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The Occurrence and Preservation of Diatoms in the Palaeogene of the North Sea Basin

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The Occurrence and Preservation of Diatoms in the Palaeogene of the North Sea Basin The Occurrence and Preservation of Diatoms in the Palaeogene of The North Sea Basin Alexander Gideon Mitlehner Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of London Postgraduate Unit of Micropalaeontology Department of Geological Sciences University College London September 1994 ProQuest Number: 10044326 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest. ProQuest 10044326 Published by ProQuest LLC(2016). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 ABSTRACT The often widespread occurrence of diatoms in the marine sediments of the North Sea Palaeogene has long been recognised. They occur in abundance through a number of intervals where calcareous microfossils are absent (due to palaeoenvironmental conditions and subsequent dissolution). However, poor preservation has previously impeded the taxonomic identification of these diatom assemblages, with most specimens occurring as pyritised inner moulds (steinkems). This study has involved the first detailed description of these assemblages, which was achieved through the use of electron microscopy combined with comparisons with well-preserved specimens, and a survey of original species descriptions held in the Natural History Museum. These techniques have enabled the identification of a total of 79 species, 40 of which have not previously been formally described in pyritised form. Material analysed in this study (including samples from exploration wells and coeval onshore sections around the North Sea Basin) has led to the recognition of a number of diatom events which broadly form three major assemblages through the North Sea Palaeogene sequence. The lowermost is the most diverse, occurring within the volcaniclastic Sele and Balder formations and their onshore equivalents around the Paleocene/Eocene boundary interval. The relationship of abundant diatomaceous deposits to vulcanicity during this interval is discussed, together with other factors (including increased nutrient levels) encouraging the proliferation of diatoms. A later, less diverse assemblage in the mid Eocene includes more cosmopolitan species; above this is a distinctive Oligocene to mid Miocene assemblage. The state of preservation of diatom assemblages varies markedly around the North Sea Basin; this has been discussed and microprobe analyses conducted. A number of taxonomic revisions of previously published species (both pyritised and non-pyritised) have also been carried out, including translations of descriptions into English (and their emendment where necessary). A new genus, Cylindrospira (consisting of two species, C. simsi and C. homanni) is described which has no living representatives, but has features found in both extinct and extant genera. It is palaeoenvironmentally significant, occurring in a brackish facies of the Fur Formation diatomite, age-equivalent to one of the main diatomaceous intervals in the North Sea. Prior to this study, only fully marine diatoms had been documented from the Paleocene. Existing microfossil zonation schemes for the North Sea Palaeogene have been refined, by integrating diatom events with those of stratigraphically well-defmed fossil groups such as foraminifera and silicoflagellates. This has ebabled their correlation with other sections, and an improved understanding of palaeocirculation changes through the North Sea Palaeogene. "I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me." SIR ISAAC NEWTON "One does not go straight up the mountain. Not because it is too steep, but because the view of the whole task from the beginning is too daunting." FLASH CONTENTS List of Figures 8 List of Tables 11 Acknowledgements 13 PART I: BACKGROUND 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Overview; history of diatom studies 17 1.2 Diatom life-cycle; survival strategies 17 1.3 Geological and environmental applications 19 1.4 Fossil diatoms in oceanic sediments: DSDP and GDP 21 1.5 Diatoms in the Palaeogene of the North Sea 23 1.6 Problems associated with this study 23 1.6.1 Geological and palaeoenvironmental factors 23 1.6.2 Taxonomic problems 24 1.6.3 Sample provenance 24 1.7 Summary 26 1.7.1 Organisation of thesis 26 2. THE GEOLOGY OF THE NORTH SEA BASIN: PREVIOUS RESEARCH 2.1 Geological evolution; Cenozoic depositional history 28 2.1.1 Introduction: history of exploration 28 2.1.2 Pre-Cenozoic structural development 28 2.1.3 Evolutionary outline 30 2.1.4 Palaeogene depositional history 33 2.2 Palaeogene Biostratigraphy 39 2.2.1 Overview: North Sea Micropalaeontology 39 2.2.2 Diatoms: North Sea and onshore 41 2.2.3 Foraminifera: North Sea Basin 42 2.2.4 Calcareous nannoplankton 43 2.2.5 Palynology 44 2.2.6 Silicoflagellates 44 2.2.7 Radiolaria 45 2.3 Correlation with other areas 45 2.3.1 General outline 46 2.3.2 Worldwide Palaeogene diatom assemblages: correlation potential 47 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Study Material 53 3.1.1 Offshore sample material 53 3.1.2 Comparative material 55 3.1.2.1 Limfjorden region, Jutland, Denmark 55 3.1.2.1.1 Islands of Fur and Mors, LimQorden 57 3.1.2.2 01st claypit, near Arhus, Jutland 57 3.1.2.3 Knokke No. 1 well, West-Vlaanderen, Belgium 61 3.1.2.4 Harwich and Wrabness, Essex, England 61 3.1.2.5 Diatom samples from the former Soviet Union 61 3.1.3 Sampling of study material 62 3.1.3.1 Sample selection 63 3.1.4 Preparation of study material 63 3.1.4.1 Diatom recovery 63 3.1.4.2 Differential preservation: electron microprobe analysis 67 PART II: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4. TAXONOMY 4.1 Introduction 69 4.2 Taxonomy of pyritised diatoms: rationale 70 4.2.1 SEM versus LM: identification of valid characters 70 4.3 Diatom taxonomy: a state of flux 72 4.4 Diatom systematics 73 4.5 Diatom nomenclature 73 4.6 Location of material 73 14.7 List of diatom species identified during this study, with page reference 76 4.8 Systematic Palaeontology 79 4.8.1 Morphologies found in pyritised form 79 4.8.2 Species found during analysis of the Fur Formation 145 4.9 Other siliceous microfossils recovered 153 4.9.1 Radiolaria: North Sea and onshore 153 4.9.2 Silicoflagellates and ebridians 155 5. BIOSTRATIGRAPHY; CORRELATIONS 5.1 Introduction 158 5.2 Offshore wells: 15/28a-3 and 21/9-1 158 5.2.1 BP well 15/28a-3 159 5.2.2 BP well 21/9-1 172 5.2.3 Core sections: BP wells 16/13a-4, 16/13a-5 176 5.3 Comparative onshore sections 177 5.3.1 Harwich and Wrabness, eastern England 177 5.3.2 Knokke well no. 1, Belgium 177 5.3.3 Samples from 01st, Denmark 178 5.3.4 Fur Formation: results and interpretation 180 5.4 Discussion: comparison with previous work 182 5.4.1 Offshore wells 182 5.4.1.1 BP well 15/28a-3 183 5.4.1.2 BP well 21/9-1 186 5.4.2 Comparison of diatom data with previous studies 186 5.4.2.1 North Sea 186 5.4.2.2 Comparison with onshore assemblages 186 5.4.2.2.1 Fur Formation 189 5.4.2.2.2 Other localities in northwest Europe 189 5.4.3 Comparison with diatom assemblages in other areas 191 5.4.3.1 Localities in the former Soviet Union 191 5.4.3.2 Arctic Ocean 191 5.4.3.3 Deep Sea Drilling Project/ Ocean Drilling Program sites 191 5.4.3.4 Other pyritised diatom assemblages 192 5.5 Ranges of diatoms in the North Sea Palaeogene: implications for 192 changes in circulation regime 6. PRESERVATION OF DIATOMS IN NORTH SEA PALAEOGENE SEDIMENTS 6.1 Introduction 195 6.2 Silica dissolution: palaeoecological interpretation 195 6.3 Silica diagenesis: phase changes 199 6.3.1 Preservation of biogenic silica in concretions 200 6.3 Silica diagenesis: phase changes 199 6.3.1 Preservation of biogenic silica in concretions 200 6.4 Authigenic mineral infilling and replacement 201 6.4.1 Pyritisation 201 6.5 Results from the present study: microprobe analysis 205 6.6 Discussion 209 7. DIATOMS AND PALAEOENVIRONMENTS IN THE PALAEOGENE OF THE NORTH SEA BASIN 7.1 Introduction 212 7.2 The relationship of diatomaceous deposits to volcanism 213 7.2.1 Previous models: North Sea 214 7.2.2 Synthesis 216 7.3 The North Sea Basin during the latest Paleocene to earliest Eocene 219 7.3.1 Palaeogeography 219 7.3.2 Palaeocirculation 219 7.3.3 Problems of interpretation: Upwelling in a "Greenhouse World" 220 7.4 Diatom ecology: modem analogues 222 7.4.1 Ethmodiscus 222 7.4.2 Abundance peak of Fenestrella antiqua: a possible explanation 223 7.5 North Sea diatom occurrences during the later Palaeogene 224 8. CONCLUSIONS 8.1 Achievements of the present study 226 8.2 Suggestions for further research 227 REFERENCES* 229 PLATES 253 APPENDIX 278 Charts showing abundances of microfossils (diatoms, radiolaria, and foraminifera in BP wells 15/28a-3 and 21/9-1. * NB: See p. 252a for a list of supplementary references.
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