies in Azerbaijan, but in our opinion, numbers of this raptors in western part of Azerbaijan during last two decades – from the late 1980’s by the present time at least has doubled. Thus by the present time in central parts of South Caucasus – in Eastern Georgia and in western part of Azerbaijan, the breeding group of the Short-toed Eagle was formed with number at 60-70 pairs, that according to our opinion is the limital for the this species. Breeding biology: The birds, breeding in the study area in spring arrive in the 1st decade of April and just after that occupy nesting plots beginning to repair old nests or build new nests. The first observations of the formed pairs are recorded in different years at breeding sites 2-9 April and directly at near nests or on nests from 4 to 11 April. The breeding display flight continue entire April, but sometimes they can be observed even later – until the middle of June. Totally for the period of field works 43 breeding plots were revealed, where in different years it was discovered investigated and described 14 nests of the Short-toed Eagle, 11 breeding case traced, 5 clutches explored, reasons of death of 16 birds were determined. Among 14 nests discovered by us, 12 nests were built by birds themselves, in two cases the pairs occupied old nest-sites of Carrion Crow. All known nests were located in trees, and preference was given to pine and junipers. 7 nests were in Eldari Pines (Pinus eldarica), 3 nests were in various junipers (Juniperus spp.) by one - in White Poplar (Populus alba), Pistachio-tree (Pistacia atlantica subsp.mutica), oak (Quercus spp.) and acacia (Acacia spp.). Ten nests were located in upper parts of crowns and five nests were on lateral branches, but in all cases nests were open from above. Nests in pines and junipers were situated closer to open habitats while nests in deciduous trees were located farer from open spaces. 9 out of 14 nests were placed in pines and junipers, grown on very steep terrace-like slopes or precipices The average height of nests above ground was about 6,5 meters, ranged from 4,5 to 14,0 meters above ground. All nests discovered by us were very well masked and it was very difficult to discover them especially new ones built in

67 that year Many works speak about high extent of hiddenness of the Short-toed Eagle nests in other regions too Always the Short-toed Eagle nests are well hidden from eyes and badly seen from below or from the sides. More detailed data on nest-sites selection presented in Table 12-1. Table 12-1. Nest data of Short-toed Eagle in Georgia (n = 9) and western Azerbaijan (n = 5) Height above Position in tree Number Nest-tree ground, meters of nests crown branch <5 5-10 10-15 Eldari Pine, Pinus 5 2 - 6 1 7 eldarica Junipers, 2 1 1 2 - 3 Juniperus spp. Phistachio, - 1 - 1 - 1 Pistacia mutica Oak, Quercus 1 - - - 1 1 spp. Acacia, Acacia 1 - - 1 1 spp. White Poplar, 1 - - 1 1 Populus alba Total: 10 4 1 9 4 14 The sizes of known 14 nest-sites were as following: outer diameter was usually 70-75 (11 nests of 14) cm, ranged from 60 to 100 cm; height of nests was from 25 to 60 cm, more often 30-40 cm. Old, occupied in previous years, nests were of a more large size. The dominate components of nest materials were dry twigs of trees and bushes with thickness from 0,5 to 3 cm. The inner diameter of nest-sites ranged from 25 to 35 cm. Cup always is lined with small fresh branches of juniper, pine or poplar. As a rule, by the end of breeding the nest-cups are lined with thick layer of dry desintergrate pellets casted by chick directly in the nests under their feet. Near nests always there are several perches, placed on dry twigs under which it is always possible to find the food remains. Pair formation and courtship flights were observed in the second half of April, but several times courtship flights were watched later - before the middle of May. The copulations directly on the nests or near nests were observed in Georgia two times – on 4 April 1988 in Vashlovani Nature Reserve and on 14 April 1999 at Udabno Ridge; besides that, copulation was registered on April 7, 1974 at northern slope of Bozdag Ridge in Western Azerbaijan. Egg-playing takes place in the second half of April, usually during last decade of April, probably during first decade of May. The duration

68 of incubation for two clutches was 46 days (26 April – 10 June) and 47 days (21 April – 6 June). The hatching was recorded in the second – third pentades of June and fledging in the late July. But feeding of the fledged young by adults was observed still 2 August 1989 directly on nest, 7 August 2002, 9 August 1991 and 14 August 2011 near the nests. The broods on breeding plots stay usually till the middle of August, and sometimes till the end of August. During the post-breeding movements, the broods move in habitats rich by reptiles where they stay till the beginning of autumn departure. The most preferred habitats during post-breeding movements are semi-desert, but sometimes they stayed before departure in uncommon habitats. For example, these birds regularly were observed at heights from 1600 to 2300 meters above the sea level in wet habitats at sub-alpine meadows of Lesser Caucasus, where the number and density of small reptiles, mostly rock lizards and amphibians are high. The sizes of five eggs from five nests of white or dirty-white colors were the following: 74,8 х 58,0 mm; 77,0 х 59,0 mm; 74,5 x 58,3 mm; 73,7 х 58,5 mm; 74,0 х 58,3 mm. In all known clutches there was 1 egg of white color. The breeding success was estimated for 11 cases of nesting and compiled in the average some more than 0,7 fledged per one breeding pair or 72,7%, eight young were fledged. In one case clutch was robbed by Corvids. Egg was pecked out by the Black-billed Magpie, Pica pica, pair, when incubating female was flushed from the nest by shepherds. The behavior of pairs during the whole breeding season may be characterized as extreme careful. During people approach to nest they leave the nest at 50-70 meters, hiding from the point of view or soar at the great altitude at distance 100-300 meters from nests and sometimes more distance. Later, before chick hatching, they can allow people come closer but anyway they are very careful to relation to approaching observer. The Short-toed Eagle patiently relates to the neighborhood of other birds of prey. At the distance of 100-500 meters from the nests of Short-toed Eagle’s nests, occupied nests of other raptor species - Honey Buzzard, Cinereous Vulture, Common Buzzard and Long-legged Buzzard, were found. In one case the Short-toed Eagle nest was located in neighbourhood at about 20 meters, from the large colony of the Spanish Sparrow (Passer hispaniolensis). In other case, in April 1983 at the south-eastern edge of Iori Table-land (Kakheti region, SE Georgia), the pair began to build the nest in acacia in artificial field- protective plantation near to colony of 220-240 pairs of the Rosy- colored Starling (Sturnus roseus), but, unfortunately, birds were frighten by shepherds and leave almost finished nest Diet: About 380 prey items were collected during field works on nests.

69 Prey is often brining in bill semi-swallowed and quite often reptiles are still alive. The size of oval pellets is 45-55 x 25-30 mm. The pellets consist of scales abdominal thorax of reptiles. During our observations, the Short-toed Eagle feeding remained unstudied in general, because near 4 nests out of 11 discovered nests 11, any food remains have not been found. However on and around other 7 nests as well as under perches within the limits of hunting territories of pairs, pellets and prey remains were collected, totally 153 items of prey, whose analysis has shown that the main prey of Short-toed eagle in Georgia and in adjacent parts of South Caucasus are reptiles, mostly small and medium sized species. By occurrence the dominated lizards belonged to genus Lacertidae. Among the prey remains the Striated or Caspian Green Lizard (Lacerta strigata), Balkan Green Lizard (Lacerta trilineata), young individuals of Zheltopusik or European Legless Lizard (Ophysaurus apodus), young individual of unidentified Elaphe (Elaphe spp.), and also amphibians – Green Toad (Bufo viridis) and Lake Frog (Rana ridibunda) were identified. Besides that, in some pellets there was fell of the small rodents, and also feathers of unidentified small passerine birds. The breeding birds begins hunting usually late in the morning, more often from 10:00, after the ground have warmed and reptiles are active. Seasonal movements: The spring passage across eastern part of Georgia takes place from the late March to the middle of April with a peak in the middle of April. The extreme dates were March 23 and May 11. Most of migrants, about 2/3 of total number, were counted between April 10 and 20. At the Black sea coastlands of Georgia, the dates of spring passage are more expanded, the birds stay there until the middle of May. The autumn passage starts at the middle of August with a peak at the middle of September. The passage Short-toed Eagles might be sighted in open habitats practically everywhere – from the Black Sea shore to semi-deserts and subalpine meadows of the Great Caucasia and South- Georgian Plateau Only on the steep mountain slopes covered by solid forests these birds of prey were not recorded . As a whole the number of passage birds in not great and compiles of the total number of passage birds of prey in different years and in different points of South Caucasus for all years of observations compiles only 0.53 % in spring - with annual fluctuations from 0.05% and to 1.54% and about 0.31% in autumn with annual fluctuations from 0.09% and to 0.47% of the total number of the counted passage birds of prey (Abuladze, 1998; Abuladze, Beruchashvili, 2012; Abuladze, Edisherashvili, 2003; Abuladze, Kandaurov, Eligulashvili, 2011; Jansen, 2011; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011).

70 Threats and limiting factors: Unfortunately, in spite of legislative protection, Short-toed Eagle sometimes often suffers from poachers. During the years of the study, at least 16 cases of illegal shooting at the territory of Georgia were noted (Abuladze et al. 2011). Most of cases, 12 of known 16, were recorded during the autumn passage and one in spring. Unfortunately, killing of two adult individuals and one fledged young were recorded in August 1996 in western part of Iori Table-land, in southeastern part of Georgia. Conservation status: SPEC 3; CEE 1; BERNA 2; BONN II; CITES II; AEWA; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk. Species was including in the first edition of the "Red Data Book of the Georgian SSR" (1982).

13. Western Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus Linnaeus, 1758 Subspecies Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus occurs in Georgia Georgian name: ჭაობის ბოლობეჭედა [tchaobis bolobetcheda] Synonym ჭაობის ძელქორი [tchaobis dzelqori] The Eurasian Marsh Harrier breeds across much of Eurasia - from Great Britain, Central, Southern and Eastern Europe through Asia eastwards to northern Japan. Birds from Central, Southern, Eastern Europe and Russia migrate south and winters in sub-Saharian Africa, Mediterranean, at southern shores of Caspian Sea and Black Sea, Middle East, Caucasus. In Central and Southern Europe, the species is patchily distributed while in Eastern Europe the species is more common. Two subspecies are recognized (Fergusson-Lees & Christie, 2001; Mebs & Schmidt, 2006). Status of presence: The Eurasian Marsh Harrier is an uncommon year-round resident with seasonal movements, or probably, partial migrant, but common during passage and a common winter visitor. It is the most widespread and abundant harrier species in Georgia. Habitat: A habitat specialist found predominantly in reed beds. Preferred nesting habitats include the reedy lakes at Kolkheti Lowland and wetlands of Rioni River valley in western Georgia; at banks of lakes and adjacent marshes at Javakheti Upland in south-central Georgia; Kumisi and Jandari lakes (in central and eastern Georgia, respectively); and the flood-plains of the Mtkvari, Alazani, Khrami, and Iori rivers. The Western Marsh-Harrier should be classified as a species, which is successfully adapted to transformed habitats. Population size: The size of the population breeding in Georgia has decreased significantly due to persecution since the 1960’s to late 1980’s (Abuladze, 1985d). From 60 to 80 breeding pairs were counted in the second half of 1970’s-1980’s. This population saw notable

71 increases in the 1990’s (from 75 to 100 pairs). 110-125 pairs were recorded by the early 2000’s, with present estimates now as high as 140- 150 pairs. Other researchers (Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005) are more conservative, estimating approximately 80-100 breeding pairs in Georgia. The breeding population is presently densest in central and south-central Georgia in the mountain wetlands of the Javakheti Upland, in Tabatskuri Lake basin and Tsalka Hollow, where up to 80 pairs are estimated to breed. The density of breeding pairs at Djavakheti Upland was from 6 pairs (in 2010) to 11 pairs (in 2008) per 100 sq. km of total area or up to 25 pairs per 100 sq. km of suitable breeding habitats (Beruchashvili, 2011; our data). Probably 30-40 pairs are nesting at Kolkheti Lowland. The Marsh Harrier population in Georgia seems to be fairly stable despite still existing human persecution. Breeding biology: The Marsh Harrier starts breeding with two or three years. For nesting prefers wet areas around large lakes, marshes and along river banks, canals. Most of the found nests were located on plots with large expanses of reeds or other, typical for wet habitats, vegetation. The distance between pairs in the sub-alpine wetlands of Javakheti Upland, Tabatskuri Lake basin, and Tsalka Hollow ranged from 400 to 1000 meters (500-700 meters typical); in wetlands of Kolkheti Lowland, at lakes in eastern part of Georgia and at alpine at Djavakheti Upland – from 1000 to 3000 meters (1500-2000 meters typical). The early dates of spring observations in breeding habitats were 20 March – 5 April. The earliest egg-laying dates recorded were 4 April 2010 (at pond in Chorokhi River mouth, Black Sea coast, Ajaria), 14 April (Narionali lakes, Guria RegionAjaria), 16 and 22 April (at Jandary Lake, SE Georgia), 20 April (Anaklia wetlands, western part of Kolkheti Lowland), 21 and 30 April (at Kumisi Lake, E Georgia), 1 May (Bashkoi Lake, Tsalka Hollow), 6, 7, 11, 12 and 16 May (lakes and wetlands of Djavakheti Upland and Tabatskuri Lake). According to the literature, clutch size can range from two to eight eggs. During collecting of materials, in 14 nests, clutch size ranged from three to six eggs, with a mean of 4.14 eggs. 2 clutches, or about 14.3% of recorded clutches consisted of three eggs; 9 clutches (64.3%) - of four eggs; 2 clutches (14.3%) - of five eggs; and in 1 clutch (7.1%) - six eggs. The sizes of 24 eggs from six clutches (3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5 eggs in each) and weight of 8 eggs from two clutches were measured: Length – from 47.5 to 53.0 mm, width – from 35.5 to 39.50 mm, weight – from 33.7 to 36.5 g. The duration of incubation is 31-38 days. Fledged young can fly at the earliest with 5-6 weeks and are dependent on their parents for another 2-3 weeks.

72 Of 37 nests-sites monitored during study in 1980’s and in 2008-2012, 28 (or approximately 75.7%), successfully fledged at least one chick. Diet: Materials on prey consumption during the breeding season were collected at nine nests in various regions – at Jandari and Kumisi lakes (1977-1980), in Paleostomi Lake basin (1986-1988 and 2006), in Chorokhi River (1991 and 2003), in Tsalka Hollow (1982 and 2004) and at wetlands of Djavakheti Upland and Tabatskuri Lake (1984, 1991, 2008-2012). Data on winter feeding were collected primarily at the Kolkheti Lowland. Prey is primarily small rodents and adult birds (especially those associated with wetland habitats), although bird eggs and nestlings, and even some reptile and amphibian species are also taken (Abuladze, 1985a; Abuladze, 1987). Feeding on carrion, including remains of large fishes were also observed at Jandari and Kumisi lakes. Hunts from low flight over reed beds, wet meadows, lake and river banks, canals, other open areas. Usually takes prey on the ground, rare in the air and on water. Data collected on prey composition in Chorokhi River mouth (Black Sea coast, Ajaria) in 1990, 1999, 2005-2006 and at wetlands of Djavakheti Upland in 1984, 1991 and 2008 are presented in Table 13-1. Table 13-1. Data on Marsh Harrier prey composition in Georgia N – Nesting, S/A - Spring and Autumn, W -Winter Prey species Number by seasons N S/A W Total Great Crested Grebe, Podiceps cristatus - 2 3 5 Little Grebe, Tachybaptus ruficollis - 4 4 8 Unidentified grebes, Podiceps spp. - 1 2 3 Pygmy Cormorant, Phalacrocorax pygmeus - - 3 3 Little Bittern, Ixobrychus minutus 2 - - 2 Black-crowned Night-heron, N.nycticorax 1 - - 1 Gadwall, Anas strepera 1 3 3 7 Mallard, Anas platyrhinchos 8 4 11 23 Tufted Duck, Aythia fuligula - 1 4 5 Common Teal, Anas crecca 2 - 3 5 Garganey, Anas querquedula 1 - 1 2 Unidentified ducks, Anas spp. 3 2 5 10 Common Pheasant, Phasianus colchicus 1 - 1 2 Common Quail, Coturnix coturnix 4 2 - 6 Water Rail, Rallus aquaticus 3 1 - 4 Spotted Crake, Porzana porzana - 1 - 1 Corncrake, Crex crex 2 - - 2 Moorhen, Gallinula chloropus 3 1 1 5 Common Coot, Fulica atra 11 4 16 31 Little Ringed Plover, Charadrius dubius - - 1 1 Northern Lapwing, Vanellus vanellus 1 3 1 5

73 Prey species Number by seasons N S/A W Total Common Snipe, Gallinago gallinago - - 1 1 Great Snipe, Gallinago media - - 1 1 Green Sandpiper, Tringa ochropus - 1 - 1 Unidentified Tringa spp. 2 1 - 3 Black-headed Gull, Larus ridibunus 5 2 2 9 Armenian Gull, Larus armenicus 4 - 2 6 Unidentified gulls, Larus spp. 1 2 2 5 Unidentified terns, Sterna/Chlidonias spp. 1 - - 1 Sky Lark, Alauda arvensis 3 - - 3 Unidentified pipits, Anthus spp. 4 - - 4 Yellow Wagtail, Motacilla flava 2 - - 2 Pied Wagtail, Motacilla alba 3 - 2 5 Magpie, Pica pica 3 - 2 5 Eurasian Jackdaw, Corvus monedula 7 - 7 Unidentified small Passeriformes spp. 12 10 9 31 Unidentified adult birds, Aves spp. 7 12 5 24 Unidentified nestlings, Aves spp. 27 - - 27 - Birds, Aves 124 56 85 265 Unidentified moles, Talpa spp. 2 - - 2 Wood Mouse, Apodemus sylvaticus 10 2 4 16 House Mouse, Mus musculus 16 5 7 28 Mice, Mus spp. & Apodemus spp. 27 3 11 41 Bush Vole, Terricola majori 2 - - 2 Water Vole, Arvicola terrestris 34 3 2 39 Common Vole, Microtus arvalis 9 - - 9 Social Vole, Microtus socialis 17 6 2 25 Unidentified voles, Microtinae spp. 42 11 14 67 Nehring’s Molerat, Nannospalax nehringi 5 - - 5 Norvey or Brown rat, Rattus norvegicus 7 1 4 12 Unidentified rats, Rattus spp. 3 - 1 4 Unidentified small mammals 32 23 27 82 - Mammals, Mammalia 206 55 72 333 Unidentified lizards, Lacerta spp. 12 2 - 14 Ring (Grass) Snake, Natrix natrix 7 - 7 Water (Diced) Snake, Natrix tesselata 8 1 - 9 Unidentified snakes 3 - - 3 – Reptiles, Reptilia 26 3 - 29 Marsh Frog, Rana ridibunda 11 - - 11 Iranian Frog, Rana macrocnemis 15 - - 15 Unidentified frogs, Rana spp. 29 7 - 36 Unidentified toads, Bufo spp. 4 - - 4 – Amphibians, Amphibia 59 7 - 66 Total: 415 121 157 693

74 The phenology and patterns of breeding biology are similar to other populations in the Southern Caucasus (see: Adamian, Klem, 1999; Patrikeev, 2004; Petrosian, Petrosian, 1997). Seasonal movements: Spring passage starts at the end of February and continues into late April, with a peak in the second half of March. First transients meet the Black Sea coastlands and Kolkheti Lowland from 28 February to 3 March, with passage in the continental parts of the country typically following three to five days later; last transients observed 21-24 April. Autumn passage starts in the middle of August and continues through early November, with a peak in a middle of September. First records of transients arrive at the Black Sea coastlands and Kolkheti Lowland on 12-17 August; last transients recorded 11-19 November. Passage proceeds mostly along Black Sea coast, valleys of large rivers and large wetlands. Similar passage dates were noted in eastern Georgia. The dates of autumn passage at wetlands of Djavakheti Upland, Tabatskuri Lake basin and Tsalka Hollow are shorter – from mid- August till mid-October, with last migrants recorded in the highlands of the Lesser Caucasus between October 20 and 25. Early dates of spring observations were in middle of March and late dates of autumn records were in the end of November. Some data on the phenology of seasonal passages are presented in Table 13-2. Table 13-2. Data on Eurasian Marsh Harrier seasonal migrations patterns in Georgia Number of counted individuals, in % Seasons Months Decades I II III Spring February - - 0.14 March 19.58 39.54 37.47 April 3.21 0.05 0.01 Autumn August - 0.48 1.31 September 15.22 30.14 27.03 October 17.48 6.68 1.64 November 0.01 0.01 - Threats and limiting factors: The habitat destruction due to drainage of wetlands in 1930’s-1960’s at Kolkheti Lowland and Black Sea coastal lowlands in Abkhazia, Samegrelo, Guria, Ajaria and in some sites in Imereti was the major threats to species. Like in other republics of the former , this species was heavily persecuted in Georgia during mass campaigns in the 1950’s-1970’s. Illegal shooting remains a serious threat to this species, especially on wintering grounds and during passage in western parts of the country (Abuladze et al., 2011d). From 1973-2012, at least 259 cases of illegal shooting were counted by the Author – 168 on wintering grounds, 76 during autumn 75 transit, 6 during spring transit and 9 during breeding season. The local breeding population seriously decreased in the middle of 20th century due to destruction of habitats, drainage of wetlands, shooting and poisoning. Thankfully it has since recovered well, and its population has increased. Conservation status: SPEC 4 (Non-SPEC); CEE 1; BERNA 2; BONN II; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk.

14. Northern (Hen) Harrier Circus cyaneus Subspecies Circus cyaneus cyaneus occurs in Georgia Georgian name: მინდვრის ბოლობეჭედა [mindvris bolobetcheda] Synonym: მინდვრის ძელქორი [mindvris dzelqori] Distributed in Europe and Asia, including the Great Britain, Iberian Peninsula, east across northern Eurasia to Siberia, north-western China, Mongolia to Kamchatka Peninsula. Winters in southern Europe, Mediterranean, Middle east, Caucasus to India, south-eastern China, Japan and northernmost Southeast Asia. Status of presence: Widespread and regular, but not numerous passage migrant and uncommon, locally in some winters common winter visitor in dry open areas of country. More widespread and common in the Caspian Sea basin along the south-eastern political borders of Georgia. Occasional summer visitor without breeding, in 1973-2012 solitary individuals 7 times were recorded in summer in open habitats of eastern areas. The Hen Harrier is widespread and regular, but in general uncommon transit migrant and uncommon, locally common winterer (Abuladze, 1999a; Abuladze et al., 2002; Abuladze et al., 2003; Abuladze, Edisherashvili, 2008b; Edisherashvili, 1999; Edisherashvili, 2011; Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005; Kutubidze, 1985; Zhordania, 1962). In the current analyses of the species the main patterns of wintering in Georgia are under study. Some results of these analyses have been published earlier (Abuladze, 1999a). During collecting of materials this raptor species were recorded every year during spring and autumn passages and in winter. Main part of the wintering Hen Harriers are concentrating in the eastern part of the country: along the valleys of large rivers – Mtkvari River, Iori River, Alazani River, Khrami River, at Iori Table-land, Udabno Ridge, Gardabani Lowland, lowlands and plains of Lower Kartli, locally in Shida Kartli; to a much lesser extent and irregularly at Kolkheti Lowland and in some lower parts of Rioni River valley. The most preferred wintering habitats are the open dry landscapes in SE Georgia: semi-deserts, tree-less uplands and foothills, juniper-pistachio

76 woodlands in semi-savannahs, cultivated fields, etc. The vertical limits of distribution of Hen Harrier at wintering grounds in Georgia are 200 - 700 meters above the sea level. The first solitary migrating Hen Harriers have been recorded in Georgia in the last days of August. But these birds are transit visitors, who are not staying for long. The numbers of migrating harriers increased by the beginning of October, reaching the peak in the late October. In the middle of November transit passage almost stops and only these birds can be recorded who are staying for winter in Georgia. The highest number of wintering individuals has been recorded from late December – to late February. In early March the numbers of individuals decreases to a great extent and by the middle of the month only solitary individuals, usually young harriers, have been recorded. The number of Hen Harriers wintering in Georgia has greatly varied across years, that probably is related to birds with varying transit routes from neighbouring regions (Northern Caucasus and Azerbaijan), as it has been recorded that intensity of wintering increases in these years when the mentioned regions have unfavorable weather conditions – heavy snowfalls and low temperature. Most of the Hen Harriers wintering in Georgia are concentrated in the south-eastern “corner” of country, on the lowlands between Iori and Alazani rivers. In different years from 1976 to 1991 and in 1994 to 1998, it has been recorded from 6,2 to 22,7 individuals per 100 sq km of total area of wintering habitats, on average 17,8. In comparison, it has been estimated for the Eastern Azerbaijan, that the average is around 10/100 sq. km (Shubin, 1983). The similar with Georgian, density of Hen Harriers on wintering grounds was in Azerbaijan – from 10 to 20 /100 sq. km of wintering habitats (Patrikeev, 2004; Paynter et al., 1996; Shubin, 1983). In total, according to our expert evaluation, during the last three decades from 300 to 1000 individuals winters in Georgia in different years. The biggest concentration recorded in the South-East of the country. Besides that, 500-1500 individuals winters in adjacent areas of Western Azerbaijan along the borders with Georgia. So, the total number of wintering individuals in central part of South Caucasus ranged from 800 to 2500, probably some more in severe winters. It should be noted, that from the late 1970’s, there has been an increasing trend of the wintering birds, but during last 10-15 tears, the number of wintering individuals in Georgia seriously decreased. During the wintering mostly young birds are prevalent. The ratio of different age groups can be described as 1 adult male to 2,3 adult females to 11,5 young birds. To Hen Harriers, wintering in Georgia are characterized by grouping and hunting together and staying overnight collectively. It has been observed frequently that the groups consist of 5-10 birds. The biggest group observed by the author during 1970’s-1980’s comprised of 18 birds.Mostly the young birds are grouping, sometimes adult 77 females joining them. Adult males always stay on their own, they have their individual hunting territories where the other birds are not allowed. Several times territorial conflicts of adult males were observed. Three times collective hunting has been observed (4, 3 and 3 hunting together individuals); all of the observed birds were young individuals. About 40 times hunting together of two birds has been observed, those also mainly being young individuals. Rarely one of birds was an adult female, hunting in pair with juvenile. Adults males always were recorded hunting by singly. Altogether we have found in Georgia in 1980’s-1990’s 14 points of communal roosts. All of these have been located in a rarely, or occasionally, visited by people places, on plots, which are covered by high and dense grass vegetation. First communal roost was found in December 1981 at South-Eastern edge of Iori Table-land, in Vashlovani Nature Reserve. That was situated on an even meadow, sorrounded from three sides by precipices and from the fourth side with sharp shrubs. From 21 to 28 December 1982 on this roost with area of 120-130 meters х 20-25 meters, from 8 to 11 young Hen Harriers and 2-3 adult females gathered for overnight. Later, from 7 to 18 February 1983, there were observed from 13 to 17 young and from 2 to 4 adult females. During last visits in areas, where communal roosts of these birds are located, at eastern edge of Iori Table-land on 11-16 January 2011 at least 60 Hen Harriers were counted on 20-25 sq.km and three communal roosts were found. In one, 12 individuals were counted on 11.01.2011; at least 9 individuals (8 young and 1 adult females) were counted in the second site and at least 7 individuals (5 young and 2 adult females) were in third. Besides that, four solitary adult males were observed in area. During the next winter in the same place in different days from 14-26 individuals gathered for overnight, of them 4-7 were adult females and the rest – young individuals. In the winter of 1983-1984 in this communal (overnight) roost from 17 to 31young individuals and 3-6 adult females were observed. In the following years such communal roosts were not observed in this place, however in February 1987 around 0,7 km from the previous place a new collective overnight stay was observed. There were counted 37 (22.02.1987) and 41 individuals (28.02.1987). Count of harriers on communal roosts was carried out from the high points of relief at the dawn, when birds started to fly out hunting. Besides that, in some other areas of Eastern Georgia, mostly in eastern part of Iori Table-land and in semi-deserts along the eastern borders, also other communal roosts of wintering Hen Harriers have been observed. In 7 communal roosts in different time spaces it has been observed respectively: 19-42; 16-39; 14-30; 7-18; 5-14; 5-11; 4-11 individuals. In the holes, on the down trodden by the birds grass, there were often pellets, rare prey remains. The amount of the pellets depends on the length of the stay of the birds in the holes (from 1 to 16 pellets in 78 each hole). 2167 pellets were collected in winters 1981-1998. The analysis of the pellets as well as other gathered materials (72 prey remains, stomachs of 6 died harriers and 51 direct visual observations on successful attacks) allows to understand the prey composition of Hen Harriers on wintering grounds in Georgia, for details see Table 14-1. Table 14-1. Data on the prey composition of Hen Harriers wintering in Georgia Number Prey species N In % Caucasian Shrew, Sorex caucasicus 44 2.17 Unidentified shrews, Sorex spp. 38 1.85 Wood Mouth, Apodemus sylvaticus 104 5.05 House Mouth, Mus musculus 133 6.46 Unidentified mice, Mus spp. 241 11.70 Brandt’s Hamster, Mesocricetus brandtiі 9 0.44 Grey Dwarf Hamster, Cricetulus migratorius 20 0.97 Libyan Jird, Meriones libycus 105 5.10 Unidentified jirds, Meriones spp. 22 1.07 Social vole, Microtus socialis 416 20.20 Unidentified voles, Microtus spp. 306 14.86 Unidentified small rodents, Rodenta spp. 285 13.84 Mammals, total 1720 83.54 Chukar, Alectoris chukar 1 0.05 Feral Pigeon, Columba livia domesticus 1 0.05 Crested Lark, Galerida cristata 20 0.97 Unidentified larks, Alauda spp. 42 2.04 Unidentified pipits, Anthus spp. 26 1.26 White Wagtail, Motacila alba 3 0.15 Ring Ouzel, Turdus torquatus 4 0.19 Blackbird, Turdus merula 14 0.68 Chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs 11 0.53 Goldfinch, Carduelis carduelis 7 0.34 Eurasian Linnet, Carduelis cannabina 6 0.29 Western Rock Nuthatch, Sitta neumayer 1 0.05 Black-billed Magpie, Pica pica 1 0.05 Eurasian Jay, Garullus glandarius 4 0.19 Unidentified small passerines, Passeriformes spp. 195 9.49 Birds, total 339 16.46 Remains of large insects, mostly battles, were х х recorded in 143 pellets Total: 2059 100.00 Threats: The main threat to Hen Harriers migrating and wintering in Georgia is still illegal shooting (Abuladze, 1999a; Abuladze et al., 2011d). At least 49 cases of mortality were noted during collecting of data since 1973. In 46 cases birds were killed by poachers, mostly on wintering grounds (n = 24) and on fly-ways during autumn transit (n =

79 15). Three died young birds were found on 11 December 1982 in field near Zemo Kedi village, Kakheti Region. Probably, poisoning was reason of mortality, because several days earlier this field was work up by rodenticide - chemicals intended to kill rodents. Using of rodenticides was widely distributed in 1970’s – first half of 1980’s in Georgia, including south-eastern areas, where the wintering grounds of Hen Harrier are located. One individual was found on 17 January 1986 near Gurjaani town directly under high-voltage power line, probably reason of death was collisions with transmission cable. Conservation status: SPEC 3; CEE 1; BERNA 2; BONN II; CITES II; AEWA; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk.

15. Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus Gmelin, 1771 Subspecies: Monotypic, no subspecies Georgian name: ველის ბოლობეჭედა [velis bolobetcheda] Synonym ველის ძელქორი [veils dzelqori] The breeding range of the Pallid Harrier is concentrated in steppe zone of southeastern Europe (eastern Romania and Moldova) eastwards through southern Belarus, Ukraine, southern Russia (mostly up to 55 northern latitude), from Volga River valley eastwards through the Urals, Southern Siberia and north-central Kazakhstan, Baikal Lake, western Mongolia and northwestern China, south to Caucasus and Iran. Winters in sub-Saharan Africa and southern Asia, mostly in India, although some winter in the Middle East and North Africa (Dement’yev & Gladkov, 1951; Gensbol, 2004; del Hoyo et al., 1994; Ferguson-Lees & Christie, 2001; Mebs & Schmidt, 2006; Simmons, 2000; Stepanyan, 1990). In Europe the breeding range is highly fragmented and its western limits shift from year to year. At the same time there is some evidence of recent expansion of species to the north, due either to a shortage of typical humid habitats in the south or as a result of long-term fluctuations of the breeding range. European populations of the Pallid Harrier migrate mostly to Africa and Asian populations migrate both to Eastern Africa and Southern Asia. The global population is estimated at 9,000-15,000 pairs. Status of presence: The Pallid Harrier is widespread and regular, but rare, locally in some years uncommon, passage migrant, occasional summer visitor without breeding and occasional winterer. Solitary adult males several times were recorded in semi-deserts and at the Black Sea coastal lowlands in extreme warm snow-less winters. In the description of the zoological collection of the former Caucasian Museum, presently The National Museum of Georgia, (Radde, 1899) there was interesting information that clutch of Pallid Harrier with 9 (!) eggs was collected in May 1871 “near Tbilisi”. It could be suggested 80 that this harrier bred in Georgia during that time, if we are talking about clutch of 4-5 eggs, but clutches consisting of 9 eggs were never and nowhere reported. Unfortunately, this clutch and notes in the Catalogue of the State Museum of Georgia (former Caucasian Museum) are not saved. In Author’s opinion it was mistake in identification, clutch of other harrier species was identified as a Pallid Harrier’s clutch. Interesting information about the relative numbers of this raptor species during autumn passage in the vicinities of Mtskheta town (10 km west of Tbilisi) was reported by Ban'kovski (1913) that "C. macrourus was recorded by me in the dominating numbers, other harrier species were watched much less". At the Lesser Caucasus within the limits of Georgia in the 1950’s this species was recorded only during migration – in spring in March and April and in autumn from late August to late September (Zhordania, 1962). Based on the long-term observations, carried out in the surroundings of Tbilisi City, by the Georgian ornithologist Dr. Mironis Kutubidze (1968) this harrier species was considered as a migrant to surroundings of Tbilisi. In some books and articles, mostly scientific- popular issues, published in Georgia as well as outside of Georgia, the Pallid Harrier was mentioned as a migratory breeder or year-round resident, but undoubtedly, it is erroneous data. The analysis of data collected during field works with all available information about the status of Pallid Harrier in western and central parts of Southern Caucasus and in Georgia in particular, allows us to conclude that this species should be considered as a widespread and regular but in general a rare transit migrant. Distribution and habitats: The Pallid Harrier occurs mainly in dry open landscapes of eastern part of Georgia – at Iori Table-land, in semi- deserts, in Tsalka hollow, in mountain steppes at Lesser Caucasus, rarely at the Black Sea coastlands, occasionally in other areas, avoids woodlands. During 40 years of field works only 7 summer records of Pallid Harriers were registered within the limits of Georgia and about 10 records were in other parts of Southern Caucasus. In all cases solitary individuals were observed and despite a thorough search, they were not observed in next days in the same sites. Pairs of fledged young birds during breading seasons were never observed. This fact allows to say with certainty that Pallid Harrier does not bred in Georgia. The following is a list of Pallid Harrier’s summer records, collected by Author in Georgia: - - adult male was recorded two times with interval of about 2 hours on July 3, 1980 at Trialeti Ridge, Lesser Caucasus, lower watershed line, about 3 km west of Mt.Arjevani (2757 meters above the sea level) in the Gumbati River source; 81 - - adult male was watched on July 16, 1982 in field near Gomareti village, Dmanisi district, Kvemo Kartli Region; - adult female was watched on July 31, 1984 between Diliska village and Akhalqalaqi town, Djavakheti Upland, Lesser Caucasus, Samtskhe-Djavakheti Region; - adult female was observed on July 22, 1986 in confluence of Khrami River with Mtkvari River on Georgia – Azerbaijan border, Lower Kartli Region; - on July 14, 1995 adult male was recorded hunting on small rodents in meadow near River canyon, lower Akhalkalaki town, Samtskhe-Djavakheti Region; - on July 8, 1997 adult male was observed on left bank of Mtkvari River, about 2 km west of Gori town, Shida Kartli region; - on July 12, 2000 adult male was watched in field north of Tbilisi reservoir. Probably some of these birds, especially watched in the end of July, were early migrants. Seasonal movements: The spring passage across eastern part of Georgia takes place from the last days of February (after warm, snow- less winters) to the middle of April with a peak in the middle of March. The extreme dates were February 27 and April 14. Most of transients, about 3/4 of total number, were counted between March 10 and 25. Adult males fly by the first, some later adult females fly and, finally, young birds fly. According to the results of long-term surveys, conducted in Georgia in the 1970’s-1980’s, the Pallid Harrier compiled less than 0.1% of total number of migrating birds of prey, ranged by years, areas and spring periods from 0.017% to 0.436%. Part of Pallid Harriers formed usually 0.07-0.11% of total transients, counted from constant count-sites and 0,084% of total transients, counted during road-car surveys. Migrating Pallid Harries were recorded usually in vast open or semi- open areas, in valleys of large rivers, on plateaus, foothills, coastal lowlands. The most preferred habitats are tree-less areas in semi-deserts and lowlands in eastern parts of country and mountain steppe in Djavakheti Upland. Sometimes in semi-deserts in SE Georgia and Western Azerbaijan the “friable” concentrations were recorded that can not be named by flocks. In spring Pallid Harriers often make stops for several days in in semi-deserts, but they never form flocks. Probably, such stops are caused by unfavourable weather conditions at Great Caucasus, when birds can’t cross passes of the Main Caucasian Ridge. In total, 1,000-1,200, not more than 1,500 Pallid Harriers were counted in Western Georgia during spring passages in the 1980’s and from 3,000 to 5,000 individuals in the whole Southern Caucasus (Abuladze, 2003).

82 It should be noted that along the western shore of the Caspian Sea in Azerbaijan in autumn much more Pallid Harriers do migration than along the Black Sea Shore. There are no total estimation of transit migrants through Southern Caucasus, but number of transient slowly increased. Probably from 5,000 to 10,000 individuals migrate across region at present. Autumn transit normally begins in second half of August with a peak in the middle of September (in the Black Sea basin) or some later, in the end of September - first days of October (in SE parts of Georgia and adjacent parts of Azerbaijan, in the Caspian Sea basin). The last transit migrants were watched in early November, but in years with uncommon autumn, solitary individuals, flying in southern directions, were recorded later. The extreme dates were 14 August and 12 November. Most of transit migrants, at least of 2/3 of total number, were counted between 10 and 30 September. Migratory Pallid Harriers sometimes make stops for several days in habitats with abundant food resources, mostly in semi-deserts, but on the Black Sea coastlands passage goes without stops. Materials on the dynamics of this harrier species migration are presented in Table 15-1. Table 15-1. Data on the Pallid Harrier seasonal migrations patterns in Georgia Number of counted individuals, in % Seasons Months Decades I II III February - 0.07 0.38 Spring March 67.82 20.55 5.02 April 0.16 0.03 - August - 0.78 3.22 September 19.79 22,77 37.86 Autumn October 10.14 3.39 1.01 November 0.01 This raptor always was a rare transit migrant. According to materials collected by Author in the 1970’s-1980’s, from 1500 to 2500 individuals, the maximum estimate was not more than 3000 individuals, were considered to migrate per autumn season. The numbers of Pallid Harriers migrating through Georgia has increased significantly from the middle of the 1990’s, and at present from 3000 to 5000, probably up to 6000 individuals, are considered to migrate per autumn season through Georgia. At least 1/3 of transit migrants migrate along the Eastern Black Sea fly-way and 2/3 across inland areas. Diet: The Pallid Harrier feeds during passages on small rodents, birds and reptiles. The following prey remains were recorded in stomach of five Pallid Harriers, killed by poachers at Iori Table-land, in Shiraki 83 semi-desert and on the Black Sea coastlands in Ajaria: unidentified mouse, Mus spp. (3), Social Vole, Microtus socialis (1), Quail, Coturnix coturnix (1), unidentified small passerine bird (1) and Caucasian Agama, Laudakia caucasia (1). The Pallid Harriers migrating across Georgia were observed 27 times in halting places and fly-ways to hunt small rodents, pipits, larks, White Wagtail, Northern Wheatear, Linnet, Caucasian Agama, unidentified lizards. Only 4, or about 15%, of 27 observed attacks were successful. Threats: In the past, especially in 1960’s-1980’s, various toxic chemicals, pesticides, rodenticides were an important factor in the mortality of rodent-eating raptor species, including Pallid Harriers. But at present, toxic chemicals are not practically used on breeding grounds and fly-ways, including territory of Georgia. Unfortunately, the Pallid Harriers are threatened by illegal shooting in Georgia. From 1973 to 2012, at least 11 cases of illegal killing were registered in country (Abuladze et al., 2011d), 10 during autumn passage and 1 during spring passage. In one case, the cause of death could not be determined. This individual, adult male, had not any injuries, traumas etc. Probably, poisoning by chemicals was a reason because in area, where this dead bird was found (eastern edge of Iori Table-land) the rodenticides and poisoned grain was regularly used in 1970’s-1980’s for fight with voles and mice. Conservation status: SPEC1; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Near Threatened (NT); Status Global Raptor Information Network – Vulnerable.

16. Montagu's Harrier Circus pygargus Monotypic Georgian name: მდელოს ბოლობეჭედა [mdelos bolobetcheda] Synonym: მდელოს ძელქორი [mdelos dzelqori] The Montagu’s Harrier (Circus pygargus) is a summer visitor in southern and central Europe and in western and central Asia. Patchily distributed over most of Europe, breeds from the British Isles, southern part of Scandinavia east to upper part of Yenisey River valley in Siberia, south to Turkey, Northern Iran and South Caucasus; some pairs breeding in North-Western Africa. This raptor species is typical long-distance migrant and winters in sub-Saharan Africa and in southern Asia – in Indian subcontinent and adjacent areas south to Sri-Lanka. The birds from western European population moving to wintering grounds in sub- Saharan Africa, birds from the eastern European populations wintering in India (Mebs & Schmidt 2006; Simmons, 2000). Status of presence: The Montagu’s Harrier is migratory breeding raptor species to Georgia, occurring in small numbers in definite localities only and widespread and more-or-less common transit 84 migrant. This species presented at the territory of country from late March to late October. Distribution and habitat: During breeding seasons at Lesser Caucasus occurs mostly in natural mountain steppes, at sub-alpine meadows interspersed with cultivated fields and various wet habitats at the plots with low level of human activity, rarely along rivers in arid habitats, around lakes and reservoirs in semi-deserts, at plots with grasslands, wet meadows, in agricultural areas, etc. Population size: Population size in previous decades was unknown, probably several tens pairs were in 1970’s in Georgia. During collecting of materials in the second half of 1970’s, this raptor species was occasional breeder to eastern part of country, where the basic volume of data were collected, only a few pairs have been recorded in Georgia in 1970’s – first half of 1980’s. Later, in the second half of 1990’s, the number of breeding pairs was estimated by Author as 15 - 20 (Abuladze, 2008a). The latest population estimate of the Georgian population is between 45 and 60 pairs, which is a considerable change compared to data published earlier. However, this new estimate is the result of improved knowledge rather than a reflection of true population changes. The basic part of breeding population of Montagu’s Harrier in Georgia nests in highlands of Lesser Caucasus (Beruchashvili, 2011; Zazanashvili et al., 2011). The present number of breeding pairs amounts to approximately at Djavakheti Upland and in Tabatskuri Lake about 25 pairs, probably some more. The density of breeding pairs in these areas is 4 per 100 sq.km of total area (Beruchashvili, 2011). About 10, probably up to 15 pairs nests in Tsalka Hollow and at surrounding ridges. Several cases of breeding were confirmed to other areas, mostly at large wetlands of Kolkheti Lowland, in Alazani River valley, around the large lakes in south-eastern part of country; at least two breeding pairs were recorded in July 2009 at heights 1700-1900 meters above the sea level in Uraveli River sources at Erusheti Upland along border with Turkey. One pair, demonstrated typical nesting behavior, was observed on 12-14 July 2012 on alpine meadows at north-eastern slope of Arsiani Ridge directly at Georgia – Turkey border at heights 1950 - 2100 meters above the sea level. Breeding biology: The data on breeding biology of Montagu’s Harrier in Georgia is scarce. No factual information from Georgia on the clutches and eggs sizes, dates of copulation, egg-laying, hatching, duration of incubation, breeding success and productivity of the local population, etc. According to literature, starts breeding with 1 or 2 years, female lays 3-5 eggs and incubates them for 27-30 days. The young can fly after about 34 days (Mebs & Schmidt 2006; Simmons, 2000).

85 The preferred breeding habitats for Montagu’s Harrier in Georgia are natural meadows near various small temporary seasonal wetlands in highlands of Lesser Caucasus, rarely nests in modified habitats in meadows, grasslands, cultivated fields, pastures, agriculture areas near wetlands, lakes, reservoirs, along banks of rivers in lowland parts of country. The vertical limits of the breeding distribution are from lowlands up to 2100 meters above the sea level. One nest and six occupied territories were found within the altitudinal limits from 1700 to 1915 meters above sea level in southern part of Djavakheti Upland in 2008-2010. The hunting territories are located in 200-1500 meters from the nest sites, usually in 300-700. Arrival at breeding habitats in western part of Kolkheti Lowland has been recorded between 7 and 20 April. The first birds arrived in Tsalka Hollow were watched between 12 and 21 April, 3-5 days later first individuals were observed in breeding habitats in highlands of Djavakheti Upland and in Tabatskuri Lake basin. Usually, the main part of local breeders arrived 5-10 days later – in the beginning of May. Three nests were found during study in highland of Lesser Caucasus, one at Djavakheti Upland, one in Tabatskuri Lake basin and one in Tsalka Hollow. All three nests were located on ground. First nest was found on 11 May 2002 at small wetland near Barethi Lake and was located in dense low marsh vegetation. It was platform of vegetation with the outer diameter 35-40 cm, inner diameter – about 25 cm and height 15-20 cm. Adults were observed flying around wetland at heights 10-30 meters and female was with nesting material in bill. Two month later, in the second half of July, pair with two fledged young was observed several times in this area. Second nest was found on 21 July 2004 in grassland at wet meadow near Sagamo Lake in about of 100 meters from railway line and in 150 meters from motor-road. Nest, pile of dry grass and solitary twigs was with an outer diameter about 40 cm, inner diameter about 30 cm. 16 pellets and prey remains were collected on this nest. Third nest was found in May 2011 in Ktsia-Tabatskuri Managed Reserve, 2,5 km south of Tabatskuri Lake at height about 2060 meters above the sea level. This nest was located at dry hillock near small temporary wetland and flooded meadows. Pair regularly was watched in this site in the middle of May and female on nest was observed from a distance about 120-125 meters. 7-8 weeks later, in the second half of July pair with two fledged young, were observed flying in this area. The minimal distance between occupied territories of three nesting pairs was recorded in May 2010 in at northern shore of , directly at Georgia – Turkey border. Two territories were at in reed-beds at flooded shore of lake and distance between these territories was 800- 900 meters. But distance between territories of these pairs was

86 uncommon to Georgia, usually distance is more. So, the distance between territories of three pairs, breeding in basin in 2008 and 2010 was 2,0-2,5 km. The same distance was recorded in Tsalka Hollow in 2002 between nest of one pair and borders of territory occupied by other pairs and between occupied territories of pairs, identified around Paravani and Sagamo Lakes and some small wetlands at Djavakheti Upland in 2008-2012 and in Tabatskuri Lake basin in 2010-2012. The young fledge between 1st decade of July and the beginning of August. Some pairs are unsuccessful, probably due to disturbance from human activities. So, during counts in 2008 and 2010 at Djavakheti Upland, in Tabatskuri Lake basin and Tsalka Hollow, at least four pairs of seventeen, regularly watched in monitored area, were non-breeding. Diet: An analysis of pellets and food remains, collected around nests and in hunting territories, as well as direct visual observations during nesting period showed that the diet consisted of small mammals (about 65%), small passerines (about 20%), lizards, frogs, eggs, large insects, mostly grasshoppers and beetles (15%). The main prey species were rodents – voles, rarely mice (at least 60% of total items) and small passerines (20-25%). At Djavakheti Upland these birds were observed hunting unidentified frogs, unidentified rock lizards, small rodents, larks, pipits, Quail Coturnix coturnix, fledged young Eurasian Jackdaw Corvus monedula and White-winged Snowfinch Montifringilla nivalis. In all cases prey were taken from ground. Several times hunting in pairs was observed. Direct visual observation of food transfers to nests at Erusheti and Arsiani ridges revealed that lizards, frogs and a few large insects were also taken. The following prey remains have been recorded in stomach of Montagu’s Harriers, killed by poachers along the East Black Sea fly-way: House Mouth, Mus musculus (n = 2); unidentified mouse, Mus spp. (n = 7); unidentified vole, Microtus spp. (n = 1); White Wagtail, Motacilla alba (n = 1), unidentified small passerine (n = 4); and Lake Frog, Rana ridibunda (n = 2). Several times unsuccessful attacks of migrating individuals on small birds were watched. Seasonal movements: The Montagu's Harrier is widespread and regular, but in general scarce, passage visitor across country. The main fly-ways are located at coastal lowlands, in valleys of large rivers in western part of country, in open areas at Djavakheti Upland and in valleys of some large rivers in East. This harrier is more widespread and common during autumn passage. Spring passage takes place usually from late March (at coastal lowlands) and early April to early May with a peak in middle of April. The early observations of migrating individuals in spring were recorded in different years between 11 March 1989 near Paleostomi 87 Lake, western part of Kolkheti Lowland, 16 March 1999 at shore of Khrami River near political border with Azerbaijan, Lower Kartli Region, SE Georgia, on 21 March 2011 in Chorokhi River mouth, Ajaria and on 2 April 1975 at Diliska wetland near Akhalkalaki town, Samtskhe-Djavakheti Region. The latest spring transit migrants were observed in different years between 2 and 10 May. No data on total numbers of transit migrants, probably 5000-10000 individuals per spring season. The Montagu's Harrier is early autumn transit migrant in Georgia. Autumn passage observed from middle of August to middle of October. Earliest transit migrants were observed at Kolkheti Lowland and Black sea coastal lowlands on 5-15 August. About to 4/5 of migrants crossed territory of country in the first half of September with a peak between 10 and 15 September. The last transit migrants were recorded in the middle of October and very rare later. Commonly solitary individuals observed on fly-ways, but sometimes small flocks consisting 5-10 individuals may recorded in halting sites at wetlands in highlands of Lesser Caucasus. From 10000 to 15000 individuals were considered to migrate per autumn season, from which about to 2/3 along Eastern Black Sea fly-way and 1/3 across inland areas, mainly across Djavakheti Upland and in Mtkvari River valley. During the last 30 years, the number of migrating across Georgia Montagu's Harriers has been more-or-less stable. For more detailed information on the seasonal movements of this raptor species through Georgia see Abuladze, 1999c; Abuladze, Edisherashvili, 2003; Cel’min’sh, Bergmanis, 1990; Paakinen, Rantanen, Rantanen, 1981; Sojamo, 1982; Sojamo, 1983; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011 Threats and limiting factors: The illegal shooting of migrating birds, especially during autumn transit, should be considered as a most serious threat to species (Abuladze et al., 2011d). 29 cases were recorded during study, 27 were noted in autumn and 2 in spring. 24 individuals were killed at Black Sea coastlands and Kolkheti Lowland, 2 individuals in Tsalka Hollow, 2 at Jandari Lake and 1 at Djavakheti Upland. Among other threats the loss, destruction and transformation of breeding habitats due to increased human disturbance and changes in agricultural activities. Conservation status: SPEC 4 (Non-SPEC); CEE 1; BERNA 2; BONN II; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk

88 17. Shikra Accipiter badius Subspecies Accipiter badius cenchroides recorded in Georgia Georgian name: შიკრა [shikra] The Shikra is a widespread species. Occurs in central and southern Africa, southwestern Arabia, in Asia, breeds from southeastern Azerbaijan and southern Aremenia, east through Iran, southern Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan to Tien Shan, northwestern Pakistan and south of the Himalayas throughout the Indian subcontinent, east to south China, Vietnam, Thailand. Throughout its range the species is represented by six races, Accipiter badius cenchroides (Severtzov, 1873) occurs in South Caucasus and northwestern Iran east to Kazakhstan, south to NW Pakistan. The northernmost populations are migratory (Cramp, 1980; Dement’yev & Gladkov, 1951; Ferguson-Lees, Christie, 2001; del Hoyo et al 1994; Stepanyan, 1990). Status of presence to Southern Caucasus: The northwestern border of breeding distribution goes through southeastern Azerbaijan and Southern Armenia, where this bird is rare migratory breeder. The Yerevan City in Armenia, Lankaran Lowland, Kyzyl Aghach bay and Talysh Mountains in Azerbaijan are the species nearest breeding areas to the Georgian borders (Agaeva, Mustafaev, 1973; Ananian et al., 2010; Dement’yev & Gladkov, 1951; Heiss, Gauger, 2009; Mustafaev, 1969; Patrikeev, 2004; Vinogradov, Tcherniavskaya, 1965). The wintering grounds of birds breeding in Southern Caucasus located in the south of Iran. The most typical breeding habitats in southeastern Azerbaijan are mature broad-leaved sub-montane and lowland forests, dry and moist woodlands, old large gardens and parks with high trees, riparian forests; nests in Yerevan City, Armenia, were found in parks. There are no data on numbers. In Azerbaijan irregularly nests at the same sites and always by solitary pairs. The birds of one-year old begin to breed. All known nests were located in trees, sometimes in old nests of corvids. Egg- laying took place in the middle – end of April and complete clutch consist 3-4 eggs. Duration of incubation period in 33-35 days and the young stay in the nest for approximately 40 days before fledging, usually in middle of July. The female incubates mostly, but the male takes an increasing share as incubation. Only the female feeds the young. The hunting territories located in open habitats, typically along the borders between natural biotopes and agriculture areas. The most common prey is small sized reptiles, mostly lizards, rodents and large insects; small sized birds are occasional prey. Prey takes commonly from ground. Status of presence to Georgia: The Shikra is occasional visitor to Georgia (Abuladze, 2008a; Abuladze, 2011; Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005). 89 According to Author’s own observations and all available published data as well as unpublished information, the occurrence of the Shikra at the territory of Georgia since early 1970’s has been verified at least 16 times. All documented records were in south-eastern areas along the borders with Azerbaijan and Armenia or in the Caspian Sea basin. The majority of the records come from open arid landscapes, semi-deserts, riparian forests, gardens in settlements and its environs. In all cases only solitary individuals were watched. The origin of birds, recorded within the limits of Georgia, is not known. During collecting of materials since 1973 Shikra was recorded five times. In all these five cases, birds were observed with a good modern binoculars, from a more-or-less short distance, optimal for visual observations, in favorable weather and lighting conditions. Therefore, the correct identification does not cause us to doubt. The list of records during last twenty years with brief information on locations, dates, some details and conditions of observations, etc., are presented lower: - - solitary flying along gentle dry slopes and hunting on lizards was watched on October 17, 1993 about 2,5 km north of Jandari Lake, Kvemo Kartli Region, SE part of Georgia; - - solitary sitting on tree in garden in village near Kumisi Lake was observed on September 16, 1994 during 3-4 minutes from a distance of 20-25 meters; - - on September 26, 1996 solitary was recorded on arid gentle slope at right side of Khrami River valley, near border with Azerbaijan, Kvemo-Kartli Region, SE part of Georgia; - - single was seen on May 12, 2007 flying in field near Sadakhlo village, Gardabani district, Kvemo Kartli Region, south-eastern part of Georgia; - - sitting on fence was observed from a distance about 40 meters in Tabakhmela village, environs of Tbilisi City, in morning on September 12, 2011. Besides the above listed cases of observations, there were several records of individuals very similar with Shikra, but no confidence in correct identification and these observations not included in the list of records. Most of these records were in south-eastern areas in late summer – autumn. This species was reported for two sites in south-eastern parts of Georgia in 1998, but, unfortunately, without dates of observations, localities and other details of records (Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005). According to data presented at Batumi Raptor Count blog (www.batumiraptorcount.org), solitary Shikra was recorded by birder

90 from Sweden in the middle of August 2010 near the Khanchali Lake, Lesser Caucasus, Samtskhe-Djavakheti region. Besides that, probably this raptor was observed by members of BRC on Serptember 16, 2012 in Ajaria. For the better understanding of Shikra’s status of presence at the territory of Georgia, all records should be thoroughly documented with a detailed description of localities, dates and conditions of watching. Threats: No information. Conservation status: Non-SPEC; CITES II; IUCN Europe – S; Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk.

18. Levant Sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes Accipiter brevipes Severtzov, 1850 Georgian name: ქორცქვიტა [qortskvita] The breeding distribution of Levant Sparrowhawk includes the Balkans, Russia, Ukraine, Caucasus, Turkey and eastwards to Iran. Species is classified as a complete long-distance migrant, with passage through the Eastern Mediterranean, the Caucasus, Egypt (Sinai Peninsula), Israel, Saudi Arabia and Sudan (Cramp, 1980; Dement’yev & Gladkov, 1951; Ferguson-Lees, Christie, 2001; del Hoyo et al 1994; Mebs & Schmidt 2006; Stepanyan, 1990). The species winters in sub- Saharan Africa. The European population was estimated to be between 3,200 and 7,700 breeding pairs (BirdLife International, 2004), but migration counts in northern Israel, 60,390 individuals in autumn 1994 (Alon et al., 2004), exceed these estimates, suggesting that the breeding population may actually be much larger. 60,390The largest known populations are found in Russia (1,500-3,000 pairs), Greece (1,000- 2,000 pairs) and Turkey (600-900 pairs), while Romania and Bulgaria are believed to have 60-90 and 50-90 pairs, respectively. Status of presence: The Levant Sparrowhawk is rare migratory breeder, breeding in small numbers in southeastern Georgia, but is a widespread and regular - but not numerous - transient during passage. This raptor species is present in Georgia from early April to late October. Distribution and habitats: The majority of the breeding records for this species come from the southeastern parts of the country, especially in the lower floodplains of the Mtkvari, Alazani, Iori and Khrami Rivers, the Udabno Ridge, Gardabani Lowland and Iori Plateau. Other records come from the upper Mtkvari River valley between the border of Turkey and the city of Akhatsikhe, Gombori Ridge and Kvernaki Ridge. Breeding distribution requires more study. Inhabits old and middle-aged broad-leaved forests in lowlands, foothills, small mountains, plateaus, semi-deserts, river valleys, and sometimes riparian forests, patches of

91 isolated trees at some distance from water, partially wooded areas, and old gardens and parks near settlements. Typically very secretive, and avoids dense forests, deep canyons and wetlands. Altitudinal limits for breeding are between 300-1200 m above mean sea level. Population size: According to historical data (Ban’kovski, 1913; Radde, 1884; Radde, 1899; Satunin, 1907), species formerly bred in the arid areas of eastern Georgia. In the 1890s-1905, breeding was confirmed in broad-leaved forests and old parks and gardens in the vicinities of Tbilisi and Mtskheta, including urban areas. Nests were found near the center of the city of Tbilisi in Mushtaid Park. It is likely the species was extirpated as a breeder in the region in the 1950s- 1960s due to intensive pesticide use. No nests were discovered in the 1970s- mid 1980s, with only about 20 records of non-breeding individuals in summer. First non-breeding pair was recorded May-June 1988 in arid woodlands at the southern edge of Gombori Ridge, Kakheti Region. In the late 1980s-early 1990s, this species began to nest again in the southeastern parts of country - the Mtkvari River valley, in lower valleys of the Alazani River, Iori River, Khrami River. Solitary breeding pairs were recorded at eastern edge of the Trialeti Ridge, in southern part of Gombori Ridge and in some other sites in Kakheti and Lower Kartli Region. The use of pesticides in Georgia ceased in the first half of the 1980s, and this is the likely reason for the recovery of the breeding population of this species. The Author estimates that about 20 breeding pairs were present in Georgia by the early 1990s, and that there were 45- 55 pairs by 2000-2005 (Abuladze, 2008a; Abuladze, 2011). Present estimates stand at approximately 60 breeding pairs. It seems, for now, that breeding populations will continue to increase, although the species’s secretive nature makes it particularly difficult to count. Breeding biology: The lack of detailed studies means there is still a lot we do not know about the breeding biology of this species. In spring, the first local breeders arrive in the first half of April, with earliest observations of breeding pairs on 14 April (2010) and 22 April (1999). The bulk of the breeding pairs, however, arrive somewhat later, with courtship flights observed between 23 April and 8 May. In 1995 - 2006, seven occupied nests were found in poplars (five), a pine (one) and an apricot tree (one) at heights from 6 to 14 m above the ground. All seven nests were constructed and formerly used by Corvids - five of the nests were built by Black-billed Magpie Pica pica while two were built by Carrion Crow Corvus corone. According to the literature, a full clutch size is between 2 and 5 eggs with clutches of 3 eggs being the most common (Adamian, Klem, 1999; Agababyan, 2003; Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005; Mebs & Schmidt 2006). Complete clutch size was identified for four clutches. Clutches of three eggs were found in three of the nests, with the fourth containing a clutch of two eggs. The eggs in two monitored nests were laid in two day intervals, 92 and incubation was performed exclusively by the female as soon as the first egg was laid. Duration of incubation was approximately 29-34 days. The dates of hatching were between 26 May and 7 June. The young were able to fly within 43 days (± 3 days) of hatching, and were fully independent 15 days later. Additional data on nest, clutch, egg size are shown in Table 18-1. Diet: Materials, over 160 prey items, were collected on seven nests in Eastern Georgia in 1995-2006. An analysis of prey remains, as well as direct visual observations in hunting territories during breeding period, showed that the diet of the Levant Sparrowhawk consisted of small rodents, small passerine birds, lizards, frogs and large insects (grasshoppers and beetles). The main prey species were small rodents (about 36% of total items), small passerines (about 27%), lizards (about 24%) and large insects (13%). At least 3 species of small rodents (n = 58) were presented in prey items: Wood Mouse (Apodemus silvaticus), unidentified mice (Mus spp.), Common Vole (Microtus arvalis), Social Vole (Microtus socialis), unidentified voles (Microtus spp.). At least 11 species of small passerine birds (n = 43) were identified in prey remains – Lesser Short-toed Lark (Calandrella rufescens), unidentified larks (Alaudidae spp.), White Wagtail (Motacilla alba), unidentified pipits (Anthus spp.), Red-backed Shrike (Lanius collurio), unidentified shrikes (Lanius spp.), unidentified wheatear (Oenanthe spp.), Blackbird (Turdus merula), Western Rock- nuthatch (Sitta neumayer), Goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis), Chuffinch (Fringilla coelebs), Linnet (Carduelis cannabina), unidentified finches (Carduelis spp.), Rock Sparrow (Petronia petronia), unidentified sparrows (Passer spp.), Corn Bunting (Milaria calandra). During breeding period in hunting territories typically hunts from perches, rarely from flight low above the ground. 8 attacks (or 38.1%) were successful out of 21 recorded attempts to take prey in hunting territories of breeding pairs – 4 lizards, 3 small birds and 1 small rodent were taken. Besides that, the following five prey remains have been recorded in stomach of six Levant Sparrowhawks, bagged by poachers at the Black Sea coastlands during autumn transit: unidentified mouse (Mus spp.); unidentified pipit (Anthus spp.), unidentified lizard (Lacerta spp.), unidentifies grasshoppers.

93 Table 18-1. Data on nest, clutch and eggs size of Levant Sparrowhawk in Georgia

Clutch - Sizes (mm) and Description of nest Dates and area eggs weight (g) of eggs: On poplar, 11 m above ground. Sizes: outer I – 1 41.4 x 33.0 (?) 16.05.1995; Floodplain of Mtkvari River, Gardabani diameter 45–50 cm, inner diameter 15–20 cm, I – 2 41.2 x 32.5 (?) Reserve, Kvemo Kartli Region height 15 cm, cup depth 5–10 cm I – 3 42.0 x 31.5 (?) On poplar, 14 m above ground. Sizes: outer II – 1 41.4 x 32.3 (22.3) 30.04.1999; Iori River floodplain, Gombori Ridge, diameter 50 cm, inner diameter 20 cm, height II – 2 41.0 x 32.0 (21.2) Kakheti Region 20 cm, cup depth 7–8 cm; On poplar, 12 m above ground. Sizes: outer III – 1 42.0 x 32.5 (?) 11.05.2001; Chiauri forest, Alazani River floodplain, diameter 40–45 cm, inner diameter 20 cm, III – 2 41.3 x 32.5 (?) Kakheti Region height 20–25 cm, cup depth 5 cm; III – 3 41.0 x 32.0 (?) On apricot tree, 6,5 m above ground. Sizes: IV – 1 ? 25.05.2004; Gardabani Plain, near Jandari Lake, outer diameter 40 cm, inner diameter 20 cm, IV – 2 ? Kvemo Kartli Region height 20 cm, cup depth 5 cm. IV – 3 ?

94 Seasonal movements: In general, the species is widespread and regular, but a rare transient during spring passage. However, it is an uncommon migrant in autumn, especially along the eastern Black Sea flyway. Spring transients can be expected from early April to the middle of May, with earliest and latest passage observed on 30 March and 22 May, respectively. 90% of spring passage occurs from 15 to 30 April, with peak dates usually 20-25 April. Autumn migration is from mid August to late October, with earliest and latest passage observed 12 August and 23 October, respectively, with peak movement occurring in the first half of September - typically 10-15 September. The flyway along the Black Sea coastlands accounts for at least two-thirds of the autumn passage of this species in Georgia, with the Mtkvari River valley being the second most prominent flyway in the country. Threats and limiting factors: With intensive agricultural and forestry pesticide use no longer a serious problem in Georgia, the primary threat to the Levant Sparrowhawk is illegal shooting. 36 cases were registered by the Author from 1973 to 2012. Of these, 34 of the birds were killed by poachers during autumn transit, 1 during spring transit, and 1 during the breeding season. Nest disturbance in breeding habitats due to human activities also has a pronounced negative effect. Conservation status: SPEC2; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk; Red List of Georgia – VU.

19. Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus Subspecies Accipiter nisus nisus occurs in Georgia Georgian name: მიმინო [mimino] The Sparrowhawk has a very large range with an estimated global extent of occurrence of up to 1,000,000 km2. Breeds everywhere in Europe, except Iceland and north of Scandinavia, east to Pacific Ocean – Kamchatka and Japan, south to northwestern Africa, Mediterranean islands, northern Israel, Turkey, Iran and Caucasus. Winters south to northern Africa, Indian subcontinent, China and Middle East. 6 subspecies are recognized, three of those subspecies occur in Europe. Subspecies Accipiter nisus nisus breeds almost all of Europe including Georgia. The Sparrowhawk has a large global population estimated to be 1,000.000-10.000.000 individuals. Global population trends have not been quantified, but populations appear to be stable (Dement’yev & Gladkov, 1951; Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001; Gensbol, 2004; Ortlieb, 1979; Stepanyan, 1990). Status of presence: The Sparrowhawk is widespread and common migratory breeder to Georgia.

95 Fairly widespread and common on passage across country, especially in western areas - along the Black Sea coast, at coastal lowlands, Kolkheti Lowland and in valleys of large rivers. Widespread and common winter visitor in various habitats at lowlands, plains, foothills. Distribution and habitats: In Georgia sparrowhawks were found everywhere from Black Sea coast upper limits of alpine belt at highest ridges of Great Caucasus, but during breeding seasons absent in tree-less areas and above the upper tree-line in mountains. Migrates and winters at sea coast, coastal lowlands, plains, table-lands, foothills, low mountains, semi-deserts, farmland, settlements, including cities – from sea level up to 1500 meters above the sea level in warm winters and during snow-less period, but normally up to 800 m above the sea level. Population size: The Sparrowhawk population decreased since the middle of 20th century till 1980’s due to intensive persecution, but stabilized in the end of 1980’s and increased since early 1990’s. According to our estimations, Georgian population has increased from 400-550 pairs in late 1970’s and 500-600 pairs in 1980’s to 500-750 pairs in the early 1990’s. The present stable population has been estimated perhaps 750 - 900 breeding pairs. It should be mentioned, that according to another estimation (Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005), 950-2150 pairs breeds in country. Breeding biology: The data on breeding biology of Sparrowhawk were collected mostly in 1970’s-1980’s and in 1996-2000 in different regions of country. 118 territories were identified and 38 nests were found and 29 nesting attempts were monitored during study since 1973. The territories are well spaced, breeding pairs do not tolerate another nest close by. The distance between known nests varies from 1.1 km to 4.5 km, more often about 2 km. All known nests were located in trees, commonly in lower parts of the canopy, close to the trunk, rarely in fork of large branch. The height of nests varied from 5,5 meters to 16 meters above ground, mean was about 8,5 meters ± 1,2 meters (n = 38). Egg-laying starts in the middle of May to end of May, probable at low located altitudinal areas some earlier. Eggs are laid at two-day intervals, rarely at one-day intervals. Clutch size varied from 3 to 5, more often 4 eggs. Mean for 29 clutches was 4,034; out of 29 known clutches, one (7.14%) had three eggs, twenty-six (71.43%) had four eggs and in two (14.29%) was five eggs. The data on sizes of 35 eggs from nine clutches and weight of eight eggs from two clutches were collected in different parts of Georgia in 1975-1991, for details of measurements see Table 19-1.

96 Table 19-1. Data on size and weight of Sparrowhawk eggs in Georgia

Number of Sizes (mm) and weight (g) of eggs Nest data clutch Dates (Area, nest-tree, sizes: D – outer diameter, d – inner diameter, H – - eggs length width weight height, c – depth of cup ) I-1 41.0 33.5 22.4 Saguramo Nature Reserve. Nest on Oak, 7.5 m above ground. Sizes: I-2 39.3 33.0 22.0 11.06. D – 45 - 50 cm, d – 25 cm, H – 15-20 cm, c – 7-10 cm I-3 39.0 32.0 21.0 1975 I-4 38.5 32.0 20.2 II-1 40.0 33.3 - Abisi, Prone River valley, Shida Kartli Region. Nest on Walnut II-2 40.0 33.0 - 17.05. (Juglans regia), 9 m above ground. Sizes: D – 40 -45 cm, d – 20 II-3 39.5 32.3 - 1976 cm, H – 20-25 cm, c – 10 cm II-4 38.5 32.0 - III-1 39.7 32.3 - River sources, Trialeti Ridge, Lower Kartli Region. Nest on 1.06. III-2 39.5 32.0 - Pine (Pinus spp.); 11 m above ground. Sizes: D – 50, d – 25-30 cm, 1978 III-3 38.5 32.0 - H – 20-25 cm, c – 15 cm

III-4 38.3 31.5 - IV-1 39.5 30.7 - Akhaldaba forestry, Borjomi gorge, 880 m a.s.l. Nest on Spruce IV-2 39.5 30.5 - 14.05. (Picea orientalis), 8 m above ground. Sizes: D – 40x50 cm, d – IV-3 38.8 31.3 - 1979 20x30 cm, H – 25-30 cm, c – 10-15 cm IV-4 38.0 30.7 - V-1 40.3 34.0 21.8 River valley, NE environs of Tbilisi; about 800 m a,s,l. 28.05. V-2 39.5 33.5 21.5 Nest on Beach (Fagus orientalis), 15 m above ground. Sizes: D – 1979 V-3 39.2 33.5 22.0 about 40 cm, d – 20x25 cm, H – 20-25 cm, c – 10cm

V-4 38.8 31.0 19.5 VI-1 41.5 34.5 - 2.06. Bzipi River gorge, Abkhazia, 620 m a.s.l. Nest on Oriental Beech

97 Number of Sizes (mm) and weight (g) of eggs Nest data clutch Dates (Area, nest-tree, sizes: D – outer diameter, d – inner diameter, H – - eggs length width weight height, c – depth of cup ) VI-2 40.0 33.0 - 1986 (Fagus orientalis); 12 m above ground. Sizes: D – 35x45 cm, d – 25 VI-3 39.5 32.5 - cm, H – 20 cm, c – 10 cm VII-1 40.3 34.0 - Vere River sources, Trialeti Ridge, NW environs of Tbilisi. Nest on 21.05. VII-2 40.0 32.0 - European Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus); about 8 m above ground. 1986 VII-3 39.0 32.3 - Sizes: D – 40 cm, d – 20 cm, H – 20 cm, c – 5 - 10 cm

VII-4 38.3 31.0 - VIII-1 39.5 34.5 - SW macro-slope of Gombori Ridge, Kakheti region; about 700 m VIII-2 39.5 33.5 - 30.05. a.s.l. VIII-3 38.5 33.0 - 1990 Nest on European Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus); 11 m above VIII-4 38.0 31.3 - ground. Sizes: D – 40x50 cm, d – 20 cm, H – 25-39 cm, c –15 cm IX-1 40.5 33.5 - Supsa River sources, Shuagora Ridge, Guria Region, 900 m a.s.l. 28.05. IX-2 38.5 34.0 - Nest on Spruce (Picea spp.). Sizes: D – about 40 cm, d – 15 -20 cm, 1991 IX-3 38.0 32.0 - H – 30 cm, c – 10 cm

IX-4 38.0 31.5 - Min 38.0 30.5 19.5 x x Max 41.5 34.5 22.4 x x 39.27 32.42 21.30 Average x x n = 35 n = 35 n = 8

98 Hatching dates were recorded between 16 June and 1 July (data from 4 nests). Incubation lasts from 33 to 35 days. The juveniles leave the nest (n = 10) in second half of July when they are about 30-35 days old. During several days after fledging they continue to return to nests and to stay at night. The adults provide food for the fledged young for next 15– 20 days. The Sparrowhawk in Georgia is a species without big fluctuations by years or regions. The breeding success and productivity of local population was analyzed over six breeding seasons. Data for analysis was collected in Eastern Georgia in 1978-1982 and in Abkhazia in 1986. Throughout study period the total number of occupied territories controlled each breeding season ranged from five (1978 and 1986) to seven (1979). The average rate of successful nestings was 79.3 per cent and varying between 71.5 per cent in 1979 to 85.7 per cent in 1980, average rate of young capable of flying per successful nesting was 3.13 ranged from 2.80 to 3.50. The average rate of young capable of flying per occupied territory was 2.48, ranged from 2.33 to 2.80 and average rate of young which successfully capable of flying per established nesting was the same – 2.48, ranged from 2.33 to 2.80 (see Table 19-2). Diet composition: The feeding data were collected by long-term field observations and analyses of pellets and prey remains found under the 5 nests of the Sparrowhawks in Eastern Georgia and 2 nests in Western Georgia. A total of 702 samples were identified (for details see Table 19-3). Like in all other populations, birds were the basic component of the Sparrowhawk’s diet in Georgia, composing more than 98% of the total identified prey and biomass of prey caught. Among the prey remains of Sparrowhak, collected at the territory of Georgia in 1975 - 2012, at least 70 bird taxa were identified. Small passerine birds, especially Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs, Blackbird Turdus merula, Robin Erithacus rubecula, Great Tit Parus major and Song Thrush Turdus philomelos, Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla, were the most numerous prey species, comprising more than 92% of the total number of items. Several times attacks of migrating sparrowhawks on flying bats were watched at Black sea coast and in two cases attacks were successful - birds catch unidentified small bats. Males can catch birds up to Blackbird size, occasionally larger. Females being bigger and can catch birds up to Water Rail, Woodcock and pigeon size

99 Table 19-2. Breeding success of Sparrowhawk in Georgia; years 1978-1981 and 1986

Years Indices 1978 1979 1980 1981 1986 Occupied territories 5 7 6 6 5 Territories with eggs 5 7 6 6 5 Number of eggs by nests 4,4,4,4,5 4,4,4,4,4,4,4 4,4,4,4,4,4 4,4,4,4,4,5 3,4,4,4,4 Number of successful nesting 4 5 5 5 4 Number of unsuccessful nesting 1 2 1 1 1 % of successful nesting 80.0 71.5 85.7 83.3 80.0 Number of young capable of flying 14 17 16 14 12 Number of young capable of flying/ 3.50 3.40 3.20 2.80 3.00 successful nesting Number of young capable of 2.80 2.43 2.67 2.33 2.40 flying/ occupied territory Number of young capable of 2.80 2.43 2.67 2.33 2.40 flying/established nesting

100 Table 19-3. Data on Sparrowhawk prey composition in Georgia N – Nesting, P – Passage, W - winter Number by seasons Prey species Total N P W No In % Common Quail, Coturnix coturnix - 9 - 9 1.282 Water Rail, Rallus aquaticus - 1 - 1 0.142 Spotted Crake, Porzana porzana - 1 - 1 0.142 Unidentified crake, Porzana spp. - 1 - 1 0.142 Eurasian Woodcock, Scolopax rusticola - - 2 2 0.284 Feral Pigeon, Columba livia dom. - 3 9 12 1.709 Stock Pigeon, Columba oenas - - 1 1 0.142 Wood Pigeon, Columba palumbus - - 2 2 0.284 Collared-dove, Streptopelia decaocto - 2 2 4 0.570 Laughing Dove, Streptopelia senegalensis 1 3 4 0.570 European Turtle-dove, S. turtur - 2 - 2 0.284 Common Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus 5 3 - 8 1.140 Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, D. minor 1 - - 1 0.142 Wood Lark, Lullula arborea 8 1 - 9 1.282 Eurasian Skylark, Alauda arvensis 2 2 - 4 0.570 Crested Lark, Galerida cristata - - 2 2 0.284 Calandra Lark, Melanocorypha calandra - 2 - 2 0.284 Unidentified larks, Alaudidae spp. 1 4 2 7 0.998 Unidentified pipits, Anthus spp. 3 3 1 7 0.998 White Wagtail, Motacilla alba 4 2 2 8 1.140 Yellow Wagtail, Motacilla flava 1 2 - 3 0.427 Waxwing, Bombicilla garrulous - - - 2 0.284 Lesser Grey Shrike, Lanius minor - 1 - 1 0.142 Red-backed Shrike, Lanius collurio 6 8 - 14 1.994 Unidentified shrikes, Lanius spp. 1 2 - 3 0.427 Hedge Accentor, Prunella modularis 3 - - 3 0.427 Unidentified warblers, Locustella spp. 1 1 - 2 0.284 Unidentified warblers, Acrocephalus spp. - 2 - 2 0.284 Unidentified warbler, Hippolais spp. 1 - - 1 0.142 Common Whitethroat, Sylvia communis 3 1 - 4 0.570 Barred Warbler, Sylvia nisoria 2 - - 2 0.284 Blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla 7 1 - 8 1.140 Unidentified warblers, Sylvia spp. 6 2 - 8 1.140 Unidebt. chiffchaffs, Phylloscopus spp. 3 2 - 5 0.712 Spotted Flycatcher, Muscicapa striata 8 1 - 9 1.282 Red-breasted Flycatcher, Ficedula parva 2 - - 2 0.284 Unidentified flycatchers, Ficedula spp. 1 4 - 5 0.712 Common Stonechat, Saxicola torquata - 2 - 2 0.284 Whinchat, Saxicola rubetra 4 2 - 6 0.855 Northern Wheatear, Oenanthe oenanthe - 2 - 2 0.284 101 Number by seasons Prey species Total N P W No In % Unidentified wheatears, Oenanthe spp. - 3 - 3 0.427 Comm. Redstart, Ph. phoenicurus 5 1 - 6 0.855 European Robin, Erithacus rubecula 17 4 1 22 3.134 Unidentified Nightingale, Luscinia spp. 1 - - 1 0.142 Eurasian Blackbird, Turdus merula 39 7 8 54 7.692 Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris - - 2 2 0.284 Redwing, Turdus iliacus - - 1 1 0.142 Song Thrush, Turdus philomelos 16 2 - 18 2.564 Mistle Thrush, Turdus viscivorus 7 - - 7 0.998 Unidentified trushs, Turdus spp. 4 1 1 6 0.855 Long-tailed Tit, Aegithalos caudatus 1 - - 1 0.142 Coal Tit, Parus ater 11 4 2 17 2.422 Great Tit, Parus major 29 7 8 44 6.268 Blue Tit, Parus caeruleus 2 - 1 3 0.427 Unidentified tits, Parus spp. 3 2 2 7 0.997 Wood Nuthatch, Sitta europaea 4 - 1 5 0.712 Krueper's Nuthatch, Sitta krueperi 2 - - 2 0.284 Unidentified nuthatch, Sitta spp. 3 1 2 6 0.855 Wallcreeper, Tichodroma muraria - - 1 1 0.142 Uniedentified tree-creeper, Certhia spp. 1 - - 1 0.142 White-throated Dipper, Cinclus cinclus 2 - 1 3 0.427 Corn Bunting, Miliaria calandra - 2 - 2 0.284 Rock Bunting, Emberiza cia 2 - - 2 0.284 Yellowhammer, Emberiza citrinella - 1 - 1 0.142 Unidentified buntings, Emberiza spp. 4 3 1 8 1.140 Brambling, Fringilla montifringilla - - 2 2 0.284 Chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs 33 9 14 53 7.550 European Goldfinch, Carduelis carduelis 4 4 12 20 2.849 Eurasian Siskin, Carduelis spinus 1 - 3 4 0.570 European Greenfinch, Carduelis chloris 12 1 1 14 1.994 Eurasian Linnet, Carduelis cannabina 7 5 12 24 3.419 Eurasian Bullfinch, Pyrrhula pyrrhula 1 - 1 2 0.284 Hawfinch, C. coccothraustes 5 1 2 8 1.140 Eurasian Tree Sparrow, Passer montanus - - 3 3 0.427 House Sparrow, Passer domesticus 2 17 14 33 4.701 Rock Sparrow, Petronia petronia - 1 - 1 0.142 Unidentified sparrows, Passer spp. 1 1 2 4 0.570 Common Starling, Sturnus vulgaris 1 4 3 8 1.140 Rose-coloured Starling, Sturnus roseus - 2 - 2 0.284 Eurasian Jay, Garrulus glandarius 15 - 4 19 2.940 Small passerines, Passeriformes? 36 39 17 92 13,105 Unidentified small birds, Aves spp.? 3 3 1 7 0.998

102 Number by seasons Prey species Total N P W No In % Total birds, individuals: 349 195 145 693 98.718 Species: 47 44 32 70 Unidentified small bats - 2 - 2 0.284 Rodents, Mus, Apodemus, Microtus spp.? 5 1 1 7 0.998 Total mammals, individuals: 5 3 1 9 1.282 Total: 354 198 147 702 100% The patterns of breeding biology of Sparrowhawk in Georgia in general are similar with European and Caucasian populations (Adamian, Klem, 1999; Brüll, 1984; Il’yukh, Drup, Khokhlov, 2003; Ortleib, 1979; Patrikeev, 2004; Petrosian, Petrosian, 1997). Seasonal migrations: The Sparrowhawk is a widespread and common transit migrant through the whole country (Abuladze, Kandaurov, Eligulashvili, 2011; Cel’min’sh, Bergmanis, 1990; Paakinen, Rantanen, Rantanen, 1981; Sojamo, 1982; Sojamo, 1983; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011). This raptor is more widespread and numerous during autumn passage, particularly along the Black Sea shore, at coastal lowlands and Kolkheti Lowland, along the valleys of large rivers, in foothills and low mountains. During the last 35-40 years, the numbers of Sparrowhawks migrating through Georgia has been stable, without significant fluctuations. 25000-40000 individuals were estimated to migrate through the country per autumn season, with about 1/3 of those using the eastern Black Sea flyway. Dates of passage: Spring passage usually takes place in the late March – middle of April, with a peak in the first half of April. First observations of spring transients were between 10-15 March at Black Sea coastlands and 3-5 days later in Eastern Georgia; last transient individuals were observed between 10 and 15 May at the passes of the Great Caucasus. Autumn passage observed from first week of August to second week of November, with a peak in the late September – early October. Earliest transients observed at passes of the Greater Caucasus from 10-15 August and several days later at lowlands. The last migrating individuals, moving to southern directions, can be observed at coastal lowlands in the middle of November and in inland regions – in late October. More detailed data on the phenology of spring and autumn passages of Sparrowhawk in Georgia are presented in Table 13-4.

103 Table 13-4. Data on Sparrowhawk seasonal migrations patterns in Georgia Number of counted individuals, in % Seasons Months Decades I II III February - - 0.14 Spring March 19.58 39.54 37.47 April 3.21 0.05 0.01 August - 0.24 1.14 September 5.09 22.83 43.17 Autumn October 21.82 4.16 1.41 November 0.11 0.03 - Threats: At present the most important threats to Sparrowhawks in Georgia are shooting by poachers and pigeon fanciers, trapping of migrating birds by falconers and occasionally collision with transmission power-lines. The legal killing during the period from the late August till end of February was allowed in Georgia before 1984. Unfortunately, illegal shooting is still a serious and common problem at present. In several provinces of Western Georgia – in Guria, Ajaria, Abkhazia and some districts of Samegrelo and Imereti, there is very specific threat for migrating Sparrowhawks - capturing for falconry purposes. The Sparrowhawk traditionally used by Georgian falconers “bazieri” in these areas to hunt Common Quail Coturnix coturnix. This ancient tradition is very popular. At least 500 "bazieri" every autumn trap a great number of hawks and many of them later are suffered. Control of falconer’s activity in present conditions is very difficult. (Abuladze, 1986a; 1990b; 1994a; Abuladze, 1997; Belyaev, 1930; Belyaev, 1935; Chogovadze, 1982; Chogovadze, 2001; Dbar, 1992; Dement’yev, 1935; Flint, Sorokin, 1999; Panov, 1965; Randla, 1983; Robaqidze, 1949; Shergalin, 2011). According to materials, collected by Author and information from Georgian falconers, they trapped during last 10-15 years from 400 to 1000 Sparrowhawks every season. Conservation status: Non-SPEC; BERNA 2; BONN II; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC). Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk.

104 20. Goshawk (Eurasian or Northern Goshawk) Accipiter gentilis Subspecies Accipiter gentilis marginatus (Accipiter caucasicus Kleinschmidt, 1923) breeds in Georgia. Georgian name: ქორი [qori] The Goshawk is species with a very large distribution. It can be found is most of Europe and eastwards to the Pacific Ocean; occurs in North America. This hawk occurs in all European states, except Ireland and Island. Currently from 8 to 11 subspecies are recognized, of which 4 can be found in Europe: Accipiter gentilis arrigoni - in Corsica and Sardinia, Accipiter gentilis buteoides - in the northern parts of Scandinavia and Russia, Acciupiter gentilis gentilis in most of Central, Western and Northern Europe and Accipiter gentilis marginatus – in Italy, Balkans, Caucasus as well as in NE Turkey and Northern Iran. Status of presence: In Georgia, as well as in the whole Caucasus, the Goshawk is widespread but uncommon in general, locally rare, year- round resident with local seasonal vertical movements outside the breeding seasons, usually in late autumn and in winter. Widespread and regular, but in small numbers passage migrant throughout the country and widespread rare to uncommon winter visitor to lowlands, plains, foothills, coastal lowlands. Habitat: During breeding seasons occurs up to 1700-1800 meters above the sea level. For breeding the Goshawk prefers old or middle-aged dense forests of various types. Numbers: The present population may total at 240-250 breeding pairs, probably some more. After decrease in 1950’s-1970’s, due to intensive persecution, moderate increase was registered in late 1980’s- 1990s’. The Georgian breeding population was estimated at 200-225 pairs in the second half of the 1970’s; 220-235 pairs were counted in the 1980’s and from 220 to 250 in the 1990’s. From the middle of 1970’s the number of breeding pairs ranged within the limits from 200 to 250 breeding pairs without any significant changes. It should be noted that from the middle of the 1990’s, the Goshawk breeding was recorded in relatively young woodlands, where earlier cases of this species breeding were noted. Probably, it is related to processes of adaptation or reduction of level of “anthrophophobia” (or "fear of people") to changed habitats, transformed due to increasing human activities. Breeding biology: Arrival of the Goshawks to breeding habitats connected to appearance of greenery in trees. Just after arrival the pair occupies breeding territory and on breeding territory of the previous year the birds begin to repair old nests and in

105 the choice of a new nesting plot – building of a new nest. Courtship flights were recorded just after the arrival of pairs near nests, i.e. since the beginning of breeding. The Goshawk is typical tree-nesting raptor species; data on the selection of trees for nesting are presented in Table 20-1. A pair of Goshawks may have several alternate nests within their nesting areas, up to 8 nests (Spieser & Bosakowski 1987; Reynolds et al. 1994). During collecting data in Georgia, the number of nests was identified for three monitored pairs - in Borjomi gorge (2 nests) and at Likhi Ridge (1 nest). The average number of nests at nesting territories for these three pairs was 2.67, or 2, 3 and 3 nests. The total area of hunting territories of seven pairs ranged from 15 to 35 sq. km and the distance between known territories in Abkhazia, at Meskheti, Likhi and Trialeti ridges ranged from 5 to 12 km. Table 20-1. Selection of nest-trees by Goshawk in Georgia Height above ground, m Number Tree species <10 10-15 15-20 20+ of nests Spruce, Picea orientalis - 3 2 - 5 Caucasian Pine, Pinus kochiana - - 1 1 2 Oriental Beech, Fagus orientalis - 1 1 - 2 European Hornbeam, Carpinus betulus - 1 - - 1 Georgian Oak, Quercus iberica 1 - - - 1 Caucasian Zelkova, Zelkova carpinifolia Total: 1 5 4 1 11 Egg-laying starts from the middle of April. Dates of egg-laying were recorded in Georgia for only one nest. This nest with one laid egg was found on 17 April 1977 in Algeti Nature Reserve, Trialeti Ridge, Kvemo Kartli region. During the next visit on 26 April there were 3 eggs in complete clutch. Besides that, nest with two eggs was found on 16 April 1992 in Khanistskali River gorge, Imereti Region. It was complete clutch, next time this nest was visited on 25 April and there were two eggs like ten days earlier. The number of eggs in clutches ranged from 2 to 4, with a mean 3.17 eggs in 6 nests. In one clutch or 17.7% of recorded the clutches consisted of two eggs; 3 clutches (50.0%) - of three eggs; 2 clutches (33.3%) - of four eggs. The sizes of nine eggs from three clutches (2, 3 and 4 eggs) were measured and were the following: length 51.0-58.3 mm x width 42.0- 44.3 mm; weight of 4 eggs from one clutch were from 48.5 to 55.5 g. Duration of incubation period in one nest was 31-33 days and the young stay in the nest (three monitored nests) for approximately 36 (± 3 days) days before fledging.

106 Some more detailed and summarized data on description of nests, sizes of clutches and eggs presented in Table 20-1 and Table 20-2. 31 nesting territories of Goshawk were identified during study. 24 or more than 77% were in mature coniferous (or in mixed, but with dominating coniferous tree species) woodlands, alternated with glades, valleys of small rivers, streams, clearings, logged areas. In these types of habitats at the Great Caucasus the density of breeding pairs was 8-9 pairs/1000 sq.km of total area or 16-20 pairs/1000 sq. km of suitable breeding habitats. For the forests of low- and middle-altitudinal belts of Lesser Caucasus these figures are 4-6 and 12-14 pairs/1000 sq.km. Diet: The contents of 224 pellets and 403 prey remains were collected and analyzed on nests of two pairs and nesting territories of three pairs were analyzed. The data on prey composition during migrations and on wintering grounds were collected mostly in Western Georgia - on the Black Sea coastlands, Kolkhedi Lowland, in Rioni River valley between Kutaisi and Vani, Imereti Region. Some materials were collected in Eastern Georgia - at Iori Table-land, Trialeti Ridge, Gombori Ridge and in surroundings of Tbilisi City. Pellets and food remains were collected under perches of Goshawks. Additionally the contents of stomachs of 37 goshawks killed by poachers and 16 direct visual observations on successful attacks of migrating and wintering goshawks were analyzed. Besides that several times wintering and migrating goshawks were seen unsuccessfully attacking flocks of Rooks and Feral Pigeons, domestic birds in villages and near farms. The Goshawk takes a wide range of birds and mammals, all taken alive. The most widespread and numerous species are the principal prey of goshawks. During breeding season takes the prey that is common and easily available in it’s territory. Feeding on carrion two times was observed in winter. Data collected on prey composition of Goshawk are presented in the Table 20-3. Besides that, some data on biology features are represented in works of Sikharulidze (1981), trophic links were studied by Petrov and Gusev (1995).

107 Table 20-2. Nests, clutches and eggs data of Goshawk in Georgia

Description of nest Number Sizes (mm) and Dates Area (Nest-tree and sizes: D–outer diameter, d– of clutch weight (g) of eggs: inner diameter, H–height, c–depth of cup ) - eggs length x Width (Weight) Spruce (Picea orientalis), 12.5 m above ground. I - 1 58.3 x 44.3 (55.5) 22.05. Chitakhevi gorge, Sizes: D - 45-50 cm, d - 15-20 cm, H - 15 cm, c - I - 2 55.5 x 43.5 (51.8) 1976 Borjomi Reserve 5-10 cm I - 3 51.5 x 44.0 (48.7) I - 4 51.0 x 42.0 (48.5) Caucasian Pine (Pinus kochiana), 16 -17 m above II - 1 57.0 x 43.0 (?) 2.05. Algeti Nature Reserve, ground. Sizes: D-75-80 cm, d-25 cm, H-20 cm, c- II - 2 54.5 x 44.0 (?) 1977 Trialeti Ridge 7 cm II - 3 53.0 x 43.0 (?) Spruce (Picea orientalis), about 10 m above III - 1 58.0 x 43.5 (?) 11.05. Ahaldaba forestry, ground. Sizes: D - 80 cm, d - 35 cm, H - 35 cm, c III - 2 54.5 x 43.5 (?) 1979 Borjomi gorge – 7-8 cm III - 3 52.0 x 43.0 (?) Beech (Fagus orientalis), 11 m above ground. IV - 1 ? 17.05. Bzipi River gorge, Sizes: D–70 cm, d–30 cm, H–10-12 cm, c – 5 cm IV - 2 ? 1986 Abkhazia, 650 m a.s.l. IV - 3 ? IV - 4 ? Zelkova (Zelkova carpinifolia), 14 m above V - 1 57.5 x 43.0 (?) 25.04. Khanistskali River ground. Sizes: D - 70 cm, d - 30 cm, H - 15 cm, c V - 2 52.5 x 43.5 (?) 1992 valley, Imereti Region - 6-7 cm European Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), 16–17 m VI - 1 ? 30.04. Nunisi forest, Likhi above ground. Sizes: D - 60-70 cm, d - 30 cm, H - VI - 2 ? 2000 Ridge, Imereti Region 20 cm, c – about 10 cm VI - 3 ?

108 Table 20-3. Data on Goshawk prey composition in Georgia Number by seasons Prey species N S A W Total Mallard, Anas platyrinchos - 1 4 9 14 Unidentified ducks, Anas spp. - - - 2 2 Honey Buzzard, Pernis apivorus 1 - - - 1 Sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus 1 - - - 1 Common Buzzard, Buteo buteo 3 - - - 3 Common Kestrel, Falco tinnunculus - - - 1 1 Red-footed Falcon, Falco vespertinus - - 1 - 1 Chukar, Alectoris graeca - 1 4 7 12 Black Francolin, Francolinus francolinus - 1 - - 1 Grey Partridge, Perdix perdix - - 1 - 1 Common Quail, Coturnix coturnix 3 - 19 - 22 Pheasant, Phasianus colchicus - - 2 4 6 Caucasian Black Grouse, L. mlokosiewiczi 4 - 1 - 5 Corncrake, Crex crex 1 - - - 1 Water Rail, Rallus aquaticus - 2 1 1 4 Common Moorhen, Gallinula chloropus 2 2 5 2 11 Common Redshank, Tringa tetanus - - 1 - 1 Woodcock, Scolopax rusticola - 1 1 8 10 Unidentified waders spp. - 2 4 1 7 Black-headed Gull, Larus ridibundus - - - 1 1 Unidentified gull, Larus spp. - - - 1 1 Feral Pigeon, Columba livia dom. 12 5 11 21 49 Stock Dove, Columba oenas 2 - 2 4 8 Wood Pigeon, Columba palumbus 6 1 1 3 11 Unidentified doves, Columba spp. 1 1 1 3 6 European Turtle-Dove, Streptopelia turtur - - 1 - 1 Collared-Dove, Streptopelia decaocto - 1 1 4 6 Laughing Dove, Streptopelia senegalensis - - 1 2 3 Unidentified dove, Streptopelia spp. - - 1 - 1 Common Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus 3 - - - 3 Eurasian Scops Owl, Otus scops 2 - - - 2 Little Owl, Athene noctua - - - 1 1 Tawny Owl, Strix aluco 2 - - - 2 Long-eared Owl, Asio otus 1 - - - 1 Short-eared Owl, Asio flammeus - - - 1 1 Unidentified owl, Strigidae spp. - - 1 - 1 European Bee-eater, Merops apiaster - - 2 - 2 European Roller, Coracias garullus - - 1 - 1 Eurasian Green Woodpecker, Picus viridis 1 1 Great Spotted Woodpecker, D. major 4 - - 1 5 Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, D. minor - - - 1 1 Eurasian Nightjar, Caprimulgus europaeus - - 1 - 1 Crested Lark, Galerida cristata - - - 1 1

109 Number by seasons Prey species N S A W Total Wood Lark, Lullula arborea 6 - - - 6 Unidentified larks, Alaudidae spp. 3 - 2 - 5 Unidentified pipits, Anthus spp. 3 1 - 1 5 Eurasian Golden Oriole, Oriolus oriolus 8 - - - 8 White-throated Dipper, Cinclus cinclus 1 - - - 1 Hedge Accentor, Prunella modularis 2 - - - 2 Eurasian Blackbird, Turdus merula 19 3 4 9 35 Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris - - - 1 1 Song Thrush, Turdus philomelos 6 - - - 6 Mistle Thrush, Turdus viscivorus 9 1 1 - 11 Unidentified trushs, Turdus spp. 6 2 1 - 9 Great Tit, Parus major 8 1 3 5 17 Chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs 27 2 - 2 31 European Greenfinch, Carduelis chloris 3 - - 1 4 Common Crossbill, Loxia curvirostra 4 - - 2 6 Hawfinch, Coccothraustes coccothraustes - - - 1 1 House Sparrow, Passer domesticus - 1 2 5 8 Unidentified small passerines 19 4 3 9 35 Eurasian Jay, Garrulus glandarius 11 - - 1 12 Black-billed Magpie, Pica pica 1 - 2 8 11 Yellow-billed Chough, P. graculus - - 1 - 1 Eurasian Jackdaw, Corvus monedula - - 1 1 2 Rook, Corvus frugilegus - 1 1 26 28 Carrion Crow, Corvus corone 3 - - 4 7 Common Raven, Corvus corax 3 - - - 3 Unidentified birds, Aves spp. 17 2 7 11 37 Domestic Hen, Gallus domesticus 8 3 1 2 14 Domestic Turkey, Meleagris gallopavo 2 - - - 2 Birds, total: 216 39 97 169 521 European Hare, Lepus europeaus 2 - - 1 3 European Squirrel, Sciurus vulgaris 7 - - 2 9 Caucasian (Persian) Squirrel, S. anomalus 1 - - - 1 Unidentified squirrels, Sciurus spp. 11 1 - - 12 Ebide Dormouse, Glis glis 2 - - - 2 Forest Dormouse, Dryomis nitedula 3 - - - 3 Wood Mouse, Apodemus sylvaticus 22 1 4 1 28 House Mouse, Mus musculus 10 - 3 3 16 Mice, Mus spp. & Apodemus spp. 28 10 7 2 47 Bush Vole, Terricola majori 17 - - - 17 Common Vole, Microtus arvalis 9 - - - 9 Unidentified voles, Microtus spp. 2 17 9 1 29 Unidentified small rodents 12 3 15 5 35 Mammls, total: 136 32 38 15 221 Total, prey items: 352 71 135 184 732

110

Table 20-4. The reasons and distribution of cases of the Goshawk death in Georgia by year seasons in 1973 – 2012 W – Winter, S – Spring; N – Nesting, A – Autumn Number of recorded cases by Total Reasons seasons W S N A No In % Shooting 41 4 5 114 164 91.11 Trapping by falconers and killing 1 - - 4 5 2.78 Electrocution 2 - - - 2 1.11 Collision with power lines 1 - - 1 2 1.11 Unknown 3 - 1 3 7 3.89 Total: 48 4 6 122 180 100.00 The patterns of breeding biology and feeding of Goshawk in Georgia in general are more-or-less similar with the East-European and Caucasian populations (Adamian, Klem, 1999; Brüll, 1984; Fischer, 1980; Geilikman, 1975; Il’yukh, Drup, Khokhlov, 2003; Patrikeev, 2004; Petrosian, Petrosian, 1997; Varga, Rekasi, 1993). Seasonal movements: The Goshawk is widespread and regular, but in small numbers passage visitor throughout the country. More common in western areas - on coastal lowlands and in valleys of large rivers. Rarely recorded in dry open areas in south-eastern part of country. Spring transit starts at the end of February and continues into late March, with a peak in the first half of March. Autumn passage starts in the end of August and continues through late November, with a peak in the second half of October. Goshawk is one of the most late transit migrant among all raptor species migrating across Georgia. During transit passages always recorded by solitary individuals (Abuladze, Kandaurov, Eligulashvili, 2011; Cel’min’sh, Bergmanis, 1990; Migrations of Birds of Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. Falconiformes-Gruiformes, 1982; Paakinen, Rantanen, Rantanen, 1981; Sojamo, 1982; Sojamo, 1983; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011). Wintering: The Goshawk is widespread and regular, but rare, locally in severe winter uncommon, winter visitor to Georgia (Abuladze et al., 2003; Abuladze, Edisherashvili, 2008b). Wintering habitats are located on the plains, lowlands, in the large river’s valleys, coastal lowlands, around the non-freezing wetlands, in the foothills, plateaus and low mountains, in the vicinity of human settlements, including towns, especially in areas with a high density of prey species. In warm, snowless winters recorded in middle mountain altitudinal belt - up to 1,200 m above the sea level. Solitary goshawks occasionally may occur and above - up to 1500 m above the sea level. Sometimes, the number and density of wintering birds is very high on relatively small areas. So, 111 in December 1997 on the Black sea coastal lowland in the southern vicinities of Batumi, near airport and in Chorokhi River mouth on an area of 8 square kilometers and very rich diversity and high number of various birds, at least six goshawks wintered ! In January - February 2002 within the limits of Kutaisi City, Imereti Region, at least 4-5 individuals were watched, in small town Baghdati in Imereti at the same time regularly were observed 2-3 goshawks. Often wintering goshawks can be found in the vicinities of Gori, Telavi, Gurjaani, Tetritskaro and some other towns of Eastern Georgia, including vicinities of Tbilisi City, Rustavi, Mtskheta. In Western Georgia wintering goshawks were observed regularly in Batumi, Kobuleti, , Ochamchire, Sukhumi, Gudauta, Gagra, , Gali, , Samtredia, Kutaisi and Zestafoni. Usually, in normal conditions, the hunting territories of wintering goshawks do not overlap, but under certain conditions, when the number of prey and their availability is very high, 2-3 goshawks can hunt on small areas, without showing aggression to each other. In extremely severe winters with frosts and heavy snowfalls, the number of common prey species of Goshawks drops at many times. In such circumstances, Goshawks appear within communities, including major cities. The Goshawks are attracted to the settlements by the large flocks of Feral Pigeons and wintering corvids, in first turn Rooks. Besides that, attacks on collared doves, Streptopelia decaocto and laughing doves, Streptopelia senegalensis, common starlings, Sturnus vulgaris, house sparrows, Passer domesticus, and some other small passerine birds were observed in settlements; three attacks on domestic birds were recorded. Threats and limiting factors: The legal killing of Goshawks was allowed in Georgia during all seasons before 1984. At present the direct persecution is still a most common problem for the Goshawk in Georgia like in many countries. The data on 180 cases of mortality were collected and analyzed during 1973-2012. 152 cases were registered in Western Georgia and 28 cases in Eastern Georgia. Illegal shooting was the main reason. Additionally data are presented in Table 20-4 above. Remark: The Goshawk traditionally used by Georgian falconers “bazieri” in Western Georgia to hunt some game birds. Conservation status: Non-SPEC; BERNA 2; BONN II; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC). Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk.

112 21. Common Buzzard Buteo buteo Subspecies’ Buteo buteo menetriesi and Buteo buteo vulpinus occurs in Georgia Georgian name: ჩვეულებრივი კაკაჩა [chveulebrivi kakacha] The Common Buzzard occurs over most of Europe eastwards to Russian Far east and Japan. From 8 to 11 subspecies are recognized currently. Subspecies Buteo buteo buteo and Buteo buteo vulpinus are the most widespread subspecies. Subspecies Buteo buteo buteo occurs in most of Europe east to Fennoscandia, Romania, Turkey, winters in the breeding range and south to northern and western Africa. Subspecies Buteo buteo vulpinus often called “Steppe Buzzard” occurs in Sweden, Finland and European Russia east to Yenisey River basin and south to Northern Caucasus and Central Asia, winters in sub-Saharian Africa and in southern Asia. Subspecies Buteo buteo menetriesi breeds in Southern Crimea, Caucasus, eastern Turkey and northern Iran (Mebs & Schmidt 2006). Status of presence: The Common Buzzard id widespread and very common summer migratory breeding species, sudspecies Buteo buteo menetriesi breeds in Georgia; subspecies Buteo buteo vulpinus, often called "Steppe Buzzard", which occurs in Sweden, Finland, Baltic countries and Russia, occurs in Georgia as an widespread and very common transit migrant through the whole country and rare, locally uncommon, winter visitor; subspecies Buteo buteo buteo is very rare passage visitor. Distribution and habitats: The distribution of this species is uniform all over Georgia. It has adapted to almost all forest landscapes in Georgia. The Common Buzzard recorded in various landscapes from coastal lowlands and semi-deserts up to alpine meadows. Inhabits woodlands of various types, but during breeding seasons prefers mosaic landscapes where forests alternate with open and semi-open areas (meadows, cultivated fields, pastures, large glades, woodland edges). Nests in various woodland – broad-leaved, mixed, coniferous forests, edges of “tugai”-type forests in floodplains of large rivers, juniper and other woodlands in semi-deserts, in arid woodlands at slopes, foothills, table-lands, occasionally nests in artificial field protective pine and poplar plantations. Vertically distributed from the sea level up to 3000 meters above the sea level, but during breeding period recorded typically at heights from the sea level (in western areas) and from 200 (in eastern areas) up to 2200 meters above the sea level, typically from 400 to 2000 meters above the sea level. The altitudinal limits for the main part of the local breeding population are 300-1800 meters above the sea level. Population size: The Common Buzzard should be considered as the most frequent species among the family Accipitridae. According to Author’s estimation, the present (from the end of 1990’s up to 2012) 113 population estimated at 1300-1500 breeding pairs with some fluctuations by years from 1200 to 2000, probably in some years a little more. The general long-term population trend may be characterized as a stable: 1300-2000 pairs were in 1970’s, 1300-1700 pairs in 1980’s and 1200-1800 pairs in 1990’s. It should be noted, that according to other estimation (Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005) 900-1000 pairs breeds in Georgia. Breeding biology: Some materials on the breeding biology, collected in 1970’s-early 1980’s were published by author in previous decades (for details see Abuladze, 1985b). Additionally, data on patterns of breeding and prey composition were collected in eastern part of country in 1986-1991, in 1997-2004 in western areas and in 2008-2012 at Lesser Caucasus. Table 21-1. Nest data of the Common Buzzard in Georgia Tree species Height above ground, Number meters of nests <10 10-15 15-20 20+ Poplars, Populus spp. 1 26 4 2 33 Oriental Beech, Fagus orientalis - 6 11 2 19 Pines, Pinus spp. - 6 7 1 14 European Hornbeam, Carpinus betulus 1 5 1 - 7 Oaks, Quercus spp. 2 4 1 - 7 Spruce, Picea spp. - 5 1 - 6 Black Alder, Alnus glutinosa barbata - 4 - - 4 Junipers, Juniperis spp. 3 - - - 3 Persian Walnut, Juglans regia - 1 1 - 2 European Chestnut, Castanea sativa - - 2 - 2 Willows, Salix spp. 1 - - - 1 Acacia, Acacia spp. 1 - - - 1 Maple, Acer spp. 1 - - - 1 Other nest-tree species 2 4 1 - 7 Total, nests in trees: 12 61 29 5 107 Nests on rocks 3 Nests on high-voltage electric pylons 2 Total number of nests: 112 Birds arrive on the breeding territories in the middle of March (on lowlands) – early April (in highlands); extreme dates were March 9 and April 5. The distance between solitary pairs ranged from 400 (in mature broad-leaved woodlands on lowlands, plains and in flood-lands of large rivers) to 3000-3500 meters in lowlands of Western Georgia and in arid woodlands and semi-deserts in Eastern Georgia, usually from 700 to 1200 meters. Most of the nests were situated in trees, but in tree-less areas, 3 nests were found on rocks and two were situated on high- voltage electric pylons (Table 21-1).

114 Courtship flights were observed at lowlands from the late March to middle of April, in mid-mountains altitudinal belts 10-15 days later. The period of egg-laying in Georgia is long and lasts 40-50 days. Eggs are laid from late March to middle of May, typically in the first half of April. The earliest egg-laying dates recorded were between March 28, (Khanistskali River valley, Imereti Region) and March 30 (Iori Table-land, Kakheti Region) to May 11 (Borjomi gorge and Erusheti Upland, Lesser Caucasus), May 12 (Inguri River valley, Svaneti province, Great Caucasus), and 16 May (Ambrolauri forestry, Racha province, Great Caucasus). During our study, clutch size was identified for a total of 74 nests. According to some publications clutch size ranged from one to five eggs, but during our study, the size of full clutch was 2 or 3 eggs and the mean clutch size was 2.64 eggs. 24 clutches, or about 32.4% of recorded clutches consisted of two eggs and 50 clutches, or about 67.6% - of three eggs. The sizes of 49 eggs from 17 clutches (15 clutches x 3 eggs and 2 clutches x 2 eggs) and weight of 12 eggs from 4 clutches were the following: Length - from 51.6 to 56.8 mm, width – from 41.3 to 45.0 mm, weight – from 48.4 to 56.7 g. Eggs are laid with 2 or 3 day intervals and incubation is done by the female, starting when the first egg is laid. The young are able to fly within 48-56 days of hatching and are fully independent around 40 days later – in late August – early September. Of the 58 nests, monitored in the study, 41, or about 71% were deemed successful, as they fledged at least one chick. An average percentage of successful nesting was about 71,8 and ranged from 33,3% to 100%. For more detailed data on breeding success and productivity of buzzard in Georgia, based on the data collected in eastern regions of country in 1977-1983 and in 1988 - 1990, see Table 21-2. Diet: The diet of the Common Buzzard was studied during the breeding season by analyzing of pellets and remains generated by adults and nestlings. Over 3200 pellets and prey remains were collected on 11 nests in Western Georgia and on 27 nests in Eastern Georgia. The diet composition greatly varied markedly among nestlings by years and by regions, as well as from different breeding territories in the same regions. According to the collected data, the most common prey of adult individuals were small rodents of nine species, with a frequency of occurrence of at least 88% of all identified prey items, ranged from 67% to 94%. Voles and mice were the most common prey. Reptiles (4-21%), small birds (2-8%), amphibians (2-6%) and large insects should be classified as an additional prey. This raptor hunts mostly in open and semi-open areas like large glades, forest edge, fields, meadows, pastures, but also in forests.

115 The patterns of breeding, feeding, phenology, etc are similar to other Caucasian populations (Adamian, Klem; Il’yukh, 2002; Il’yukh, 2002; Patrikeev, 2004; Petrosian, Petrosian, 2007). Seasonal movements: The subspecies “Steppe Buzzard” Buteo buteo vulpinus is quite common passage migrant, one of the most abundant transit migrant among raptor species, seen elsewhere on passages (Abuladze, 1999c; Abuladze, 2003; Abuladze, Kandaurov, Eligulashvili, 2011; Cel’min’sh, Bergmanis, 1990; Migrations of Birds of Eastern Europe, 1982; Paakinen, Rantanen, Rantanen, 1981; Sojamo, 1982; Sojamo, 1983; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011); Birds of nominate subspecies Buteo buteo buteo are occasional passage visitors to Georgia. Extreme spring migration dates for B.b. vulpinus are 20 February to 6 May; 90% of birds are recorded from 12 March to 28 April, with a peak date of 29 March. Spring migration started with a few individuals on 5 to 10 March, increased slightly during the middle of March. Heavy migration observed in second half of March – first ten days of April, with a peak dates (2000-6000 individuals per day in bottle-necks) from March 25 to April 5. Last solitary transients Buteo buteo vulpinus were recorded on May 7-12. Autumn transit started with low numbers in the period of August 20 to September 5 and slowly increased during the first half of September. At least 70% of transients occurred from September 25 to October 10 with a peak numbers 3,000-7,000 and up to 10,000 individuals per day in bottle-necks. The maximum day counts by years and regions were the following: - 12238+ on September 24, 1974 near Akhalkalaki, Lesser Caucasus; - 10264+ on October 4, 1975 in Kodori River mouth, Abkhazia; - 28752+ on October 4, 1977 at top of Mt.Sameba, NE of Batumi, Ajaria; - 42717+ on October 6, 1979 in Chaisubani, Chakvistskali River valley, Ajaria; - 23774+ on October 7, 1980 in Chaisubani, Chakvistskali River valley, Ajaria; - 10034+ on September 18, 1986 at Klukhori Pass, Main Caucasian Ridge, Abkhazia; - 30877+ on September 24, and 38965+ on October 4, 1987 in Chakvi, Ajaria; - 22455+ individuals on October 1, 1990 in Chakvi, Ajaria; - 31303+ on October 2, 1995 on top of hill in sources of Korolistskali River, Ajaria; - 18904+ on October, 2001 at Kobuleti Lowland, Ajaria; 116 - Low numbers (50-300 birds per day) were counted between September 5 and 15 and from October 10 until the end of October. The last transients were seen on November 10-15. According to Author’s estimations, based on count data collected during long-term studies at the basic fly-ways, from 150,000 to 300,000 per spring season and from 500,000 to 800,000 individuals per autumn season, probably in some years more, crossed territory of Georgia. Majority of transients are of the Russian populations, but there are a few rings from Russia. Main part of rings originated from birds ringed by chicks in Finland. Wintering: Rare winter visitor in open and semi-open landscapes of country, mostly at coastal lowlands, Kolkheti Lowland, in valleys of large rivers, in foothills, at Iori Table-land, in semi-deserts. The preferred wintering habitat of Common Buzzard are open areas with small woodlands, the edges of more densely wooded areas, semi-deserts with scattered trees, bushes, valleys of large rivers, foothills, cultivated fields, pastures. Threats and limiting factors: The biggest threat to Common Buzzard is direct persecution. Shooting always was the basic threat, especially during organized mass campaigns on shooting raptors in Georgia in 1950’s-1970’s and later. At least 4569 cases of mortality of the Common Buzzards were noted during collecting of data since 1973 and However, at least 4382 individuals were shot in spite legal protection of the Common Buzzard accepted in the year 1974. Most of birds, at least 93%, were shot on the fly-ways during autumn transit. In 96 cases reason was electrocution at transmission power lines and in 2 cases – collision with cables. In 4 cases the reason of death was poisoning by chemicals, usually rodenticides, on garbage damps. Conservation status: Non-SPEC; BERNA 2; BONN II; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC). Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk.

22. Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus Cretzschmar, 1827 Subspecies Buteo rufinus rufinus occurs in Georgia Georgian name: ველის კაკაჩა [velis kakacha] There are two disjunct populations of Long-legged Buzzard in Eurasia. One, race Buteo rufinus rufinus, breeding from south-eastern Europe east through Asia Minor and Iran, Central Asia to northern Mongolia, south to northern India and wintering in the Middle East, Turkey, Caucasus, northern Africa and northern India. Another race, Buteo rufinus cirtensis is resident in northern Africa from NW areas – Mauritania, to Arabia Peninsula.

117 Status of presence: Rare, locally uncommon, year-round resident with a local seasonal movements, or partial migrant. Widespread and regular, but not numerous transit migrant. Regular but rare in general, locally uncommon, winter visitor. Distribution and habitat: Open arid and semi-arid areas at lowlands, plains, table-lands, foothills, low mountains, in mountain steppe with cliffs and rocky outcrops. Vertical limits of breeding distribution are 300 – 2000 metres above the sea level. During seasonal movements recorded from Black Sea coast to watershed areas of Great Caucasus up to 2800 meters above the sea level. More widespread and common on passage and in winter with a preference of arid areas. During breeding seasons recorded only in Eastern Georgia, i.e. in the Caspian Sea basin. Population size: Georgian population estimated at 55-60 breeding pairs with a some fluctuations in breeding numbers with changes in small rodent populations. A little is known on fluctuations by years, but according to data, collected by Author since the 1970’s, no detectable changes were recorded during last four decades. Breeding biology: Rare breeder in open dry areas of eastern part of country. Nests in tree-less habitats with cliffs, rocky outcrops, in arid woodlands and in semi-deserts with scattered trees and bushes (Abuladze, 1988; Edisherashvili, 1999; Edisherashvili, 2011; Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005; Kutubidze, 1985). Nests located on cliffs, rocks, rocky precipices from 10-50 meters above ground, rare in trees. At Javakheti Upland and in Tsalka Hollow (Lesser Caucasus, Southern Georgia) nests on precipitous rocks in the zone of mountain steppes in altitudinal belt from 1600 up to 2000 meters above the sea level, rarely nests in deep canyons. Two nests – one near Sagamo Lake and another in Ktsia River valley in Tsalka Hollow were located on ruins, for details on location of 23 nests see Table 22-1. Table 22-1. Nest data of Long-legged Buzzard in Georgia Location of nest in Height above Number Tree species tree ground, meters of nests Top Crown Branch < 5 5-8 8-10 No In % Junipers 1 - 2 1 2 - 3 Eldari Pine - 1 - - - 1 1 Nests in trees, total 1 1 2 1 2 1 4 17.4 Nests on rocks 17 73.9 Nests on ruins 2 8.7 Total: 23 100.0 In several cases reconstructed nests of other large birds (Ravens, Egyptian Vulture and Griffon Vulture) were used. All known nests were lined with green vegetation and wool. 118 Eggs are laid in the last days of March – in early April (at lowland of Eastern Georgia) or in middle of April (in highlands of Lesser Caucasus). Clutch size is from 3 to 5 eggs; out of eight known clutches, four (50.0%) had three eggs, three (37.5%) had four eggs and in one (12.5%) was five eggs. One clutch per year is laid, but it is replaced if lost, one case during our study was recorded. The data on sizes and weight of eggs were collected at two nests. The first clutch was measured on 17 April 1985 in nest located on ledge of cliff on southern macro-slope of central part of Kvernaki Ridge, Shida Kartli Region. The second clutch was measured on 4 May 1996 in nest located on ruins in Tsalka Hollow. The sizes of seven measured eggs from two clutches and weight of three eggs from one clutch were the following – length x width (weight): 1. 59.5 x 47.4 mm (72.0 g), 59.1 x 47.0 mm (71.4 g), 58.5 x 46.8 mm (71.2 g); 2. 62.0 x 46.0 mm, 60.5 x 45.5 mm, 57.7 x 46.0. More-or less similar sizes and weight of eggs with some differences were recorded collected on nests of Long-legged Buzzard in Armenia (Petrosian, Petrosian, 1997). The duration of incubation period is about 28 days, ± 1 day. Hatching was registered for one nest in Tsalka Hollow – on 7, 9 and 10 May 1996. Two weeks later, on 22 May, the smallest nestling was found died probably due to cainism, its remains were found partially eaten in nest. Standing in nests two young birds were observed on 17 June and two fledged young were watched in this area on 25 June. The duration of fledging period is between 40 and 45 days. The data on breeding success were collected and analyzed on known territories and nests in south-eastern part of Georgia for six seasons – in 1977, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1089 and 1990 (for details see Table 22-2). Diet: Materials on feeding of Long-legged Buzzard during breeding seasons were collected in 1980’s at Kvernaki Ridge and Iori Table-land and in 2008-2012 in Tsalka Hollow and Djavakheti Upland . In Georgia it feeds mainly on various small mammals, mostly rodents, small and medium-sized birds, large lizards, snakes. Large insects are common prey and remains regularly recorded in pellets (Abuladze, 1985a; Abuladze, 1987; Abuladze, 1988). Several times were watched unsuccessful attacks on some medium-sized birds - Feral Pigeon, Columba livia dom., Carrion Crow, Corvus corone, and Black-billed Mapie, Pica pica. One individual has been observed in May 2008 three times during two days feeding on a dead cow at bank of near Rodionovka village, Djavakheti Upland. Two times in winter were observed individuals feeding on carrion. Some more detailed data on prey composition are presented in Table 22-3.

119 The phonological dates, habitat selection, patterns of breeding biology, diet composition, dates of seasonal movements, etc. in general are similar with other populations in South Caucasus (Adamian, Klem, 1999; Patrikeev, 2004). Seasonal movements: The Long-legged Buzzard is widespread and regular, bur in general rare, transit migrant across Georgia. More common in eastern parts of country, especially in open dry habitats at lowlands, plains, in semi-deserts, table-lands, etc. The spring transit takes place mainly in March, rarely in early April. During the spring passage usually recorded by solitary individuals, occasionally by pairs. The autumn transit starts in late August, and reaches its peak during the second half of September (in Western Georgia) – early October (in Eastern Georgia). The last migrating Long-legged Buzzards at the Black Sea coastlands were recorded on 3, 9 and 11 November and in the middle – second half of November in semi-deserts in SE Georgia. During autumn transit usually watched singly, rarely in small groups of Steppe Buzzard, rarely in large mixed flocks of soaring birds of prey. Several times small groups, 3-4 individuals, probably pairs with young birds, were observed during autumn transit in halting places at Iori Table-land and in Alazani River valley. Wintering: The main wintering grounds located in open dry habitats in Eastern Georgia, i.e. in the Caspian Sea basin; occasionally recorded at lowlands of Western Georgia, i.e. in the Black Sea basin. According to the winter counts of raptors, carried out in Georgia regularly in 1977-1991 and irregularly later – in 1997, 1998, 2001 and 2006, it was established that the number of wintering individuals ranged in different years from several tens to max 320 individuals, more often between 150 and 250, the bulk of which wintered in SE Georgia. Threats and limiting factors: Shooting by poachers remains a most serious threat to this raptor, especially during passages. From 1973- 2012, at least 36 cases of illegal killing were documented (Abuladze et al., 2011d) - 24 during autumn passage and 4 during spring passage. Unfortunately, 8 individuals were killed in breeding seasons. Conservation status: SPEC3; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk; Red List of Georgia – VU.

120 Table 21-2. Data on breeding success of Buzzard in Georgia

Indices Indices and Years 1977 1978 1980 1981 1982 1983 1988 1989 1990 A. Checked territories 5 7 10 9 6 18 5 8 6 B. Occupied territories (with pairs) 4 5 9 9 5 15 4 7 4 C. Territories with eggs 4 5 9 8 5 14 4 5 4 D. Number of successful nestings 3 4 3 6 5 11 3 4 2 E. Number of unsuccessful nestings 1 1 0 2 0 3 1 1 2 F. Percentage of successful nesting (D/C) 75,0 80,0 33,3 75,0 100,0 78,6 75,0 80,0 50,0 G. Number of fledgings 5 11 5 12 10 23 7 8 3 H. Number of fledgings / successful nesting (G/D) 1,67 2,75 1,67 2,00 2,00 2,09 2,10 2,00 1,50 I. Number of fledgings / occupied territory (G/B) 1,25 2,20 0,56 1,33 2,00 1,53 1,75 1,14 0,75 J. Number of fledgings / established nesting (G/C) 1,25 2,20 0,56 1,50 2,00 1,64 1,75 1,60 0,75 K. Territories with no activity 1 2 1 0 1 3 1 1 2

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Table 22-2. Data on the breeding success of Long-legged Buzzard in Georgia

Indices Years 1977 1981 1982 1983 1989 1990 A Checked territories 4 5 6 4 2 3 B Occupied territories (with pairs) 4 3 4 3 2 2 C Territories with eggs 4 3 4 3 2 2 Cc Number of eggs by nests 3,3,4,4 2,3,3 2,3,3,3 3,3,3 2,3 3,3 D Number of successful nesting 4 3 3 2 2 1 E Number of unsuccessful nesting 0 0 1 1 0 1 F Percentage of successful nesting (D/C) 100.0 100.0 75.0 66.7 100.0 50.0 G Number of young capable of flying 11 5 6 5 4 2 H Number of young capable of flying/ successful nesting (G/D) 2.75 1.67 2.00 2.50 2.00 2.00 I Number of young capable of flying/ occupied territory (G/B) 2.75 1.67 1.50 1.67 2.00 1.00 J Number of young capable of flying/established nesting (G/C) 2.75 1.67 1.50 1.67 2.00 1.00 K Territories with no activity 0 0 0 1 0 0

122 Table 22-3. Data on the Long-legged Buzzard prey composition in Georgia (number by regions) Kvernaki Ridge, Iori Table- Tsalka Hollow, Djavakheti Identified prey species land Upland N In % N In % Wood Mouse, Apodemus sylvaticus 3 1.35 - - House Mouse, Mus musculus 16 7.17 4 1.64 Unidentified mice, Mus spp. 4 1.79 11 4.51 Brandt’s Hamster, Mesocricetus brandtiі 4 1.79 - - Grey Hamster, Cricetulus migratorius 1 0.45 - - Libyan Jird, Merione lybicus 3 1.35 - - Water Vole, Arvicola terrestris - - 19 7.78 Common Vole, Microtus arvalis 9 4.04 14 5.74 Social Vole, Microtus socialis 61 27.35 - - Unidentified voles, Microtus spp. 12 5.38 27 11.06 Nehring’s Molerat, Nannospalax nehringi - - 8 Norvey or Brown rat, Rattus norvegicus - - 2 0.82 Unidentified rats, Rattus spp. - - 2 0.82 Unidentified small rodents 19 8.52 48 19.67 Unidentified small mammals - - 9 3.69 Mammals, total 132 59.19 144 59.02 Chukar, Alectoris chukar (chick) 1 0.45 - - Quail, Coturnix coturnix 1 0.45 2 0.82 Unidentified Tringa spp. - - 1 0.41 Armenian Gull, Larus armenicus - 1 0.41 Skylark, Alauda arvensis 1 0.45 2 0.82 Crested lark, Galerida cristata 1 0.45 - - Unidentified larks 1 0.45 3 1.23 123 Kvernaki Ridge, Iori Table- Tsalka Hollow, Djavakheti Identified prey species land Upland N In % N In % Unidentified pipit, Anthus spp. 1 0.45 8 3.28 Western Rock Nuthatch, Sitta neumayer 1 0.45 - - Eurasian Jackdaw, Corvus monedula - - 5 2.05 Rook, Corvus frugilegus - - 1 0.41 Unidentified passerines, Passeriformes spp. 4 1.79 9 3.69 Unidentified birds, Aves spp. 4 1.79 1 0.41 Birds, total 14 6.28 33 13.52 Caucasian Agama, Laudakia caucasia 11 4.93 - - European Glass Lizard, Pseudopus apodus 1 0.45 - - Unidentified lizards, Lacerta spp. 16 7.17 3 1.23 Unidentified rock lizards 6 2.69 9 3.69 Unidentified Coluber spp. 1 0.45 - - Unidentified snake 1 0.45 - - Reptiles, total 36 16.14 12 4.92 Large insects, Orthoptera, Coleoptera, etc. 41 18.39 55+ 22.54 Total: 223 100.00 244 100.00

124

23. Rough-legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus Subspecies Buteo lagopus lagopus Pontoppidian, 1763 occurs in Georgia Georgian name: ფეხბანჯგვლიანი კაკაჩა [pekhbanjghvliani kakacha] The Rough-legged Buzzard breeds in tundra and taiga regions around the northern hemisphere - Eurasia and North America. Birds occurring in Eurasia migrate to wintering grounds in southern Europe and Asia. Status of presence: The Rough-legged Buzzard for the Georgia, as well as for the whole South Caucasus, should be considered as a very rare irregular, occasional transit migrant and a rare in small numbers, locally in some winters, uncommon, winter visitor (Abuladze, 2003b; Edisherashvili, 2011; Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005; Kosonen, 1981; Lofgren, 1982; Paakkinen et al., 1981; Sojamo, 1982; Sojamo, 1983; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011). Nothing is known of the population origin of Rough-legged Buzzard migrating across Georgia and wintering here. The status of Rough-legged Buzzard for the neighbouring countries is the following: in Armenia – “Winter visitor. Rare” (Adamian, Klem, 1999); in Azerbaijan – as an “uncommon migrating and wintering species”; in Turkey species considered as a “rare winter visitor in very small numbers” (Kasparek, 1992; Kirwan, Martins, 1994). Distribution and habitats: The Rough-legged Buzzard recorded elsewhere during transit passages. In winter occurs mainly in open arid landscapes of Eastern Georgia, at plains, lowlands, semi-deserts; rarely at Kolkheti Lowland, on the Black Sea coastal lowlands, in Tsalka Hollow and on Javakheti Upland, other mountain areas at Lesser Caucasus in large river valleys. Occasionally in small numbers the species winters at Great Caucasus. The mountain steppes at Lesser Caucasus, semi-deserts, tree-less areas at table-lands, lowlands and plains, arable lands are the preferred habitats (Abuladze, 2003b; Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005). Seasonal movements and wintering: The Rough-legged Buzzard during seasonal migrations observed not every year. Their fall and spring movements across country expressed very poorly and have the character of nomadic movements. Overall this raptor species is a very rare on passages (Abuladze, 2003b; Kosonen, 1981; Lofgren, 1982; Paakkinen et al., 1981; Sojamo, 1982; 1983). During the counts on general fly-ways of the migrating birds of prey across Georgia, carried out since 1973, the Rough-legged Buzzard was

125 not observed in the autumn of 1973, 1974, 1977, 1978, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1989, 1990, 1993 and 1996. But in those years, when the Rough-legged Buzzard was recorded, it comprise only from 0.001% (1987) to 0.019% (1988) of the total number of birds of prey counted on migrations. Even less often and in smaller number these birds were noted on spring passages, and their relative abundance was extremely low – from 0,001% to 0,008% of all counted birds of prey. The spring migration is less noticeable and observed in the end of March - 1st half of April. The last migratory individuals were observed in late April. Open and semi-open dry arid landscapes in mainland parts of country are the preferred habitats during spring passage. Rarely these birds recorded along the Black Sea coast and on coastal lowlands. Migratory birds sometimes make stops for several days. Last observations of the species were at the middle of April. Autumn transit passage goes by wider front and migrating Rough-legged Buzzard from the Black Sea shore in the West up to the eastern borders of the country. The autumn transit was observed in the late October – first half of November, but in the years with a warm autumn they are not recorded before the winter cold snaps. Usually, the first specimens appear in autumn in the third decade of September. But also abnormally early autumn records of the Rough-legged Buzzard in Georgia and adjacent regions of South Caucasus were noted. So, two single individuals were recorded on the 1st September 2001 near Gori and Agara towns in Shida Kartli Region, Eastern Georgia; single was watched on 12 October 2008 at Kobuleti Lowland in Ajaria; two solitary were recorded on 10 October 2012 during road car-survey carried out around Tsalka reservoir, Kvemo Kartli Region. During transit passages the Rough- legged Buzzard was usually recorded by single individuals. Occasionally these raptors were watched in small flocks of migrating Steppe Buzzards or some other soaring birds of prey. The Rough-legged Buzzard winters in South Caucasus more-or-less regularly, but in some winters the number of these raptors is very low. The wintering habitats are extensive and include lowlands, plains, table- lands and foot-hills in the Black Sea and Caspian Sea basins. The total area of the species’ wintering grounds in the South Caucasus is 40000- 45000 km2 and the main part is located in central parts of region – in the Caspian Sea basin. Naturally, it is difficult to estimate the number of wintering individuals within this territory with a high degree of reliability. In addition, the number of wintering individuals is subject to sharp fluctuations even for short periods of time on the same site on wintering grounds. According to the mid-winter counts of birds of prey, carried out in Georgia regularly in 1977-1991 and irregularly later – in 1997, 1998, 2001 and 2006, as well as in some districts of western part

126 of Azerbaijan in 1980-1983 and in 1986 and in some districts of northern parts of Armenia in 1979, 1983 and 1986, it was established that in these areas of western and central parts of South Caucasus, with total area of about 20000 km2 the number of Rough-legged Buzzard compiled in different years from 150 to 2000 individuals, the bulk of which wintered along the Mtkvari River valley. These birds appear in a number at the lowlands and plains of South Caucasus in winters, when in the steppes of Front-Caucasian Region and in pre-mountain belts of the Northern Caucasus extremely adverse weather conditions formed - cold snap comes, accompanied by storms and heavy snowfalls. So, in winter 1997/1998 from the late December 1997 to the first half of February 1998, these birds were very few in Georgia and western districts of Azerbaijan. During the road-car survey of wintering raptors, along the 100 km routes this raptors were counted in the average from 1,4 individuals (in eastern part of Kolkheti Lowland and in Rioni River valley) up to 2,2 (at Lower Kartli Plane and Iori Plateau) and 2,7 individuals (Tsalka hollow). At the middle of February there was a sharp cold snap and immediately at the same routes their number increased accordingly up to 4,7 and 11,3 individuals per 100 km of count route. However during next two warm winters, along the same routs only solitary individuals were counted - 0,5 and 1,6 individuals per 100 km of road-car survey. During the study, the largest number of these raptors were observed in the South Caucasus during the most cold winters - in the early February 1977, second half of January – first half of February 1992, in the middle of February 1995 and in the late December 2001 – early February 2002. But in general, the Rough-legged Buzzard should be classified as a rare wintering raptor species for South Caucasus. In all the years of his observations the relative number never exceeded 1% of the total number of the birds of prey wintered in Georgia and normally ranged from 0,4 - 0,6% of total number of wintering birds of prey. The Rough-legged Buzzard during winter never forms flocks and commonly are observed by solitary individuals, but in some the most optimal from the point of view of food abundance, could be observed by groups consisted of up to three individuals. Feeding: They hunt usually at the plots with a low grass, looking for prey from low perches. In order to study winter diet, the prey remains and pellets were collected in the places of their permanent presence on wintering grounds. The materials were collected in the south-eastern part of Georgia, mostly at Iori Table-land and in Tsalka Hollows. The pellets were collected under perches, used by birds for search of food and rest. The osteological materials of mammals from the prey remains and pellets were identified by the specialists of the Institute of Zoology. The results of analysis are presented in Table 23-1. Small rodents proved to be a major item in the diet, ca.96% of the total prey. According to collected data on the Rough-legged Buzzard food during

127 wintering in the central parts of South Caucasus, the main part of prey were small rodents – Wood Mouth and House Mouse (about 60% in total) and voles (about 38%), in the first turn Social Vole. Other rodent species are considered as an occasional prey. More detailed data on the diet composition of the Rough-legged Buzzards wintered in Georgia are presented in Table 23-1. Table 23-1. Data on the Rough-legged Buzzard prey composition in Georgia Identified prey species Number N In % Wood Mouse, Apodemus silvaticus 91 32.38 House Mouse, Mus musculus 35 12.46 Unidentified mice, Mus spp. 41 14.59 Turkish (Brandt’s) Hamster, Mesocricetus brandtii 1 0.35 European Water Vole, Arvicola terrestris 7 2.49 Common Pine Vole, Microtus majori 8 2.85 Common Vole, Microtus arvalis 1 0.35 Social Vole, Microtus socialis 76 27.05 Unidentified voles, Microtus spp. 16 5.69 Mammals, total 276 98.22 Crested Lark, Galerida cristata 1 0.35 Eurasian Linnet, Carduelis cannabina 1 0.35 Unidentified small Passerines, Passeriformes spp. 3 1.07 Birds, total 5 1.77 Total: 281 100% In South Caucasus this raptor also feeds on small birds, mostly passerines, but birds are only an occasional food item. Several times the attacks on larks were observed. Threats: The Rough-legged Buzzard migrating and wintering species in South Caucasus, often dies on fly-ways and wintering grounds. More than 30 cases of shooting by poachers were noted since 1973 in Caucasus, 10 cases were recorded in Georgia – 7 birds were killed in winter, 2 during autumn transit and 1 in spring (Abuladze et al., 2011d). Successful attack of the Goshawk female on wintering Rough-legged Buzzard was observed at Kolkheti Lowland. Besides that several unsuccessful attacks of the Goshawk (n = 2), Golden Eeagle (n =1) and flock of the Carrion Crow (n = 1) were watched. In one case mortality reason was collision with moving vehicle. So, on 2 February 1991, in Tbilisi Zoo the injured bird was brought, died later on the same day. This bird was hit by lorry on motor-road Tbilisi - Rustavi. By the way, the similar case was registered also in Stavropol’ Territory in Northern Caucasus of Russia (Khokhlov, Il’yukh, 1998) Conservation status: Non-SPEC; CITES II; IUCN Europe – VU.

128 24. Lesser Spotted Eagle Lophaetus (Aguila) pomarina Subspecies: Monotypic, no subspecies Georgian name: მცირე არწივი [mcire artsivi] synonym მცირე მყივანი არწივი [mtsire mkivani artsivi] The Lesser Spotted Eagle’s breeding distribution restricted to central, eastern, southeastern Europe from the north-eastern Germany east through Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Belarus to western Russia, south across Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria to Greece, Turkey, the Caucasus and lowlands at southern shore of the Caspian Sea (northern Iran). The Lesser Spotted Eagle is typical long-distance trans-equatorial migrant and spends the winter in south and east Africa, south of the Sakhara (Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2000; Gensbol, 2004; Mebs & Schmidt 2006). Hybridization with the Greater Spotted Eagle does occur. Status of presence: The Lesser Spotted Eagle is rare migratory breeder and widespread and common, locally uncommon, passage migrant. Distribution and habitats: In the past, the Lesser Spotted Eagle was widely distributed throughout Georgia in areas mainly covered by mature broad-leaved forests and in the flood-lands of larger rivers (Bogdanov, 1879; Radde, 1884; Vilkonski, 1897; Tsetkov, 1901; Satunin, 1907, etc.). In the historical works there cannot be found exact data on population size, but it can be estimated that until the 1920’s- 1930’s the population of Lesser Spotted Eagle in Georgia was perhaps several hundred pairs. Beginning with the 1930’s, the level of human activities in the whole of Georgia, especially on lowlands, sharply increased. Particularly great transformation occurred in the landscape of the lowlands – at the Black Sea coast and costal lowlands, shores of large lakes, in flood-lands of the rivers. The Lesser Spotted Eagle population started to decline from the 1930’s due to the habitats loss. As the result of these processes, in Western Georgia, i.e. in the Black sea basin, this eagle almost vanished in the woodlands at Kolkheti Lowland and in floodplains of some rivers in Western Georgia. The population of Lesser Spotted Eagle in the Eastern Georgia has also declined since 1940’s, due to the reduction of habitats, especially the destruction of mature riparian forests. Persecution of birds of prey by man during mass-scale campaigns in 1940’s-1970’s has had a negative impact as well. The Lesser Spotted Eagle at present occurs in Southern Caucasus principally in the central and southern parts of the region and in small numbers in the Black Sea basin. The breeding range in Georgia and Western Azerbaijan covers the flood-lands of large rivers of Caspian Sea basin – Mtkvari, Alazani, Iori, Khrami, Agrichai, Shamkhorchai,

129 foothills, low- and middle-mountain altitudinal belt at Great Caucasus and Lesser Caucasus and some areas in the Black Sea basin – at Kolkheti Lowland and flood-lands of some large rivers. The preferred breeding habitats for the Lesser Spotted Eagles of local population are large, dense mature riparian forests along in the flood- lands of large rivers or on the gentle slopes of foothills and low mountains bordering with open humid biotopes: meadows, marshes, other wetlands and fields, sometimes dry, arid habitats, semi-deserts. For such biotopes are typical many-tiered deciduous forests (poplar, aspen, willow. etc.) with dense underbrush (nut-grove, sea-buckthorn, granate, liana, creepers, etc.). The local name for this landscape is “tugai”. In foothills and at gentle slopes breeds in mature broad-leaved forests (beech, hornbeam, yew-tree, etc.) with dense brushwood, near clearings, pastures, fields, wetlands. Occasionally nests in woodlands of semi-arid habitats. The vertical limit of the breeding habitats is up to 1,150 m above sea-level, usually up to 1000 m above sea-level. The preferred feeding habitats are located along the edges of forests with clearings, large glades, open areas, mainly humid meadows, marshes, bogs and other wetlands. The hunting territories typically are located at distance 0.15-1.50 km, and sometimes more, from the nest-sites. During post-breeding movements (after fledging) commonly recorded at sub-alpine and alpine meadows of Great and Lesser Caucasus up to 2700 m above sea-level. Population size: From 85 to 100 breeding pairs were counted in Georgia in the 1970’s and at least 50 pairs were at that time in Western Azerbaijan. By the mid-1980’s, 75-85 pairs were estimated to breed in Georgia and 40-45 pairs in adjacent parts of Western Azerbaijan. Based on data, collected in the 1980’s, at least 215-220 pairs were estimated to breed in South Caucasus. During the last two decades a slow decline has been marked, especially in Western Georgia. 70-80 pairs were recorded by the second half of 1990’s, with present estimates now as high as 60- 75 pairs, from which 50-60 pairs in Eastern Georgia, i.e. in the Caspian Sea basin and probably some 10-15 pairs are inhabiting other parts of Georgia, mostly Kolkheti Lowland and Rioni River valley. According to other estimation (Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005) 50-70 pairs bred in country. Breeding biology in Southern Caucasus: Arrival at breeding habitats in the central parts of Southern Caucasus has been recorded in the last days of March - the first half of April. The earliest first occurrence of the eagles near its nest in Georgia has been recorded on March 27, 1999; March 28, 2011 and March 31, 1979; the latest – on April 19, 1983; April 18, 1979 and April 11, 1999. Typically first records of pairs in breeding habitats were noted from April 5 to April 10. Soon after the

130 arrival, eagles begin to build new nests or repair old ones. Old nests are often re-used during several seasons (in one case for up to four years). The Lesser Spotted Eagle nest exclusively in trees, most often are used high old poplars. The nesting in other tree species should be considered as occasional. For details of nest-tree selection and location of nests in trees see Table 24-1. Table 24-1. Nest-tree selection by the Lesser Spotted Eagle in central part of the Southern Caucasus (Georgia and Western Azerbaijan) Location of nest in tree Number of nests Nest-tree top crown branch 10-15 15-20 20-25 25> N % Poplars 1 17 3 2 12 5 2 21 80.8 Aspen - 2 - 2 - - - 2 7.8 Beech - 1 - - - 1 1 3.8 Hornbeam - 1 - 1 - - 1 3.8 Oak - 1 - - 1 - - 1 3.8 Total: 1 22 3 5 13 6 2 26 100 The measurements of 18 nests were: outer diameter 50-90 cm, inner diameter – 25-40 cm, height – 40-70 cm, depth of cup – 5-15 cm. Copulations were recorded between April 14 (just after arriving of pair and during repairing of old nest) and May 4 (when in nest were two incubated eggs). Copulations were watched directly on the nests or not far from them. Duration of the observed copulations was from 20 to 45 seconds. In Eastern Georgia and Western Azerbaijan egg-laying takes place in the second half of April, typically from April 18 to April 28. The extreme dates being: April 14 - May 3. 25 clutches were studied in 1975-1992. Normally full clutches had two eggs (22 clutches or 88%); very few had one egg (two clutches or 8%) or three eggs (one clutch or 4%); the average clutch size being 1.96. The average size of 24 measured eggs from 13 clutches (11 clutches of 2 eggs and 2 clutches with one egg) was 62.8x49.0 mm, ranging from 56.5 to 70.0 mm x 46.0- 54.5 mm. The average weight of l4 eggs from 8 clutches (6 clutches with 2 eggs and one clutch with one two eggs) was 79.3 g, ranging from 64.3 to 89.4 g. The data on sizes and weight of eggs, collected on nests in Georgia are presented in Table 24-3. Duration of incubation was identified for four nests and was from was 38-40 days. The dates of hatching were fixed for five nests with two eggs and were the following: 1st nest - May 23 and May 26, 1977; 2nd nest - May 27 and May ?, 1978; 3rd nest - May ? and June 2, 1982; 4th nest - June ? and June 12, 1988; 5th nest – May 20 and May 24, 1993.

131 Table 24-2 Indices of effectiveness in Lesser Spotted Eagles breeding in Georgia

Years Indices 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 A Checked territories 7 9 10 10 10 14 14 B Occupied territories (with pairs) 7 8 8 9 8 11 12 C Territories with eggs 7 6 7 7 7 11 11 D Number of successful nesting 6 3 5 6 6 9 9 E Number of unsuccessful nesting 1 0 2 1 1 2 3 F Percentage of successful nesting (D/C) 85.7 50.0 71.4 85.7 85.7 81.8 72.7 G Number of young capable of flying 8 5 7 7 9 14 12 H Number of young capable of flying/ successful nesting (G/D) 1.33 1.66 1.40 1.16 1.50 1.56 1.50 I Number of young capable of flying/ occupied territory (G/B) 1.14 0.63 0.88 0.78 1.13 1.27 1.00 J Number of young capable of flying/established nesting (G/C) 1.14 0.83 1.00 1.00 1.29 1.27 1.09 K Territories with no activity 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 L No data 0 0 1 0 2 2 1

132 Table 24-3 Size and weight of eggs of Lesser Spotted Eagle in Southern Caucasus Number of Sizes (mm) and weight (g) of eggs Dates clutch-eggs length width weight I-1 65.5 51.0 - May 11, 1977 I-2 63.0 48.3 - II-1 70.0 51.2 89.4 May 15, 1978 II-2 63.2 49.5 85.0 III-1 63.0 50.1 84.8 May 18, 1978 III-2 59.1 47.0 66.7 IV-1 69.0 54.5 - May 12, 1980 IV-2 61.5 49.0 - V-1 62.3 52.0 - May 17, 1980 V-2 60.0 49.0 - VI-1 66.3 50.8 86.1 May 11, 1981 VII-1 64.5 52.5 May 17, 1981 VII-2 61.7 48.3 VIII-1 61.4 49.3 81.0 May 23, 1981 VIII-2 57.5 46.0 64.3 IX-1 67.0 49.8 85.6 May 21, 1982 IX-2 60.8 46.3 66.5 X-1 64.0 47.5 71.0 May 6, 1984 XI-1 62.5 50.5 84.2 May 12, 1985 XI-2 62.1 50.0 81.8 XII-1 64.5 50.3 86.0 April 28, 1988 XII-2 61.2 48.0 78.1 XIII-1 61.5 49.8 - May 8, 1988 XIII-2 56.5 46.0 - Min 56.5 46.0 64.3 x Max 70.0 54.5 89.4 x Average 62.8 49.0 79.3 x n =24 n =24 n = 14 The young fledge between the first ten days of July and the beginning of August. The earliest fledging of a young has been registered in Alazani River flood-land in SE Georgia on July 7, 1989, the latest one on August 1, 1977. Sometimes the second chick (in one case second chick and third chick) dies due to cainism. The young eagles have sometimes been observed near the nests for 1 - 2 weeks later after fledging. It is typical of the Caucasian population for adults together with young to move after fledging to sub-alpine and alpine meadow in vertical belts over 1.800 meters above sea-level at the Great Caucasus and over 1.500 meters in the Lesser Caucasus. The sub- alpine meadows are habitat with a rich food resources and prey availability and eagles stay there during the post-breeding movements until the beginning of the autumn passage. During this period from 133 middle of July and through the August the Lesser Spotted Eagle is observed as a common raptor species in alpine landscapes within all mountain systems of Caucasus, along the Main Caucasian Ridge and its southern spurs and in the Lesser Caucasus, including watershed areas (Abuladze, 1996; Abuladze, 2001b; Meyburg, B. & C. Meyburg, I988). The breeding success and productivity of the Lesser Spotted Eagles from South Caucasian population were analyzed over 7 years, from 1982 to 1992. Data for analysis were collected mostly in SE Georgia. Additionally data were collected on nests in Eastern Georgia (1992) and in Western Azerbaijan (1989-1991). Throughout the study period the total number of occupied territories controlled each breeding season ranged from seven in 1982 to fourteen in 1987, 1988 and 1992. The average rate of successful nestings was 74%, varying between 50% and 85.7%. The average rate of young capable of flying per successful nesting was 1.34, ranging from 0.87 to 1.66. The average rate of young capable of flying per occupied territory was 0.94, ranging from 0.63 to 1.27. The average rate of young capable of flying per established nesting was 1.06, ranging from 0.76 to 1. 29. The main characteristics of the breeding success of the Lesser Spotted Eagle within the limits of Georgia, that are presented in Table 24-2 are based on data collected during seven breeding seasons. Diet: The trophical relations have been investigated during the period of feeding the young. About 480 prey remains were collected on six nests, mostly in flood-lands of Mtkvari River and Alazani River in 1982, 1987-1988 and in Rioni River valley in 1999. The osteological materials of mammals, reptiles and amphibians from the prey remains were identified by the specialists of the Institute of Zoology. Besides that, the contents of stomachs of nine Lesser Spotted Eagles killed by poachers during autumn passages were analyzed. It was found that amphibians were the most important prey in the composition of the Lesser Spotted Eagles' diet, with a frequency of occurrence of 37.9%, followed by mammals 30.4%, reptiles 24.2% and birds 7.5%. The Marsh Frog (Rana ridibunda) was the main prey, comprising 28.5% of the total number of items. Other amphibians, Iranian Frog (Rana macrocnemis), Green Toad (Bufo viridis), Common Tree Frog (Hyla arborea), were an occasional prey. At least five mammal species were identified in prey remains – Wood Mouse (Mus musculus), Wood Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus), European Water Vole (Arvicola terrestris), Common Vole (Microtus arvalis), Social Vole (Microtus socialis), unidentified rats (Rattus spp.); Wood Mouse and voles were the main prey among mammals, comprising about 12% and 10.6% of the total number of prey items. Reptiles in diet of Lesser Spotted Eagle were presented at least by four identified species – Five-streaked Lizard (Lacerta strigata), Three-lined Lizard (Lacerta trilineata), Grass Snake (Natrix natrix) and Diced Snake (Natrix tesselata). The lizards were the most numerous prey 134 species among reptiles, comprising about 11% of total number of prey items. At least 11 bird species were identified in diet: chick of Pheasant chick (Phasianus colchicus), Quail (Coturnix coturnix), Water Rail (Rallus aquaticus), Corncrake (Crex crex), Common Coot (Fulica atra), Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus), Blackbird (Turdus merula), Jay (Garrulus glandarius), Magpie (Pica pica), Hooded Crow (Corvus corone), Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris). Most of birds were young individuals who are not yet able to fly or just fledged. Besides that, unidentified pigeons, gulls, small passerines and various large insects were found in prey remains. The patterns of breeding biology and prey composition of the Lesser Spotted Eagle in Georgia in general are similar with populations from other South Caucasian populations (Adamian, Klem, 1999; Geilikman, Hounanian, 1974; Patrikeev, 2004; Petrosian, Petrosian, 1997). Seasonal movements: The Lesser Spotted Eagle is widespread and more-or-less common, locally uncommon, passage migrant (Abuladze, 1999c; Abuladze, 2001d; Abuladze, Edisherashvili, 2003; Abuladze, Kandaurov, Eligulashvili, 2011; Cel’min’sh, Bergmanis, 1990; Paakinen, Rantanen, Rantanen, 1981; Sojamo, 1982; Sojamo, 1983; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011). More common on passage in western areas - at the Black Sea coastlands, Kolkheti Lowland, in Rioni River valley, at some passes of Main Caucasian Ridge. Rarely recorded in eastern areas, i.e. in the Caspian Sea basin, mainly in Mtkvari River valley; occasionally small flocks of migrating Lesser Spotted Eagles recorded in arid woodlands, semi-deserts, in mountain steppes at Lesser Caucasus. In spring transit passage of Lesser Spotted Eagle through Georgia observed in the second half of March – first half of April, the extreme dates were March 17 (1996) and April 21 (2009). The peak of the spring migration has been observed in the last days of March and first days of April. No data on numbers of transit migrants in spring. According to Author’s estimation, probably 4000 - 5000 individuals are estimated to migrate through the country in spring In autumn the earliest migrating birds have been observed on the Black Sea coast in the beginning of August. The earliest record has been on August 7, 1990. Main migration takes place in late September – early October (our data; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011). Some authors (Vilkonski 1897) have mentioned more early dates of autumn passage. The last solitary individuals were observed in the late October. The latest record has been at October 31. At least 10.000 individuals were considered to migrate per autumn season through Georgia, from which 8000 – 9000 across Western Georgia, i.e. the Black Sea basin and 1000 – 2000, probably some more, across Eastern Georgia, mainly along the Mtkvari River valley.

135 The main fly-ways of migration coming from the Northern Caucasus to Georgia lies through the passes of western part of Main Caucasus Range to Kolkheti Lowland and the Black Sea coastlands. But according to the counts, conducted in Abkhazia, some flocks have been recorded also as flying along the coast of the Black Sea. More detailed data on the phenology of spring and autumn passages of the Lesser Spotted Eagle through Georgia are presented in Table 24- 4. Table 24-4. Seasonal migrations patterns of the Lesser Spotted Eagle in Georgia Number of counted individuals, in % Months Decades Seasons I II III March - 0.79 71.56 April 27.42 0.23 - Autumn August 0.01 0.21 0.37 September 11.31 28.22 57.02 October 2.06 0.77 0.03

Threats and limiting factors: The decrease of the Lesser Spotted Eagle’s population in Georgia, as well as in the whole Caucasus, has been marked through the region since the 1930’s. The main reasons were destruction of breeding habitats and persecution of raptors by man. Undoubtedly, habitat loss – reduction of the mature riparian forests, should be considered as the most negative factors, only increasing during the last decades. The building of large hydroelectric power stations and creation of reservoirs on the rivers has flooded extensive areas. Another serious threat is illegal shooting, especially during autumn migration at the Black Sea coastlands. At least 31 cases of death of adult Lesser Spotted Eagles were noted in Georgia in 1973-2912. 28 birds were killed by poachers, 25 during autumn passages, 1 in spring and 2 during breeding seasons. Other cases were electrocution on an electric power line (2 cases) and collision with a radio-relay antenna (1 case). Two nests with clutches (2 and 2 eggs) were robbed by man and one clutch (2 eggs) was robbed by Carrion Crows. Besides that, in at least 7 cases breeding was unsuccessful, probably due to disturbance from human activities. Habitat destruction in the breeding areas is a serious threat. Forests are managed more intensively in many areas then they used to. Wetlands and wet meadows are drained and turned into intensively used agricultural fields. New roads, oil and gas pipelines, railways, transmission power lines are build through forests which causes disturbance. In some sites recreational activities can also cause

136 disturbance during the breeding season. It is well known, that the Lesser Spotted Eagle is very sensitive when it comes to disturbance. Conservation status: SPEC 3; CEE 1; BERNA II; BONN II; CITES II; AEWA; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk.

25. Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga Subspecies: Monotypic, no subspecies Georgian name: მყივანი არწივი [mkivani artsivi] Synonym დიდი მყივანი არწივი [didi mkivani artsivi] Status of presence: Regular but very rare to rare transit migrant across country. A little more common on passage along the Black Sea coastlands, especially in autumn (Abuladze, 1999c; Abuladze, 2001d; Abuladze, Edisherashvili, 2003; Abuladze, Kandaurov, Eligulashvili, 2011; Cel’min’sh, Bergmanis, 1990; Paakinen, Rantanen, Rantanen, 1981; Sojamo, 1982; Sojamo, 1983; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011). Occasional winter visitor to lowlands of Western Georgia (Abuladze, 2008b). It should be noted that in some publications, mostly scientific-popular issues, the status of presence of the Greater Spotted Eagle was considered as a summer breeding species to Georgia. It is not clear, what could be confirmation or base for such assertion because all these opinions were without any comments or factual materials. Listing of this species as a breeders in Georgia is a mistake. Probably such assertion is related to sightings of non-breeding summer visitor, vagrant specimens. Besides that, the mistake in field identification is not excluded. Seasonal movements: The Greater Spotted Eagle is widespread and regular, but very rare transit migrant to Georgia. According to data collected for many years, it comprise in spring only 0,018% of the total number of birds of prey counted on migrations, ranged by years from 0,002% to 0,028% and 0,016% of total number of counted birds of prey during autumn transit, ranged by years from 0,003% to 0,074% (Abuladze, 2008b). Later, the similar indices were obtained by the members of Batumi Raptor Count project (BRC) in 2008, when 122 individuals of Greater Spotted Eagles of 806679 birds of prey were counted or 0,015% of total number of transients. Next year, in 2009, the number was similar - 174 individuals or 0,020% of total number of 851,491 transients were counted (Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011). The Greater Spotted Eagle during seasonal movements across Georgia recorded elsewhere. The passage goes along the Black Sea shore, on coastal lowlands, Kolkheti Lowland, along the foothills of Great and Lesser Caucasus, in large river valleys of the Black Sea basin

137 – Rioni, Inguri, Khobi, Bzipi, Kodori, Chorokhi. Much more rarely recorded along the Likhi Ridge which is watershed ridge between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea basins, in Eastern Georgia, i.e. in the Caspian Sea basin, where it can observed in semi-deserts in SE part of country, in Mtkvari River valley and its major tributaries and also at the passes of Main Caucasian Ridge and in mountain steppes at Lesser Caucasus - at Djavakheti Upland and in Tsalka Hollow. The spring transit takes place mainly at the end of March - first week of April with a slight peak in late March, although solitary transients can be seen later, up to late April. In spring always solitary individuals were recorded. The autumn transit starts in the middle of August. The first transit migrants were recorded on passes of the Main Caucasian Ridge already on August 7-9 and on the Black Sea coastlands on August 10-14, usually between August 15 and 20. The duration of autumn transit is very stretched. Last records were registered in the middle of November. It is difficult to determine dates of peak of passage, but most of records were in late September – first half of October. Typically solitary individuals recorded in mixed flocks of soaring birds of prey, more often in flocks of Lesser Spotted Eagle, rarely together with Steppe Eagles. Very rare in such mixed flocks two – three individuals of Greater Spotted Eagles can be met. Only one time, on October 10, 1990, during the count of migrating raptors from constant count-site in Chakvistskali River valley in Ajaria, four individuals were identified in one large mixed flock of raptors, mostly of the Lesser Spotted Eagles. By the way, on that day - October 10, 1990, at least 21 individuals of Greater Spotted Eagle were counted that was the highest known day count to Georgia. It should be noted that probably the number of Greater Spotted Eagle on passages in Georgia is some more than known results of counts suggested. This eagle often migrates through Georgia together with a much more numerous Lesser Spotted Eagle from which Greater Spotted Eagles are not easily distinguished. Wintering: According to the modern published data, the basic wintering grounds of the different breeding populations of the Greater Spotted Eagle are located in northern and eastern parts of Africa, Arabian Peninsula, Middle East, Indian sub-continent, in southern parts of South-East Asia. This eagle in small numbers winters at some sites of the Southern Europe, in eastern parts of Azerbaijan and in Iran. The information on the wintering grounds in the Southern Caucasus, particularly in the eastern part of Azerbaijan, is very fragmented and almost reduced to ascertaining the presence of the species in very small numbers along the western shore of the Caspian Sea or on adjacent coastal lowlands and in semi-deserts (Bannikova et.al., 1984; Vinogradov & Tcherniavskaya, 1965; Oliger, 1967; Shubin, 1983; Shubin, 1986; Patrikeev, 2004). 138 The first and second winter records of solitary individuals of Greater Spotted Eagle were noted in January 1987: first bird was observed in north-western part of Kolkheti Lowland on bank of Eristskali River, tributary of Okumi River in Gali district, Abkhazia. Four days later, the Greater Spotted Eagle was seen in flood-land of Rioni River lower Samtredia town in Imereti Region. The third solitary individual was recorded on January, 31 1991 on boggy meadows of left side of Pichori River, 3.5 km east of Paliastomi Lake. Probably the same individual was observed two days later – on February 2, 1991 near the site where the Greater Spotted Eagle was watched on January 31 (Abuladze, 2008b). Tom Coles, the late birder from the UK, who visited Georgia in 2005, together with the members of NGO Georgian Center for the Conservation of Wildlife Z. Javakhishvili and G. Darchiashvili, observed four individuals of these eagles on January 29, 2005 in . The same species was recorded during the winter of 2003, but, unfortunately, there are not more detailed data of these records. The Greater Spotted Eagles were recorded and in the next winter. Two solitary individuals were observed in February 2006. Like in the previous years, these birds also were recorded in Western Georgia, i.e. in the Black Sea basin on Kolkheti Lowland. The Greater Spotted Eagle, sitting in tree, was watched in telescope during several minutes from a distance 100-120 meters on southern shore of Paliastomi Lake. Next day, on 15 February, another individual was observed on left bank of Khobi River in 2 km from a mouth; birds were observed with 10x and 12x binoculars in good weather conditions from a distance of about 50 meters. Besides that, during field works, carried out by Author in previous decades, four records presumably of the Greater Spotted Eagles were noted. For some reasons (unfavorable conditions of observations, long distance, bad weather conditions, lack of proper optics, etc.) there is no confidence in the correct identification of observed individuals. However, we present the details of these records. In all cases solitary individuals were watched. First three records took place in Western Georgia – on the Black Sea coastal lowland and on Kolkheti Lowland or in the Black sea basin; only one time wintering Greater Spotted Eagle was recorded on Eastern Georgia, near border with Azerbaijan, i.e. in the Caspian Sea basin: - - on 7 January 1982 on wet coastal meadow about 1,5 км south of Sukhumi airport, Dranda village, Abkhazia; - - on 27 February 1985 on right side of lower part of Inguri River valley, 3 - 4 km from mouth; north-western part of Kolkheti Lowland, Samegrelo Region;

139 - - on 16 February 1999 on meadows between left bank of Rioni River and Narionali lakes, south-western part of Kolkheti Lowland, Guria Region; - - on 19 January 2001 on left bank of Mtkvari River near Gardabani Reserve, Eastern Georgia. Any connection between the winter records of Greater Spotted Eagle and the specific weather conditions (air temperature, the presence of snow cover, winter storms, directions of winds, etc.) are not revealed. In addition to above-listed observations, there were a few records of these raptors in early spring (at the beginning of March) and in late autumn (at the end of November), but it is not excluded, that these solitary individuals were the most early spring and late autumn transit migrants. So, summarizing above mentioned, we can assume that at western part of Kolkheti Lowland, formed a new wintering ground of Greater Spotted Eagle, where during last 15-30 years, small group of these eagles winters and it was consisted of several individuals. It is encouraging that the birds spend the winter in a protected area - on wetlands of western part of Kolkheti Lowland within the limits of Kolkheti National Park (total area 28,571 hectares). Threats: Shooting by poachers is a threat during seasonal movements through Georgia. At least five cases of illegal shooting were noted within the limits of country during collecting of data in 1973 - 2012. Five cases were recorded during autumn passages and one case in spring. Conservation status: SPEC1; BERNA II; BONN I; CITES II; IUCN Red List category – VU (Vulnerable). Red List of Georgia – VU.

26. Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis Hodgson, 1833 Subspecies Aquila nipalensis orientalis occurs in Georgia Georgian name: ველის არწივი [velis artsivi] The Steppe Eagle breeds in Eurasia from southwest and south-central areas of European part of Russia east to Central Asia, southwestern Siberia, eastern Kazakhstan, Mongolia Tibet and northwestern China. Formerly nested in Rumania, Moldova and Ukraine, but extinct in those countries. Last nest in Ukraine was found in 1981 in Askania Nova Reserve. The European and Central Asian birds winter in Africa, eastern populations in India. The global population is estimated to number > ca.10000 individuals (Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001; Forsman, 1999; del Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal, 1994; Mebs & Schmidt 2006). The eastern race Aquila nipalensis nipalensis is larger and darker than the European and central Asian birds Aquila nipalensis orientalis.

140 Status of presence: The Steppe Eagle is uncommon passage migrant and irregular rare winter visitor in small numbers. Species is more widespread and common in Eastern Georgia. During transit recorded in various open habitats – in semi-deserts, at tree-less plateaus, in mountain steppes of Javakheti Upland, in valleys of large rivers in eastern part of country Mtkvari, Alazani, Iori, Khrami, Tergi, Aragvi rivers, rarely recorded in Western Georgia along the Black Sea coast, at Kolkheti Lowland and in valleys of large rivers. Sporadically in small numbers winters in arid habitats in south- eastern Georgia, mainly in semi-deserts and at table-lands. Distribution and habitats: Tree-less areas at lowlands, plains and table-lands, in semi-deserts, mountain steppes, pastures, cultivated fields and other open habitats. Seasonal movements: Widespread on passages and seen in wide range of habitats from the Black Sea coastland in West to Alazani River valley in East, but prefers open and semi-open habitats. Spring passage starts in late February and continues into middle of April, with a peak in the middle of March. First solitary migrating individuals, flying to northern directions, were observed from February 27 to March 5 in SE Georgia - in Alazani River valley, Kakheti Region and Khrami River valley, Lower Kartli Region. The last transients were watched from April 15 to 22 at the Jvari Pass and in some other sites in highlands of the Great Caucasus. At least 4/5 of passage visitors crossed territory of Georgia between March 10 and 25. Most of migrants in spring concentrated in semi-deserts and in tree-less uplands, foothills, plains and lowlands in eastern part of country, i.e. in the Caspian Sea basin. The maximum total spring count was 1914 individuals, or 1.393% of total number of counted raptors, with the maximum day count of 102+ individuals on April 11 (counts were carried out from March 16 to May 4 1975 from the constant count-site, located on the top of hill at 1730 meters above the sea level, between Paskia Lake, Diliska village and Akhalkalaki town, west of Paravani River canyon, Lesser Caucasus, Samtskhe-Djavakheti Region). In the Black Sea basin the highest count was 474+ individuals, or 0.573% of total counted raptors (counts were carried out from 2 count-sites from March 19 to 30 (at coastal lowland near Chorokhi River mouth) and from April 4 to 18, 1990 (at slope of hill, about 300 meters above sea-level near Khutsubani village in Kintrishi River valley) in Ajaria. Autumn transit occur mostly in open and semi-open arid landscapes of Eastern Georgia, more often at Iori Table-land, along the valleys of Alazani, Iori, Mtkvari and Khrami rivers in Tsalka Hollow and at Javakheti Upland , rarely in valleys of Tergi, Aragvi and Liakhvi rivers, at passes of Great Caucasus.

141 In general, autumn transit across territory of Georgia lasts from middle of August to the early November, with a peak in a first half of October. First records of transients arrive at the passes of Great Caucasus, at the Black Sea coastlands, Kolkheti Lowland, semi-deserts in SE Georgia and in mountain steppes of Lesser Caucasus were between August 12 and 20; last solitary transients were met in southeastern semi-deserts in the end of November. The dates of autumn transit in mountain steppes at Djavakheti Upland and in Tsalka Hollow are some shorter than in semi–deserts in SE part of country – passage visitors were watched here from mid-August till mid-October, with last migrants recorded in the end of October. The similar dates of passages were noted in Azerbaijan (Butiev et al., 1989; Gazanchian, Mustafaev, 1968; Patrikeev, 2004; Shelton, 2001; Vinogradov, Tcherniavskaya, 1965) and in Armenia (Adamian, Klem, 1999). During the last four decades, the number of Steppe Eagle migrating across Georgia seriously decreased, especially after early 1990’s, but the timing is more-or-less stable from year to year. The number of Steppe Eagles migrating through Georgia in the previous decades was estimated at 4000-7000 in spring and 6000-10000 in autumn in 1970’s, at 3000- 5000 in spring and 5000-8000 in autumn in 1980’s, at 2000-3000 in spring and 3000-5000 in autumn in 1990’s. There are no data on total number of individuals crossed territory of country, but in Author’s opinion, the number of spring migrants decreased during last decade up to 1000-2000 and in autumn - up to 2000-3000 individuals. For the better understanding of changes, recommend counts along fly-ways in eastern parts of country. Threats: At least 61 cases of mortality were recorded during study. In 57 cases reasons were identified. Illegal killing by poachers was the main reason - 43 individuals were shot by poachers – 37 during autumn passages, 2 during spring passages and 4 in winter. Cases of poaching were noted in open arid habitats in Eastern Georgia at Iori Table-land and Alazani River valley (23 cases), at Kolkheti Lowland (n = 2), in Abkhazia (n = 1), Ajaria (n = 3), Guria (n = 2), in Tsalka Hollow (n = 5) and at Djavakheti Upland (n = 3) and some other areas (n = 8). In 1975, 1979, 1980 and 1985 at least five cases of mortality due to poisoning from chemicals (rodenticides) were recorded in semi-deserts of south-eastern part of country – four during autumn passages and one in winter. One died individual was found on garbage damp near Marneuli town, in south-eastern Georgia and, probably, poisoning was reason of mortality. Besides that, the Steppe Eagles frequently electrocuted on transmission power lines, seven cases were noted in open landscapes of Eastern Georgia in March 1976, August 1976, March 1977, September 1980; October 1983, March 1989 and

142 November 1991. One died individual due of collision with transmission power line was found in October 1990 at Udabno Ridge, but probably collisions with power lines as well as electrocution is more widespread and serious problem, than collected data suggested. Conservation status: CITES II; The Steppe Eagle’s current IUCN/BirdLife status is - Least Concern (LC). Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk. The species was under legal protection in Georgia from early 1970’s and was including in the first edition of Red Data Book of the Georgia since 1982.

27. Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca Subspecies: Monotypic, no subspecies Georgian name: ბეგობის არწივი [begobis artsivi] The Eastern Imperial Eagle breeds in central and south-eastern Europe (Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria Hungary, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Serbia, Croatia, Romania) through Ukraine, European Russia east to western Siberia, Transbaikalia, Kazakhstan, Central Asia, northern Pakistan, Mongolia, India, and eastern China, south to Turkey and the Caucasus. Probably extinct as a breeding species in Greece and Moldova. Status of presence: The Eastern Imperial Eagle is rare year-round resident with local seasonal movements, very rare passage migrant and winter visitor to Georgia. Distribution and habitats: At the present, the Imperial Eagle breeds in the southeastern parts of Georgia, i.e. in the Caspian Sea basin. During breeding period it has occurs in Mtkvari River, Alazani River, Iori River, and Khrami River valleys, at Iori Plateau, at eastern edge and, probably at northern macro-slope of Trialethi Ridge and in adjacent parts of Lesser Caucasus. The total area of breeding habitats of Imperial Eagle in Georgia comprises about 5500-6000 sq. km or 8.0 -8.5 per cent from the total area of the country. The vertical limits of the breeding distribution are from 200 to 1100 meters above sea level. Single birds have also been recorded at a higher level, up to pre-alpine and alpine meadows up to 3,000 m above sea level, but they undoubtedly have been non-breeding, nomad individuals. It is without doubt that not in the past, not in the present the Imperial Eagle has ever been breeding at the Black Sea coastal lowlands and in floodplains of rivers in Western Georgia. Inhabits open and semi-open habitats, arid woodlands on lowlands, table-lands, foothills, low mountains, semi-deserts, recorded in cultivated fields, pastures. Nests in the central part of the Southern Caucasus were found in the following habitats:

143 - - mature riparian forests in flood-lands of large rivers in Eastern Georgia - Mtkvari, Alazani, Iori, and Khrami. Characteristics to the biotope are the many-tier forests, so-called "tugai thickets" (poplar, asp, willow, blackberry, sea buckthorn, granate, liana and other typical trees and bushes for the central part of Southern Caucasus, 250-300 meters above the sea level. On the riverbanks the brush- woods are reeds areas can be often met. In these areas the marshy territories and small freshwater lakes could be found. The rivers often form fluvial systems, where little islands are being formed, which places are the most preferable nesting places for the Imperial Eagle; - - arid woodlands in semi-deserts with scattered junipers, pistachio- trees, granates, etc., in vertical limits 300-500 m above the sea level; - - table-lands with rocky outcrops and arid vegetation, at heights 400- 700 m above the sea level; - - mature forests in the low and middle mountain belts, 600-1100 meters above the sea level, with areas consisting of precipices, rocks, cliffs of rocky slopes, but also of meadow and large glades. Post-breeding nomadic movements are occurring in the open landscapes as well in lower altitudinal belts (semi-deserts, steps, plateau), as in mountain steppes, pre-alpine and alpine meadows up to 3500 meters above the sea level. Population size: In the late 1970’s from 5 to 10 occupied territories were recorded every year in SE Georgia (Abuladze, 1985e). Probably 1 or 2 breeding pairs appeared not to be taken into account in the thick forests along border with Azerbaijan. Besides the breeding ones, about 10-12 non-breeding individuals have occurred in the open landscapes (mountain steppes, semi-deserts, subalpine meadows) of eastern ulpart of Georgia in summer period. The Georgian breeding population was estimated at 7-11 pairs in the middle of 1980’s. Moderate increase was recorded in the end of the 1980s, 15-20 pairs were estimated to breed in Georgia in 1990’s and 30-35 pairs in 2001-2006 (Abuladze, 2008a). The present breeding population (2005-2012) has been estimated at perhaps 35-40 breeding pairs. In the Western Azerbaijan (territory co-relying with South-Eastern Georgia) in the Kura river flood-land's forests, semi-deserts and low mountains Imperial Eagle's population has been estimated about 25 pairs for the period 1985-1991. The nesting territories of 2 pairs (in 1988) and of 3 pairs (in 1990) of Imperial Eagle were found in northern districts of Armenia, along the border with Georgia.

144 Breeding biology: The data on the regional patterns of breeding biology in the Southern Caucasus (in Georgia and Azerbaijan) were collected in 1980’s and the results were published (Abuladze, 1996b). Arrival to nesting habitats in the study area has been registered in last days of March - first days of April, the extreme dates cover a more wide range - from March 9 to April 6. Soon after the arrival to the nesting habitats, usually during the first week of April, the eagles start to repair old or construct the new nests. At the same time the copulation takes place (March 27, 31, April 1, 6, 8, 9, 12). 28 active nests were found in 1981-1991 in eastern part of Georgia and in adjacent part of Western Azerbaijan. All nests-sites were controlled in order to determine main patterns of breeding biology, breeding success and diet. Additionally, 11 active nests were found in 1996-2012 in Georgia and data were collected. 37 nests were situated in trees, mostly in poplars, 1 was on the pylon of high-voltage transmission power line and 1 nest was situated in semi-open niche at cliff ledge at height about 40 m above ground. More detailed description of nests is given in Table 27-2.

Table 27-2. Nest data of Imperial Eagle in Georgia and Western Azerbaijan Nest-tree Location of nest in Height above ground, Number tree meters of nests

top crown branch <10 10-15 15-20 20+ N % Poplars, - 15 3 4 8 6 18 46.1 Populus spp. Junipers, 9 - - 8 1 - - 9 23.0 Juniperus spp. Eldarica Pine, 6 1 - 2 5 - - 7 17.9 Pinus eldaricus Pistachio-tree, - 1 - 1 - - - 1 2.6 Pistacia mutica Yew-tree, - 1 - - 1 - - 1 2.6 Taxus baccata Beech - 1 - - - 1 - 1 2.6 Nests in trees 15 19 3 11 11 9 6 37 94.8 Nest on rock 1 2.6 Nest on pylon 1 2.6 Total, nests: 39 100.0 As it can be seen from the Table 27-2, the Imperial Eagles in central part of South Caucasus build nests in trees of at least six species. For nesting these raptors prefers mature (40-70 and more years) trees. More frequently the nests are constructed on the poplars (18 nests), more seldom on junipers (n = 9) and pines (n = 7). Only for 3 nests these 145 eagles selected other tree species -Yew-tree, Pistachio-tree and Oriental Beech. Usually, nests are located in the upper part of the crown, more seldom on the very top (junipers and pines) or on the large branches. The height of the nests from the ground is seriously varying, depending on the tree species. The minimum height of the known nests was 6.6 m, this nest was located at top of very old semi-dry juniper. The highest nest was found at 22.5-23.0 m on White Poplar, Populus alba. The nest, situated in a niche on a cliff, was at about the height of 40 m. Nests are sometimes used during many years, for maximum 5 years. Some pairs have at the same nesting territory another nest. As a rule, it is an old nest, occupied in previous years. Size and construction of the nest is very diverse and depends on the age of the nest and the nest-tree species. The sizes of the measured in Southern Caucasus nests (n = 33) were are as following: outer diameter - 105-175 cm, height - 40-100 cm, diameter of the cup - 45-75 cm ant depth of cup - 5 cm. Nests are always covered by fresh green sticks and leaves of poplar, pine or juniper, sometimes hair of animals may be recorded in cup. The eggs are laid from the late March to middle of April, mostly between April 5 and 10. The earliest egg-laying dates recorded were March 28 (at Bozdag Ridge, Western Azerbaijan) and March, 30, April 2 (at Iori Table-land) and April 8 (at eastern edge of Trialeti Ridge). The latest egg-laying dates recorded were 23 April (in Khrami River valley). Out of 28 known complete clutches of Imperial Eagle in Georgia and Azerbaijan, 25 (or about 89.3 %) had two eggs and 3 clutches (10.7 %) had three eggs, with a mean of 2.11 eggs. The data on sizes of 22 measured eggs from 10 clutches (8 clutches of 2 eggs and 2 clutches with 3 eggs) and weight of 11 eggs from 5 clutches (4 clutches with 2 eggs and one clutch with three eggs) are presented in Table 27-3. Hatching has been registered in the three monitored nests: 1). May 19 and May 22, 1986; 2). May 22, May 25 and May 27, 1988; 3). May 16 and May 20, 2004. Fledging has been observed in the second half of July – mid-August, typically in late July; the extreme dates were July 16 – August 21. The young very often have been observed near the nest-sites during 2-3 weeks after fledging and sometimes they returned into nests. From the end of August, it is more common, that the adults with young eagles move to the open landscapes - to subalpine meadows, mountain steppes and semi-deserts. These areas have a better food resource and the Imperial Eagles remain there for a long period, which depends on the climate conditions. In these habitats they stay until autumn migration.

146 The breeding success and productivity of Imperial Eagle in region have been monitored since 1984 till 1991. The total number of checked territories controlled each breeding season ranged from 4 to 11 and occupied territories from 4 to 9. Main parameters of the species breeding success in local populations are shown in Table 27-3. Breeding success is similar to indices of other Caucasian populations (Horvat et al., 2011; Nikitina, 1991). Table 27-3. Eggs data of Imperial Eagles eggs in central part of Southern Caucasus

Number Sizes (mm) and weight (g) of of clutch eggs Dates and areas -eggs length width weight I-1 72.1 59.0 - April 23, 1984; I-2 71.5 58.2 - Udabno Ridge II-1 73.0 59.0 144.4 April 19, 1985; slope of Mt. II-2 71.7 58.0 132.3 Shavimta, Alazani valley III-1 71.9 56.8 - May 2, 1985; central part of Iori III-2 71.5 56.5 - Table-land IV-1 72.8 58.0 - April 28, 1986; Mt. Asanauri, IV-2 72.0 57.8 - Alazani River valley V-1 73.1 57.9 142.0 April 24, 1987; Bozdag Ridge, V-2 72.2 57.1 134.7 Azerbaijan VI-1 73.0 57.7 - April 29, 1988; VI-2 72.3 57.0 - Iori River valley, Korugi VI-3 72.2 56.8 - Managed Reserve VII-1 73.0 56.9 136.5 May 6, 1989; VII-2 72.5 56.9 134.0 Iori River valley, Chachuna VII-3 71.8 56.5 129.0 Managed Reserve VIII-1 73.0 58.3 141.0 May 9, 1989; eastern edge of Iori VIII-2 72.3 58.0 137.5 Table-land IX-1 72.5 57.0 138.3 May 1, 1990; IX-2 72.1 57.0 135.1 Kaladara, Shiraki steppe X-1 73.0 58.0 - April 25, 1998; X-2 71.3 56.5 - Iori River valley Min 71.3 56.5 129.3 X Max 73.0 59.0 144.4 X Average 72.31 57.50 136.82 X n =22 n =22 n = 11

147

Table 27-3. Indices of effectiveness in Imperial Eagle breeding in central part of Southern Caucasus in 1984 - 1991

Years Indices 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 A Checked territories 4 7 6 8 8 11 9 8 B Occupied territories (with pairs) 4 6 6 7 7 9 7 7 C Territories with eggs 3 5 6 7 6 9 7 6 D Number of successful nesting 3 4 4 6 5 7 6 5 E Number of unsuccessful nesting 0 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 F Percentage of successful nesting (D/C) 100 80.0 66.7 85.7 83.3 77.8 85.7 83.3 G Number of young capable of flying 5 6 3 8 6 7 9 5 H Number of young capable of flying/ successful nesting (G/D) 1.67 1.50 0.75 1.33 1.20 1.00 1.50 1.00 I Number of young capable of flying/ occupied territory (G/B) 1.25 1.00 0.50 1.14 0.86 0.78 1.29 0.72 J Number of young capable of flying/established nesting (G/C) 1.67 1.20 0.50 1.14 1.00 0.78 1.29 0.83 K Territories with no activity 0 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 L No data 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

148 Diet: During my work I have had no special investigation on the habits of Imperial Eagles feeding, but some patterns of the trophic ralations have been studied in the period of feeding the young. Food habits were studied by pellets analysis, identification of prey remains and direct observation near nests and on the hunting territories of pairs. Pellets and prey remains were collected and defined on the nests, under and around the nesting trees. Data were collected from 11 nests during 1984-1991 in flood-lands of Mtkvari River and Iori River in Eastern Georgia and co-relying districts of Azerbaijan (see Table 5).It was found that mammals were the most important prey in the composition of the Imperial Eagles diet - about 56 per cent from total number of prey. In the central parts of Southern Caucasus this raptor feeds also on carrion, more often on carcasses of sheep (over 20 observations). For adult eagles were recorded seasonal changes in the diet. During breeding season and in autumn carrion is occasional food, but for wintering eagles feeding on carrion is more-or-less common appearance, that was confirmed but several visual observations. Seasonal movements: Seasonal migrations have not correlation with any certain habitats, transit has diffusive character, but always open areas are preferred. In autumn the Imperial Eagle can be met and in uncommon habitats for this species also, for instance, on the wetlands of Kolkheti lowland and on the shore of the Black Sea. The number of Imperial Eagles migrating through Georgia in the previous decades (in 1970’s-1980-s) was estimated at 150-250 (in 1970’s-1980’s), 250-400 (in 1990’s) individuals and increased up to 300-500, probably some more at present (in 2005-2012). The autumn transit take place from the middle of September till the end of October with a more-or-less visible peak in the middle of October, but last migrating individuals were met in south-eastern areas in the first decade of November. Wintering: Wintering areas of the Imperial Eagles are situated in the semi-desert zone of the Georgia in the extreme southeast parts of country. From 20 to 40 birds were annually wintering during last two decades in snow-free areas of Georgia, usually in semi-deserts, table-lands, foothills and low mountains of south-eastern parts of country, occasionally in some other areas. Solitary individuals were recorded in winter at Kvernaki Ridge, Shida Kartli Region and in Kvirila River valley in eastern part of Kolkheti Lowland, Imereti Region.

149 Table 27-4. Data on the prey composition of Imperial Eagle in Southern Caucasus Number Identified prey species 1984-1991 1996-2012 N % N % European Hair, Lepus europeus 9 2.64 6 4.35 Hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus L. - - 7 5.07 Wood Mouse, Apodemus silvaticus 11 3.23 3 2.17 House Mouse, Mus musculus 20 5.86 2 1.45 Unidentified mice, Mus spp. 34 9.97 12 6.69 Common Vole, Microtus arvalis 2 0.59 - - Social Vole, Microtus socialis 51 14.96 - - Unidentified voles, Microtus spp. 7 2.05 19 13.77 Brandt’s Hamster, Mesocricetus bradti 4 1.17 - - Grey Hamster, Cricetulus migratorius 1 0.29 - - Libian Jird, Meriones libicus 29 8.50 6 4.35 Unidentified rats, Rattus spp. - - 5 3.62 Unidentified small rodents 24 7.04 8 5.80 Unidentified small mammals - - 3 2.17 Mammals, total 192 56.30 71 51.45 Pheasant, chick, Phasianus kolhicus, juvenile 3 0.88 - - Chukar, chick, Alectoris chukar, juveniles 9 2.64 - - Quail, Coturnix coturnix 1 0.29 - - Domestic Hen, Gallus domesticus 1 0.29 3 2.17 Feral Pigeon, Columba livia domestica - - 5 3.62 Common Starling, Sturnus vulgaris - - 1 0.72 Hooded Crow, Corvus cornix, juveniles 14 4.11 5 3.62 Magpie, young, Pica pica, juveniles 6 1.76 1 0.72 Unidentified larks, Alaudidae spp. 3 0.88 - - Small passerines, Passeriformes spp. 11 3.23 4 2.90 Unidentified birds, Aves spp. - - 2 1.45 Birds, total 48 14.18 21 15.22 Caucasian Agama 32 9.38 11 7.97 Five-streaked Lizard, Lacerta strigata 3 0.88 - - Rock Lizard, Lacerta saxicola 8 2.35 - - Three-lined Lizard, Lacerta trilineata 9 2.64 - - Unidentified lizards, Lacerta spp. 38 11.14 10 7.25 European Legless Lizard, Ophisaurus apodus 3 0.88 14 10.14 Mediterranean Turtle, Testudo graeca 6 1.76 8 5.80 Unidentifed rat snakes, Coluber spp. 2 0.59 3 2.17 Reptiles, total 101 29.62 46 33.33 Total: 341 100.0 138 100.0 Threats and limiting factors: At the present, without any doubt, the main factor for Imperial Eagle as for all other large raptors, is the destruction of nesting habitats in Transcaucasia. In the first place, it 150 concerns riparian woodlands in SE Georgia, mature dense “tugai”-type forests in flood-lands of large rivers, around lakes, relict arid woodlands. Among the most destructive impacts the creation of reservoirs could be mentioned. Hence, in Iori River valley, on the territory of Chachuna Game Reserve, in 1985-1988 2 pairs of Imperial Eagle were breeding. In 1988, a reservoir was created there, because of which the next year no birds were breeding there any more. However, the Imperial Eagle could find nesting trees near the co-relying slopes. Still, in other cases that might not happen. Besides this basic limiting factor, the high level of human disturbance has the important role. Sometimes, Corvidae bird species can perish clutches of the Imperial Eagle (two cases were registered during monitoring works). Several cases of the illegal shooting were recorded in Georgia and in adjacent part of Western Azerbaijan. One fledged young was died due electrocution on the electric-power line and one adult wintering Imperial Eagle has been poisoned on the bait. Conservation status: BONN I; CITES I; I Status IUCN/BirdLife - Vulnerable (VU); Status Global Raptor Information Network - VulnerableUCN Europe – VU (Vulnerable); Red List of Georgia – VU. The Imperial Eagle was under legal protection in Georgia since 1973 and was including in the first edition of the "Red Data Book of the Georgian SSR" in 1982.

28. Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos Subspecies Aquila chrysaetos homeyeri occurs in Georgia Georgian name: მთის არწივი [mthis artsivi] The Golden Eagle has one of the largest distributions of all eagles. Currently five or six subspecies recognized, including two subspecies in Europe. Subspecies Aquila chrysaetos chrysaetos breeds in most of the Europe east to Siberia and Aquila chrysaetos homeyeri occurs in the northwestern Africa, Iberian Peninsula, some large Mediterranean islands east through Egypt, Middle East and Arabia to the Caucasus and Iran. Status of presence: Year-round resident with a local seasonal movements in lower located altitudinal belts, mostly in winter. Distribution: The Golden Eagle breeds at the territory of Georgia in mountain areas at Great Caucasus and Lesser Caucasus. The breeding distribution at Great Caucasus covers macro-slopes of the Main Caucasian Ridge and its spurs - Gagra, Bzipi, Chkhaltha, Kodori, Svaneti, Egrisi, Germukhi, Racha, Kharuli, Alevi, Mthiuleti, Gudamakari, Karthli, Kakheti ridges; at Lesser Caucasus species breeds at Meskheti Ridge and in spurs, at Shavsheti Ridge, Erusheti Upland, sporadically in some sites in northern part of Kikhi Ridge and in western

151 part of Trialeti Ridge (Abuladze & Shergalin, 2002; Kutubidze 1985; Zhordania 1962). Habitats: The Golden Eagle in Georgia, as well as in the whole Caucasus, inhabits the altitudinal belt of mountain forests, pre-alpine and alpine meadows. For breeding prefers upper belts of mountain forests, deep gorges. The watershed areas of ridges and upper belts of mountain slopes along valleys of large rivers, separated by lateral valleys and covered by old forests are the preferred breeding habitats. Such breeding habitats contain areas of strong physical relief and are typically adjacent to open areas - large glades, pre-alpine and alpine meadows, alternating with rocky massifs and crossed by streams. Breeding sites are usually inaccessible to people. The altitudinal limits of breeding distribution ranges from 700 to 3200 meters above sea-level. The upper altitudinal limit of breeding is 2400 meters above sea-level, more often around 1900 m. Hunting territories are located in pre-alpine meadows, along the upper limit of the montane forest and typically the Golden Eagles use areas with high densities of Galliformes and other prey. Population size: The Georgian population is estimated at least 30 breeding pairs, which are occurred in mountain forests of the Main Caucasian Ridge, its spurs and in highlands of the Lesser Caucasus. It is not excluded, that total number of breeding pairs probably slowly increased and at present is estimated at up to 35-40. In Eastern Georgia (at southern macro-slopes of Great Caucasia) about 20 pairs are estimated. During our researches in 1970's-1980's no certain significant changes were recorded in species status, numbers of breeding pairs were stable and varied within the limits of 22-30 breeding pairs (22-25 pairs in the late 1970’s-1980’s and 25-30 pairs in 1990’s). It should be mentioned, that based on results of our censuses in the late 1990’s-2011, some population increase was observed during last years at macro- slopes of Great Caucasus in central part, at watershed area in southern part of Meskheti Ridge and in highlands along the Georgia – Turkey border in Upper Ajaria. In our opinion, it may be attributed to the sharp decline of the human activity level (forest devastation, heavy grazing, construction of roads, recreational pressure) in 1990's. Unfortunately, the total number is unknown, because there is no recent data on the situation with the Golden Eagle in some regions of country - in Abkhazia and South Ossetia. There are no data on the present total Caucasian population of Golden Eagle, 220-225 pairs were in the 1980’s – 1990’s (Abuladze 1997, Abuladze, Shergalin, Rostiashvili, Eligulashvili, 1998; Abuladze & Shergalin, 2002). In the North Caucasus at least 125 pairs were in 1990’s and 75-100 breeding pairs were in South Caucasus. No change in the breeding distribution and numbers has been detected in 1970’s-

152 1990’s and the Caucasian population of the Golden Eagle in general was stable, without any marked trends. Breeding biology: The Golden Eagles in the study area are resident and territorial, and nesting areas are used for many years in succession. Each pair has several nests (up to 4), usually situated within a relatively restricted area. Nests are used in turn, sometimes with intervals of several years between occupations. Pairs appear at nesting sites in the late February - early March. Courtship display flights (54 observations) were recorded during the period from February 26 to March 19. Repair of old nests or building of new nests also occurs at this time. Nests are situated on extremely inaccessible cliffs often in the upper parts of vertical rocks, cliffs in gorges, on rocky ridges, on walls of canyons in the forest belt of mountains, or a little higher at the upper limit of the forest. Nests are built on shelves under ledges, small caves and niches, in cracks, etc. In the foothill regions of the Stavropol area birds usually place their nests on rock outcrops, using juniper shrubs (Juniperus sp.) to support the base of the nest (Tel'pov et al. 1988). We did not record nests in trees, and there is no mention of nesting in trees in the available literature for the region. All nests occurred between 920 and 2400 meters above sea- level, most (31 of 39 nests) were located between 1400 and 1800 meters above sea-level. The direction of exposure was usually toward the southeast or east (SE - 19 nests, E - 9, SW - 4, S - 2, SSW - 1, W - 1, NW - 1, NNE - 1). The outer diameter of nests were from 110 cm 185 cm, inner diameter – from 50x70 cm to 60x90 cm, height – from 30 to 70 cm and depth of cup – from 5 to 15 cm. Typically the basic material of the nest is dry branches of various lengths and with a thickness of 5- 20 mm. The nest cup is lined with dry grass and sheep wool. Occupied nests typically are decorated with fresh coniferous twigs. Copulation was recorded on 28 February, 3 and 7 March. Eggs were laid in the second half of March (from 19 March to 3 April), mainly in the last ten days of March. Normally, full clutches have either one or two eggs. Among 41 monitored clutches, 6 (14.6%) contained one egg and 35 (85.4%) contained two eggs. In total, 41 clutches consisted of 76 eggs; the average clutch size being 1.85. The average size of ten measured eggs of six full clutches was 73.39x56.78 mm, ranging from 71.5 to 76.2 mm x 55.5-58.0 mm. The average weight of the seven eggs from four complete clutches being 122.17 g, ranged from 120.1 to 124.6 g. More detailed data on egg measurements (size and weight) are given in Table 28-1.

153 Table 28-1. Measurements of the Golden Eagle eggs in Georgia

Number of Sizes (mm) and weight (g) of eggs Location of nest and dates of measurements clutch eggs length width weight I-1 72.5 56.3 - March 24, 1978; Matsimi Gorge, Lagodekhi Reserve; 1840 m a.s.l. I-2 71.5 56.0 - II-1 74.3 57.5 124.0 April 2, 1982, Dariali gorge, Tergi River valley; 1480 m a.s.l. II-2 73.0 56.5 120.1 III-1 76.2 58.0 - April 19, 1984; Bzipi Ridge, Abkhazia; 1765 m a.s.l. IV-1 73.2 57.7 123.5 April 10, 1988, Lomisi Ridge, Aragvi River basin; 1910 m a.s.l. IV-2 72.0 55.8 121.2 V-1 75.5 57.0 120.8 April 7, 1990; vicinity of Sno, Tergi River valley; 1870 m a.s.l. VI-1 74.0 57.5 124.6 April 11, 1991; Mt. Khergianis Kvabiskhvi, Borjomi Reserve 71.7 55.5 121.0 Min 71.5 55.5 120.1 x Max 76.2 58.0 124.6 x Average 73.39 56.78 122.17 x n =10 n =10 n = 7

154 Table 28-2. Indices of effectiveness in Lesser Spotted Eagles breeding in Georgia Years Indices 1978 1981 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Checked territories 7 10 12 10 9 10 6 7 7 Occupied territories (with pairs) 5 10 11 10 9 8 6 6 7 Territories with eggs 5 9 11 9 8 7 5 6 5 Number of successful nesting 4 8 10 7 5 6 3 5 4 Number of unsuccessful nesting 1 1 1 2 3 1 2 1 1 Percentage of successful nesting (D/C) 80.0 88.9 90.9 77.8 62.5 85.7 60.0 83.3 80.0 Number of fledgings 4 6 7 5 4 5 3 5 4 Number of fledgings / successful nesting (G/D) 1.0 0.75 0.70 0.71 0.80 0.83 1.00 1.00 1.00 Number of fledgings / occupied territory (G/B) 0.80 0.60 0.64 0.50 0.44 0.63 0.50 0.83 0.57 Number of fledgings / established nesting (G/C) 0.80 0.67 0.64 0.56 0.50 0.71 0.60 0.83 0.80 Territories with no activity 2 0 1 0 0 2 0 1 0

155 The duration of incubation period in two monitored nests was is 44- 45 days. Hatching occurs in the first two weeks of May. Young hatched on May 5 - May 16 (n = 9). The young leave the nest in late July or early August. Fledgling date was as early as July 26 and as late as August 7 (n = 10). In all successful nests only one chick survived (N=43) The breeding success of the Golden Eagle has been documented over 16 years, from 1976 to 1991. Some results of breeding success are given in Table 28-2. Data on 78 nesting attempts are summarized in the table for 1978, 1981 and 1985-1991, when complete data on breeding success were collected. Besides our own material on 41 breeding attempts, unpublished data from our colleagues which was collected in different parts of Caucasus were also used. Our own data for analysis was collected mostly in western and central parts of the southern macro- slopes of Great Caucasus, in the territory of Georgia and in northwestern Azerbaijan. Throughout the study, the total number of breeding territories observed each breeding season ranged from 4 in 1976 to 12 in 1985. The average rate of successful nesting was 77.4%, varying from 60.0% to 90.9%. The average number of fledglings per successful nesting was 0.79 (range 0.7-1.0). The mean number of fledglings per occupied territory was 0.61 (range 0.44-0.83). The mean number of fledglings per nesting pair was 0.68 (range 0.5-0.83). Additional data were collected in Georgia in 1995-1997. In the eastern part of Great Caucasus, at least 5 breeding pairs reared 4 young in 1995; in Aragvi River and Tergi River basins and in Upper Ajaria in 1996, 4 breeding pairs reared 2 young and in 1997, 4 pairs reared 3 young. No major differences in success are evident when the 1970's, 1980's and 1990's are compared. Breeding pairs are very aggressive to nomadic non-breeding eagles that appear near occupied nests Diet: Diet was studied in detail in Great Caucasia in Georgia and North-Western Azerbaijan. The diet of the Caucasian population in general is quite typical for this raptor. It feeds mostly on medium sized mammals and birds. There are some regional differences that reflect the local availability of certain prey species. Altogether 189 prey items were analyzed; 88 (46.6%) were mammals (not less than 12 species) and 101 (53.4%) were birds (not less than 17 species). Dominant prey species were the European Hare (Lepus europaeus) - 12.7% and Galliformes - especially Caucasian Snow Cock (Tetraogallus caucasicus) - 16.4%, Caucasian Black Grouse (Tetrao mlokosiewiczi) - 12.7%, Chukar (Alectoris chukar) - 8.5%. Besides live prey, Golden Eagles actively feed on carrion especially in winter, including the remains of items killed by wolves, Canis lupus (Abuladze & Baratashvili, 1982). In all, 157 cases of feeding on carrion were recorded, for details see Table 28-3 and Table 28-4. The diet of the Golden Eagle in Georgia was similar to

156 that recorded in other regions of Caucasus. It should be noted that eight cases of klepto-parasitism were recorded on other eagles, and twice on Common Buzzards (Buteo buteo). Birds hunt at distances from 0.3 to 2.0 km, sometimes more, from the nest-sites. All known nest sites were located at lower altitudes than the hunting areas of the pairs. Probably, in mountainous areas this allowed the Golden Eagles easier transport of prey to nest-sites. We made 22 direct observations of feeding (to satiation) by eagles on carrion. Mean feeding time in these cases was 41.35 minutes, ranged from 18 minutes (on June 6, 1978, western slope of the Mt. Didi Borbalo, Great Caucasus) to 66 minutes (on July 28, 1980, eastern slope of Mt. Diklo, Great Caucasus). Marked variation in diet occurred between years and locations. The main causes for variation in diet were: a) annual variation in the numbers of prey; mainly this applies to rodents; b) seasonal variation in availability of prey influenced by factors such as timing of hibernation, timing of reproductive period, emergence of young rodents from burrows, fledgling, and migration behavior in birds; c) daily variation in prey availability caused by activity patterns of the prey species; d) influences of habitat on species composition, numbers and availability; e) influences of weather conditions on prey availability; f) differences between individual eagles or pairs. Table 28-3. Prey recorded from pellets and food remains of Golden Eagle, collected in Georgia in 1977-1999. Number Prey species N % Hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus 1 0.53 Unidentified shrews, Sorex spp. 3 1.59 European Hare, Lepus europaeus 23 12.17 Red Squirrel, Sciurus vulgaris 9 14.76 Caucasian Squirrel, Sciurus anomalus 1 0.53 Fat dormouse, Glis glis 2 1.06 Wood Mouse, Apodemus sylvaticus 7 3.70 Unidentified mice, Mus spp. 14 7.41 Unidentified small rodents 11 5.82 Chamois (young), Rupicapra rupicapra 1 0.53 Domestic Goat (young), Capra hircus 1 0.53 Common Marten, Martes martes 1 0.53 Stone Marten, Martes foina 2 1.06 Mammals, total 88 46.56 Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos 1 0.53 Caucasian Snow Cock, Tetraogallus caucasicus 31 16.40 Caucasian Black Grouse, Tetrao mlokosiewiczi 24 12.70 157 Number Prey species N % Chukar, Alectoris chukar (chick) 16 8.47 Quail, Coturnix coturnix 2 1.06 Domestic Hen, Gallus domesticus 2 1.06 Woodcock, Scolopax rusticola 2 1.06 Common Wood Pigeon, Columba palumbus 2 1.06 Tawny Owl, Strix aluco 1 0.53 Black Woodpecker, Dryocopus martius 1 0.53 Great Spotted Woodpecker, Dendrocopos major 1 0.53 Song Thrush, Turdus philomelos 1 0.53 Ring Ouzel, Turdus torquatus 3 1.59 Unidentified thrushes, Turdidae spp. 2 1.83 Eurasian Jay, Garrulus glandarius 1 0.53 Carrion Crow, Corvus corone 1 0.53 Yellow-billed Chough, CPyrrhocorax graculus 5 2.65 Unidentified corvids, Corvidae spp. 3 1.59 Unidentified small passerines, Passeriformes spp. 2 1.06 Unidentified birds, Aves spp. 4 1.79 Birds, total 101 53.44 Total number of prey: 189 100.00

Table 28-4. Animal species taken as carrion by Golden Eagles in the Caucasus Number of observations Carrion species N % Domestic sheep, Ovis dom. 77 49.04 Goat, Capra hircus 11 7.01 Cattle 15 9.55 Domestic pig, Sus scrofa dom. 7 4.46 Horse, Equus caballus 6 3.82 Donkey, E. asinus domesticus 2 1.27 Domestic dog, Canis familiaris 4 2.26 Domestic mammals, total 122 77.71 Caucasian red deer, Cervus elaphus 10 6.37 West Caucasian Goat, C. caucasica 2 1.27 East Caucasian Goat, C. cylindricornis 18 11.46 Chamois, Rupicapra rupicapra 1 0.64 European wild boar, Sus scrofa 2 1.27 Roe deer, Capreolus capreolus 1 0.64 Common fox, Vulpes vulpes 1 0.64 Wild mammals, total 1 0.64 In total: 157 100.00 Threats and Limiting Factors: The greatest impact on Golden Eagle populations in the region occurred during the 1940s-1960s. Increasing human disturbance, including the construction of public and forestry 158 roads in the highlands, the felling of native mountain forests, recreational pressure, and use of insecticides in forestry were all threats to eagles. In addition to these, the main problem was an organized campaign of extermination of birds of prey carried out in the former USSR, including Caucasia, before the middle of 1970's. This caused great damage to the local raptor population (Abuladze 1986; Abuladze & Shergalin, 2002; Abuladze et al., 2011d). Additional threats were the sharp decline of available food, mortality in traps and from poisoned baits, also various forms of human disturbance in breeding habitats. In the 1960s-1980s one of the major threats to the local population of Golden Eagle was human disturbance from recreational pressure, caused by tourists and alpinists. During these decades Caucasia was one of the most popular tourist areas in the former USSR. After 1991, and following the break up of the USSR, this factor has practically disappeared. At present the main threats to the species are similar to those of previous decades: illegal shooting, mortality in traps and from poisoned baits. Human disturbance has been largely absent from some areas in recent years. In addition, some new dangers now threaten the species. Prior to the 1990's extensive sheep-breeding was the most common form of stock-raising in Caucasia. Numerous flocks of sheep annually moved from winter pastures in steppe areas in the lowlands of Front-Caucasia to summer pastures in the alpine meadows of Great Caucasia. These sheep numbered in the millions, and were one of the main sources of food for large raptors, including Golden Eagles. At that time there were no state borders between the various Caucasian republics and, and the du jour administrative borders were crossed by shepherds who drove the sheep flocks to convenient pasturing places on the lowest passes of the Main Caucasian Ridge. Since 1992 free movement across these borders has become very difficult, and in many places impossible. Border constraints, new forms of human activity (prompted by land privatization), a developing economic crisis, together with the general social unrest and military events which have occurred during the last decade in some parts of Caucasia, have contributed to the end, in all practicality, of the traditional forms of pastoralism and livestock-rearing. In the last decade sheep numbers have dropped dramatically, leading to a reduction in the food resources for large raptors. In total, 39 cases of mortality of the Golden Eagles were recorded during the study period – 22 in Georgia, 12 in Northern Caucasus, 4 in Azerbaijan and 1 in Armenia. The main cause was illegal shooting. Unfortunately, in spite of the legal protection in all Caucasian countries, 17 cases of shooting (or about 43.6% of loss) were noted in 1973-2012. 14 eagles (35.9%) were caught in baited traps for predatory mammals (wolf, fox, jackal). Poisoned baits also create a serious danger, 8 cases of death (20.5%) were recorded. Distribution of all known causes of 159 death of adult eagles in Caucasia by season is as follows: 22 (56.4%) in winter, 10 (25.6%) during the breeding and 7 (18.0%) in the post- breeding period and in autumn. Egg loss occurred mostly as loss of whole clutches. Hatching failure was due to the protracted interruption in incubation during early stages of incubation, so that the eggs became chilled. Probably this was the result of disturbance at nests by man. In two cases Corvids robbed clutches, and one nest was robbed by man. Conservation status: SPEC 3, CEE 1, BERNA 2, BONN 2, CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC). Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk; Red List of Georgia – VU. The Golden Eagle was under legal protection in Georgia from the 1973 and was included in the 1st edition of the Red Data Book of Georgia published in 1982.

29. Bonelli's Eagle Hieraeetus fasciatus Subspecies Hieraeetus fasciatus fasciatus Vieillot, 1822 occurs in Georgia Georgian name: ქორისებრი არწივი [qorisebri artsivi] The Bonelli's Eagle occurs around the Mediterranean from Iberian Peninsula and NW Africa eastwards through SW Asia to Iran, Turkmenistan, Arabia, Oman, Afganistan, Pakistan, India, southern China. Subspecies Hieraeetus fasciatus fasciatus occurs over most of the species' range (Mebs & Schmidt 2006). Status of presence: The Bonelli's Eagle in Georgia, as well as in the Southern Caucasus, is extremely rare sporadically (or occasionally) breeding species and irregular (or occasional) passage visitor. This raptor species should be considered as one of the least known and insufficiently studied raptor species of the Avifauna of Georgia as well as of whole Southern Caucasus. Within the studied region this species has its northernmost limit of the breeding range (Abuladze, 1997; Abuladze, 2008a, 2006; Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005). The most of known records during breeding seasons were made in arid areas in the foothills, low mountains, table-lands and semi-deserts in the central parts of Southern Caucasus, in the Caspian Sea basin. Taking into account the status of Bonelli's Eagle in Georgia, all records should be thoroughly documented. Breeding biology: During the 40 years period of our research there were only two confirmed cases of nesting of Bonelli's Eagle in Georgia. These two cases were in the eastern part of the country in the Mtkvari River valley. Occupied nests were found at the left side of Mtkvari River 160 valley, at vertical rocks in central (1984) and western (1995) parts of the southern macro-slopes of Kvernaki Ridge. First nest was found on 26 June 1984. It was located at ledge of practically of precipitous rock at the slope of southern exposure and was located at the height of 65 to 70 meters above the ground and 12 to 15 meters lower the upper edge of the rock. Nest was a round-shaped construction built of dry twigs, with an outer diameter of about 1,5 m and the height of up to 1 m. On 26 June already well grown-up eaglets were seen near the nest; they were walking along the ledge and returning back to the nest. On 29 June, when we managed to visit the nest again, young birds were able to fly to the adjacent ledges 20 to 30 meters away from the nest, where they were still fed by parents. On 30 June and 1st and 2nd July we observed the young eagles flying along the rock for the distances of 100 to 150 meters. The family stayed altogether in the nest area till the end of July; later they moved to the plateau higher above the nest cliff. They were staying there till the end of August, but later we never saw them here again. The second nest of Bonelli’s Eagle in Georgia was discovered 11 years later in the same area – in 1995 at Kvernaki Ridge, Shida Kartli Region. This nest was found near western edge of Kvernaki Ridge, about 8 km from the first nest, which was occupied in 1984. During the second half of June adult birds were recorded several times in this area, and on the 4th of July we also spotted a fledged young bird; it was sitting at the ledge of the rock, and the adults were feeding him there. Later we found the nest-site nearby; it was located in a semi-open niche sheltered from the top by a massive shield. It is interesting that the height of the cliff at this site was only 30 to 35 meters, while in the neighborhood there were also higher, and therefore better protected open rock up to 50 - 70 meters high. In addition, the main profile was not a steep cliff or a negative slope, but the slope was only ca. 75-80 degrees. Nest construction was of a cylinder shape with an outer diameter of 1,2 – 1,3 meter and the height of about 1,5 meter. It should be mentioned, that this nest was known to the Author from 1973 and with some intervals it was occupied by a pair of Egyptian Vultures until 1981, and later in 1989 to 1991. The remains of the old Egyptian Vulture nest was used by Bonelli's Eagles as the basis for their nest. According to the information obtained from local people they saw these birds also one year earlier, in 1994, and the eagles then also bred in this nest. We visited the area in following years: every year during the breeding seasons – from 1997 to 2001 and later in 2006-2008, however neither pairs, nor the nests of Bonelli’s Eagle were observed. But, it should be noted, that according to information provided by ornithologist G. Edisherashvili, who lives in the town of Gori and who also carried out regular observations from the 1980’s in the Mtkvari River valley within the limits of Shida Kartli Region, including Kvernaki Ridge, a pair of 161 Bonelli’s Eagle was recorded several times in June and July 2005 in the western parts of Kvernaki Ridge. Despite a thorough search, the nest could not be found. Probably it was a non-breeding pair, which has not yet started to breed. Thus the two confirmed cases of breeding and more-or-less regular records of these eagles at the Kvernaki Ridge enables us to consider this area as the site of more-or-less regular breeding of Bonelli’s Eagle in Georgia. Besides that, in 1999 an attempt to nest was observed at the Trialeti Ridge in the spring-head of the Algeti River. A pair of Bonelli´s Eagles, building a nest in a cone-shaped niche of a vertical rock was found there in early May (4 to 6 May 1999). However when we visited this place once again on 11-12 May 1999 we could not find the birds there again, and the half-built nest was abandoned. It could be possible that the birds left that area because of the human disturbance – in 100-150 meters from the nest-site fresh tracks of a vehicle, a place of camp fire, a plastic bottle etc. were found. The possible breeding of the species in other regions up to now has not been verified. Diet: The Bonelli's Eagle takes large prey, more often on the ground, but sometimes in flight. Under and around the nests founded in 1984 and in 1995 at Kvernaki Ridge, pellets and prey remains were collected, in which 65 prey items were recorded. The pellet and remain analysis revealed a broad diet including birds, mammals and reptiles. Remains of birds, totally 44 specimen, prevailed: Chukar, Alectoris chukar (n = 2), Ouail, Coturnix coturnix (n = 5), Feral Pigeon, Columba livia dom. (n = 5),Common Magpie, Pica pica (n = 8, mostly young birds), Carrion Crow, Corvus corone (n = 7), Eurasian Hoopoe, Upupa epops (n = 1) , Blackbird, Turdus merula (n = 4), unidentified larks (n = 7), unidentified pipits, Anthus spp. (n = 2), Common Starling, Sturnus vulgaris (n = 1), unidentified small passerines (n = 5). Among prey remains of ten mammals, the following species were identified – European or Brown Hare, Lepus europeus (n = 2), unidentified rats, Rattus spp. (n = 4) and voles, Microtus spp. (n = 4). Reptiles were presented by remains of the 11 individuals – Caucasian Agama, Laudakia caucasia (n = 3), unidentified medium-sized lizards, Lacerta spp. (n = 7) and unidentified snake, Coluber spp. (n = 1). Hunting birds usually were observed in open habitats – over the flat areas of mountain ridges, at gentle slopes of hills, under rocks. Besides that, several times birds were observed in flood-land of Mtkvari River flying along the banks. Often, adults hunt in pairs, flying parallel courses in 20-50 meters of each other. Feeding of fledged young by adults was observed till mid-August.

162 In addition to listed records, the occurrence of the solitary, probably non-breeding, individuals of the Bonelli’s Eagle in Georgia has been confirmed during study from 1973 to 2012 by at least of 17 records in ten areas. 15 records were in Eastern Georgia, i.e. in the Caspian Sea basin and 2 times these raptors were watched in Western Georgia, i.e. in the Black sea basin. In 16 cases solitary individuals were watched and only one time two (probably pair) migrating birds were observed. Most of summer records were in dry open or semi-open habitats in south- eastern areas, especially in the belt of low semi-arid mountains with scattered small trees and bushes with a presence of rocky plots. All the known records were made in the following months/seasons of year: winter - 1 record (in February); spring – 5 records (2 in March, 2 in April and 1 in May); summer - 7 records (2 in June, 2 in July and 3 in August); autumn - 4 records (3 in September and 1 in October). The latest several records of Bonelli’s Eagle in Georgia were: - on 21 July 2001 about 1,5 km south of Tigmatishi Pass (2168 meters above sea level) in northern part of Djavakheti Ridge, Samtskhe- Djavakheti Region, Southern Georgia; - on 27 September 2006, 2 - 2,5 km south of Nadarbazevi Lake, Shida Kartli region; - on 20 March 2007 at the arid slope in close to Mtkvari River floodplain near eastern edge of Gori town, Shida Kartli Region; - on 12 September 2012 single was recorded flying at height about 70 – 80 m to western direction near Koda village, Lower Kartli Region. In all cases only solitary individuals were recorded during short periods, and when the spots were revisited in the following years no birds were found there again. In addition to listed records, these birds were observed twice in adjacent, with territory of Georgia, part of Western Azerbaijan - on the arid slopes of the right side of the Alazani River valley in its lower reaches, 4 km from the confluence of the Mingechaur reservoir (in early May 1985) and at northern slope in central part of Bozdag Ridge (in the mid-June 2005). In neighboring Azerbaijan solitary individuals were watched in Turianchai Reserve in 1987 or 1988 (information by E. Sultanov); pair was watched on 6 April 1991 (Patrikeev, 2004). In Armenia this raptor species was recorded in March 1989 by V.Belik near Gyumri (Belik, 1990). Despite this fact Bonnelli´s Eagle was not included in the most concise monograph on the Birds of Armenia (Adamian, Klem, 1999). This was, regretfully, overlooked by the authors, as the presence of Bonelli´s Eagle at the territory of Armenia is very likely indeed.

163 Taking into account the above mentioned, it can be concluded, that Bonelli’s Eagle should be considered as a very rare, irregular (or occasional) breeding species in Avifauna of South Caucasus and, in particular, on the territory of Georgia. Probably here the species occurs at the northern and western limits of its´ breeding range in Asia Minor. The analysis of known records shows that these eagles cleraly prefer arid and semi-arid landscapes of low- and middle mountain altitudinal belts in the central parts of South Caucasus. Practically all records of the Bonelli’s Eagle within the limits of Georgia and in adjacent regions of Western Azerbaijan during the breeding seasons were made in the habitats, that are typical for this species also in the other parts of its´ distribution range, i.e. in the valleys of large rivers of the Caspian sea basin, first of all in the middle part of the Mtkvari Rivier valley and in wider valley parts of the Mtkvari River tributaries – in the Iori River valley, the Alazani River valley and, probably, in the Khrami River valley, in dry, lesser wooded foothills, table-lands and low mountains where the slopes are intersected by deep ravines and canyons with a precipitous walls. Nests are located at the high vertical or terracing steep rocks with strongly eroded cliffs and niches suitable enough for nest construction. Seasonal movements: The record of two individuals on 22 April 2003 at left side of Choloki River valley near Tikori forest at eastern edge of Kobuleti Lowland in Ajaria, Western Georgia, the Black Sea basin is most interesting. On that day we made the surveys of migrating birds, and at 10:10 in the morning we saw two individuals flying towards north-eastern at the height of 30-40 meters above ground. The weather conditions for visual observations were favorable (sunny and still), birds were observed with a 10x50 binocular from a distance of 50-150 meters during 1,5-2 minutes. This record was first during spring transit at East Black Sea fly-way and first record of Bonelli’s Eagle in Western Georgia as well as to the Black Sea basin in Caucasus. All other known three records of Bonelli’s Eagle along East Black sea fly-ways were registered during autumn transit in north-eastern regions of Turkey: solitary individuals were counted in the middle of September 1978 (unpublished communication by A.Broom and PP.Doherty) and in September 1980 г. (unpublished report by P.Heathcote) – cited according by Kok, M & J.P.Ongenae, 1995). Two individuals of the Bonelli’s Eagle were recorded on 2 September 1988 near Borcha village in north-eastern part of Turkey, in area adjacent with Georgia, about 7 km from border of Georgia (Kirwan, Martins, 1994). Six years later, between 24 September and 5 October 1994, eight individuals were counted in the same site (Mrlik et. al. 1995). Threats and limiting factors: No factual data from Georgia and Southern Caucasus.

164 About 50% of all reported dead Bonelli's Eagles in Spain and France died because of electrocution. Besides that, these raptors are sometimes illegally shot or poisoned. Conservation status: SPEC 3; CEE 1; BERNA 2; BONN II; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC). Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk.

30. Booted Eagle Hieraeetus pennatus Subspecies Hieraeetus pennatus pennatus Gmelin 1778 occur in Georgia Georgian name: ჩია არწივი [chia artsivi] The Booted Eagle is species has a large range, with an estimated global extent of occurrence of 10,000,000 km2. It breeds from Southern and Eastern Europe and North Africa to southern parts of Central Asia, Iran, Himalayas and from the Altai Mountains to northern Mongolia and Trans-Baikal area; also breeds in northern India. A separate breeding population also exists in Namibia and South Africa. The eagle is typical long-distance migrant. Eurasian populations are migratory and winter in sub-Saharan Africa and India, including Sri-Lanka. Birds from European populations winter in Africa. It has a large global population estimated to be 10,000-100,000 individuals. This raptor species generally prefers mountainous country with cliffs, although non- breeding migrants can occur in almost any type of natural habitat (Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001; Gensbol, 2004; Mebs, Schmidt 2006). Status of presence: The Booted Eagle is widespread, but scarce migratory breeder to Georgia and widespread transit migrant across country. Distribution and habitats: In Georgia, as well as in other parts of South Caucasus, occurs in a wide variety of habitats. Inhabits riparian, foothill and mountain deciduous, mixed and coniferous woodlands intermixed with open and semi-open areas, large glades, flood-lands of rivers, valleys of streams. The most preferred breeding habitats are located in broad-leaved forests in foothills, and in deciduous and mixed forests with clearings in low- and middle-mountain altitudinal belts. Vertical limits of breeding distribution are from 150 to 1200 meters above the sea level, usually up to 800 meters above the sea level. During the post-breeding movements recorded in more open habitats, but avoids areas above upper tree-line - sub-alpine and alpine meadows and tree-less arid gentle slopes, semi-deserts. During seasonal passages recorded in various habitats – from Black sea coast and costal lowlands in Western Georgia and semi-deserts in south-eastern part of country up to highlands of Great Caucasus and Lesser Caucasus.

165 Population size: The present Georgian breeding population estimated approximately 75-100 pairs, probable a little more, and decreased during last thirty years. From 130 to 145 breeding pairs were counted in Georgia in the second half of 1970s’, 120-140 pairs were in 1980s’ and from 80 to 120 pairs were in 1990s’ (Abuladze, 1994; Abuladze, 2006; Abuladze, 2008a). Breeding biology: The Booted Eagle is monogamous species and typical territorial solitary tree-nester. Minimal distance recorded between breeding pairs was about 2 km, more often 4-5 km. Usually, birds arrive at the nesting territories already paired. Arrives at nests at Great Caucasus in early April, first observations were between 4th and 9th April. The nest is typically placed in the fork of a large branch near the trunk. 43 territories were identified and 11 nests were found during study - 10 in eastern areas and 2 in Western Georgia. Nests were located in the following trees: oaks – Georgian Oak (Quercus iberica) - 3 nests and Imeretian Oak (Quercus imeretina) - 1 nest, Oriental Beech (Fagus orientalis) - 3 nests, Caucasian Pine (Pinus kochiana) - 2 nests, European Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) - 1 nest and Ash (Fraxinus spp.) – 1 nest. Nests measurements were: outer diameter from 60 to 100 cm, inner diameter from 30 to 40 cm, height 40-45 cm, cup depth – about 10 cm. All nests were lined with a fresh green leaves. Egg-laying took place in last days of April - early May. During our study egg-laying was noted for three nests between 27 April and 7 May. Clutch size in four monitored nests was two eggs. In other parts of South Caucasus clutch may consist of 1-3 eggs (Adamian, Klem, 1999). Clutches are mainly incubated by the female for about 36-38 days, while the male feeds her at the nest. He may occasionally take over the incubating role so that the female can go and forage. Hatching in three nests was recorded between 6 and 12 June. The young leave the nest at about 50-55 days – in the late July. First flying juveniles were observed in Georgia in different years between 23 July and 2 August. Usually the young birds leave the breeding areas before their parents. Diet: The Booted Eagle has a broad diet. In Georgia it feeds mainly on small and medium sized birds. Various small mammals, mostly voles, and lizards are secondary components of diet. Besides that, large insects of various species are common prey. Most birds are taken on the ground. The phenological dates, patterns of breeding biology and prey composition of the Booted Eagles in Georgia are similar with other populations in Southern Caucasus (Adamian, Klem, 1999; Geilikman, 1959; Patrikeev, 2004) and Northern Caucasus (Il’yukh, 2002). Seasonal movements: The Booted Eagle is widespread and common visitor during seasonal migrations (Abuladze, Kandaurov, Eligulashvili, 2011; Cel’min’sh, Bergmanis, 1990; Paakinen, Rantanen, Rantanen, 166 1981; Sojamo, 1982; Sojamo, 1983; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011). This raptor species is more numerous during autumn passage. The seasonal passages of booted eagles are more intensive in Western Georgia, especially at Black Sea coastal lowlands and along Rioni River valley. Number of transients at East Black sea fly-way estimates up to 5000 - 6000 individuals per each autumn season and from 5000 to 8000 individuals in continental part of country, probably in some years more. The spring transit takes place from late March to late April with a peak in early April. The autumn transit observed from middle of August to end of October with a peak in middle of September. At least 3/4 of migrants crossed territory of Georgia between September 5 and 25. More detailed data on phonological patterns of spring and fall passages of the Booted Eagle across the territory of Georgia are presented in Table 30-1. Table 30-1. Seasonal migrations patterns of Booted Eagle in Georgia Number of counted individuals, in % Seasons Months Decades I II III March 0.25 9.47 28.77 Spring April 45.12 16.23 0.16 August - 0.29 3.42 Autumn September 14.03 54.10 24.12 October 2.87 1.12 0.07 November 0.01 - - Earliest passage visitors in autumn were observed at passes of Main Caucasian Ridge already on 10-12 August and 2-4 days later at Kolkheti Lowland, Black Sea coastlands, in valleys of large rivers and plains of Eastern Georgia. The last individuals leaving end of October, but in some years solitary Booted Eagles were recorded in early November at Kolkheti Lowland and at coastal lowlands in Guria and Ajaria. During the last 30 years, the number of migrating across Georgia Booted Eagles is more-or-less stable. Threats and limiting factors: Forestry operations and afforestation are the main threats to local breeding population. Besides that, increasing of human activities’ level in some parts of country due of construction of new motor-roads, rail-ways, hydro-electric power stations, dams, oil and gas pipelines, power-lines, access roads along pipelines and power-lines, creation of reservoirs, etc. should be considered as a major causes of disturbance. Illegal shooting is also a threat, especially during autumn passages at East Black Sea fly-way. 43 case of mortality were registered during study in 1974-2012, from which 38 cases were noted during fall 167 passages, 3 – during spring passages and 3 – during nesting. 39 individuals were killed by poachers, 2 were trapped and killed by falconers, in 2 cases birds died due of collisions with power lines and one individual died due electrocution. Conservation status: SPEC3; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk.

FAMILY: Falconidae - Falcons

31. Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni Subspecies: Monotypic, no subspecies Georgian name: ველის კირკიტა [veils kirkita] The Lesser Kestrel occurs in Europe and northern Asia between latitudes of 30 and 50 degrees North. In Europe breeds mostly around the Mediterranean and in the Black Sea. Outside of Europe occurs in North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia east to Mongolia, south- western Siberia and north-eastern China. The raptor is migratory, moving to sub-Saharan Africa during the winter. The Lesser Kestrel was a breeding species in the southern and eastern parts of Central Europe, the Caucasus, Middle East, but extinct as a breeding species in some areas and at present only seen as a rare passage visitor. Status of presence: Recently the Lesser Kestrel was quite common, though not numerous summer breeder and rare passage visitor to Georgia. Data on winter records should be considered as erroneous. Distribution, habitats and population size: Estimate the size of the breeding population of this bird within Georgia in the past is not possible. There are no published data on numbers and breeding distribution. The Georgian zoologists of older generation and the old- timers told us that in open areas of Eastern Georgia the species was "quite common" in the 1940’s-1950's. More specific evaluation does not exist. In 1970’s-1980’s this raptor was regularly breeding species in lowlands, foothills, low mountains, table-lands, semi-deserts in Eastern Georgia - in Shiraki, Eldari, and Udabno semi-deserts, and at Iori Table- land. Cases of irregular breeding were recorded in Lower Kartli, at Kvernaki Ridge, Gombori Ridge, and Iaghluja Ridge. The nests of the solitary breeding pairs were founded in valleys of rivers Khrami, Iori and Alazani, and in small temporary seasonal settlements (farms) in extremely SE part of country along border with Azerbaijan. Some earlier, in the 1960’s, this raptor was reported for vicinities of Tbilisi (Kutubidze, 1968). All known colonies and solitary nests were located within the altitudinal limits from 240 to 820 meters above sea level, usually up to 600 meters. Breeding habitats were confined to open, dry 168 landscapes at lowlands, table-lands, foothills and low mountains in eastern part of country, mostly in semi-deserts. Nesting colonies were attached to various constructions, usually sheep-folds. The total number of breeding pairs was in the middle of 1970's 750-800 pairs (Abuladze, 1985e), 600-700 pairs were in the first half of 1980's. The highest number was recorded in extreme SE Georgia, in Shiraki and Eldari semi-deserts, where in 1970's 23 colonies were found and from 410 to 440 pairs nested (414 in 1975; 433 in 1977). In Alazani River valley the number was considerably lesser - from 70 to 110 pairs in different years. In some other sites, particularly along Kura River valley (lower Rustavi town), in Udabno semidesert, on Kvernaki Ridge, in the eastern part of Gombori Ridge, in lower part of Khrami River valley birds nested irregularly, and size of colonies does not exceed 5 pairs. In this period the species status does not cause fears. Slow decline of Georgian population has begun approximately in the middle of 1980's. So, in 1981 in Georgia at least 580 pairs nested in 39 colonies, in 1983 - 611 in 42 colonies, in 1984 it was counted 536 pairs in 34 colonies. But in 1988 only 404 pairs were counted in 31 colonies. String degradation of local population was happened in 1989, when 117 pairs were counted in 19 colonies. Since this year the Lesser Kestrels stopped to breed on valleys of Kura and Khrami and on Gombori ridge. In the next 3-4 years the species status was not changed: 102 pairs in 20 colonies in 1990, 114 pairs in 17 colonies in 1991, at least 121 pairs in 1992, probably up to 220 in 1992, because only 50-60% of colonies were visited (Abuladze, Shergalin, 1994) and only 97 pairs in 9 colonies in 1994. Already since 1990 breeding at Kvernaki Ridge were not registered, though in 1989 here four pairs in one colony nested. In 1995 number continued to fall down swiftly only two small colonies (seven and four pairs) in Iori River valley were discovered (Abuladze, 2001a). In one of them in 1996 several birds appeared, but they did not nest; in the second colony birds were not observed. During the last 15 years in 1997-2012 in spite of regular careful searches, undertaken in all, without exclusion, known sites of the recent breeding of species, nests at the territory of Georgia were not discovered (for details see Table 31-1). Only about 25 solitary specimens and two non-breeding pair were recorded in nesting period in sites of the former presence of birds. At the end of 1990's the species disappeared from the Avifauna of Georgia as a regularly breeding species. Detailed review of the situation with Lesser Kestrel in Georgia was presented in publication (Abuladze, 2001a). Unfortunately, there are not bases to hope, that in the nearest future the restoration of the local population of Lesser Kestrel will be happened.

169 Table 31-1. Numbers of breeding pairs of Lesser Kestrel in Georgia in 1975-2000 Habitat Number of pairs Number of Average size Year investigated, colonies Colonial Single Total of 1 colony in % 1975 50-60 23 414 4 418 18.00 1976 About 50 26 393 5 398 15.12 1977 About 60 23 433 2 435 18.82 1978 20-25 14 131 0 131 9.36 1979 80-85 29 451 1 452 15.55 1980 At least 60 22 319 6 325 14.50 1981 About 90 39 580 4 584 14.87 1982 Up to 30 10 138 0 138 13.80 1983 90-95 42 611 4 615 14.55 1984 80-90 34 536 7 543 15.76 1985 Up to 30 16 188 4 192 11.75 1986 60-70 19 244 1 245 12.84 1987 About 40 11 155 6 161 14.09 1988 65-70 31 404 0 404 13.03 1989 About 50 19 117 2 119 6.16 1990 40-45 20 102 3 105 5.10 1991 50-60 17 114 1 115 6.71 1992 - ? ? ? ? ? 1993 - ? ? ? ? ? 1994 About 90 9 97 0 97 10.78 1995 About 90 2 11 0 11 5.50 1996 Up to 30 0 0 0 0 0 1997 About 95 0 0 0 0 0 1998 About 75 0 0 0 0 0 1999 Up to 90 0 0 0 0 0 2000 - 95 - 100 0 0 0 0 0 2012 Breeding biology: According to collected data, the timing of breeding cycle in Georgia largely coincided with those in the other parts of Caucasus. Arrival at nests was recorded usually in late April, rarely in early May. In the first days after the appearance of the birds weakly attached to their last year's nests, and can take a few days to leave the nesting sites. In Georgia, like everywhere, the Lesser Kestrel was colonially nesting species. Normally colonies with 5-12 pairs were formed. The average size of the colonies in all the years of research was 11.84pairs/1 colony with yearly fluctuations from 5.50 (1995) to 18.82 (1977). During the 1970’s-1980’s, prior to 1989, the figure varied between 9.36 (1978) - 18.82 (1977) pairs / 1 colony. During the period of degradation in population in 1989-1995, the average size of one colony decreased up to 6,85 pairs, with annual fluctuations from 5,10

170 (1990) to 10,78 (1994). Sizes of the three colonies in “good” for species years ranged from 11 to 38 pairs. The largest colony, known in Georgia, was found in the extreme south-east, in Eldari semi-desert, directly at the border with Azerbaijan. In this colony, situated in the walls and under roofs of the 7 sheep-folds, and several ancillary buildings and facilities, occupying a total area of 2.5 square kilometers, in 1970’s- 1986 bred from 14 to 47 pairs. The maximum size of the colony reported in the years of research, was in 1981, 53 pairs! It was the largest colony to Caucasus. It should be noted, that in large colonies always were observed non-breeding individuals, the number of which in different years varied greatly. Non-breeding individuals were observed in small colonies sporadically, while the proportion of non-breeding birds in large colonies sometimes reach one third of the total number of adult individuals. The Lesser Kestrel in Georgia, as everywhere, was typical sclerophyllous species - the greatest number of nests, over 96%, were associated with buildings. More often colonies were situated in old, partly destroyed sheep folds in semi-deserts. Typically nests were located under roof (over 70%), rarely in walls (15-20%) and occasionally in other places. More detailed data on nest-sites selection are presented in Table 31-2. Table 31-2. Nest-site selection of Lesser Kestrel in Georgia and Western Azerbaijan Number of nests Location of nests N % Under roofs (of sheep folds, farms, 869 70.54 etc.) In the walls of sheep folds 197 15.99 In ruins (7 colonies) 46 3.73 On economical buildings (3 colonies) 26 2.11 On technical constructions (3 colonies) 22 1.79 In the walls of ravines and precipices 17 1.38 In stony fences, walls (2 colonies) 12 0.98 On ledges of rocks (2 colonies) 11 0.89 In heap of metal scrap (1 colony) 11 0.89 In the old nests of Rooks (1 colony) 9 0.73 In tree-holes, crevices (4 solitary pairs) 4 0.32 In burrow (1 solitary pair) 1 0.08 Other 7 0.57 Total: 1232 100.00 One small colony (three pairs in 1980, five pairs in 1981 and three pairs in 1982) was located in a big pile of scrap, destroyed cars and metal constructions at military polygon for training of artillery and tanks forces of the Soviet Army. In winter 1982/1983 eliminated the landfill, but four pairs nesting in the ruins of a fortification of 250-300 m from their previous nests. 171 Nine clutches of Lesser Kestrel were found in the old nests of Corvidae - 7 in the nests of Magpie and 2 in the nests of Carrion Crows. It should be noted, that in Georgia cases of solitary nesting of these birds were not very rare (0.93% of the total number of known nests), although in some other parts of the breeding range of the species it is an exceptional phenomenon. The distance between small and medium-sized colonies ranged from 3 to 10 km. Sometimes the colonies were separated from each other by uncharacteristic for the species biotopes – ridges, wooded slopes, flood plains, cultivated fields, etc. The minimum distance between the two neighbouring colonies was 2.2 km in a straight line. Small (from 2 to 6 pairs in different years) colony at Kvernaki Ridge was isolated from a main breeding population, the distance from this colony to the nearest known colony was 42 km. By the way, this colony was the westernmost site of the breeding distribution in Georgia as well as in the whole Southern Caucasus. The distance between solitary nests in colonies ranged from 0.6 m to 11 m, usually 1.5-2.5 m. The height of the nests located on buildings ranged from 2.7 m to 9 m above the ground, the nests constructed on the rocks, placed at a higher level - from 7.5 m to 30 m. In one colony, consisting of 6 nests, two nests were in a recess at the height of 40-45 m from the ground. Egg-laying took place in the first half of May (from May 2, 1985 to May 17, 1977), typically during the second week of May. During collecting of materials, 105 complete clutches were studied in five colonies in 1978-1981. Clutch size ranged from two to six eggs, typically four eggs, with a mean of 4.07 eggs. One clutch, or 0.95% of recorded clutches consisted of two eggs; 24 clutches (22.86%) - of three eggs; 49 clutches (46.67%) - of four eggs; 29 clutches (27.62%) – five eggs and in 2 clutches (1.90%) were 6 eggs. The sizes of 56 eggs from 12 clutches and weight of 29 eggs from seven clutches were measured; the data are presented in Table 31-2. Both sexes share in incubation. The duration of incubation in nine monitored nests was 28-29 days. Typically fledging period ranged from 26 to 35 days. The fledged young Lesser Kestrels have been observed near the nests for 5-10 days later after fledging. The breeding success and productivity of the Lesser Kestrel were analyzed in 1983, 1985 and 1990. In total, 103 breeding attempts were monitored. The average rate of young capable of flying per occupied nest was 2.38. The most accurate data for analysis were collected in 1983 in one of the largest colony, known in Georgia. In this colony (from 14 to 47 pairs in the first half of 1980’s), nests were situated in the walls and under roofs of seven sheep-folds. 39 nests were found here in 1983. The total number of eggs in 39 monitored complete clutches was 160 (6 clutches x 3 eggs, 24 clutches x 4 eggs, 8 clutches x 5 eggs and 1

172 clutch x 6 eggs). 12 eggs of 160, or 7.5%, were not fertilizes. 24 eggs in 6 clutches (3, 4, 4, 4, 4 and 5 eggs in each) were robbed by rats, one clutch contained 4 eggs was robbed by snake. In two cases reason was unknown, probably reason was human disturbance. Breeding was unsuccessful in 10 nests contained 40 eggs, or 25.64% of controlled clutches (25.00% of eggs). 108 chicks were hatched from 160 eggs (or 67.5%) and 98 (or 61.25%) were successfully fledged. Table 31-3. Size and weight of Lesser Kestrel eggs in Georgia

Size (mm) and Number Indices weight (g) of eggs Max Min Average Length 56 37.6 31.9 34.64 Width 56 31.0 27.3 28.78 Weight 29 17.1 13.7 15.52

Local breeders depart from the country in late August – early September, but in some years adults with juveniles were recorded near colonies until middle of September. Diet: Over 2700 pellets and prey remains were collected in all monitored colonies. Main prey in Georgia includes the largest diurnal insects. Their remains were recorded in all pellets; 93.7% of all pellets consisted exclusively from insects. Dominated by the occurrence the insects of the taxa Orthoptera - “short-horned grasshoppers” (Calliptamus italicus), Predatory Bush Cricket (Saga pedo), wart-biter (Decticus verrucivorus), Moroccan locust (Dociostaurus maroccanus). Rarely were recorded beetles (Coleoptera) - mostly Ground beetles (Carabidae) and Darkling beetles (Tenebrionidae); representatives of other orders were recorded sporadically. The number of young lizards increased in the breeding habitats of Lesser Kestrel in Georgia by the end of the summer, in august and proportion of lizards in diet sharply increased. The remains of small lizards of family Lacertidae were identified in the most of pellets collected in August. The most common prey species were young individuals of Balkan Green Lizard (Lacerta trilineata) and Caspian Green or Striated Lizard (Lacerta strigata), rarely Caucasian Agama (Laudakia caucasia), occasionally Central Asian Racerunner (Eremias velox) and Asian Snake-eyed Skink (Ablefarus pannonicus). Osteological remains of the small unidentified rodents were found in August only in 20% of pellets. 8 times hunting on fledged Spanish Sparrows (Passer hispaniolensis) was observed and in two cases the attacks were successful. Small lizards and birds were recorded in diet of in colonies in Eldari semi-desert and in adjacent areas of Azerbaijan. Hunting territories are small and usually located at close distance from colonies. Rarely hunting birds observed on 1 km from the nests. By the way, this fact, greatly assist us in the search for the colonies. After fledging during post-breeding movements often seen 173 hunting in small flocks up to five birds. No more-or-less significant annual, regional or seasonal variations in the diet were fixed. Seasonal movements: The Lesser Kestrel is widespread and regular, but rare in small numbers, transit migrant. Open and semi-open arid habitats and valleys of large rivers in mainland parts of country are the most preferred habitats during seasonal passages. Rarely these raptors recorded at the Black Sea coastlands. The spring passage in Georgia takes place from the late March to the early May. Depending on the concrete weather conditions of the year, the first specimens appear in spring in the last days of March. First observations of spring transients were between March 23 (1991) and March 31 (2010). Last transient individuals were observed between April 21 and May 2. Most of migrants, about 60% of total number, were counted between April 10 and 20. In spring usually recorded by small flocks consisting 3-5 individuals (up to 80% of all spring records), much rarely were observed pairs (about 15% of all recorded birds) and solitary individuals (about 5%). Only several times were watched small flocks consisting from 6 to 9 individuals. The maximum number in one flock – 11 individuals, was counted only one time - on April 7, 1980 near Lanchkhuti town in Guria Region, Western Georgia. The autumn transit was observed from the late August to the middle of October with a peak in the middle of September. The latest autumn records of the solitary individuals were at the Black sea coastlands on October 8 and October 14 and in southeastern semi-deserts on October 30 and November 3. During transit passages in autumn the Lesser Kestrels were usually recorded by single individuals, rarely by small flocks of 3-5 individuals. Occasionally these birds were observed in small flocks of other birds of prey, mostly together with Red-footed Falcon and Common Kestrel. The Lesser Kestrels only seven times during all years of observations were watched in mixed flocks. The general direction of autumn transit in Mtkvari River valley, Eastern Georgia, i.e. the Caspian Sea basin, is south-western; in Western Georgia, i.e. in the Black Sea basin – southern. In spring the general direction of transit in all areas is northern. On autumn passages typically recorded by solitary individuals or in small flocks of 3-6 individuals (probably young individuals with parents), occasionally by flocks consisting 10 or more birds. The largest flock, consisting of 17 individuals, was observed on September 23, 1985 in near David Gareji cave monastery in Udabno semi-desert, SE Georgia. It is logical to assume that transients are from the Northern Caucasian populations and, probably, from more eastern areas, including Central Asian populations. So, Lesser Kestrel, ringed on nest in Central Kazakhstan in SW part of Tselinograd Oblast (administrative unit) on July 6, 1979 (ring No M 496027), two years later, on September 10,

174 1981, was shot on passage near Chochkhati village in Ozurgeti district, Guria Region (Guniava, 1988). Migratory birds sometimes make stops in sites with abundant food resources, mostly in semi-deserts, for several days, usually for 2-3 days, rare – up to one week. In other regions passage goes without stops. Threats: The destruction or renovation of old building, reduction of safe nesting sites, changes in agricultural practices, use of various chemicals, are a major threats. Based on data collected in 1970’s-1980’s, the main threats and limiting factors were analyzed and presented buy Author in publication (Abuladze, 2001a). The process of disappearance of Lesser Kestrel in Georgia in general is not understandable. There are a lot of hard-described, indirect, unknown reasons, which may be mentioned only as suppositions. Without doubt, among all factors, the changes of nesting and feeding habitats were the most negative. There are some important remarks for a better understanding this problem: - - It is well known, that Lesser Kestrel is a species with very narrow diapason of adaptations. The presence of very specific possibilities for colonial nesting in open areas with scattered woods and trees in altitudinal range of 200-900 meters above sea level in combination with abundance and availability of basic prey – ground-dwelling large insects, mostly Orthoptera, Coleoptera, are the most important obligatory conditions for the breeding of Lesser Kestrel. - - In Georgia the combination of such conditions was only in areas of winter pastures in the semi-deserts of eastern part of country (8,000- 9,000 sq.km). - - Nests were located mainly in holes or recesses in walls and under roof of old sheep folds (up to 85%) and attendant constructions (about 8%). Prior to the 1990's extensive sheep-breeding was the most common form of stock-raising in entire North Caucasia and Transcaucasia. Numerous flocks of sheep annually moved from winter pastures in steppe and semi-desert areas in the lowlands to summer pastures in the belt of the subalpine meadows of the Great Caucasia. These sheep numbered in the millions. At that time there were no state borders between the Russia and Caucasian republics. The du jour administrative borders were crossed by shepherds who drove the sheep flocks to convenient pasturing places on the lowest passes of the Main Caucasian Ridge. Since 1991 free movement across these borders has become very difficult, and in many places impossible. Border constraints, new forms of human activity (prompted by land privatization), a developing economic crisis, together with the general social unrest and military events which have occurred during the last decade in some regions of Caucasia, have contributed to the end, in all practicality, of the 175 traditional forms of pastoralism and livestock-rearing. In the last 15 years sheep numbers have dropped dramatically. The local inhabitants in the areas of traditional distant sheep-breeding were draw into the new forms of rural economy as indoor maintenance of cattle, pig-breeding, poultry raising, vegetable-growing, melon cultivation etc. The loading on pastures was re-distributed. Some pastures were neglected, were covered by tall, dense grass. Sheep folds and subsidiary buildings were reconstructed or repaired for the needs of new owners. Majority of sheep folds, needless in new conditions, were destroyed. Relatively high numbers of the Georgian breeding group on small area was provided with abundance and availability of food, ideal conditions of nesting on sheep folds and practically complete absence of bird disturbance on nests, because shepherds left the regions of winter pastures at the end of March, while birds arrived at the beginning of April. Thus, in Georgia the Lesser Kestrel very closely was connected with a distant sheep-breeding. In this connection the changes in species status, which coincided just with the period of strong degradation of distant sheep-breeding in region become more understandable. The results of this process were changes of the forms, character and level of human disturbance in the Lesser Kestrel breeding and feeding habitats. Besides that, from the end of 1980’s deratisation measures were stopped completely and number of rats in buildings was sharply increased. At the same time, during collecting of data, the main reason of clutches loss was predation of rats, during the period 1977-1989 about 11% of clutches were robbed by rats; in 1990 – at least 27%; in 1991 - about 55%! Additional reasons, probably, were the following: - negative changes on migrations ways, halting places or wintering areas; - climatic changes; For example, during the last decade the several summers were extremely hot, with prolonged drought, which caused the loss or great changes in populations of large diurnal insects; - infections; - use of insecticides or some other chemicals in the Lesser Kestrel feeding habitats in Georgia; any factual statistical data is absent. Thus, resuming above mentioned, we can conclude, that the most serious reason were great changes and destruction of the breeding habitats in complex with changes of feeding habitats, resulted in the sharp worsening the nesting and feeding conditions, reduce of food resources. The results of this factors’ influence were still slight during the second half of 1980’s. More noticeable it became reveal at the 176 beginning of 1990’s, as a result of very swift changes of human activity in the breeding habitats of Lesser Kestrel in Georgia. Conservation status: SPEC 1, CEE 1, BERNA 2, BONN I, CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Vulnerable (VU); Status Global Raptor Information Network – Vulnerable; Red List of Georgia – CR.

32. Eurasian (Common) Kestrel Falco tinnunculus Subspecies Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus occurs in Georgia Georgian name: ჩვეულებრივი კირკიტა Transcription: [chveulebrivi kirkita] The Eaurasian Kestrel in common and widely distributed species. Occurs throughout Eurasia from Britain and Scandinavia east to the Kamchatka, Korea and Japan, south from coastal northern Africa through the Mediterranean region and the Arabian Peninsula east to Pakistan, southwestern India, southeastern CHINA; most of sub-Saharan Africa, except for the deserts, south to Angola and Tanazania. 11 subspecies are currently recognized. Status of presence: The Common Kestrel is a widespread and common year-round resident or partial migrant, widespread and common passage migrant and rare in small numbers winterer to Georgia. This bird is the most widespread and frequent breeding raptor species in Georgia as well as in the whole Caucasus. Local breeding population slightly decreased during last three decades. Distribution and habitats: The breeding distribution includes a wide variety of habitats. During breeding season occurs from the Black Sea coast up to the alpine meadows of Great Caucasus and Lesser Caucasus. Usually found in open country, on farmland with scattered trees, small woodlands, semi-deserts, table-lands, foothills, often found on cultivated or natural fields, pastures, in agricultural, and sub-urban areas, various settlements including cities, avoids extensive, dense forests. Occurs typically by solitary pairs; often perches on electric lines, electricity pylons, telephone poles, stones and cliffs for hunting. Population size: In some regions marked fluctuations in breeding numbers with changes in small rodent populations. Not very much is known about fluctuations by years, but according to Author’s estimations the numbers of breeding pairs during previous decades were the following: 1500-2500 pairs in the 1970’s, 1200-1800 in 1980’s and at least 1500 pairs in 1990’s. The present Georgian population is more- or-less stabile and estimated from 1500 to 2000 breeding pairs, probably some more in good rodent years. Breeding biology: Nests in old nests of corvids in trees, in small natural cavities, ledges, niches in cliffs, walls of ravines, in tree holes 177 and cavities, in ruins, in crevices, on old buildings and various man- made constructions, in stony fences, burrows, occasionally under roofs of houses, in large metal and concrete pipes, on towers of transmission power lines. In Eastern Georgia at least 1/3 of nests were located in old nests of corvids, more often in nests of Black-billed Magpie, Pica pica, but also nests of Carrion Crow, Corvus corone and Rook, Corvus frugilegus were used. Nesting in ruins, stony fences, old, partly destroyed buildings, in medieval towers and fortresses, etc. more often recorded in highlands of Great Caucasus and Lesser Caucasus. The number of eggs in clutches ranged from 4 to 6, more often 4-5. The clutch size of South Caucasian populations ranged from 3 to 7 (Abuladze, 1979a; Adamian, Klem, 1999; Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005; Kutubidze, 1985; Leister, Sosnin, 1942; Patrikeev, 2004) and up to 9 eggs (Dal’, 1954). The full clutches sizes were estimated in 122 cases, data were collected mostly in Eastern Georgia (108 clutches) and clutch size was from 4 to 6 eggs. 4 eggs were in 37 clutches (or 30.3%), 5 eggs were in 65 clutches (53.3%) and 6 eggs were in 20 clutches (16.4%). Laying of first and last eggs was estimated for seven nest-sites, four were monitored at Iori Table-land in 1984-1985, two - at Gombori Ridge in 1991, and two in Gldani village in vicinity of Tbilisi in 2009 and 2011. 4 eggs were in five clutches and 5 eggs were in three clutches. The dates were as following: 11-19 April 1984 – 5 eggs in clutch; 15-22 April 1984 – 4 eggs in clutch; 16-23 April 1984 – 4 eggs in clutch; 18–26 April 1991 – 5 eggs in clutch; 21-27 April 1991 – 4 eggs in clutch; 25 April – 2 May 1991 – 4 eggs in clutch; 12-15 April 2009 – 4 eggs in clutch; 17-24 April 2011 – 5 eggs in clutch. The incubation period is about 27-29 days, with the 26-35 days fledging period, a total breeding period of about 53-64 days. The data on breeding success of Eurasian Kestrel were collected in Eastern Georgia in 1975-1991, 1997-2000 and 2010-2012. From 4 (in 2000 and 2010) to 22 (in 1987) were controlled each season. The percentage of successful nests of was from 71.43% in 1991 (5 nests from 7) to 100% in 1981 (7 nests) and 1990 (6 nests), with an average rate for all years 82.35%. The average rate of fledglings per occupied nest was 3.11, ranged by years from 1.26 to 3.28. Diet: Diet - Small mammals, mainly mice and voles, also small-sized birds, reptiles, various large insects. Small rodents are the most important prey in all regions and seasons. Birds are taken in spring and summer when fledging small songbirds are available. 218 prey remains and 610 pellets were collected in 1970’s-1980’s at 31 nests and analyzed. Data were collected in vicinities of Tbilisi, Prone River basin (Shida Kartli Region), Tsalka Hollow (Kvemo Kartli Region), at Djavakheti Upland (Lesser Caucasus), Iori Table-land, in 178 Khevsureti (Great Caucasus); 47 observed feeds were recorded. Prey composed by numerical frequency of about 82% small mammals, 11% reptiles, 3% birds. In four cases remains of unidentified frogs, Rana spp. were recorded. Rodents (9 species), especially voles, were the predominant prey items; at least 7 species of reptiles and 9 species of birds were identified. Seasonal movements and wintering: The duration of spring passage is long, transients were observed from early March (in semi-deserts and coastlands) to early May (at passes of Great Caucasus) with a peak in late March. Extreme dates were March 7, 2000 to April 30, 1990. Migrating birds were recorded from the sea shore to eastern borders and highlands of Great Caucasus. Transit is more visible in open habitats in eastern areas. Typically solitary birds were watched, very rare pairs. In autumn passage migrants are seen from from middle of August to the end of November with a peak in late September - early October. The total number of transients migrating across Georgia is unknown. Wintering: The Eurasian Kestrel in small numbers recorded in winter, mainly in dry open habitats of south-eastern parts of country. Threats: Illegal killing is a serious threat, particularly during autumn migration and locally in winter. The illegal tacking of juveniles from nests by falconers is also a concern. For example, at least 20 juveniles were taken during last several years. Predation by Goshawks was recorded. In 1970’s-1980’s intensive using of pesticides in agricultural was a limiting factor. Conservation status: SPEC 3, BERNA II, BONN II, CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk.

33. Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus Linnaeus, 1766 Subspecies: Monotypic, no subspecies Georgian name: თვალშავი [thvalshavi] The Red-footed Falcon breeds from Eastern Europe and Northern Asia to northwestern China. This falcon is typical long-distance transcontinental migrant. Winters in Africa - in northern Namibia, Botswana, central Zimbabwe, southern Angola, South Africa. Status of presence: The data on this species in the study area are quite fragmentary and on biological features are absent totally. The Red- footed falcon should be considered as an occasional irregular migratory breeder in small numbers to Georgia (Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005); probably sporadically nests in vast open areas in south-eastern part of Djavakheti Upland and in adjacent areas along the border with Armenia. The present breeding distribution requires clarification. More extensive study, covering different areas in Eastern 179 Georgia, are needed in order to obtain an accurate view of the situation with the Red-footed Falcon in country. Widespread and regular, but rare passage visitor across Georgia. In neighbouring Armenia this falcon is considered as a rare breeding species, or sporadically breeding (Adamian, Klem, 1999). In Azerbaijan its status classified as a rare passage visitor across country, no data on breeding (Patrikeev, 2004). Distribution and habitats: The Red-footed Falcon generally prefers open habitats with scattered trees, such as open grassy woodland, croplands, wetlands, forest edges, suburbs of small towns, villages. In Georgia, according to unpublished data, breeding was recorded at Djavakheti Upland, Lesser Caucasus in transformed habitats of mountain steppe at height about 1800 meters above the sea level. Migrating birds are observed in various habitats, but prefers open and semi-open habitats. Numbers: 10-50 pairs, according to Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005. Probably sporadically in small numbers breeds in colonies of Rooks in artificial pine forests at Djavakheti Upland in areas, located along the border with Armenia. Nothing is known on numbers in previous decades, present numbers and population trends. Breeding biology: The materials on patterns of breeding biology from the territory of Georgia are very scarce. Nesting of several pairs was recorded in colony of Rook in artificial tree-line of pines near Ninotsminda town, Samtskhe-Djavakheti Region. Diet: Feeds on a varity of insects, mostly on various large sized insects including dragonflies (Odonata), beetles (Coleoptera), locusts (Orthoptera), butterflies (Lepidoptera), spiders (Aranaea). Rarely hunts on small vertebrates – amphibians, lizards, rodents, occasionally on small birds, mostly on fledged small passerines, when available. Hunting from a low perch or from the air, takes prey from ground or takes insects aerially. Usually, aerial hunting occurs during the middle of the day in good weather conditions. Several tens attacks of Red-footed Falcons on unidentified large insects, small sized lizards, rodents and birds were observed in open habitats during autumn passages across Georgia. At least seven of observed attacks were successful – four large beetles, two dragonflies and one rock lizard were taken. A male, taking small rodent (vole spp.?), was observed on 27 September 2011 in meadow near Sagamo Lake, Samtskhe-Djavakheti Region. In 12 stomachs of individuals, killed by poachers, were recorded remains of various large insects, mostly beetles and dragonflies, one unidentified rock lizard Lacerta spp., two 180 unidentified finches Carduelis spp. and one unidentified sparrow Passer spp. Seasonal movements: The Red-footed Falcon is widespread and regular, but rare in general transit migrant to Georgia (Abuladze, Kandaurov, Eligulashvili, 2011; Cel’min’sh, Bergmanis, 1990; Paakinen, Rantanen, Rantanen, 1981; Sojamo, 1982; Sojamo, 1983; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011). A little more widespread in autumn, especially in tree-less areas in eastern part of country, rarely and in small numbers recorded at Black Sea coastlands and at Kolkheti Lowland. Spring migration takes place normally in the first half of April with a peak between 10 and 15 April. The early observations of migrating individuals in spring were recorded in different years from 27 March to 11 April at Black sea coastlands and from 29 March to 4 April in inland areas. The latest transit migrants were observed in different years in middle of May. Autumn passage starts in the middle of August and continues through middle October with a peak from 10 to 20 September. At least 3/4 of passage visitors crossed territory of country in middle of September. The last solitary individuals, rarely small flocks consisting 3-4, and very rare more, individuals, were watched at Black Sea coastlands and in semi- deserts in SE Georgia between 20-25 October. During the last 30 years, the number of migrating across Georgia Red-footed Falcons has seriously decreased. During the last two decades from 3000 to 6000 individuals of these falcons were considered to migrate per autumn season, from which up to 80% across eastern areas, i.e. in the Caspian Sea basin. Threats: Illegal shooting is a serious threat to this raptor species (Abuladze, 1986a; Abuladze et al., 2011d). From 1973-2012, at least 47 cases of illegal shooting were counted in Georgia – 44 autumn transit and 3 during spring transit. Most of cases were counted in western areas. Conservation status: SPEC 3, BERNA 2, BONN I, CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Near Threatened (NT); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Near Threatened; Red List of Georgia – EN.

181 34. Eleonorae's Falcon Falco eleonorae Subspecies: Monotypic, no supspecies Georgian name: ელეონორას შავარდენი [eleonoras shavardeni] The Eleonorae’s Falcon breeds on small and uninhabited islands in the Mediterranean and on the Canary Islands. Outside of the breeding season sometimes recorded inland. It breeds later than any other European Birds of Prey, typically from the late July to October. The European population is estimated to be 5,000-8,000 breeding pairs, equating to 12,000-30,000 mature individuals in total (BirdLife International 2004). This falcon is migratory species, most birds spend the winter in Madagaskar. Status of presence: The Eleonorae’s Falcon is accidental visitor to Georgia, as well as to the Southern Caucasus and the Black Sea basin. During the 40-years period of the field works at the territory of Georgia, carried out by Author since 1973, there were only registered accidental visits of solitary individuals of the Eleonorae’s Falcon. All records were from the Black Sea shore: - On October 21, 1977 this falcon was watched from distance 70-80 meters sitting on cliff at the rocky shore of the Black Sea in locality Tsikhisdziri in Ajaria; - In evening on September 29, 1988 at Pitsunda Cap in Abkhazia the Eleonorae’s Falcon was observed flying along the sea shore to southern direction; - On October 1, 1995 flying single was observed flying at sea shore in locality Kvriati, 1.5-2.0 km north of Georgia – Turkey border. Additional information: On 9 October 2011 solitary individual was observed in Shuamta, Ajaria, by the participants of the Project Batumi Raptor Count - Maer Sinoir, Arthur Green, Marta Peris Cabre, Andrea Corso; sources: personal communication of BRC members and information posted on Batumi Raptor Count blog http://www.batumiraptorcount.org Besides that, there are data on the records of the Eleonorae’s Falcon at adjacent regions – in Armenia, at the Black Sea coast and in NE Turkey, at the Ukrainian section of the Black Sea and in Bulgaria: - on June 2, 2005 in Azavat River gorge, 15 km SE of Yerevan near Garni village , Armenia (Ananian, Carlsson, Breider, 2007); - on May 27, 1989 in Sivri Kaya at the Black Sea coastlands (Kirwan, Martins, 1994); - on June 3, 1987 east of Van Lake (Kirwan, Martins, 1994); - on June 9, 1987 at Ercek Golu (Kirwan, Martins, 1994).

182 - according to the unpublished materials, information provided by Sergei Prokopenko, ornithologist from Ukraine, the solitary Eleonorae’s Falcons several times were seen in 1980’s along the Black Sea northern shore, particularly in Crimea Peninsula. Conservation status: SPEC 2; CEE 1; BERNA 2; BONN II; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC) Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk.

35. Merlin Falco columbarius Tunstall, 1711 Subspecies Falco columbarius aesalon occurs in Georgia Georgian name: ალალი [alali] Occurs in North America and Northern Eurasia from Scandinavia to Siberia, south to British Isles and east to northern China. All over the world, 9 subspecies are recognized. In Europe breeds in Iceland, Ireland, Britain, Scandinavia, the Baltic States, Belarus and Russia. Subspecies Falco columbarius aesalon winters in southern and western Europe, Turkey, Middle East, North-Western Africa and Caucasus (Adamian, Klem, 1999; Ferguson-Lees et al. 2001; Kasparek, 1992; Mebs & Schmidt 2006; Patrikeev, 2004). Status: The Merlin is widespread and regular, but rare in small numbers transient migrant and winter visitor to Georgia. Distribution, habitats, movements and numbers: The Merlin is more common during seasonal passage along the Black Sea coastal lowlands, at Kolkheti Lowland, plains of Eastern Georgia, and in the valleys of large rivers. Always solitary individuals were recorded; never observed in flocks. In autumn, first transient individuals usually recorded by early September, with most movements recorded from mid-September to mid- October. Spring passage tends to show lower numbers in a relatively compressed stretch of time – third week of March to first week of April. Wintering individuals appear in western Georgia from late October and typically stay until the end of March; in eastern Georgia, wintering individuals arrive later in November. Number of individuals wintering in the country fluctuates considerably. From 100 to 500 individuals are currently estimated to winter in the country, with peak numbers typically reached by mid-January. Distribution through territory is uneven, with most individuals spending winter at the Black Sea coastland and in the western part of Kolkheti Lowland in western Georgia. Prefers open and semi-open habitats at lowlands, plateaus, plains, where small woodlands are surrounded by glades, meadows, wetlands. Wintering birds are often observed in agricultural landscapes in vicinity of human settlement, including large cities (e.g., Tbilisi, Rustavi, Gori, Batumi, Poti, Kutaisi, Samtredia, Sukhumi, Gali, Zugdidi, Telavi). The total area of wintering

183 habitat in the country ranges from 7000 km2 in colder winters with snow to as much as 10,000 to 12,000 km2 in warmer winters without snow. Diet: A study of the Merlin’s diet was undertaken on passage flyways and wintering grounds in 1987-1991 and 2003-2006 at Black Sea coastal lowland in Ajaria, in western part of Kolkheti Lowland, in Rioni River valley between Baghdati and Vani towns, Imereti region (all in western Georgia) and in semi-deserts of eastern Georgia at southwestern edge of Iori Plateau. Food remains and pellets were collected and analyzed on permanent wintering habitat. Successful hunting by the species was visually recorded in cases where prey could be identified. In addition, the stomach contents of 4 wintering individuals shot by poachers in western Georgia were inspected. It was determined, that during passage and wintering, the diet of the species includes at least 23 bird species (mostly passerines). Of 142 recorded attempts to take prey, 37 attacks (26%) were successful. Considering also the unsuccessful attempts, the list of prey species could be potentially expanded to include at least 70 bird species. While passerines account for the majority of the prey items taken most of the year, Quail taken in the coastal lowlands during their autumn passage figure prominently in the Merlin’s diet. The data collected on the prey composition of Merlin during wintering in Georgia are presented in Table 35-1. Threats: Illegal shooting is the dominant threat for this species during passage and on its wintering grounds in Georgia. In 1973-2012, we personally recorded 26 cases of mortality due to shooting. Since the mid-1980s, “bazieri” (Georgian falconers) have also begun taking Merlin in increasing number, presently at least 3 to 5 individuals are taken per autumn season, the majority of which are never again released into the wild. It is likely that at least as many individuals taken go unreported. Besides that, two cases of predation by Goshawks have also been recorded in Western Georgia – in February 19989 near Chokhtauri town, Guria Region and in December 2010 in Khanistskali River valley, Imereti Region. Conservation status: Non-SPEC; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk

184 Table 35-1. Data on Merlin prey composition in Georgia S – Spring, A – Autumn, W – Winter, Number by seasons Prey species S A W Total Quail, Coturnix coturnix - 4 - 4 Corn Crake, Crex crex - - - 1 Water Rail, Rallus aquaticus - 1 - 1 Feral Pigeon, Columba livia dom. - - 2 2 Stock Pigeon, Columba oenas - 1 1 Wood Pigeon, Columba palumbus 1 - - 1 Unidentified pigeons, Columba spp. - - 1 1 European Turtle-dove, Streptopelia turtur - 1 - 1 Laughing Dove, Streptopelia senegalensis - - 3 3 Great Spotted Woodpecker, Dendrocopos major - - 1 1 Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, Dendrocopos - - 2 2 minor Crested lark, Galerida cristata 1 1 3 5 Wood Lark, Lullula arborea - 1 - 1 Unidentified lark, Alaudidae spp.? - 1 - 1 Unidentified pipits, Anthus spp. 1 2 - 3 White Wagtail, Motacilla alba - 2 2 4 Unidentified wagtail, Motacilla spp. - - 1 1 Red-backed Shrike, Lanius collurio 1 5 - 6 Unidentified wheatears, Oenanthe spp. 1 1 - 2 Blackbird, Turdus merula 2 3 4 9 Great Tit, Parus major - - 3 3 Chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs 1 3 11 14 Eurasian Linnet, Carduelis cannabina - - 1 1 House Sparrow, Passer domesticus 2 1 9 12 Unidentified small Passeriformes spp. 4 8 29 41 Unidentified birds, Aves spp. - - 2 2 Total: 14 41 49 124

185 36. Eurasian Hobby Falco subbuteo Subspecies Falco subbuteo subbuteo Linnaeus, 1758 occurs in Georgia Georgian name: მარჯანი [marjani] The Hobby breeds over most of Europe. From Europe eastwards across Asia to the Pacific Ocean, Kamchatka, Northern Japan and south to north-western Africa, and migrates to south on a broad front to southern Asia - India, China and sub-Saharan Africa. The wintering grounds of birds from Caucasian populations located in subtropical Africa (Mebs & Schmidt 2006; Meyburg et al., 2011). Status of presence: Uncommon migratory breeder and passage visitor with a wide range of distribution – from Black sea coastal lowlands and semi-deserts up to sub-alpine meadows. Occasionally winters at coastal lowlands in Western Georgia and in cities of Eastern Georgia in very little numbers. Population size: According to author’s estimation, from 300 to 350 pairs were at the territory of Georgia in the late 1970’s and 275-320 pairs in 1980’s, including 60-70 pairs in Abkhazia Autonomous Republic. The present local breeding population is estimated at between 230 and 250 pairs (no data from Abkhazia after 1991). No detectable changes during last years, but modern studies are required to provide better evidence of population changes. The highest density has been registered in 1970’s-1980’s in flood-lands of large rivers of Western Georgia (Psou, Bzipi, Yupshara, Kodori, Kelasuri, Khobi, Inguri rivers) and in “tugai”-type forests in Alazani River valley and in Mtkvari River valley lower Rustavi. There are other estimations – 100-300 pairs (Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2002) and 200-300 pairs (Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005). Breeding biology: During breeding season occurs in flood-lands of large rivers with woodlands and rocky outcrops along banks, lakes bordered with forests and reed-beds, field protective and roadside tree- belts in lowlands, plains, foothills and mountains up to 1500 meters above the sea level, rarely higher – up to 1800 m. Areas with a high density of dragonflies and swallows are the most preferred habitats. Avoids tree-less areas, deep canyons, arid woodlands. The Hobby nests in broad-leaved forests, rarely in mixed or coniferous forests and occasionally in orchards. All known 15 nests at lowlands and in flood- lands of large rivers were located on trees. But at Great Caucasus - at Main Caucasian Ridge ant its southern spurs in Abkhazia, Svaneti, Racha as well as at Lesser Caucasus - in Upper Ajaria, some parts of Trialeti Ridge, at Meskheti Ridge and Likhi Ridge, this falcon nests always on rocks using the old nests of Common Raven (Corvus corax).

186 The data collected in Georgia and Western Azerbaijan on the nest-tree selection and location of nest-sites are presented lower in Table 36-1. The distance between pairs in flood-lands of large rivers ranged from 1200 to 4500 meters (1500-2500 meters typical); in highlands of Great Caucasus – from 2000 to 5000 meters. The earliest egg-laying dates recorded in different years were 6 May, 7 May and 11 May (in flood-lands of Mtkvari River and Alazani River in SE Georgia and W Azerbaijan) and 16 May and 23 May (in Gumista River valley in Abkhazia, Great Caucasus). The data on size of clutches were collected in 21 nests located in trees. Complete clutch size ranged from two to five eggs, with a mean 3.57 eggs. In 1 clutch, or about 4.8% of recorded clutches, was two eggs; ten clutches, or about 47.6% of recorded clutches consisted of three eggs; 7 clutches, or 33.3 – of four eggs; and in 3 clutches (or about 14.3%) – five eggs. Duration of incubation in monitored nests was 29-31 days. Typical fledging period ranged from 26 to 35 days. Data collected in Georgia and Western Azerbaijan on breeding success are presented lower in Table 36-2. Table 36-1. Nest data of Hobby in Georgia Location of nest in Height above ground, Number tree meters of nests Tree species Top Crown Branch <10 10-15 15-20 20+ White Poplar, 2 7 1 2 6 1 1 10 Populus alba Black Alder, Alnus glutinosa - 4 - 1 3 - - 4 barbata Willow, - 1 - 1 - - - 1 Salix spp. Total, nests on trees: 2 12 1 4 9 1 1 15 Nests on rocks (in old nests of x x x x x x x 9 ravens) Total, nests: x x x x x x x 24 Diet: Prey includes various small-sized birds and large flying insects. The Hobby takes a wide range of birds, all taken alive and practically always in flight. Often attack from below. Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica), Crag Martin (Ptyonoprogne rupestris), Sand Martin (Riparia riparia) and House Martin (Delichon urbica) were the most numerous prey species, comprising about 55% of the total number of items. Around and under of all known nest-sites remains of various large insects were recorded. Insects were at least in 75% of collected pellets, 187 mostly large dragonflies and beetles. Besides that, successful attacks on dragonfly, rarely on some other large flying insects, were observed regularly at all hunting territories. More detailed data on prey composition and frequency are presented in Table 36-3. Materials were collected in 1977-1991 in flood-lands of Kodori, Bzipi and Kelasuri rivers in Abkhazia, in flood-lands of Mtkvari, Iori and Alazani rivers in south-estern part of Georgia and in “tugai”-type forests in flood-lands of Mtkvari and Alazani rivers in adjacent parts of Western Azerbaijan. Table 36-2. Breeding success of Hobby in Georgia; years 1983, 1984, 1988 and 1991. Years Indices 1983 1984 1988 1991 A Checked territories 3 4 3 2 B Occupied territories (with pairs) 3 4 3 2 C Territories with eggs 3 4 3 2 Cc Number of eggs by nests 3,3,4 3,3,3,3 2,3 3,3 D Number of successful nesting 3 3 3 2 E Number of unsuccessful nesting 0 1 0 0 F Percentage of successful nesting (D/C) 100.0 75.0 100.0 100.0 G Number of young capable of flying 9 7 5 5 H Number of young capable of flying/ 3.00 2.33 1.67 2.50 successful nesting (G/D) I Number of young capable of flying/ 3.00 1.75 1.67 2.50 occupied territory (G/B) J Number of young capable of flying 3.00 1.75 1.67 2.50 /established nesting (G/C) K Territories with no activity 0 0 0 0

The main phonological dates and patterns of breeding biology are similar with populations in adjacent parts of Southern Caucasus (Adamian, Klem, 1999; Patrikeev, 2004) and Northern Caucasus (Til’ba, Mnatsekanov, 1995).

188 Table 36-3. Data of Hobby prey composition in Georgia and Western Azerbaijan Number Prey species No in % Common Swift, Apus apus 7 2.280 Wood Lark, Lullula arborea 4 1.303 Crested Lark, Galerida cristata 2 0.651 Unidentified larks, Alaudidae spp. 11 3.583 Barn Swallow, Hirundo rustica 21 6.840 Crag Martin, Ptyonoprogne rupestris 18 5.863 Sand Martin, Riparia riparia 57 18.567 House Martin, Delichon urbica 34 11.075 Unidentified swallows/martins, Hirundinidae spp. 31 10.098 Unidentified pipits, Anthus spp. 9 2.932 Pied Wagtail, Motacilla alba 8 2.606 Yellow Wagtail, Motacilla flava 1 0.326 Unidentified wagtails, Motacilla spp. 1 0.326 Red-backed Shrike, Lanius collurio 1 0.326 Unidentified warbler, Acrocephalus spp. 1 0.326 Unidentified wheatear, Oenanthe spp. 1 0.326 Blackbird, Turdus merula 10 3.257 Great Tit, Parus major 4 1.303 Blue Tit, Parus caeruleus 1 0.326 Chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs 3 0.977 Goldfinch, Carduelis carduelis 4 1.303 Greenfinch, Carduelis chloris 1 0.326 Linnet, Carduelis cannabina 3 0.977 Spanish Sparrow, Passer hispaniolensis 7 2.280 House Sparrow, Passer domesticus 4 1.303 Tree Sparrow, Passer montanus 3 0.977 Rosy Starling, Sturnus roseus 4 1.303 Magpie, Pica pica 2 0.651 Eurasian Jay, Garullus glandarius 3 0.977 Black-headed Bunting, Emberiza melanocephala 1 0.326 Unidentified small passerines, Passeriformes spp. 39 12.704 Unidentified birds, Aves spp. 11 3.583 Total: 307 100.00 Remark: Remains of insects were recorded in ¾ of pellets Seasonal movements: In spring migrating birds passes through country from late March to early May, usually in first half of April. The autumn transit migration of Hobby takes place from middle of August till November with a peak in second half of September (for more details see Table 36-4; Abuladze, Kandaurov, Eligulashvili, 2011; Cel’min’sh, Bergmanis, 1990; Paakinen, Rantanen, Rantanen, 1981; Sojamo, 1982; Sojamo, 1983; Verhelst, Jansen, Vansteelant, 2011).

189 From 2500 to 4500 individuals per spring season and at least 10000, probably some more, individuals per autumn season were considered to migrate across country, mostly along the valleys of large rivers’ and Black Sea coast. Table 36-4. Data on Hobby seasonal migrations patterns in Georgia Number of counted individuals, in % Seasons Months Decades I II III March 0.08 0.67 2.78 Spring April 29.21 51.62 15.10 May 0.44 0.10 - August - 0.31 3.87 September 17.49 22.16 36.64 Autumn October 14.42 3.68 1.41 November 0.01 0.01 - Winter records: Several times solitary wintering individuals were recorded during mild, snow-less winters at Black sea coastlands in Ajaria (on 6 December 1984 and on 2 December 2009 in Batumi, on 19 January 1990 at Kobuleti Lowland, on 1 February 1996 in Chorokhi River mouth near Gonio village), in western part of Kolkheti Lowland (on 1 December 1981 at Black Sea near Anaklia, on 9 December 1998 in Poti town and at 11 December 1998 at Khidmaghala fish-pond), in Rioni River valley (on 5 December 1976 1 km lower Vartsikhe reservoir, on 11 January 2010 near Kutaisi) and in cities of eastern parts of country – in Tbilisi (on 23 December 1990) and in Gori (on 16 February 2012). Threats and limiting factors: Current threats to the Hobby include sporadic illegal shooting. In 30 cases of 31 cases, recorded during the study, the reason of mortality was shooting. 28 individuals were killed during autumn transit, one in spring and one during breeding season. In one case the reason of mortality was collision with transmission power line. In some localities, especially in flood-lands of large rivers at lowlands, its population is some decreasing, due to habitat destruction and high level of human disturbance. Conservation status: BERNA 2, BONN II, CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC). Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk.

37. Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus Temminck, 1825 Subspecies Falco biarmicus feldeggii occurs in Georgia Georgian name: წითურთავა ბარი [tsithurthava bari] Synonyms წითურთავა გავაზი [tsithurthava gavazi],

190 წითელთავა შავარდენი [tsithelthava shavardeni] The Lanner Falcon has a wide distribution across the Central and Eastern Mediterranean, the Middle East (including the Arabian Peninsula), and Africa. Five well-marked subspecies are recognized, from which only one - Falco biarmicus feldeggii - breeds in Europe (including Italy and the Balkans), Turkey, the Southern Caucasus and south to Lebanon (Forsman, 1999; Gensbol, 2004; Mebs & Schmidt 2006). Although usually a resident species, the Lanner Falcon may make local seasonal migrations in some parts of its breeding range. Status of presence: It is possible that the species is extirpated as a regular breeding species in Georgia, and at present should be considered as an occasional (sporadic) breeding species or an extremely rare year- round resident with local seasonal movements. With that said, information on this species is very sparse. There have been only about 30 records of this raptor species in the Southern Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia) over the past sixty years, including records of two poached adults, an occupied nest and three occupied territories (Abuladze, 1994a; Abuladze, 1997; Abuladze, 2008a; Abuladze, Eligulashvili, Rostiashvili, 1991; Adamian, Klem, 1999; Burchak- Abramovich, 1962; Burchak-Abramovich & Gambarov, 1961; Dement’yev & Gladkov, 1951; Ivanov, 1976; Patrikeev, 2004; Stepanyan, 1990). The breeding of this species in Southern Caucasus was confirmed on June 1949, when first occupied nest with chick was discovered in niche on a cliff on Mount Kargabazar, Gobustan Upland, Eastern Azerbaijan (Burchak-Abramovich, 1962). Within Georgia, there are eight records from the 1980’s, five from the 1990’s and only four after 2000. All records of the Lanner Falcon species in the country, except one, were in open arid or semi-open semi- deserts, plateaus, foothills or low mountains in eastern Georgia - primarily in the Caspian Sea basin adjacent to the political borders with Azerbaijan and Armenia. There is one record of the species in the Black Sea basin of southwestern Georgia. Pairs, in one case with a fledged juvenile, were recorded in two localities. In 15 cases solitary individuals were seen. The following are observations of this species by the Author within Georgia: - 7 May 1983: a single flying individual was observed near Metekhi village, Kaspi district, Shida Kartli Region; - 14 December 1988: a single individual was observed playing a "game" with Carrion Crow Corvus corone in the environs of Tbilisi at the territory of Krtsanisi Dendrological Park. For more information about this observation, please see: Abuladze, Eligulashvili, Rostiashvili, 1990.

191 - 4 May, 5 May and 7 May 1991: three solitary individuals and one pair engaging in courtship display were observed on the slopes of the River valley in southwestern vicinities of Dmanisi town, Lower Kartli Region; - 16 August 1991: an adult was observed sitting on a power pylon and later flying across an area near the railway station in Magaro, Kakheti Region. Fresh remains of Common Vole Microtus arvalis were found under this pylon; - 2 July 2001: one individual observed at Jalguja Ridge, southeastern environs of Tbilisi; - 23 September 2003: first individual ever recorded at eastern Black Sea flyway route in locality of Agurkarkhana in Kobuleti Lowland, Ajaria, SW Georgia; - 7 August 2006: two observations of an adult individual were recorded in fields near the town of Dedoplistskaro. It is believed these two sightings are of the same individual. At least one unsuccessful attack on unidentified prey (lizards? or large insects?) was observed; - 10 September 2012: one flying individual was observed in semi- desert between Dali Reservoir and Chobandaghi Ridge, about 2 km south of Porpotebi Mud Volcano, Kakheti Region. Population size: At present, 1 or 2 pairs may sporadically breed in the arid areas of southeastern Georgia. Taking into account the status of this species in Georgia as well as the Southern Caucasus as a whole, all records are of great interest and should be thoroughly documented. Breeding biology: Information is very sparse. Based on available records throughout the Southern Caucasus, preferred breeding habitats appear to be vast, arid, open and semi-open landscapes, mostly semi- deserts, alternating with arid woodlands, plots with savannah-type vegetation, and low but steep rocks, ravines and hills. Actively avoids nesting in areas prone to human disturbance. Available literature records regular take of small and medium-sized birds, small mammals, reptiles, and even insects in arid areas. This falcon takes much of its prey on the wing. Two recent, unconfirmed reports from local falconers (“bazieri”) offer us much of what we may know about the breeding biology of the species in the country. In July 1997, one nest containing three chicks was located on a cliff ledge with a southeastern exposure at a height of roughly 15 m above the ground. In May 2002, a second nest containing two chicks was located in a large (40x70 cm) hole in the wall of a deep ravine at a height of roughly 8 m above the ground. An incubating female was observed several times from late May through the first half of June 2002. According to these reports, the remains of lizards, small

192 birds and rodents were found under both nests. Unfortunately, the chicks from both nests were also taken by poachers. Seasonal movements: No published data. Threats: The threats and limiting factors of this species are not well understood. But taking into account the high level of illegal shooting of raptors in Georgia, poaching should be considered an alarming threat to this species. Based on existing data, the species is very rare throughout the whole Southern Caucasus and has probably only ever bred in limited numbers in the second half of the 20th Century. With so small a population possibly extant within Georgia at any given time, the killing of any individual is a significant loss. There are also unconfirmed reports from Georgian falconers (“bazieri”) that Lanner Falcon chicks were taken from two nests in southeastern Georgia in 1997 and 2002. Conservation status: SPEC 3, CEE 1, BERNA 2, BONN II, CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC). Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk; Red List of Georgia – VU. Additional comments: Taking into account the status of Lanner Falcon not just in Georgia but the whole Southern Caucasus, the following observations by the Author outside of Georgia may be of interest: - 23 December 1977, Azerbaijan: an individual was observed 25 km northeast of Sal'yan in wormwood-absinthe semi-desert; - 25 August 1981, Armenia: an individual was observed twice in the environs of Erevan, near the settlement of Garni; - 6 May 1985, Azerbaijan: a hunting individual was recorded 200 m of the southern bank of Shamkhor reservoir; - 11 November 1986, Azerbaijan: an individual was recorded in Nakhichevan' Autonomous Republic, Djul'fa district, about 3 km east of the village of Abrakunis in mountain steppe on the northwestern slope of Mt. Ilanly-Dag at a height of approximately 1900 m above mean sea level; Unpublished information is also provided by several colleagues. Mr. Peter Dudin reported watching a nesting pair in the Khosrov Canyon, Armenia during a visit in June 1988. The late Prof. Dr. Nikolai I. Burchak-Abramovich recorded in the 1960 three individuals in Gobustan Upland (Burchak-Abramovich, 1962), where 11 years before, in 1949, the first breeding of this species in Caucasus was confirmed. Besides that, Dr. Burchak-Abramovich also observed several times solitary birds in this area – in Gobustan Desert in eastern Azerbaijan during field works in 1970.

193 38. Saker Falcon Falco cherrug Subspecies Falco cherrug cherrug occurs in Georgia Georgian name: ბარი [bari] Synonym გავაზი [gavazi] The Saker Falcon breeds from Central and Eastern Europe (eastern Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Moldova, Bulgaria, Serbia, Croatia, etc) eastwards through steppes of Ukraine and European Russia to Siberia, Mongolia, and China, south to Turkey, the Caucasus and Iran. Winters from southern Europe south to northeastern Africa and northwestern India. Two subspecies are recognized currently. Status of presence: The status of presence in Georgia is poorly known. Probably it is very rare in small numbers, sporadically (occasionally) breeding year-round resident with local seasonal movements or partly migratory summer breeder. The Saker Falcon is widespread and regular passage visitor across country, but very rare (in Western Georgia, i.e. in the Black Sea basin) to rare (in Eastern Georgia, i.e. in the Caspian Sea basin), passage migrant and irregular (occasional) winter visitor to Georgia. The data on this species in Georgia are quite fragmentary and on biological features are absent totally. Population size: The Georgian population estimated at 1-3 pairs (Galvez, Gavashelishvili, Javakhishvili, 2005), but probably the Saker Falcon is irregular breeder. Distribution and habitats: All known records of pairs, solitary adult and young individuals during breeding seasons were in open dry habitats, more often in semi-deserts. Recorded elsewhere during transit passages, but prefers flatland, open or semi-open areas in low located altitudinal belts. Avoid dense woodland. In winter recorded in open habitats, rarely in semi-open areas– at lowlands and plains of Eastern Georgia, in semi-deserts, table-lands, at Kolkheti Lowland, in valleys of large rivers, cultivated fields, occasionally in vicinities of settlements, including large cities. During 40 years of my field works in Southern Caucasus only 12 records of the Saker Falcons were registered during breeding seasons (from late April to late July) within the limits of Georgia and, additionally, 5 records were along the political borders of Georgia in adjacent parts of Azerbaijan (4) and Armenia (1). All records were in suitable breeding habitats. The most significant records are given here. So, 9 of 12 records were in SE Georgia, in Kakheti Region – in valleys of Alazani and Iori rivers, at Iori Table-land, Gombori Ridge, Eldari and Shiraki semi-deserts: on 30 April 1974 in Eldari semi-desert, directly at

194 the border between Georgia and Azerbaijan; on 16 July 1976 in Taribanna Steppe; on 11 July 1980 at southern slope of Mt. Kaladara (811 meters above sea level); on 7 July 1992 near Sabatlo village, right side of Alazani River floodplain; on 3 June 1995 at left side of Alazani River valley, 3 km south of Ulianovka village; on 16 June 1999 about 2,5 km west of Kilakupri mud volcano; on 12 July 2003 at Kotsakhuri Ridge, left side of Iori River valley; on 1 May 2006 near eastern shore of Kochebi Lake, environs of Dedoplistskaro town; on 8 May 2011 near Samtatskaro village, right side of Alazani River valley. Besides that, two summer records were in Lower Kartli Region (on 11 May 1990 in locality Azyzkendi in Algeti River valley; on 10 June 2006 at right side of Mashavera River valley lower Dmanisi town) and one summer record was in Samtskhe-Djavakheti region - on 6 June 2008 in Paravani River canyon under Khertvisi Fortress. In all, above listed, cases only solitary individuals were observed. Breeding biology: No factual data on regional patterns of nesting, clutch and eggs size, phonological dates of egg-laying, hatching, fledging, breeding success and productivity, etc. Food: During a study in Caucasus, 38 attacks were observed. 22, or about 58%, were successful. Always kills mammals and birds on the ground. Among prey species were recorded small unidentified rodents (7), unidentified lark or pipit (1), Feral Pigeons (2), Common Starling (1), Magpies (2) small passerines (2), unidentified lizards (5) and large insects (2). Besides that, the stomach of four individuals killed by poachers contains remnants of a two mice, one vole, one unidentified lizard and remains of large beetles. Seasonal movements: In spring the first individuals arrive in Georgia in the end of March. The transit lasts till the beginning of May. Differently from the spring transit, in autumn dates are more prolonged. Autumn transit starts in the late August and reaches its peak during the end of September. The last transients were watched in the end of October. During the last twenty years, the number of migrating in Saker Falcons across country has decreased catastrophically, especially from the middle of 1990’s. In 2005-2012 not more than 50 individuals were considered to migrate per autumn season, from which about 4/5 across eastern areas. Most of records of transit migrants during last years were in arid open habitats in south-eastern part of country. Wintering: The Saker Falcon is irregular winter visitor in small numbers. During mid-winter surveys of Birds of Prey in Georgia, conducted in 1970’s-1980’s, solitary individuals were counted in some winters. At least 90% of records were in Eastern Georgia, i.e. in the Caspian Sea basin, mostly in semi-deserts in SE part of country. In Western Georgia, i.e. in the Black sea basin, this falcon was occasional winterer. During the last two decades the number of wintering Saker

195 Falcons in Georgia considerably decreased and at present it is occasional winterer. Threats: The most serious threat at present is trapping by local falconers. During collecting of materials at least 11 cases of trapping were noted. Besides that, at least 18 Sakers were killed by poachers – 16 during autumn transits and 2 on winter grounds (Abuladze et al., 2011d). Conservation status: SPEC1; BONN I; CITES II; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Endangered (EN); Status Global Raptor Information Network – Endangered; Red List of Georgia – CR. The Saker Falcon was including in the first edition of the National Red Data Book (1982).

39. Gyr Falcon Falco rusticolus Georgian name: სონღული [songhuli] The Gyrfalcon is a largest falcon in the world; species with a circumpolar distribution, found around Arctic in the Northern Russia, Scandinavia, Iceland, Greenland, Alaska, Northern Canada (Mebs & Schmidt 2006; Potapov, Sale, 2005). Status of presence: The Gyr Falcon is extremely rare vagrant raptor species to Georgia. Only one record of occurrence of this species has been verified by factual data. In the late January 1977, one specimen of Gyr Falcon was shot directly at the Black Sea shore between Ochamchire town and Gudava village in Abkhazia by unnamed local hunter. Several black-and-white photos of this falcon were taken and sending to Administration of Georgian Union of Hunters and Fishermen “Monkavshiri” in Tbilisi. Reliability of identification of this Gyrfalcon was confirmed by me of submitted photos. Besides that, there are three communications on the visual records of solitary individuals of the “large white falcons” in Western Georgia, i.e. in the Black Sea basin. All these observations were during especially the severe winters and information was provided by non-professional persons and were not confirmed by any factual materials – skins, skeletons, photos, videos, etc. However we assume vagrant solitary birds from Northern Caucasus. One individual was watched by hunter in the late December 1969 at wet meadows near Jumati village in Lanchkhuti district, Guria Region. On 16 February 1972 flying to southern direction “white falcon, much larger than Peregrine Falcon” was watched at right side of Tskhenistskali River valley between town and Bandza village. This bird was observed by local experienced falconer “bazieri”. Last record was on 24 January 1991 at right side of Rioni River valley near Zeda Bashi village, south of Kopitnari airport, Imereti 196 region. This falcon was observed by two hunters with 6x binocular for a several minutes sitting on power line pylon and later flying in field. It should be mentioned, that occasional visits of Gyrfalcon were recorded in western part of the Black Sea basin in Bulgaria (Nankinov, 2007). Threats: Vagrant Gyrfalcons may be threatened by illegal shooting. Conservation status: CITES I; Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk.

40. Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus Tunstall, 1771 Subspecies Falco peregrines brookei breeds in Georgia Georgian name: შავარდენი [shavardeni] The Peregrine Falcon is species with the largest distribution of all raptors, it occurs on every continent except Antarctica. There are 17 subspecies worldwide; 3 subspecies in Europe. Status of presence: Two subspecies of Peregrine Falcon are present in Georgia: Falco peregrines brookei is a year-round resident with local seasonal movements; Falco peregrines peregrinus is an uncommon migrant and winter visitor. Distribution, habitat and population size: According to historical literature from the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Peregrine Falcon was reported as a widespread but not especially numerous raptor species found in suitable habitats throughout the whole country. As in much of the world, the Georgian population as well as the whole Caucasian population declined catastrophically elsewhere in Caucasus during the DDT era. Additionally to impact of pesticides, the intensive persecution during mass-campaigns of raptors and sharply increased level of disturbance, were also very serious negative factors. The Caucasian population of the Peregrine Falcon collapsed from the middle of 1950’s. Number of the breeding pairs in Georgia dropped precipitously especially in the 1960’s due to wide using of DDT and other chemicals in forestry and agriculture. The species practically extirpated as a regular breeder in the country by the late 1960’s. The reason of the sharp use increase of the use of DDT was introducing the pest of coniferous tree species - the Greater European Spruce Bark Beetle Dendroctonus micans, Kugelann (Coleoptera: Scolutidae) into Georgia. In the Georgia, like in other parts of the Caucasus, where the Greater European Spruce Bark Beetle was accidentally introduced, it became dangerous vermin of spruce in mountain forests. The Spruce Beetle breeding began in the spruce forests in the southern parts of Georgia in Lesser Caucasus in the late 1950’s and later in other regions of country. DDT was used for pollination of the affected parts of forests in many regions, but especially wide and intensively in Borjomi gorge, on Meskheti and

197 Trialeti Ridges, in Upper Ajaria, in coniferous forests in Guria and Imereti regions, practically in all coniferous forests in Lesser Caucasus and in some sites in Great Caucasus. Even pupils of shools and soldiers of a regular Army participated in such large-scale works. In result the Peregrine Falcon has disappeared in Lesser Caucasus already by middle of 1960’s, and in the 1970’s practically everywhere in the country. During the period from 1973 to the middle of 1985, the Peregrine Falcon was rare but regular recorded as a rare but regular migrant and winter visitor (Abuladze, 1997), and began breeding again in the country by the mid-1980’s (Abuladze, 2007). The first breeding cases were recorded in Abkhazia’s Black Sea basin, in northwestern Georgia. Breeding of one pair was confirmed at Yupshara River gorge near lower Ritsa Lake in 1984, and it is probably the same pair recorded in the area again in 1985. Two occupied nests were found in Abkhazia in 1988 – in Kodori River valley and in Pskhu- Gumista Nature Reserve. In spring 1990, breeding of at least seven pairs was confirmed in Abkhazia with all nests found on the rocky gorges of large rivers. In Upper Svaneti, the first occupied nest was found in Inguri River gorge in 1988. Breeding of isolated pairs was confirmed later for several areas along the southern macro-slopes of central and eastern parts of Greater Caucasus and the Lesser Caucasus. In 1989- 1993, the total number of the known breeding pairs in the Greater Caucasus in eastern part of Georgia ranged between one and four, with the number increasing from four to seven by 1996-1999. 15-25 pairs were in 2000-2005 (10-12 pairs at Great Caucasus, at least 6 pairs at Lesser Caucasus and 2-3 pairs at lowlands) with a density in suitable habitats vary from 2.3 to 3.9 pairs/1000 km2 (Abuladze, 2007). 35-40 pairs were in 2001-2006 (Abuladze, 2006; Abuladze, 2008a). Current estimates place the breeding population within Georgia (excluding the territories of Abkhazia Autonomous Republic and South Ossetia) at approximately 120 pairs in 2010-2012, probably some more. Strong preference for areas with mature forests, rocky plots, and cliffs – the gorges at Trialeti Ridge, Meskheti Ridge, in Ktsia River basin, Borjomi Gorge, Tergi River valley, in Svaneti, Mtatusheti, Khevsureti, and Pshavi are good examples. Several pairs are known as sporadic breeders in Upper (eastern) Ajaria, Erusheti Ridge, at northern edge of Arsiani Ridge, in lower part of Paravany River canyon, in Mtkvari River valley from border with Turkey to Borjomi gorge and in similar habitats in other parts of country. Pairs seem sensitive to disturbance and tend to inhabit places rarely visited by people, often placing nests in inaccessible rocks. Upper altitudinal limit of breeding distribution is approximately 2000 meters above the sea level (usually no more than 1500 meters above the sea level). Pairs typically remain loyal to nesting territories for several years in turn. Many birds occupy old Raven nests on rock shelves or in 198 shallow niches between rocks. On several occasions, pairs were observed in the areas without rocky habitat; breeding in trees of arid woodland is possible, but it is not presently confirmed by factual materials. Local breeding populations seem presently stable with signs of slight increase in recent years. During the last decade, the number of migrating and wintering individuals has also increased. Since the late 1990s, up to 200 individuals are estimated to migrate per autumn season across the country. Recent estimates of the wintering population is approximately 30 to 35 individuals, with fluctuation from 25 to 50 in some years. The phenology, habitat selection, breeding biology and patterns of seasonal movements are similar with other Southern Caucasus populations (Adamian, Klem, 1999; Patrikeev, 2004). Diet: The Peregrine Falcon feeds exclusively on birds, all taken alive. A great number of bird species are consumed, from small passerines – Great Tit (Parus major), Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs), Goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis) and House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) up to Mallard (Anas platyrinchos), Chukar (Alectoris graeca), Quail (Coturnix coturnix), Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola), Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus), Bee-eater (Merops apiaster), Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), woodpeckers, doves, pigeons, Golden Oriole (Oriolus oriolus), Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) and Carrion Crow (Corvus corone). Over 380 prey items found in several regions were identified. More detailed data were collected in 2008-2011 at four nests and hunting territories - in Mtkvari River valley near locality Tmogvi, at Gombori Ridge, at Trialeti Ridge near Manglisi and at eastern slope of Meskheti Ridge near Borjomi . At least 57 bird taxa were identified, doves, feral pigeon, thrush, starling were the principal prey. In other regions, where data were collected, the most widespread and abundant birds also were the most numerous prey. During breeding season, as well as during passages and in wither, the Peregrine takes the prey that is common in area and easily available. 23 visually observed attacks (or 28.4%) were successful out of 81 recorded attempts to take prey. Threats and limiting factors: The primary threat to the species today is illegal shooting by poachers – at least ten cases of shooting are reported annually. In Ajaria, Guria, and some sites in eastern Georgia, bazieri (Georgian falconers) also illegally capture birds, and such practices should be considered another significant threat to the population – according to data collected since the 1990s, at least five adult individuals are caught per autumn season in western Georgia; it is likely that at least as many individuals taken in other areas go unreported. The taking of nestlings is a particularly serious threat to the local breeding population, with ten cases reported annually. Among

199 other limiting factors, habitat destruction and nest disturbance in some areas has had a negative impact on breeding success (Abuladze, 2007). Conservation status: SPEC 3, CEE 1, BERNA 2, BONN II, CITES I, Status IUCN/BirdLife - Least Concern (LC); Status Global Raptor Information Network - Lower risk; The species has been included in the list of protected bird species in Georgia since the late 1960s, and was also included in the 1st edition of the Georgian Red Data Book (1982).

REFERENCES 1. The listed references present the general sources of literature, documents and web-resources used for compiling this book. For a more complete overview of the publications dealing with Birds of Prey of Georgia, the “Bibliography on the birds of Georgia. 1654-2011”, compiled by the Alexander Abuladze in 2012 is suggested. 2. Abuladze, A.V. 1979a. On the breeding biology of Common Kestrel in the Prone River Valley // Conference of young researchers of Georgia. Abstracts. Tbilisi: 164-166 (in Russian). 3. Abuladze, A.V. 1979b. Nesting of Griffon Vulture in Eastern Georgia // Collection of papers "Nesting ecology of birds and methods of its study". Samarkand, Uzbekistan: 5-6 (in Russian). 4. Abuladze, A.V. 1979c. Some Data on distribution and biology of Egyptian Vulture in Georgia // Materials of the 4th Conference of young researchers of the Institute of Zoology of Georgian Academy of Sciences. Tbilisi: 27-30 (in Russian). 5. Abuladze, A. 1981b. Distribution and numbers of Bearded Vulture in Georgia // Ecology and Protection of Birds. 8th All-Union Ornith. Conference, Abstracts. Kishinev: 3-4 (in Russian). 6. Abuladze, A.V. 1983a. Cinereous Vulture in the Georgian SSR // Ecology of Birds of Prey, Moscow: 49-51 (in Russian). 7. Abuladze, A.V. 1983b. Distribution and numbers of Cinereous Vulture in East Georgia // Materials of the 5th Scientific Conference of Young Scientists of the Institute of Zoology of Academy of Sciences of Georgia. Tbilisi: 22-27 (in Russian). 8. Abuladze, A.V. 1983c. Migrations of some raptors of Baltic populations at Black Sea coast of Georgia and problems of their protection // Abstracts of the XI Baltic Ornithological Conference (13-15 December 1983, Tallinn, Estonia): 49-51 (in Russian). 9. Abuladze, A.V. 1984. On the effect of anthropogenic factors on Scavenging Raptors // Materials of the 8th All-Union Zoogeographical Conference. Leningrad: 3-4 (in Russian).

200 10. Abuladze, A.V. 1985a. Amphibians and Reptiles in the diets of raptors in Georgia // Collection of papers “Herpethology”, No 6. Tashkent, 18-20 September 1985: 5 (in Russian). 11. Abuladze, A.V. 1985b. Data on the breeding biology of Common Buzzard in Eastern Georgia // Materials of the 6th Scientific Conference of Young Scientists of the Institute of Zoology of Academy of Sciences of Georgia. Tbilisi: 17-22 (in Russian). 12. Abuladze, A.V. 1985c. Case of not-typical behavior of Black Vulture at the nest // Materials of the 6th Scientific Conference of Young Scientists of the Institute of Zoology of Academy of Sciences of Georgia. Tbilisi: 25-26 (in Russian). 13. Abuladze, A.V. 1985d. Osprey in Georgia // Materials of the 7th Scientific Conference of Young Scientists of the Institute of Zoology of Academy of Sciences of Georgia. Tbilisi, 16th November 1982: 58-62 (in Russian). 14. Abuladze, A.V. 1985e. Raptors in East Georgia (recent survey). Acta XVIII Congressus Internationalis Ornitologicus. vol. II. Moscow, “Nauka” publishing house: 1072. 15. Abuladze, A.V. 1986a. Death of raptors in Caucasus // Abstracts of Conference "Rare and endangered species of plants and animals in North Caucasus", (Teberda Nature Reserve, 14-19 October 1986). Stavropol’: 81- 82 (in Russian). 16. Abuladze, A.V. 1986b. Status of rare raptors in Vashlovani Nature Reserve // Materials of the All-Union Conference "Problems of nature conservation in the reserves of the forests zone of USSR", 23-25 September 1986, Berezina Natura Reserve, Belorussia, Part 2: 3-5 (in Russian). 17. Abuladze, A.V. 1986c. New data on rare Birds of Prey in Georgian SSR // Study of Birds of the USSR. Abstracts of the 1st Congress of Ornithological Society of the Soviet Union and 9th All-Union Ornithological Conference, Part 1: 17-19 (in Russian). 18. Abuladze, A.V. 1987. Meaning of gnawing Mammals in diets of raptors in East Georgia // Abstracts of the 3rd Session of Georgian Mammological Society, Tbilisi, 17-18 November 1987. Tbilisi “Metsniereba” Publishing House: 12-13 (in Russian). 19. Abuladze, A.V. 1988. Nesting of Long-legged Buzzard in Georgia // Materials of the 7th Conference of young researchers of the Institute of Zoology of Georgian Academy of Sciences. Tbilisi: 60-65 (in Russian). 20. Abuladze, A.V. 1989a. Live prey in the feeding of the Bearded Vulture in the Caucasus // Materials of Conference "Ornithological resources of North Caucasus" (Stavropol, 21-23 April 1989): 3-6 (in Russian). 21. Abuladze, A.V. 1989b. Some aspects of interrelation between raptors and Corvids in Eastern Georgia//Corvids in natural and anthropogenic landscapes. Materials of the Second All-Union Conference on Corvids (Lipetsk, 1989), Part 1: 43-46 (in Russian). 201 22. Abuladze, A.V. 1990a. Counting methods of raptors in mountains // Study and protection of Birds of Prey. Moscow: 5-12 (in Russian). 23. Abuladze, A.V. 1990b. Catching of hawks by Georgian Hawkers // Study and protection of Birds of Prey. Moscow: 62-65 (in Russian). 24. Abuladze, A.V. 1990c. Organization of feeding-places for large raptors // Study and protection of Birds of Prey. Moscow: 240-248 (in Russian). 25. Abuladze, A.V. 1990d. Attraction of raptors to artifical nest-sites (niches) // Study and protection of Birds of Prey. Moscow: 296-299 (in Russian). 26. Abuladze, A.V. 1990e. Importance of the nature reserves of Georgia for protection of raptors // Nature Reserves of the USSR - present and future. Part 3. Zoological investigations, Materials of the All-Union Conference (Novgorod, 1990), Moscow: 184-187 (in Russian). 27. Abuladze, A. 1992. Birds of Prey in Georgia in the 20th Century // Abstracts of the 4th World Conf. on Birds of Prey and Owls (Germany, , May 1992): 5. 28. Abuladze, A. 1994a. Birds of Prey in Georgia in the 20th Century // Raptor Conservation Today. Meyburg, B.-U. & R.D.Chancellor eds., WWGBP/The Pica Press: 23-28. 29. Abuladze, A. 1994b. Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus in Caucasia // Journal fur Ornithologie. Band 135, Aug., 1994. Research Notes on Avian Biology 1994: Selected Contributions from the 21st International Ornithological Cong.: 213. 30. Abuladze, A. 1995a. Status and conservation problems of raptors in Caucasia // Abstracts of International Conference “Holarctic Birds of Prey” (Badajoz, Spain; 17-22 April 1995): 49. 31. Abuladze, A. 1995b. The Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus in the former USSR // Intern. Conference “Holarctic Birds of Prey” (Badajoz, Spain; 17-22.04.1995) Abstracts: 63. 32. Abuladze, A. 1995c. Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus in Caucasia // Bearded Vulture Annual Report 1995. Foundation for the Conservation of the Bearded Vulture (F.C.B.V.), Vienna, Austria: 56-60; 1 table, Bibliography. 33. Abuladze, A. 1996a. Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina in Georgia // Eagle Studies. B.-U.Meyburg & R.D. Chancellor eds. Berlin, London & Paris: 349-355; 1 map & 6 tables. 34. Abuladze, A. 1996b. Ecology of the Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca in Georgia // Eagle Studies. Meyburg & Chancellor eds.: 447-457; 3 maps, 2 figures, 5 tables & Bibliography. 35. Abuladze, A. 1997. Status and Conservation Problems of Raptors in Caucasia // Newsletter of the World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls, No. 25/26: 15-19; 3 tables. 36. Abuladze, A. 1998a. The Atlas of birds of prey in Georgia // Bird Numbers 1998 where Monitoring and Ecological Research meet // Abstracts of the 14th 202 International Conference of the European Bird Census Council (EBCC). 23- 31 March 1998, , Germany: 132. 37. Abuladze, A. 1998b. The Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in Caucasia // Holarctic Birds of Prey. ADENEX – WWGBP. Chancellor, R.D., B.-U. Meyburg & J.J. Ferrero eds.: 177-182. 38. Abuladze, A. 1998c. Daten zum Greifvogelzug Herbst 1997 in Georgien // Ornithologische Mitteilungen, Jahrgang 50, Nr.12-1998: 369-371; 1 table, Bibliography (in German). 39. Abuladze, A.V. 1999a. The Hen Harrier wintering in Georgia // Birds of Prey of the Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. Materials of the 3rd Conference on Birds of Prey of Eastern Europe and Northern Asia (Kislovodsk, 15- 18.09.1998). Part 2. Stavropol': 6-9 (in Russian). 40. Abuladze, A.V. 1999b. Materials on Falconiformes wintering in Georgia // Materials of the 3rd Conference on Birds of Prey of Eastern Europe and Northern Asia (Kislovodsk, 15-18.09.1998). Part 2. Stavropol': 9-13 (in Russian). 41. Abuladze, A.V. 1999c. On birds of prey transmigration in Georgia in autumn 1997 // Birds of Prey of Eastern Europe and North Asia. Materials of the 3rd Conference on Birds of Prey of Eastern Europe and Northern Asia (Kislovodsk, 15-18.09.1998). Part 2: 13-16 (in Russian). 42. Abuladze, A. 2001a. Lesser Kestrel in Georgia // Achievements and problems of Ornithology of Northern Eurasia on a boundary of centuries. Edited by E.Kurochkin and I.Rakchimov. Magarif publishers: 316-336. 43. Abuladze, A. 2001b. Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina in Transcaucasia. Acta Ornithoecologica 4:321-324. 44. Abuladze, A. 2001d. The Greater Aquila clanga and Lesser Aquila pomarina Spotted Eagle migrations in western Georgia // Acta Ornithoecologica 2: 392-395. 45. Abuladze, A. 2002. Griffon Vulture at Black Sea // Vulture News, 46: 37. 46. Abuladze, A.V. 2003a. The Status of Pallid Harrier in Georgia and Transcaucasus // Materials of the 4th Conference on raptors of Northern Eurasia (Penza, 1-3 February 2003). Edited by Prof. Dr. V. Galushin. Rostov- on-Don State Pedagogical University: 109-112 (in Russian). 47. Abuladze, A.V. 2003b. Rough-legged Buzzard wintering in Transcaucasus // Materials of the 4th Conference on raptors of Northern Eurasia. Penza, 1-3 February 2003. Edited by Prof. Dr. V. Galushin. Rostov-on-Don State Pedagogical University: 121-124 (in Russian). 48. Abuladze, A.V. 2006. Birds of Prey of Georgia // Authors abstracts of thesis for PhD in Biology. Tbilisi: 1-48 (in Georgian and Russian). 49. Abuladze, A. 2007. Peregrine Falcon in Georgia // Peregrine Conference Poland 2007, 19 – 23 September 2007, Piotrowo/Poznań: 7.

203 50. Abuladze, A.V. 2008a. Changes in the species composition and numbers of the birds of prey in Georgia in 1975-2007//Research and Conservation of the Raptors in Northern Eurasia. Materials of the 5th Conference on Raptors of Northern Eurasia, Ivanovo, 4-7 February 2008. Ivanovo, Publishing House «Ivanovo State University» 2008: 162-166 (in Russian). 51. Abuladze, A.V. 2008b. On the winter records of Greater Spotted Eagle in Georgia//Collection of papers: “Research and Conservation of the Greater and Lesser Spotted Eagles in Northern Eurasia”. Ivanovo State University Publishing House: 5-8 (in Russian). 52. Abuladze, A.V. 2008c. Bonelli’s Eagle (Hieraaetus fasciatus (Vieill.) in Georgia and adjacent areas // Modern Study of Birds of Prey and Owls. Materials of ІІІ International Scientific Conference «Birds of prey and Owls of Ukraine», Kryvyi Rih, 24-25 October 2008/ Gavrilyuk M.N., Fesenko H.V. (eds.), Kryvyi Rih: 5-10 (in Russian). 53. Abuladze, A.V. 2011. Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nissus), Levant Sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes) and Shikra (Accipiter badius) in Georgia//Materials of the Conf. „Birds of Prey and Owls in Caucasus“. Tbilisi, Abastumani (26-29.10. 2011): 2 - 3. 54. Abuladze, A., Baratashvili, T. 1982. Some aspects of interrelation between raptors and wolfs // Materials of the 1st Session of Mammological Society of Georgia, Tbilisi: 3-4. 55. Abuladze A.V., Beruchashvili G.A. 2012. The Short-toed Eagle in the Central and Western Parts of the South Caucasus // Birds of Prey in the Dynamic Environment of the 3rd Millenium: Status and Prospects: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls of North Eurasia, Kryvyi Rig, 27-30.10. 2012] / Gavrilyuk M.N. (eds.). – Kryvyi Rih: Pub. Chernjavskyj D.A., 2012: 323-329 (in Russian, summary in English). 56. Abuladze, A.V., Edisherashvili, G.V. 2003. Raptor migration in Georgia in spring and autumn 1998 // Materials of the 4th Conference on raptors of Northern Eurasia, Penza, 1-3.02.2003. Edited by Prof. Galushin. Rostov-on- Don State Pedagogical University: 106-109 (in Russian). 57. Abuladze, A.V., Edisherashvili, G.V. 2008a. Merlin in Georgia // Research and Conservation of the Raptors in Northern Eurasia: Materials of the 5th Conference on Raptors of Northern Eurasia], Ivanovo, 4-7 February 2008. Ivanovo, Publishing House «Ivanovo State University» 2008: 166-169 (in Russian). 58. Abuladze, A.V., Edisherashvili, G.V. 2008b. Results of winter birds-of-prey census in Georgia in February 2006 // Modern Study of Birds of Prey and Owls. Materials of ІІІ International Conference «Birds of prey and Owls of Ukraine», Kryvyi Rih, 24-25 October 2008 / Gavrilyuk M.N., Fesenko H.V. (eds.), Kryvyi Rih: 11-18 (in Russian).

204 59. Abuladze, A.V., Edisherashvili, G.V., Bakhtadze, G.I., Kandaurov, A.S. 2003. Wintering of raptors in Georgia in 1998-2000 // Materials of the 4th Conference on raptors of Northern Eurasia, Penza, 1-3 February 2003. Edited by Prof. Dr. Vladimir Galushin. Rostov-on-Don State Pedagogical University: 117-121 (in Russian). 60. Abuladze, A.V., Eligulashvili, V.E. 1996. White-tailed Sea Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) in Transcaucasus // Eagle Studies. Mayburg & Chancellor eds. Berlin, London & Paris: 173-176. 61. Abuladze, A.V., Eligulashvili, V.E., Rostiashvili, G.G. 1991. On the Status of Lanner Falcon in the USSR // Proceedings of the 10th All-Union Ornithological Conference (Vitebsk, 17-20 September 1991), Part 1. Minsk, 1991: 26-28 (in Russian). 62. Abuladze, A.V., Eligulashvili, V.E., Rostiashvili, G.G., Edisherashvili, G.V. 2003. Status of some rare raptor species in Georgia // Materials of the 4th Conference on raptors of Northern Eurasia. Penza, 1-3.02. 2003. Edited by Prof. Dr. Vladimir Galushin. Rostov-on-Don State Pedagogical University publishing house: 106-109 (in Russian). 63. Abuladze, A., Eligulashvili, B., Rostiashvili, G., Shergalin, J. 1995. Present status of Black Vulture's populations in Caucasia // Abstracts of the International Conference «Bird Numbers 1995» (25-30 September 1995, Parnu, Estonia): 3. 64. Abuladze, A., Eligulashvili, B., Rostiashvili, G., Shergalin, J. 1996. Results of 20-years studies of raptors migration in East Pontica // Abstracts of the 2nd International Conference on raptors (2-5 October, Urbino, Italy): 125. 65. Abuladze, A., Eligulashvili, B., Shergalin, J. 2002. Wintering of raptors in Georgia // Raptors in the New Millenium. Proceedings of the World Conference on Birds of Prey & Owls "RAPTORS 2000". Eilat, Israel, 2-8 April 2000. Edited by Reuven Yosef, Michael L. Miller & David Pepler: 141. 66. Abuladze, A., Kandaurov, A., Bukhnikashvili, A., Natradze, I., Kokhia, M., Bekoshvili, D., Gorgadze, O., Edisherashvili, G.V., Goderidze, A., Gertsvolf, A., Eligulashvili, B., Kashta, Ye., Shekiladze, Sh., Mtatsmindeli, A., Rostiashvili, G., Beruchashvili, G., Abuladze, G. 2011. The analysis of recorded causes of death of adult birds of prey and owls in Georgia in 1973- 2011 // Materials of the Intern.Conf. „Birds of Prey and Owls in Caucasus“. Tbilisi, Abastumani: 5-7. 67. Abuladze, A., Kandaurov, A., Edisherashvili, G., Eligulashvili, B. 2011. Wintering of raptors in Georgia: results of long-term monitoring // Materials of the International Conference „Birds of Prey and Owls in Caucasus“. Tbilisi, Abastumani, Georgia; 26-29 October 2011: 4-5. 68. Abuladze, A., Kandaurov, A., Eligulashvili, B. 2011. Seasonal migrations of Birds of Prey across Georgia: results of long-term studies // Materials of the International Conference „Birds of Prey and Owls in Caucasus“. Tbilisi, Abastumani, Georgia; 26-29 October 2011: 3-4.

205 69. Abuladze, A.V., Shergalin, J.E. 1994a. The Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni within the Former USSR // Journal fur Ornithologie. Band 135, August, 1994. Research Notes on Avian Biology: Selected Contributions from the 21st International Ornithological Congress: 214. 70. Abuladze, A.V., Shergalin, J.E. 1994b. On new threats to Imperial Eagles // Newsletter of the World Working Group on Birds of Prey & Owls (WWGBP) No.19/20: 7-9. 71. Abuladze, A.V., Shergalin, J.E. 1996a. Present status of the Black Vulture in CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) // 2nd Intern. Conf. on raptors. 2- 5 October 1996, Urbino, Italy. Abstracts: 85-86. 72. Abuladze, A.V., Shergalin, J.E. 1996b. On the Present Status of the Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca in the European Part of the former Soviet Union // Eagle Studies. B.-U.Meyburg & R.D. Chancellor eds. Berlin, London & Paris: 443-446; Bibliography. 73. Abuladze, A.V., Shergalin, J.E. 1998a. Distribution, population trend and ecology of the Griffon Vulture in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia // Proceedings of the XXII International. Ornithological Congress. Abstracts of Oral Presentations and Posters. Eds.:N.J. Adams & R.H. Slotow. Durban, South Africa. Ostrich, vol 69, No 3 and 4: 416. 74. Abuladze, A.V., Shergalin, J.E. 1998b. The Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus in the former USSR // Holarctic Birds of Prey. ADENEX - WWGBP. Chancellor, R.D., B.-U.Meyburg & J.J. Ferrero eds.: 183-195; 5 tables, Bibliography. 75. Abuladze, A., Shergalin, J. 1998c. New data on the status of the Bearded Vulture in Caucasia // Bearded Vulture Annual Report 1998. Foundation for the Conservation of the Bearded Vulture (F.C.B.V.), Vienna, Austria: 56-60; Bibliography. 76. Abuladze, A., Shergalin, J. 2002. The Golden Eagle in North Caucasia and Transcaucasia // The Journal of Raptor research, Vol.36, No.1 (Supplement), March 2002: 10-17. Edited by Michael J.McGrady, Ricardo Rodrigues- Estrella, Marc J.Bechard, Eduardo Inigo-Elias (Proceedings of International Symposium on the Golden Eagle, La Paz, Mexico, 1999). 77. Abuladze, A., Shergalin, J., Rostiashvili, G., Eligulashvili, B. 1998. Present Status of Caucasian Population of the Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos // Abstracts of the 5th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls (4-11 August 1998, Midrand, South Africa): 33. 78. Adamian, M.S. and D.Klem Jr. 1999. Handbook of the Birds of Armenia. Published by the American University of Armenia: 649 pp. 79. Agaeva, T.A. & G.T. Mustafaev. 1973. Short notes on some birds of Talysh Mountains (report 2) // Proceedings of the Azerbaijan State University, biology series, 3: 51-54 (in Russian).

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216 WEB-RESOURCES: 212.The Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) http://www.unep-aewa.org/home/index.htm 213.Animal Diversity Web (March, 2012) http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Aquila_hel iaca.html 214.Batumi Raptor Count (BRC) Blog (March, 2012) http://www.batumiraptorcount.org/ 215.CITES (March, 2012) http://www.cites.org 216.The Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (March, 2012) http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/104.htm 217.The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (March, 2012) http://www.cms.int 218.The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species http://www.cms.int/ 219.Global Raptor Information Network (The Peregrine Fund) http://www.globalraptors.org/grin/indexAlt.asp 220.Global Register of Migratory Species (March, 2012) http://www.groms.de/ 221.IUCN Red List (March, 2012) http://www.iucnredlist.org 222.Mediterranean Raptor Migration Network (March, 2012) http://www.raptormigration.org/ 223.Raptor Information System (March, 2012) http://ris.wr.usgs.gov/ 224.Raptor Research Foundation (March, 2012) 225.http://www.raptorresearchfoundation.org/ 226.The World Working Group on Birds of Prey & Owls (March, 2012) http://www.raptors-international.de/ 227.BirdLife International – Data Zone – Species (March, 2012) http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/search 228.Raptor migration and bird conservation challenges along the eastern Black Sea coast http://www.econatura.nl/raptor-migration-batumi-caucasus/

217 CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENS ...... 5 PREFACE ...... 9 Birds of prey of Georgia ...... 9 Migrations of birds of brey through georgia ...... 12 Wintering of birds of prey in georgia ...... 13 Species accounts ...... 16 ORDER: FALCONIFORMES - Birds of Prey (Diurnal Raptors) ...... 17 FAMILY PANDIONIDAE - OSPREYS...... 17 Osprey Pandion haliaetus ...... 17 FAMILY: Accipitridae - Hawks, Kites and Eagles ...... 21 2. European Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus Linnaeus, 1758 ...... 21 3. Crested Honey Buzzard Pernis ptilorhynchus ...... 25 4. Red Kite Milvus milvus ...... 26 5. Black Kite Milvus migrans ...... 29 6. White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla ...... 37 7. Pallas's Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus ...... 40 8. Bearded Vulture (Lammergeier) Gypaetus barbatus ...... 42 9. Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus ...... 47 10. Eurasian Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus ...... 55 11. Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus ...... 58 12. Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus Gmelin, 1788 ...... 65 13. Western Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus Linnaeus, 1758 ...... 71 14. Northern (Hen) Harrier Circus cyaneus ...... 76 15. Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus Gmelin, 1771 ...... 80 16. Montagu's Harrier Circus pygargus ...... 84 17. Shikra Accipiter badius ...... 89 18. Levant Sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes ...... 91 19. Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus ...... 95 20. Goshawk (Eurasian or Northern Goshawk) Accipiter gentilis ...... 105 21. Common Buzzard Buteo buteo ...... 113 22. Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus Cretzschmar, 1827...... 117 23. Rough-legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus ...... 125 24. Lesser Spotted Eagle Lophaetus (Aguila) pomarina ...... 129 25. Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga ...... 137 26. Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis Hodgson, 1833 ...... 140 27. Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca ...... 143 28. Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos ...... 151 29. Bonelli's Eagle Hieraeetus fasciatus ...... 160 30. Booted Eagle Hieraeetus pennatus ...... 165 FAMILY: Falconidae - Falcons ...... 168 31. Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni ...... 168 32. Eurasian (Common) Kestrel Falco tinnunculus ...... 177 33. Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus Linnaeus, 1766 ...... 179 34. Eleonorae's Falcon Falco eleonorae ...... 182 35. Merlin Falco columbarius Tunstall, 1711 ...... 183 36. Eurasian Hobby Falco subbuteo ...... 186 37. Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus Temminck, 1825 ...... 190 38. Saker Falcon Falco cherrug ...... 194 39. Gyr Falcon Falco rusticolus ...... 196 40. Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus Tunstall, 1771 ...... 197 REFERENCES ...... 200 WEB-RESOURCES: ...... 217

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