Writing the Street: Discourses of Choice, Agency, and Mobility in Twentieth Century Street Lit

Writing the Street: Discourses of Choice, Agency, and Mobility in Twentieth Century Street Lit Alexandra V Smith A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Washington 2019 Reading Committee: Louis Chude-Sokei, Chair Sonnet Retman, Chair Monika Kaup Program Authorized to Offer Degree: English ©Copyright 2019 Alexandra V Smith University of Washington Abstract Writing the Street: Discourses of Choice, Agency, and Mobility in Twentieth Century Street Lit Alexandra V Smith Co-Chairs of the Supervisory Committee: Louis Chude-Sokei Sonnet Retman Department of English This dissertation argues that the street, as a space of contact in which many different narratives, perspectives, and stories converge, operates as a compelling lens through which we can read twentieth century multi-ethnic literatures of the United States. While there exists a significant amount of critical literary scholarship on urban literature, these studies often focus on urban space more broadly and as represented via the ostensible canon of urban American literature—one dominated by white, male authors. In centering the street as the focal point, I move beyond these canonical standards by engaging a more expansive variety—both in terms of style and authorship—of urban fiction. Thus, this project conceptualizes street literature not as a subgenre within urban fiction but as a distinct literary category that includes a diverse range of genres and forms. Centering the street in this way reveals how the subversive and evasive movements of literary subjects continue to shift and adapt to the effects and agencies of particular historical moments. In street literature, the street emerges as a contested space between 1) the dominant cultural narrative put forth by urban sociological rhetoric that, I argue, emphasizes stagnancy and victimization and 2) literary representations that, I argue, subverts this narrative by emphasizing dynamic movement through both city space and oppressive circumstances. In order to effectively trace this contestation, I employ a sociohistorical methodology grounded in critical spatial theory. This methodology rejects the impulse to think of physical and material space as a mere background or stage against which stories play out, and instead accounts for how space contains the agentive energy of the various sociopolitical and sociocultural ideologies that govern a particular historical moment. I use Edward Soja’s notion of a “socio-spatial dialectic”—one that animates the influence of the spatial as an active participant that both shapes and is shaped by its users and the influence of a particular historical and cultural moment—as a productive means of reading literary representations of the street. This project argues that authors such as Mike Gold, Odie Hawkins, Chester Himes, Ann Petry, Sister Souljah, and Anzia Yezierska use the dynamism of the street to challenge urban sociological narratives that attempt to stabilize, rationalize, and explain the unpredictability of literary street space. The texts examined in this project fight for their right to the city by imbuing the space with rhetorics of movement, choice, and the philosophies of the absurd. These rhetorical and philosophical moves not only speak back to urban sociological discourses that seeks to control, simplify, and, thus, stabilize the productive chaos of the street, but also assert a sense of agency tied to the vitality of the city street, and one in direct opposition to the disciplining discourses that victimize residents. Thus, this dissertation demonstrates that the reclamation of the city street on the part of the literary category of street lit results in the production of new perspectives and narratives regarding the street and urban space. Acknowledgements As cliché as it may seem, there are so many individuals who make up the community of people guiding, supporting, encouraging, and challenging me to get to this point. This dissertation would not have been possible without all of you and I am, truly, incredibly grateful, appreciative, and wonderfully overwhelmed by the outpouring of love and support. Thank you. There are a few individuals I want to acknowledge in particular. First and foremost, I want to thank my chair, Louis Chude-Sokei. Your seminar “Race, Sex and Transgression in African American Literature” changed my direction in graduate school and opened up an entire new way of thinking and writing about literature. This class and your continued guidance beyond it challenged me to do innovative and interesting work and made me a better writer. Thank you for not only believing in this project, but also for continuing to direct it all the way across the country. This speaks volumes about your commitment and dedication to your students and your role as a mentor. I’m truly honored to have had the opportunity to work with you in this capacity. This dissertation would not have been possible without my incredible network of friends in Seattle. Thanks to Lydia Heberling whose camaraderie and sense of humor has been a constant source of kindness, encouragement to be bold, and inspiration to work through the existential angst graduate school constantly provokes. To AJ Burgin, Greg Damico, Emily George, Katie Goehring, Steph Hankinson, Liz Janssen (I.C.M+), and Wesley Smith: without the solace and entertainment of our weekly family dinners this dissertation would have been infinitely harder and far more painful to complete. Steph, thank you for reading and talking through so many drafts of various papers on The Coldest Winter Ever . Those early conversations were essential to figuring out what I wanted to do with “street lit.” To my husband Mark: You have been such a steady source of love, support, encouragement, and strength in my life. I always knew this about you, but grad school dramatically brought this to the forefront. When the challenges of grad school broke my spirit and I was at my lowest point(s), thank you for reminding me that it was going to be okay and helping me remember how to laugh at the absurdity of it all. I wouldn’t have wanted to do this without you by my side. To my family and friends near and far: I am unceasingly grateful to each and everyone one of you. Thank you for encouraging me when I felt defeated and reminding me there is more to life than graduate school and a dissertation, especially when I couldn’t see beyond it. Thank you for checking in on me and asking questions about the specifics of what I was doing. Your interest in the project and my progress inspired me to keep going. Special thanks to my Grandpa Jim and Grandma Judy who, from the very beginning, encouraged me to consider applying to grad school because they “thought my brain would enjoy it.” Thank you, too, for helping me through that first year. For this, I am forever grateful, appreciative, and honored. It wouldn’t have been possible without your support. And finally, I want to thank my former students at Sacramento Charter High School who first introduced me (though I didn’t realize it at the time) to the popularity and rich potential of street lit. Table of Contents Introduction: Discourses of the Street ……………………………………………………………1 One: Charting a Literary History of the Twentieth Century Street……………………….….….42 Literary Representations of the Multi-Ethnic Ghetto…………………………………....49 The Black Ghetto and the Literary Imagination…………………………………………65 Urban Renewal and the Literary Rejection of the “Obsolete” Street……………………75 Two: Wandering the Early Twentieth Century Street in Anzia Yezierska's Bread Givers ...........94 The Modern City………………………………………………………………………..101 The Choice to Wander………………………………………………………………….111 Three: The Absurd Street: Chester Himes’s Run Man Run …………………………………….131 Noir Streets and Hardboiled Detectives………………………………………………...139 The Absurd Street………………………………………………………………………153 Conclusion: “The City is Always the Battleground”: New Directions for Writing the Street…175 Works Cited…………………………………………………………………………………….188 1 Discourses of the Street In 1975, the Council for Public Safety, a group of public-sector unions for police officers and fire fighters, produced a pamphlet of nine guidelines essential for one’s survival in New York City. Emblazoned with a “hooded death’s head” and entitled “Welcome to Fear City”, the pamphlet warns of “shocking” increases in crime and violence on the streets of New York City, that, allegedly, due to mayoral budget cuts, continue to get worse (Cush). Visitors, they warn, should, if at all possible, “stay away from New York City.” If that is impossible, visitors have a chance to “survive and keep their property intact” if they closely follow the listed guidelines: stay in Manhattan, watch out for fire hazards, thoroughly conceal property in automobiles, and “firmly” clutch handbags or other personal luggage at all times (Cush). Perhaps most important of all, the pamphlet warns, visitors should avoid the city streets, an especially, if not the most, dangerous and vulnerable space to inhabit in the city: all visitors should “stay off the streets after 6 P.M.,” as they are “deserted”, and one should “never ride the subway for any reason whatsoever.” 1 If you must go out after 6 P.M, avoid walking at all costs and be sure to call a cab before leaving the safety of a restaurant or one’s hotel room (Cush). Hailing a cab on the street or walking through the city at night risks isolation and, subsequently, vulnerability to attack. While this pamphlet is certainly couched in a particular historical moment and used for specific, political reasons, it also dramatically illustrates and plays upon an extensive history and mythology of “the street” in American 2 popular culture. In this mythology, the danger and drama 1 Riding the bus during the day in midtown Manhattan, however, poses only a “slight risk.” 2 Throughout this project I use the terms United States and America interchangeably.

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