Harrisonburg, Virginia, 1982

CAVE MANAGEMENT SYMPOSIA

PROCEEDINGS

Harrisonburg, Virginia

November 5-7, 1982 Sponsored by

The American Cave Conservation Association

Co-Sponsors

National Speleological Society The Nature Conservancy Butler Cave Conservation Society National Cave Diving Association Cave Conservancy of the Virginias National Caves Association Cave Conservation Institute Mammoth Cave National Park Perkins Cave Conservation an9 Virginia Cave Commission Management Society

Symposium Chairmen • • John M. Wilson •• Roy D. Powers, Jr. Symposium Secretary · Gregory A. Baumgarner Editors • Helen Thornton .•••• Jer Thornton

Copyright 1985 The American Cave Conservation Association P. O. Box 7017 Richmond, Virginia 23221

Please contact individual authors for permission to use any of the material in these Proceedings. Table of Contents

Introduction and Overview

The Challenge and the Future James P. Wiggins 3 Meeting the Challenge Lewis Cutliff 6 Cave Conservation and Management Overview Roger W. Brucker 8 Overview of Conservation and Management Robert Stitt 15- The Need for Cave Conservation Paul and Lee Stevens ••••.•..•.•.•••.•••.•.••..•••.•...... •...... 18 Management Philosophies

An Overview of Cave Management and Cave Interpretation in Missouri State Parks Scott W.. Schulte 20 Tennessee Valley Authority's Role in Cave Protection and Management Patricia A. Fink ....•...... •... 21 Cave Management: The Bureau of Land Management Approach J. B.. "Buzz" Hummel 22 The Virginia Cave Commission Evelyn Bradshaw 26 Cave Resources Basic Cave Geology F. Howard Campbell, III ...... •...... •.•.. 28 Origin of Caverns David A. Hubbard, Jr 31 Introduction to Cave Paleontology Fred Grady ...... •..•.....•...... •.•...... •• 33 Introduction to Cave Biology Dr. John R. Holsinger •..•.....•...... •.••...... •...•...•...... ~. 35 Cave Bats, Their Ecology, Identification and Distribution Dr. Virginia M. Tipton .•...... •.•...... •.•.•.•...... • 36 Identification and Significance of Common Types of Archaeological Remains From Cave Deposits Dr. David T. Clark ....•...... ••..•.•...... 45 A Brief Survey of the Role Played by the Cave in the Work of Art and Literature Rosemary Balister ...•...... •...... •...... 46 Resource Management

Prescriptions for Cave Management Robert R. Stitt and James Nieland ••.••.••••••••••••..•...•.•.•••• 50 A Cave Inventory System III J. B. "Buzz" Hummel ....•...... •...... •. 54 A Simple, Low-Cost Computer Data Management Technique for Missouri's Cave Fauna Inventory Elizabeth A. Cook . 66 Results of a Cooperative Cave Inventory in'Missouri James E. Gardner ••.•••••••...••..••.•••.••.•••••••••••.•••••..••. 68 Volunteerism For Cave Management Harry B. Mahoney ...... •.•.•..•...•.••••••••••••••.•.. 69 The Use of the Significant Cave List as a Cave Conservation Tool Robert Custard, Dr. John R. Holsinger, Philip C. Lucas •.•.••••••. 76 General Cave Gate Considerations Roy D. Powers, Jr ...... •...... 77 Management Projects Cave Conservation in the Klamath Mountains Mike Sims 82 The Formation of the Trout Rock Conservation Task Force Fred Grady ...... •...... 85 Cave Management for the Endangered Indiana Bat (Myotis Sodalis) and Gray Bat (Myotis Grisescens) John T. Brady ...... •...... 86 Cave History

A Brief ,~~story of Grand Caverns Bob Custard 98 A Brief Overview of the History, Geology, and Management of Fountain Cave Bob Custard 99 A Brief History of Massanutten Caverns Bob Custard 101

General Cave Rescue Tom Vines, Dave Morrow ...... •...... 104 Cave Diving for the Cave Manager Arthur T. Leitheuser and Dennis Williams ••••••••••••••••••.•••••. 105 Using Photography to Educate and Communicate Cave Conservation Chip Clark 106 Perception of the NSS by Show Cave Operators Dr. George N. Huppert and Betty Wheeler •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 107 The NSS and Cave Management Bob Liebman III Film: Underground Rivers Phil Whitfield 112 Road Logs

Segment 1: Massanutten Caverns 114 Segment 2: Shenandoah and Luray Caverns ••••••••••••..•.•••••••...•.• 115 Wooden Bridge Tour 118

i i INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW This page • IS blank The Challenge and the Future

James P. Wiggins~r

INTRODUCTION constraints imposed on us by a troubled economy in a changing society. It is indeed a pleasure for me to participate in the 1982 National Cave Management Symposium. It CHANGING TIMES seems like yesterday when Mammoth Cave National Park hosted the 1980 Symposium. I have many For most of the last three decades, park manag­ fond memories of that Symposium and I hope those ers have been in an era of growth and expansion of you that were there - and there are many of and have been making decisions accordingly. you here today - also treasure the same memo­ Like the rest of society, they were accustomed ries. I am sure that this Symposium, as with to many non-essentials and their facilities and the previous ones, will be equally rewarding and services were often second to none. As we all successful. In reviewing the agenda for this know, these conditions have been changed in year's meeting, I find the subjects vital to recent years. Like the visitors we serve, our sound cave management and the activities useful belts must also be tightened. We are now enter­ and exciting. ing a time frame where we must stretch a shrink­ ing budget to cover increasing costs in our My special thanks to John Wilson, Roy Powers and services to the public. Every major expenditure their committees for organizing the Symposium. must be justified as it will most certainly be I know, by experience, the many endless hours questioned. I believe this trend will continue that are devoted to an event such as this. into the foreseeable future. Many budgets have Again, thank you. already been severely severed and I fear many more reductions are to come. Managers will be If this is your first Symposium, bear in mind making difficult decisions such as which pro­ that some of the "best minds" in the caving grams are to be deleted or reduced and which community are here today. You will find them employees are to be furloughed. very friendly, composed of many disciplines, representing many organizations and agencies, The image of parks as being a "free service" for both public and private. You can be assured the many agencies will change and more emphasis will caving community wants to share their experience be placed on a "pay as you use" system. Public and talents with you. Please let them - and managers will adopt cost-efficient programs and please become a member of the family. Your become more self-sufficient and businesslike. continued support and participation is essential They will tap other government entities and the to sound cave management. private sector to see if they can provide ser­ vices at reduced costs. No services will be Today, cave managers of public agencies are immune and will include a wide range of activi­ facing what many of the cave managers in the ties such as maintenance, interpretation, re­ private sector have since their existence­ source management, law enforcement and various survival. In fact, at our last Symposium, one phases of administration. In the future, more of the panel discussions, chaired by the Nation­ emphasis will be placed on contract administra­ al Caves Association, covered many of the same tion. concerns Government park managers are plagued As cutbacks become imminent and managers examine with today. I am talking about severe fiscal the options, they should beware of false econ­ omics both now and over the long term. They *Management Assistant, U. S. Department of the should also beware of impacts their actions will Interior, National Park Service, Mammoth Cave have on the community and other agencies. Re­ National Park, Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. gardless of the fiscal constraints, managers

3 should not jeopardize, under any circumstances, be working closely with the U. S. travel in­ the unique and fragile cave resources. Social dustry representatives to improve both domestic and economic pressures must not deteriorate the and foreign information services. irreplaceable treasures. In these changing times when public support is crucial to our Overall, there will be endless opportunities for existence, it is imperative that all managers increased concession involvement in federal effectively communicate with the public the agencies. The economic opportunity for the reasons for changes. Remember, cave apprecia­ private sector to assist the Government in its tion and preservation are inseparable. mission has never been greater.

PRIVATE SECTOR INVOLVEMENT The role of non-profit groups will become in­ creasingly important. The National Speleologi­ It is the position of the administration that the Federal Government and the private sector cal Society, the Cave Research Foundation, and share the responsibility for providing the re­ other non-profit groups have provided signifi­ sources needed to preserve the quality of life cant cost savings to many agencies and are a­ in our nation. It is Government policy to rely ligned with many Government priorities and on the private sector to support Government goals. At Mammoth Cave, the NSS has been as­ functions by providing products or services. sisting the rangers in the implementation of a recreational sports caving program. In addi­ Where commercial sources are available, it is tion, the CRF has supported scientific research sound management practice for Government offi­ related to caves and its environment, aided in cials to perform a cost comparison analysis to many aspects of cave conservation, performed determine who can provide the product or service cave explorations that resulted in significant more economically - the Government or the pri­ cave discoveries and assisted in interpretation vate sector. A detailed management review is of caves through education. essential and should include a complete review of all and anything that contributes to the cost Volunteers and efficiency of the operations including cost of equipment, supplies, and personnel. In es­ The volunteer program, common to many agencies, sence, those products or services that can be has been successful in the past and will cer­ accomplished more economically and efficiently tainly be relied on more in the future. In by the private sector should be contracted out. fact, for many federal, state, and local gov­ Historically, it is maintenance activities such ernment units, the use of volunteers is essen­ as janitorial and sanitation services that are tial for adequate resource protection, mainte­ most often contracted out by the National Park nance and visitor services. Service. The National Park Service Volunteers in Parks To organize and guide the strength and ingenuity (VIP) Program is nearly twelve years old and has that exist 1n both the Government and private contributed almost four million hours of work. sector, the President has established a special To expand the role of the Parks' VIP Program, task force. With the creation of the task force the Service is offering the volunteer more of an comes the opportunity to increase the benefits opportunity t~ work in the many and varied ac­ from the private sector, especially in those tivities within the Service. They can work in programs and organizations already utilized by such fields as interpretation, living histoy, many Government entities. arts and crafts, history, archaeology, natural science, resourcement management, and mainten­ To upgrade the quality of the parks and the ance. In essence, the volunteer can work in services offered therein, the National Park almost any work environment, as long as paid Service is improving its relationship with con­ employees are not displaced. cessioners. All areas of the Service are in­ vestigating the feasibility of concessioner­ The Volunteers in Parks Act (Public Law 91-357) operated campgrounds, the possibility of sharing authorized the National Park Service to "re­ facilties and coordinating planning efforts. cruit, train and accept without regard to the Under consideration are the development and Civil Service classification laws, rules or expansion of the reservation system for over­ regulations the services of individuals without night accommodations in park units and nearby compensation as volunteers." The Act further communities. The Service and concessioner will authorized the Service to provide the volunteer 4 "for incidental expenses such as transportation, strategies. In response to these changes, the . uniforms, lodging and subsistence." Although NPS Southeast Regional Director has established the volunteer is not deemed a Federal employee, a Strategic Planning Task Force. In essence, he is considerered one of them in the event of a the task force members are consultants to the work injury. Regional Director on issues that affect the management and operations of the park. BACK TO THE BASICS The objectives of the task force are three-fold. After many years of almost explosive growth, the They include: National Pa~k Ser~ice is stabilizing and is getting "back to the basics". Each unit within (1) Identifying immediate issues, needs and the Service has been directed to develop a basic problems through various methods including em­ mission package. The program was formulated to ployee surveys, meetings, and discussions. In provide management at all levels of the Service order to achieve this objective, assessments with the information needed to make decisions will be made in order to clarify issues and concerning possible cutbacks and reallocations. identify specific needs. Action strategies will be devloped to resolve issues and recommenda­ Only essential activities are to be addressed ­ tions will be made to the Regional Director; that is, those activities needed for the pro­ tection and interpretation of the parks' primary (2) Identifying short range (2-5 years); and resources. In directing the implementation of this program, the National Park Service Direc­ (3) Long range (5-10 years) concerns of the tor, Russell Dickenson, stated: park areas of the Southeast Region are likely to encounter. The formulation of strategies, pol­ I would not ask that you carry out a lCles and directions for increasing the reli­ program of this magnitude unless I ability of park management to meet future re­ felt it was extremely important. quirements is proposed. However, we are today at a critical point in our history. We have been Until the task force completes its work, the challenged to document a cohesive benefits arlslng from its undertaking cannot be Service-wide management program, de­ evaluated. However, the potential for what the fine our goals and objectives, criti­ task force can accomplish in improving manage­ cally examine our operations in each ment's efficiency and cost effectiveness is NPS unit and make a careful distinc­ great. tion between those activities which we would like to be able to carry out CONCLUSION versus those which are essential to perform, and develop and.implement a In conclusion, let me say a few words of cau­ rational process for distributing tion. We have been entrusted with some of the available resources so as to respond most fragile and irreplaceable resources in the to our most critical needs before world. These unique resources are dependent on undertaking any other activity. I how we meet our challenge today and in the fu­ believe that the Core Mission process ture. As we light up and enter the darkness of that we are undertaking represents the the unknown, our course of action should be best way of responding to this chal­ carefully planned and·if we err, let's hope it lenge. benefits the resources and is something our children's children will see. Remember, the In the future, the basic operations will become breath-taking sight of a gypsum flower can and the process for planning, programming, and bud­ will wither and die if we become complacent. geting. The challenge and the future is yours.

STRATEGIC PLANNING Thank you.

Changing economics and the increasing demand of our resources require realistic management

5 Meeting the Challenge

Lewis Cutliff*

INTRODUCTION programs necessary to the mission are consider­ ed. From the previous talk you have gained a general overview of the trends and some of the problems The Enabling Act of 1916 and the Parks Enabling facing federal cave managers today. ~y purpose Legislation spell$ out our mission, and that is is to supplement~. Wiggin's talk with speci­ "to manage the resources in a way that will not fics of how we at Mammoth Cave are meeting the only protect them but will also provide for the challenge of a troubled economy, changes in enjoyment by this and future generations. Since society and shrinking budgets. Although we have the cave is the primary resource of Mammoth Cave tightened our belts a bit, we are still alive National Park, we are mandated to protect it as and well and have hopes for the future. well as make it accessible to visitors in the most efficient and economical way possible We SIGNS OF THE TIMES have accomplished this by re-shuffling priori­ ties and more efficient use of manpower. For three decades, Mammoth Cave, like most other areas, experienced a tremendous boom in visita­ Other measures taken for cost savings: tion. It surged in 1959 and rose rapidly until 1974. It was a period of rapid expansion when Delayed starting dates in spring and management struggled to accommodate every visi­ summer - one week tor, sometimes at the expense of the resource, for instance, a self-guided tour. Money was Cut seasonal training - one week pretty easy to come by and resulted in the ad­ dition of specialty tours such as lantern, wild Adjusted seasonal hiring dates and elimin­ cave, handicap and the Great Onyx. ated lump sum leave costs

At the end of the seventies, warning signals Hired ten less seasonals began to appear as inflation soared and federal deficits ballooned. With the advent of a new Started participating in Student Aid administration, we changed from zero base bud­ Program geting to basic operations which, simply stated, is "Getting Back to the Basics." We can no Eliminated surface walks longer assume that "historic funding patterns" will be followed or "base-funding levels will be Eliminated wild cave tour maintained." Each unit of a federal agency must determine that "tasks that are essential to the Even with those measures taken and cost reduced, central purpose of the unit and must be carried we now offer as many tours as we once did. In out," and "to establish the lowest level of fact, we have expanded tour offerings for Echo resources adequate to carry out each such task River. We accomplished this by arranging tour at a m1nlmum level of acceptability." We are times so that personal could lead 3 and 4 tours not to consider those things which we like to do rather than the traditional 2 and 3. We gained or activities we would like to have; only those an additional half hour cave time per person which in a day's time amounts to approximately 15 more productive hours.

*Chief Naturalist, U. S. Department of the In­ Delaying scheduled starting dates caused no terior, National Park Service, Mammoth Cave great problems since visitor use patterns have National Park, Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. shifted somewhat since the rise in gasoline

6 prices and changes in the economy. Seasonal cooperating with E. P. A. in installing an acid ·training, though shortened a week, has never rain and air quality monitoring station. been better. Throughout the summer, they are We are surviving the challenges so far. Now!! given re-enforcement by supervisors and an ex­ What about our future? pert in the field of communication, Dr. Michael Cronin, Radford University, Virginia. Eliminat­ DEALING IN FUTURES ing guided surface walks caused no comments from visitors. Their prime reason in coming to the I think basic operation programming will be with park is to visit the cave. For those who wish us for a long time to come and will be the major to hike the surface, there are 36 miles of document in planning, programming, and budget­ trails available throughout the park. Discon­ ing. As I stated earlier, it directs that all tinuing the wild cave tour did cause consterna­ expenditures and programs be based upon the tion for some visitors, especially those who primary resource as outlined in the enabling came back year after year to participate in it. legislation. Managers of cave parks are faced True, it was a nice addition to our activities with a dichotomy--managing resources to protect but not one that met the criteria of cost ef­ them and at the same time provide enjoyment for fectiveness. visitors. This is a difficult task but one Cost effective measures have been applied in which has helped us fare better than some parks other areas as well as visitor services. Re­ whose primary resources are surface oriented. source management/visitor protection has reduced If visitors are to enjoy the primary resource in road, river and back country patrols, and reduc­ a cave park, such as Mammoth, they must be guid­ ed summer seasonal hires by 25%. Maintenance ed. In this, the guide also becomes the pro­ retro-fitted buildings with insulation and tector. Consequently, we fulfill our mission as double pane glass and finished lighting the cave stated above. For this reason, I believe our with flourescent lights, thereby reducing cost future cuts, if they come, will not be as severe and saving energy to fulfill a mandate to reduce as for other areas. energy consumption 20% by 1985. We are meeting that deadline. I foresee travel holding its own and rising between 1-1/2 to 3% per year. Mammoth Cave's THREATS AND REMEDIES inclusion on the World Heritage List will help in this area. As Jim stated earlier, we, like other cave man­ agers, are fighting for survival. Not only I see more organized groups and bus tour travel from a monetary standpoint but threats to the increasing, based upon our travel patterns in resource as well. Most of you are familiar with recent years and data from the tourism organi­ the major threats to cave resources in Mammoth zations. Cave tour schedules at Mammoth will be Cave National Park. Three of the most pressing expanded with the re-opening of the new en­ are: trance. Interpretive quality will be enhanced by this addition since tour size can be reduc­ 1. Great Onyx Job Corps Center ed. CONCLUSION 2. Groundwater pollution from towns on the Pennyroyal Plateau In conclusion, I look to the future at Mammoth Cave with optimism. There has never been a time 3. P. C. 8. transformers in the cave in the history of this nation when the economy didn't bounce back. There never has been a time Measures to alleviate these threats have been when good old "yankee ingenuity" didn't triumph taken. As of October 20, the Jobs Corps Center over change. It will again. Through meetings was vacated. The 201 Facilities Study on a such as this, we can help each other, even wastewater treatment plan is now in the design though we come from a diversity of backgrounds. stage for the towns of Horse Cave and Cave City. We can learn from each other those things shared Park City will be added later. A contract has in a common interest that have benefited each of been signed for removel of P. C. 8. transformers us in the past and will hopefully help us meet in the cave. In addition, the park is the challenge of the future.

7 Cave Conservation and Management Overview

Roger W. Brucker-l'c Abstract

While the lack of money may seem to be an obstacle to cave management and conservation, protection is a matter of the allocation of resources. The task is to increase the value of the cave over its protection cost, which can be achieved by establishing protection as the highest objective. A second problem is a lack of negotiating capability on cave related matters, such as entrance gating, cave purchase, and exploration agreements. It is proposed that the NSS investigate providing negotiators and training in negotiations. The problem of building communities of cave defenders is analyzed in light of experience with NSS conservation task forces. Successful strategies have included growing a sense of stewardship, gathering facts, careful planning, and the recognition of victories. Three case histories are given that illustrate these ideas.

INTRODUCTION Where do I think we will be in 1993, 10 years from now? How can caves be conserved and managed so future *I predict there will be 20% fewer caves open visitors may enjoy them? Are we caught in the to cavers than now. realities of increasingly frequent cave clos­ ings? Is the general alienation of individuals * I predict that most of the caves open to and the decline of neighborliness and community everyone will be thoroughly despoiled, stripped signs that cave owners will be tougher to deal of speleothems, or polluted beyond endurance. with in years hence? Is it possible that while "us good folks" meet to discuss cave protection, * I think the NSS and individual grottos will the vandals will wreck the caves and will even­ own and manage 20 caves, and will control access tually make protection unnecessary? to these with vigorously enforced rules. We could pose a long list of questions by way of * I predict there will be a cave negotiation introduction to an overview of some of the pro­ service that will deal more effectively with blems that confront caves and those who care landowners than the average grotto can. about them. It would be too easy to say that management is the magic answer that will solve *I predict there will be a cave defense fund to all problems. Today we want to place these finance litigation to preserve and protect issues in perspective, to examine some of the caves. problems critically, and to propose some reme­ dies. So you can see where this talk is he?ded, I will be covering three major problems and will pro­ Privately owned caves, whether commercial or pose a course of action. First is the problem not, are the focus of this discussion. Some of of money; second is the problem of negotiating the examples I use are government caves, but cave agreements and purchases; third is the regardless of ownership, the problems apply to problem of building groups of cave defenders. all caves. We propose management as a solution to many of the present problems and threats. I. The Problem of ~ney *President, Cave Research Foundation, Yellow America in November of 1982 is at the bottom of Springs, Ohio. a recession in which more than one in ten work-

8 ers is jobless. At the moment, the necessary In terms of caves, most would agree that value 'signs to signal a recovery are either invisible, is related both to natural features, and to or they require a microscope or crystal ball to potential use and the resulting satisfaction. A see. very valuable cave is one that appears pristine, where the marvels of nature appear to have been unmodified by man, where the cave blindfish and This means that cave explorers have less money cave cricket roam. So far as man is concerned, to spend, cave owners have a less secure future, cavers call a cave valuable when it presents a the NSS has budget problems, and federal and challenge and rewards exploration with joy and state agencies that are charged with the mission new experience. A cave owner may consider a of preserviflgca~es have few or no resources. cave valuable when it earns a profit. The tick­ All of those pres~rvation measures that require money are in peril or on hold. et buyer may say a cave is valuable when it provides entertainment and education during a visit. Without money, won't the caves suffer? The answer is Yes. Perhaps the only bright side of There is never enough money to protect every the picture is that the casual users of wild kind of value. This is true in all aspects of caves -- those that cause much damage -- may be life, not just the world of caves. I believe, staying at home more. therefore, that the real question becomes not the amount of resources, but the allocation of I talked with James Wiggins, on the staff at resources. What will our spending priorities Mammoth Cave National Park. Tell me your most be? Should we spend the limited money on clean­ serious cave management problem today, I asked ing up a cave, or on buying a gate for it? him. He replied that it was tight budget funds. He pointed out some of the programs that must be Cave protection is based on the fact that caves curtailed because of the cuts: cave gating, a are fragile, easily damaged, and therefore vul­ wild cave program, guide and ranger staffing nerable to irresponsible activities. Unless the cuts and a freeze on hiring, reduction or elim­ caves are protected, none of the subsequent ination of research projects, and so on. It was values are likely to follow. Nobody enjoys a plain to see from the look on his face that Jim trip through a graffiti-decorated sewer. Natur­ was feeling anguish. al values are the primary core of the value system of caves. A year ago I talked with an owner of a private wild cave. He regretted that we could no longer When money is short, it should be allocated to enter the cave on research projects as we had before. The owners had decided to try to sell the protection tasks first. the cave for a considerable sum of money, and our continuing use of the cave might interfere If the way to sell anything is to increase the with purchase negotiations. To my knowledge, value over the cost, then those who care about the cave has not been sold, nor is any developer caves need to elevate the value of caves. Those with an ounce of business sense likely to buy who allocate the resources must be made to see it. that the cave is indeed very valuable, and that Common to these two instances is the central the protection of the cave's natural features is role of money and the subordinate role of the the most critical element. cave. In prosperous times, we would not have these problems. How can we accomplish this? There is education. There is persuasion. There is coercion. All What is the remedy? Fold our hands and wait three tactics belong in the arsenal of those who until things get better? My answer is No. want to preserve and protect caves. I had a speech professor who advanced the startling A master salesman once told me there was a thesis that every change in this world was the simple way to sell anything. All you have to do result of either bribery or blackmail. As ide­ is to increase the value of whatever you are alistic students, we challenged such a simplis­ selling above the selling price. In other tic and cynical idea. Gradually, we saw that words, value is like beauty: very much in the much human behavior can indeed be explained in eye of the beholder. motivation terms of reward and punishment.

9 Increasing the value of the cave over the cost Once the cave resources are known and valued, it of protecting it often requires education, per­ is only logical that both informal and formal suasion, and coercion. Education, in particu­ objectives be proposed to the managers for their lar, requires the presentation of facts about consideration. "You say the speleothems are the the relationships and processes of the cave. It only ones of their type known in North America? may begin with an inventory of the cave's re­ Then of course our first objective is to pre­ sources. There may be research, such as dye serve them so they may be studied and enjoyed tracing that shows the origin of cave pollution. forever". Education is aimed at producing informed citi­ zens, who can make up their own minds on whether Objectives can be readily formulated and written the values are real or not. As a tactic, edu­ down when the resources are known, understood, cation is central to cave preservation because and valued. But managers do not write objec­ it provides the basis for recruiting supporters. tives instinctively. We have found that they People who know the values of caves are less welcome help. Private cave owners, when they likely to fall to manipulative persuasion of the realize the natural fragility of a cave, can opponents of protection. And if coercion is a readily accept the objective of controlling tactic of opponents, the informed citizen may access with a gate when this alternative is make a personal decision to join the protec­ pointed out. tors. It is CRF's experience that a short list of Persuasion often uses emotional appeals as well objectives in regard to caves will head off most as facts and objectivity. Americans share a cave threats early, if the manager is concerned cOOlTlon abhorence of "senseless violence". We and competent. are suspicious of any argument advanced for profits being the primary value in life. We To summarize this section on money, the key is resent being manipulated by "big money". Thus, to understand that the problem is the allocation when a coal company lobbyist tries to defeat of money more than the amount of money. Money acid runoff conservation measures in a state is likely to be allocated where the values are legislature, cave supporters may well describe seen to be the highest. To sell conservation in vivid terms what will result: "Senseless values requires education, persuasion, and violence to rare and beautiful caves, motivated sometimes coercion. The most efficient way to by greed for profits, advocated by silver­ advance the priority of conservation values is tongued spokesmen hired to manipulate your to help the owner or manager set objectives, vote". based on a factual knowledge of the cave.

Coercion can take many forms. Probably the most II. Need For Negotiating Capability effective is a healthy lawsuit when the cave spoilers are violating the law. Many kinds of cave conservation issues require negotiations between people. Cavers need to negotiate with landowners for permission to This is not a textbook on political action. explore. A group may wish to arrange for in­ Ideally, we would rather engage in positive stalling a cave gate. The NSS or related group action ahead of time to ward off the cave con­ may wish to purchase a property with a cave. servation crises. The way for this preventive medicine approach is by helping cave owners and We know that some people are more skil~ed at managers set their objectives before trouble negotiating than others. Professional labor arises. negotiators are in great demand. Some lawyers and real estate salesmen are effective negotia­ The Cave Research Foundation has found that most tors. cave owners and managers of private and govern­ ment caves are curious about their caves. It is Today there are several cave management plans an easy matter to satisfy this curiousity by that could be implemented if only negotiations making a cave inventory and providing factual to buy the cave had been successful. NSS information. We always stress the values of the grottos or special project groups did the re­ natural features inventoried, because this is search, set objectives and made plans, and even the first step in making sure that the owners raised funds. But the outcome is-in doubt be­ and managers will see their caves as valuable. cause of some problem. In one instance, the

10 project leaders thought they had an agreement monitoring• . with the owner to buy the land, only to discover that there were other owners who were either When threats become too severe for local groups unsympathetic or unreachable. In another in­ to counter, the task force calls in friends and stance, the price of the land skyrocketed when allies. The activities of such task forces can the prospective seller became convinced that a be analyzed for insight on what makes them ef­ government agency with unlimited resources would fective. The following four elements of task reward him handsomely if he held out. forces have been identified from discussions with Beth Estes, Chairman of the NSS ~mmoth These are not necessarily failures in negotia­ Cave Conservation Task Force. tion, but the projects might have been accom­ plished successfully or brought to a stalemate 1. Growing a sense of stewardship. The first with less anguish had there been a skillful task in developing the task force was making negotiator. a list of the caving and noncaving groups that might be expected to share a conserva­ The Cave Research Foundation officers have en­ tion ethic for Mammoth Cave. The common ob­ gaged in a variety of negotiations. They have jective was preservation of natural fea­ negotiated agreements with federal agencies on tures. In some cases. groups were identified the national, regional, and local level. They that had an economic interest in preserva­ have negotiated agreements with other groups. tion of natural features. For example. ~m­ They have negotiated leases and agreements with moth Cave is the goose that lays golden eggs landowners. They have purchased land to protect of tourist dollars; if you kill the goose by caves. This experience has led them to the pollution, there will be no more tourists. conclusion that negotiations can always benefit from professional expertise, and such expertise Letters and conversations confirmed the cam­ often seems unavailable. mon interest. By keeping groups posted on late-breaking developments, a rapport was I believe that everyone who has been involved in built, leading to an informal partnership, cave conservation negotiations has felt inade­ and finally to a sense of stewardship toward quate. When I was president of the Cave Re­ the resources of the cave. On one occasion, search Foundation, I often wished that an expert the Superintendent of ~mmoth Cave met with had been available to conduct the negotiations representatives of half a dozen organiza­ or at least that the advice of an expert tions to discuss cave conservation problems. could have been made available to me. Stewardship means managing and keeping safe I propose that the NSS undertake an investiga­ in a caring way. When participants in a tion of cave negot~ations. Could the NSS task force know their concerns are being ac­ inventory its members to identify those who are ted upon, they commit themselves and can be skilled at negotiating agreements, making offers expected to pitch in as needed. to buy land, or mediate conflicts? Could the NSS establish a Negotiations Committee of vol­ 2. Knowledge better than speculation. A com­ unteer or paid practitioners who would be avail­ munity implies shared experiences.knowledge. able to projects and groups? Could the NSS values, and neighborliness. One of the best conduct a seminar or workshop on cave negotia­ ways to cement the community of cave defen­ tions led by experts -- for the benefit of ders is to research the facts about the those who need to negotiate? Could the NSS cave, so that actions of the group may be publish a Cave Negotiations Handbook similar to based on knowledge rather than on hunch or its successful Cave Gating Handbook? speculation. When such knowledge is shared, it can provide a basis for authoritative III. Toward A Community of Cave Defenders statements and reasoned recommendations.

The NSS, CRF, and other caving groups have had At ~nmoth Cave. the task force had the ben­ considerable success with local conservation efit of nearly three decades of intensive task forces. Often a local group is close e­ research and publishing by Cave Research nough to a threatened cave to know the situation Foundation and other investigators. The intimately; it can respond quickly, develop longest cave is also the most studied cave. local media contacts. and can provide continual Consequently, the task force was able to tap

1 1 this reservoir of knowledge, first to inform be to recruit and interest news reporters. and educate friends and allies, and second­ The plan is to identify and contact those in ly, to work out its own positions. the area. The goal may be to get three lo­ Probably any conservation task force needs cal stories in the paper. When the third to address the issue of building its data story appears, that is victory! It should base. Perhaps it can recruit investigators be a time of celebration, bestowing of cre­ to survey and map. Experts are available to dit, and renewal. help make cave inventories. In any adversa­ rial situation, such as cavers versus strip Great accomplishments are the result of lit­ miners, the opponents to the cave conserva­ tle victories. tion position are most likely to attack any lack of factual evidence. "Proof by asser­ Some Real Problems Solved By Management tion" isn't good enough. When the task force has the facts, it can also attack the Are these ideas blue sky? Or are they really in opponent's position by challenging their un­ the mainstream of cave conservation today? I supported assertions. believe they are practical, and the following case histories illustrate the principles in 3. Planning heads off problems. A third ele­ action. ment of successful conservation task force operation is careful planning. This plan­ A caving permit system at Mammoth Cave. Last ning cycle must always start with writing year the staff at Mammoth Cave National Park down the objectives. The reason is that wanted to open up some of the park's cave res­ planning is rather easy to do when objec­ ources to organized spelunking. The park had tives are stated, and takes forever when ob­ been forced to cancel the popular Wild Cave Trip jectives are left behind. into Mammoth Cave because of budgetary limits. There was no question that this superlative At Mammoth Cave, one objective was to let interpretive experience was the highlight of a citizens of the region know what vile and lifetime to many of the participants. But it loathsome acts were being committed upon or was not cost-effective from the standpoint of in the cave. The plan that followed was to guide usage. The staff had obtained copies of find investigative reporters who were inter­ the caving permit system from Carlsbad Caverns. ested in a good story, and to obtain speak­ ing engagements at local clubs and groups. When the NSS Mammoth Cave Conservation Task Many objective stories have been written Force learned of this planning, they initiated about the situations at Mammoth Cave; and, contacts between NSS officials and Park Service more local citizens know and care about the officials. Since the NSS grottos were expected caves than ever before. to be heavy users of the new permit system, it seemed reasonable to include the NSS viewpoint 4. Recognize victories. The fourth element of in the planning. To its credit, the Park Super­ successful task force management is acknow­ intendent wholeheartedly welcomed the NSS com­ ledgment of victories. Individual members mittee and soon put it to work. of the task force need to be told when they have achieved a victory, and thanked for The NSS committee quickly saw that the prelimin­ their perseverance. Cave conservation task ary planning had centered around logistical forces are organized initially only when problems of how to administer the permit system. clear and present dangers are recognized. The problems of cave conservation, resource By this time, the chances for saving the inventory, rescue and safety, and monitoring cave may seem slim. Opponents may be well were largely unaddressed. organized and well financed. Legislators may have been bought off. The bulldozers A set of management objectives was proposed by may be rolling. the NSS committee, and adopted by the Park staff. These objectives were entirely consis­ With such long odds against success and so tent with the National Park Service mission to many adversities, the task force planners preserve the resource for future generations, need to establish goals along with their yet to encourage the widest enjoyment~ With the plans. A goal is a quantitative, measurable objectives behind them, it was ~clear that a milestone. For example, the objective may natural resource inventory and hazard assessment

12 needed to be made of the proposed cave. The issue an order requiring termination of the use committee undertook to organize mapping and of the site. other studies. In the meantime, it became clear that a certain level of staffing would be re­ That order came in June of this year: If the quired if the prog~am was to meet its objec­ Park Service had funds for the relocation pro­ tives. The Park Service was committed to pro­ ject, then the present center must be vacated viding staff support and restored to its natural state by October 1, 1983. If there were no funds available, then Then the bUdg~t axe.fell. There was no money to the site was to be vacated and restored by Oc­ run the regular interpretive program, let alone tober 1, 1982. something new. In the absence of objectives, planning, and study, another administration On September 22, the Interior Department and might have tried to "wing it", to mount a half­ National Park Servi~e asked the judge to amend baked permit caving program. This did not hap­ his order, to provide a delay in relocation pen at Mammoth Cave because the staff was con­ until December, 1983. The judge denied the scientious and dedicated. They shelved the government's request without a hearing. Today program rather than sacrifice a cave. You may the closing of the center is well under way, and ,ask, is this a victory? the sewage lagoons are being drained. Thus, victory for cave conservation appears to be at To be sure, it was a disappointment. But it hand. certainly was a victory for sound cave manage­ ment. None of the planning has been lost. The Why was it necessary to resort to legal hard­ objectives are still valid. If the value of the ball? Couldn't those concerned about caves rely experience is later raised high enough, or if on the mission of the National Park Service and budget money is restored, money might still be its stewardship? Perhaps if it had been left allocated for the program. strictly to the professionals in the Park Ser­ vice, stewardship might have prevailed. But the In this instance, we see the interrelationship facts are that political hardball swept aside of money, of negotiating skill, and of a commun­ the mission of the Park Service in this in­ ity of well-informed cave defenders who made stance. Political concern about the preserva­ themselves available to assist the staff in tion of a visible project with its payroll had doing a good job. become "more valuable than its cost". The cave was about to pay the price. In this case, the Law of the land applies to caves. Now we turn to caving community and its allies used the law of the subject of cave conservation hardball. For the land to increase the value of the caves, and years the caving community has protested the to "sell" the idea that the National Park·Ser­ locating of the Great Onyx Job Corps Center atop vice is subject to laws and not to-men. Flint Ridge in Mammoth Cave National Park. The Park Service and independent investigators found Value itself can protect. Let me close with a repeated instances of sewage pollution, cave third case. Some cavers and geologists had long vandalism, altering of natural conditions by marveled at a significant karst feature, a large diversion of surface springs for drinking water, sinkhole or karst window. The gulf is on priv­ and destruction of government property. The ately owned land. The cavers learned that the struggle to eliminate these outrages has contin­ site was being considered as a possible pumping ued for many years in many arenas. station for a municipal water works, and pos­ sibly other uses. The owner was approached, and After the last round of massive sewage leakage asked if he would sell for preservation, to an into the karst aquifer, the National Parks and organization such as The Nature Conservancy. He Conservation Association and several others sued said yes, and eagerly followed the formal eval­ the Department of the Interior and the National uation process that leads up to such a transac­ Park Service to close the center and cease the tion. adverse impacts. The suit led to a plan to relocate the center on land with no caves be­ When The Nature Conservancy was satisfied that neath but for various reasons the funds were not the site was indeed significant, it asked the made available to finance the relocation. price. The owner had become so convinced of the Plaintiffs in the case petitioned the court large intrinsic value of his property that he after more than a year of seeming inaction to quoted a price three to four times higher than

13 prevaling local prices for the entire 300 acres. consideration. The land remains unsold today, The deal fell through. Was this a victory? and is still protected by the land owner. Could more skillful negotiations have preserved the The answer is yes. Even though the land did not land forever? We do not know, but we do know pass into formal protection, the process had that increasing the value of the natural feature raised its value in the eyes of the owner so over its "fair market price" has resulted in high that he would not sell it for ordinary many years of protection.

14 Overview of Conservation and Management

Robert Stitt*

A BRIEF HISTORY OF CAVE MANAGEMENT Park, became an increasingly important force and gradually developed a good working relationship The cave conservation and management movement with the National Park Service. generally began in the early 1BOO's, with the opening of commercial or "show" caves, which The rise of the environmental movement in the allowed the public to visit caves under the early 1970's led to increased activity and in­ supervision of the owners. Until the beginning terest on the part of NSS members and other of the twentieth century, cave management was cavers in more active management of cave re­ primarily in private hands, but several National sources. In an attempt to get more awareness Parks and Monuments containing caves were formed and involvement on the part of Federal cave in as early as 1906. Carlsbad Caverns became a managers and private sector cave owners, the National Monument shortly after its discovery in first National Cave Management Symposium was the late 1920's, and Mammoth Cave, which had held in Albuquerque in 1975. The continuing been in private hands for most of the time it series of symposia has continued to focus inter­ was known to the white man, passed into Federal est and involvement in cave management in spite hands in the early 1940's. of a reduced national leadership visibility within the NSS on cave conservation issues. At about the same time, the National Speleolog­ ical Society was founded, to bring together In summary, over the past almost two centuries speleologists and sport cavers in pursuit of a there has been a movement from landowner (mis)­ common goal--the study of caves. By the 1950's, management of caves towards more knowledgeable it became obvious to many NSS members that un­ and active management on the part of landowners less actions were taken, caves in the natural and managers and more involvement of cave users­ state would not long be with us, and the NSS -cavers and speleologists--in cave management. Conservation Committee was formed. At first, the Committee mainly monitored.cave management PROBLEMS OF CAVE MANAGE~NT AND CONSERVATION outside the Society, but by 1960, it was real­ ized that one of the primary threats to caves I see three major problems that plague the cave was the caver. The NSS Conservation Policy, an conservation and management field: ethical code aimed at encouraging cavers to regulate their own behavior to take better care Because of the low public profile which the of caves, was adopted by the NSS Board of Gov­ caving community has adopted, there is a lack of ernors. public interest in cave conservation and man­ agement. Although the low public profile has During the 1960's, there was increased conser­ been founded on the assumption that if the pub­ vation awareness and activism on the part of NSS lic knew about and visited caves that they would members, many of whom worked with various agen­ destroy them, in fact, the policy appears to cies to promote better management of caves. have had an ironic reverse effect: because the There was much caver education within the NSS, public does not care about caves, scarce gov­ and local and scattered activism. The Cave ernment resources that could be used for man­ Research Foundation, which had been formed in agement has been allocated to other areas that have more public awareness. the late 1950's primarily to engage in speleo­ logical studies within Mammoth Cave National This has led to a lack of resources for cave management both on the part of the federal land *President, National Speleological Society, management agencies and the caving community. Seattle, Washington. Cavers have relied on hard work and scrounging

15 to gate a few caves, and have often had to re­ available from a variety of sources, ranging sort to secrecy (a tactic which only works for from the managers ingenuity to the adoption of awhile) to keep people away from caves and thus management ideas from other resource fields. defer their eventual discovery and destruction by the uninformed general public. Public Education -- One way to gain public sup­ port and to reduce unthinking actions on the In fact, much of this lack of support for cave part of non-cavers is public education. Even­ management has resulted from the sometimes al­ tually a change of attitudes is necessary or we most violent divergence of opinion in the caving will all live on a planet denuded of its natural community. The subjects of cave gating and heritage. Although there is always the Catch-22 caver proliferation are but two of the issues risk in this course, there are ways to educate which have resulted in a flurry of letters to the public about the value of caves without the editor of caving publications, the genera­ encouraging visits to wild caves. One way, for tion of massive correspondence files, and in example, would be to distribute educational some cases, wild (usually never proven) accusa­ materials at show caves. The NSS has several tions and character assassination. Although brochures available aimed at educating the pub­ this dialogue may be a healthy sign that ideas lic about cave values, and also has a Public are circulating and being considered, it has Relations Committee which is working on public often appeared to managers in government and to education. A new project, offering a reward for some members of non-caving environmental organ­ the conviction of cave vandals, also shows some izations that the caving community does not promise in making the public aware that cave really have an in interest in cave management or vandalism is a socially undesirable act. conservation, but instead is interested in cave politics. Caver Education It is presumed (although perhaps not correctly) that cavers exposed to CAVER CAVE ~ANAGEMENT the right attitudes through association with NSS members will adopt proper conservation atti­ While all this debate has waxed and waned over tudes. Certainly self education and restraint the years, many cavers have quietly begun to on the part of the NSS Internal Organizations start managing caves themselves. Some have and members is important--but most cavers do not turned caves into show caves (Cumberland Caverns belong to the NSS. Those cavers can be reached is the best example of a show cave that was through peer pressure in the caves. A success­ built up by cavers). Others have puchased cave ful cave register program in many areas has led properties and managed them as cave preserves either to recruitment of cavers into the NSS or (Friars Hole), research facilities (Butler, to at least ;n understanding that there are Perkins) or as sacrificial caves (Knox). The organized cavers around. The NSS has many pub­ NSS obtained Shelta Cave as a scientific pre­ lications aimed at caver education, including serve in 1970, and McFails Cave has been main­ the Caver Information Series (CIS) and the re­ tained as a scientific and advanced sport caver cently published book Basic Caving. preserve since it was given to the NSS in the last 1960's. At the present time (Fall 1982), Cave Laws Many states have cave protection the NSS is negotiating for several other cave laws which provide varying degrees of protec­ properties. [Note: By the time this paper was tion. There has been a state and local em­ written up in the Spring of 1983, Trout Rocks phasis in the movement to obtain cave protection has been puchased, Pettibone has fallen through, legislation, and it has been a difficult polit­ and others seem to be in a state of limbo.] ical process in some areas. The low profile kept by cavers has not helped. Even when the Problems which have continued to varying degrees laws are on the books, without pressure from the for NSS Cave managers as well as others have public, there usually is no enforcement. The included liability, continuity of interest, NSS Conservation Committee has a subcommittee local group interest, and obtaining knowledge of which provides information on cave protection how to properly manage the caves. laws, and local NSS cavers working with show cave owners have been a potent force for obtain­ CAVE MANAGEMENT TOOLS ing the passsage of cave protection laws.

A number of tools are available to cave manag­ Cave Gates The cave gate is an important ers. The NSS provides some of these, others are means of controlling access to the cave, and

16 thus making the users more accountable, but a KEYS TO THE FUTURE gate is not always an appropriate management tool, and is certainly a controversial one. In order to assure more support for cave man­ Cave gates, if not properly installed, can alter agement, we need to take a higher public pro­ the cave environment and have an adverse effect file, educating the public about the value of upon the life in th cave. To promote knowledge caves while trying not to encourage them to of proper gating techniques, the NSS has pub­ visit wild caves. lished a book Cave Gating. We also need to develop alternate sources of Cave Owner. Involvement and Education -- This is funding for cave management and conservation an important tool to not only keep caves open projects. Certainly, a widespread public edu­ and accessible to cavers, but contributes to the cation program will not get far without money. long term wise management of caves, since it is Some of this money can come from the caving only with the owner's permission that any cave community, but we will increasingly have to turn management can take place by cavers or others. to outside sources, including the wider envi­ To facilitate this, the NSS has a Land Owner ronmental movement, for funding. Relations Committee, and published a brochure "Caving Courtesy" for the education of cavers Finally, there will be an increasing trend to­ about getting along with landowners. wards caver control of caves. Cavers, both through the NSS and on their own, will increas­ Government Involvement It is likely that ingly manage caves both as show caves and as until there is a change in admiminstration gov­ wild cave preserves. ernment involvement in cave management will decrease reflecting a decrease in available These trends, coupled with an increasing self­ funding and a seeming lack of interest on the awareness on the part of the caving community, part of the current administration in preservat­ can lead to better management of caves. ion of anything.

17 The Need for Cave Conservation

Paul Stevens·;/- and Lee Stevens** Abstract

One of the best arguments for cave conservation is to observe the contrast between beautifully decorated caves and caves which have been degraded by man. Perhaps if we can show others the best and the worst of caves, then they may sympathize with our concern for caves and the need to conserve them.

No Manuscript Received

*Project Manager Naval Sea Systems Command, Washington, D.C. **Recording Secretary, National Speleological Society.

18 MANAGEMENT PHILOSOPHIES An Overview of Cave Management and Cave Interpretation in Missouri State Parks

Scott w. Schulte~~ Abstract

In Missouri's State Parks, there are numerous caves which are under the care and protection of the Division of Parks and Historic Preservation of the Department of Natural Resources. These caves vary from simple shelters to extensive systems. These resources are considered to be a valued aspect of the parks' natural resources and considerable thought and effort is given to their protection and interpretation.

Highlights of Missouri's State Park caves management and interpretation are: 1) A cave inventory of all state parks, showing locations, biological content, speleothems and providing management guidelines; 2) A cave permit system for use by cavers in the wild caves; 3) Management plans are being developed for the caves in the parks; 4) Naturalist led cave tours in several state parks. An adventure caving program at Rock Bridge Memorial State Park; 5) Concession-operated commercial cave operation at Onondaga Cave State Park. Interpretive guidelines and guide training is provided by State Park staff; 6) Cave rescue planning and preparation; 7) Endangered species management; 8) Cave pollution research and management; and, 9) Cave Resources Act.

No Manuscript Received

*Superintendent, Rock Bridge Memorial State Park, Columbia, Missouri.

20 Tennessee Valley Authority's Role in Cave Protection and Management

Patricia A. Fink~~ Abstract

The TVA Regional Natural Heritage Project is working to identify and protect significant natural features occurring in the seven-state Tennessee Valley region. The Heritage Project maintains a data base which contains information on threatened and endangered plant and animal species, State and Federal managed areas, sensitive habitats, champion trees, and unique geological features, which includes caves. The data management system was developed by the Nature Conservancy, and includes cross-referenced map, manual, and computer files. The data is used for environmental assessment and to identify significant natural areas in need of preservation. Efforts are then made to protect these areas.

Environmental assessment carried out by the Heritage Project consists of reviewing proposed projects located within the Tennessee Valley that will affect TVA lands or rivers, or receive Federal funds. These proposals are reviewed to determine whether or not the project will conflict with a significant natural feature, such as a cave. This technique has prevented adverse impacts to caves by identifying conflicts prior to construction activities.

TVA became active in cave management by efforts to protect the Federally endangered Gray and Indiana bats. Three caves--Hambricks, Nickajack, and Norris Dam--have been gated in order to prevent disturbance of their bat populations. Ten other caves on TVA lands contain important bat colonies, but because of their inaccessibility are not as vulnerable to destruction and disturbance. Several other caves on TVA lands are being protected by designation as Small Wild Areas.

No Manuscript Received

*Geologist, Tenneesee Valley Authority, Office of Natural Resources, Norris, Tennessee.

21 Cave Management: The Bureau of Land Management Approach

J. B. "Buzz" Hummel * Abstract

This paper deals with the Bureau of Land Management's philosophy and methods of managing cave resources on public lands in the United States. Our approach is basically conservation/preservation oriented, with the objective of managing cave resources in coordination with other natural resource programs as part of comprehensive land use plans.

Background use programs and consequently, when program emphasis changes from one resource to another, The Bureau of land Management, also referred to all programs must be reevaluated to ensure that by the less cumbersome title of BLM, is the resource needs are being met. United States' largest resource conservation agency. We have exclusive management responsi­ This past year, the Bureau reevaluated and de­ bility for about 357 million acres or 56 percent veloped a new policy for recreation management. of all federally administered lands. This land The current emphasis is centered around the area is over twice the size of the state of intensity and type of management required. Two Texas. BLM administered lands do not include types of management are recognized - intensive National Parks or Forests, and are mainly loca­ recreation management and extensive recreation ted in eleven western states and Alaska. management. The first type is to be applied to areas of public lands when recreation is defined BlM is a relatively young federal agency that and recognized as the principal management ob­ was formed by Congress when the General land jective. Only in these areas, which comprise a Office and Grazing Service were combined in small proportion of the public lands, is there a 1946. The General land Office was formed in need to do detailed planning and set detailed 1812, to dispose of public domain lands and objectives with respect to visitor and resource enforce mineral laws, while the Grazing Service protection, and provide recreation opportunities was created in 1934 to administer grazing on consistent with public wishes. public lands. The second type, extensive management, is where Recent management direction was given to the recreation is not the principal management ob­ Bureau through two acts of Congress, the Mul­ jective but is an issue or concern of some sig­ tiple Use Act of 1964 and the Federal land Pol­ nificance in multiple-use management for an icy and Management Act of 1976. These congres­ area. Management emphasis in these areas is sional mandates changed Federal land management focused on resolving existing management issues goals from a disposal policy to one of retention or concerns and detailed planning is not nor­ in public ownership. mally done.

A National commitment to seek energy self­ Cave resources are currently being managed under sufficiency and increased fiscal constraints has both types of management in the Bureau. New resulted in decreased funding levels for the Mexico's cave program is an example where in­ Bureau's recreation programs. The Bureau's tensive management is being applied. recreation program is but one of many multiple Caves and other recreational resources were not considered to be a Bureau management responsi­ *Outdoor Planner/Cave Specialist, US Department bility until the mid-1960's. At this time, of Interior, Bureau of land Management, Roswell members of the caving community contacted the District, Roswell, New Mexico. Roswell, New Mexico District office of BlM and

22 'informed them that a rancher, who leased Federal (C.R.F.) and others played an important part in lands for grazing had denied them access to a developing this management approach. cave located on his lease. This incident brought about an awareness by BL~ of this unique ~anagement Methods resource. The Southwest Region of the National Speleological Society (N.S.S.) aided Bl~ in Recreation program emphasis fluctuates due to obtaining additional information which revealed changes in emphasis for a particular workload the extent of cave resources on public lands, such as wilderness inventory. This program must and that mining, vandalism and rock collecting also compete for funds with ~ther higher prior­ were rapidly destioying many of these caves. ity commodity resource programs. As a result of this yearly variation in funding, managers are required to use innovative approaches in order By 1969, through the devoted efforts of a Bureau to maintain cave program integrity. employee, Don Sawyer, the framework for a na­ tional level cave management policy had been We have dealt with this funding problem by shar­ formulated. Although all of Don's recommenda­ ing our stewardship with cave user-groups. By tions were not implemented at the national le­ establishing close working relationships with vel, he was successful in gaining recognition these groups, we are able to draw on them for for cave resource values in the form of program assistance with the on-the-ground management. funding and resource recreation values. Pre­ sently, BL~ is actively managing caves in the Strong public involvement and volunteer work has four western states of Oregon, Wyoming, Cali­ provided the Bureau with essential information fornia and New ~xico. and assistance. This has also been beneficial in providing grassroots support and served as an information outreach program. ~anagement Philosophy Basic cave management is done on a case-by-ease basis. Each cave requires a separate management There is no Bureauwide policy or guidelines evaluation based upon its intrinsic values. specifically aimed at cave management and no Cave management evaluation and management plans federal statutes or regulations which address are developed in a four step process. cave resource protection. For these reasons, 1. Identification/ownership of cave resource. localized 8L~ management efforts were developed using a "seat of the pants" approach. 2. Cave inventory, classification and report.

3. ~anagement evaluation and decisions complet­ BLM's recreation management philosophy is not to ed. overdevelop recreation sites by filling every space with camp units, tables and toilets; nor 4. Implementation of management decisions. is it to build them into existence by drawing in the public with lavish campgrounds. The When a cave has been determined to be on federal recreation management philosophy is aimed at land, an inventory of physical and biological enhancing and protecting values which are pre­ resources is performed. These inventories are sently being enjoyed by the recreationist. The done to determine the hazards and resource con­ manager accomplishes this goal by managing the tents which are present. This information is natural resource setting, and the activities used to establish management classes and serve which occur within it. This general philosophy as a data base for management decisions. ~n­ is also represented in BLM's cave resource agement decisions and protective measures are management program. Developments made in the based upon the fragility of physical or biolog­ caves, such as trails and gates, are for the ical resources or the magnitude of hazards which purpose of protecting visitors or cave are present. Implementation may involve both resources, which also enhances visitor on-the-ground actions (gating) and admiDistra­ experiences. Full scale cave development or tive actions (permit requirements). commercialization to benefit casual visitor or tourist is provided by the National Park Service The intensity and complexity of management need­ or the private sector. Caving organizations ed for any particular cave is based on the po­ inclUding the N.S.S., Cave Research Foundation tential for man caused actions which may impact

23 its integrity. This concept may better be ex­ a number of years and is readily accessible by plained graphically, using a management model. an improved dirt road; oil and gas development is taking place in the same area as the cave.

wnf ACIi U5( llU PUBLIC ",08L£US ACCESS OF CAVE AWARENESS H onlc..R ""-lBUe CAVE CONTENTS 'ACTOA, AWARENESS CAVE A HAZARDS PRESENT Z CONTENTS A

I rOHsrRUCTlOH c..V< R lOCATK)N COST I 0 CONFUCTS S WITH OTHER USE OF RESOURCES ACCUS Example 3

Example 1 Example 3 represents a cave with the least complex management considerations: it has one room, a single passage and is small; it has no Each of the above boxes represents a management formations or animal life, but may be of consideration which may deal with a specific archaeological interest; access is not difficult cave. The size of each box is indicative of its and the cave is known to the public. importance, (big problem-big box). The diver­ sity or number of management considerations As can be seen from the previous examples, each (boxes) is depicted by the configuration of the cave may require a different level of manage­ model. The main management considerations that ment. We are presently using a three-tiered are intrinsic to any cave consist of the con­ approach which is listed in the order of manage­ tents and hazards present. These factors pro­ ment involvement: vide the core of the model while other manage­ ment considerations, shown as extremities of the 1. Administrative measures; model, may be less important or nonexistent at a particular cave. 2. Regulatory actions;

3. Physical controls.

PUBLIC Administrative measures involve the least strin­ AWARENESS RESOURCE CONFLICTS gent form of management. They could include signing, patrolling, public involvement, tours, cave talks, brochures, or other forms of public contact. This level is where public involvement CAVE CONTENTS IHAZARD~ and education is an important factor and can be built through administrative outreach programs.

EASE OF LOCATION Where administrative measures are insufficient ACCESS to protect the resource or visitor, regulatory actions can be taken. These actions may involve the requirement for cave entrance permits, pas­ Example 2 age and enforcement of state or federal laws, legal closures and signing.

Example 2 presents a cave with these management If administrative and regulatory actions fail or considerations: it has few hazards but has are not sufficient to meet management needs, contents of some interest which deserve protec­ then on-the-ground measures may be required. tion; the cave has been known by the public for Physical controls may alter the natural setting,

24 could impair some resources in the cave and public support, which is the most important should only be used when absolutely necessary. factor. BLM has achieved this support by shar­ For example, installation of a gate to protect ing our stewardship with the public. We have a speleothems may inhibit the movement of a bat good working relationship with the organized colony as well as having effects upon the cave's caving community - their involvement and volun­ microclimate. teer work has and continues to provide a foun­ dation for our program. No cave management program will work without

25 The Virginia Cave Commission

Evelyn Bradshaw*

Virginia does not claim to be the state with the motherhood as worthy of protection. Most bills most caves, but we can assert some firsts in the have been passed with only token opposition or legislative field. Our original Cave Protection unanimously. Act of 1966 is believed to have been the first passed through efforts of the organized caving It would take too long to recite all of the community, and we were the first--and to date accomplishments of the Commission since 1979. the only, I believe--state to have an official Annual printed reports are available for those Cave Commission. interested. During the first year, a small appropriation enabled the Commission to purchase Parenthetically, it is only fair to acknowledge cave protection signs that can be installed to that in some states such as Missouri there is a apprise the visitor of the provisions of the branch of state government that officially in­ act, and to initiate computerization of Virginia cludes cave-related matters under its aegis, cave data. This was negotiated by contract with with active cavers involved in carrying out the Virginia Speleological Survey, which has projects. such data, and thus rockhounds cannot secure locations for all the caves with formations in X How did the Commission come about? After an County under the Freedom of Information Act. abortive attempt to improve the Cave Protection Act in 1977, one Virginia caver living in Rich­ A newsletter for cave owners was initiated. mond observed that the legislative process in These people have often known only a few local Virginia often worked best if a subject was cavers, or unfortunately, only casual thought­ first authorized for study, and results of that less visitors more likely to trepass and vandal­ study then brought to the General Assembly for ize than to appreciate underground wilderness. enactment into law. This was done, and in We hope to enlist their support for protection 1978, there was authorized the Virginia Commis­ and management of this resource. sion on the Conservation of Caves (House Joint Resolution 10), with a mandate to study ways to The Commission also negotiated with the Highway provide for the conservation of caves. Department to keep open but gated another signi­ ficant cave whose entrance was on an interstate The first eleven members of this Commission highway, rather than having it bulldozed com­ included ten members of the caving community, pletely shut and thus unavailable for study and all relatively active in the National Speleolog­ observation. ical Society, and the owner of one of Virginia's fine commercial caves. At the end of the year, Without state funding since 1980, the Commission they recommended both an improved cave protec­ has been able to secure modest financial support tion act along the lines of recent legislation from cave-related oganizations. The Commission­ in neighboring states and the establishment of a ers serve at their own expense. permanent Cave Commission. A major undertaking during these first years has All along, the General Assembly has proven very been the identification of some 250 caves in the sympathetic to our cause. Apparently in the Old Commonwealth as significant, based on a care­ Dominion, caves rank right up there with fully selected set of criteria. A threat to two of these led to negotiations successfully alter­ ing the manner of erecting and maintaining a water facility in one county. *Secretary, Virginia Cave Commission, Alexand­ ria, Virginia.

26 CAVE RESOURCES Basic Cave Geology

F. Howard Campbell III i'·.

A cave is defined by the U.S. Geological Survey National Monument, California illustrate as "a natural opening in the ground, extending pahoehoe lava flows, gas pockets in the flows, beyond the zone of light and large enough to roof collapse, spatter cones, lava stalactites, permit the entry of man". and interior views of the tubes. Many lava caves have wall ridges running the length of the Caves occur in a variety of rock types and are passage. These represent the surface of produced by different geologic processes. The subsequent flow levels within the tube after major types of caves are sea caves, lava caves, initial formation. Some lava caves have very glacier caves and solution caves. Of secondary smooth floors while others contain a ridge of interest are ice caves, eolian caves, tectonic lava extending the length of the passage. When caves and talus caves. these ridges are cracked lengthwise, they resemble a long loaf of bread. Lava ridges and Sea caves are formed by the persistent action of "bread loaf" ridges represent the last movement waves attacking the weaker portions of rocks of molten lava in the tubes. bordering the shore. Waves breaking on the shore exert enormous pressure in cracks in the Glacier caves are formed in the zone of ablation rock and against less resistant parts of the at the "downstream" end or "toe" of a glacier. rock. Gravel and sand carried by the waves Here the ice is melting and caves are formed by exert a corrosive force eroding the rock, and the melt water which enters cracks and crevasses solution by the sea water removes carbonate rock in the ice and excavates drainage passages to form caverns, arches and intricately eroded through or beneath the glacier. These passages pillars and outcrops along the shore. Slides form a three-dimensional network following illustrate the wave cut terrace, sea cliff and fractures in the ice. Water is sometimes seen sea caves in chalk at Flamborough Head, as a glacier surface stream entering a hole in Yorkshire, England, and wave cut arches and the ice, to emerge later from caves along the karst pillars on the South China Sea. Some sea bottom of the glacier or from the face of the caves are entered by boat and are illuminated by glacier at varying heights forming waterfalls to the reflection of light through the water. the valley floor. Illumination is likely to be blue or green tinted. Ice caves are not associated with glaciers. Rather, they are usually solutional caves or Lava caves are created by the differential lava tubes which contain ice for most if not all cooling of a lava flow. As the surface of the of the year. Slides illustrating an ice cave flow cools and crystallizes, it forms the roof are of Merrill Ice Cave, a lava tube, in Lava for the developing lava tubes which represent Beds National Monument, California. During the the last areas within the flow to contain winter, water freezes in the cave, and the ice streams of moving lava. As the flow subsides, persists through the summer because the cold air the level of lava within the tubes lowers. is not displaced by circulation and insulates Eventually all flow stops, the lava crystallizes the ice from warm summer air. and the lava cave remains. Access to these caves is through spatter vents in the roof or Solution caves are the most numerous and the through areas of roof collapse. Slides from largest type of cave. They form in carbonate Craters of the Moon, Idaho and Lava Beds rocks, i.e., limestone, dolomite and marble and in sulfate rocks, i.e., gypsum. Thgse caves are created by slowly moving groundwater that *Assistant Professor of Geology, James Madison dissolves the rock to form irregular passages, University, Harrisonburg, Virginia. tunnels, and large caverns along joints, faults,

28 bedding planes and other areas of weakness in and by the pattern of joints or fractures in the the rock. The groundwater table is an important rock. Where rocks are nearly horizontal. cave control of cave passage development. Three plans often show a great deal of joint control. slides illustrate the progression of cavern Two slides illustrate this effect. showing the development with reference to a lowering upper and lower surfaces of the passages groundwater table. Passages developed above the determined by bedding and the walls controlled water table, in the vadose zone. are called by joints. When the rocks dip substantially. vadose passages and those developed below it. in the plan of the cave may be dominated by the the phreatic zone, are called phreatic. strike of the rocks, and passage cross-sections may become triangular as illustrated by a slide The most widely accepted. theory of cavern of the big room in Sennit Cave. If the dip of development is the two cycle theory. which the rocks is vertical, the bedding planes involves hydraulic action below the water table frequently become passage walls and the cave in the first cycle. followed by cave passage plan may again be dominated by the strike. modification and ornamentation in the second. Arguments have been made for dominant control of Evidence for first cycle, phreatic, development cave passages by bedding planes because of their is seen in blind galleries, ceiling pockets, great continuity. The world's longest caves. three dimensional networks of passages and Holloch Cave in Switzerland and the great ungraded passage floors. The water table Kentucky caves, are largely bedding plane caves. fluctuates seasonally and it is within this Other caves are obviously dominated by joint upper part of the phreatic zone that the rate of control as is illustrated by slides of the solution is most rapid and cave passages Linville Quarry Caves in Rockingham County, develop. As the water table lowers permanently Virginia. Many caves have scallops, current in the region, air enters the cave passages and markings, on passage walls. These indentations, speleothems are able to grow. The second cycle illustrated by a slide from a Kentucky cave. are consequently involves passage modification and solutional forms caused by flowing water in the ornamentation in the air-filled environment of pasage. The size of the scallops is an the vadoze zone. Although there is some debate indication of the velocity of the water which about the mechanisms which produce speleothems, created them. The distance between crests of the general process is well known. Rain water the scallops is inversely proportional to flow ralling through the atmosphere and soaking velocity. Consequently. the slower the water through the humus layer of the regolith "picks flow. the larger the scallops. up" carbon dioxide and becomes a weak carbonic acid. Cave ornamentation is quite variable; however. some structures similar to speleothems are The major minerals in carbonate rocks, calcite produced outside the cave environment. Slides and dolomite, react with the carbonic acid to of icicles and of stalactites attached to mortar produce a highly soluble salt, calcium joints of. modern buildings illustrate some of bicarbonate. Calcium bicarbonate is about 30 the forms. External stalactites may form in times more soluble than calcite; consequently, carbonate rock. as illustrated in a slide limestone and dolomite rock exposed to carbonic showing a Mogote in the Cibao Formation on the acid readily goes into solution. This chemical island of Puerto Rico. The Mogote is itself a weathering phenomenon. called carbonation, is large residual hill of limestone resulting from responsible for the excavation of cave passages karst erosion in regions of subtropical or in the phreatic zone and for ornamentation in tropical rainfall. A series of slides the vadose zone. The deposition of calcium illustrate some of the surface features of karst carbonate, calcite, is accomplished by a erosion. Cross sections of sinkholes are seen reversal of the carbonation reaction in which in road cuts along 1-80 in Pennsylvania and in carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere of Mammoth Cave National Park. Recurring sinkholes the air-filled cave, and calcite precipitates, in Alabama persist in spite of periodic filling creating speleothems. Three slides from with quarry gravel. Pinnacled limestone varies, Sennit-Thorn Mountain cave system in Pendleton as seen in slides of construction sites in County. West Virginia, illustrate various types Virginia and quarry sites in Alabama. In some of speleothem. cases the erosion. aided by imagination. produces fanciful "critters" sculptured in the Orientation of cave passages is often determined limestone. Differential weathering produces a by the attitude, strike and dip. of the rocks highly irregular upper surface which can be seen

29 in the oucrop pattern of carbonate rock. The Wind caves are not eolian in orlgln; rather they irregularity becomes more apparent as are solution caves. The name wind cave is illustrated by three slides of a quarry site in derived from the strong air currents that Alabama. Here the soil has been removed in alternately blow in and out of the cave with preparation for quarrying, revealing the changes in atmospheric pressure. sometimes intricate sculpturing of the rock. Tectonic caves may be formed in any rock type by earth movements causing fracturing and faulting. In zones of fracture and along some faults, Eolian caves tend to be shallow but may be openings in the broken rock may be large enough spectacular in size. They are created by wind to explore. These passages may be ornamented by blown silt and fine sand eroding softer areas of subsequent groundwater action. the rock. The process is essentially one of sand blasting and is active in arid regions. Talus caves also form in any rock type. Talus Even in the driest deserts, eolian caves are is the name given to rock which has been outnumbered by caves of other origins. Water is mechanically eroded from bedrock. The term important in cave formation, even in arid refers to one fragment of rock or may describe regions, especially if the rock is a carbonate the landform produced by large masses of broken or if the sandstone has a calcareous cement. In fragments. A talus cave is formed when the our desert southwest, for example, most of the individual fragments are large and are so rock sculpturing is a result of water erosion arranged as to create explorable passages during a past humid climatic period. through the mass between and around boulders.

30 ·Origin of Caverns

-~ David A. Hubbard, Jr.

Many millions of years after the limestone and water remained in a pit just past Lover's Lane. dolomite beds of the Conococheague Formation As this pool gradually subsided, calcite rims were turned up on end, Grand Caverns began to were left at numerous levels. form. The valley floor was higher than the top of Cave Hill and the water table was at a level Water continued to drip and flow from ceilings, well above the cavern location. walls and floors depositing vast arrays of sta­ lactites, stalagmites, draperies, shields and other calcite deposits (cave formations). As water moved between the rock beds (nearly vertical) and along fractures transverse to The clay fills, which everywhere covered the bedding (joints), it dissolved some of the lime­ cavern's bedrock floor, continued to settle stone and dolomite layers. Some of the layers, resulting in broken and tilted cave formations. more resistant to solution, were left as parti­ A few of these cracked formations have since tions in Dante's Inferno and the Shield Room. mended themselves with flowstone, leaving a Where fractures intersected, the increase in scar-like welt. surface area and volume of water resulted in the solution of large rooms or great halls such as Parts of the caverns have been blocked by cave The Ball Room and Cathedral Hall. formations which grew together. The growth of flowstone and dripstone deposits will cause the caverns to become smaller and shorter. As the cave enlarged by solution, the valley above was gradually widened and deepened by As the hill above erodes closer to the cave erosion. Clay and silt settled out of turbid level, parts of the cavern will collapse, occa­ groundwaters during floods and started filling sionally forming sinkholes on the surface. in the cave. The groundwater level eventually Eventually, the caverns and their once beautiful became so low that the cave began to drain. formations will be eroded away as the surface of Occasional floods still deposited clay and silt Cave Hill reached them. However, beneath the as their turbid waters receded. valley, groundwater is at work dissolving lime­ stone and dolomite along joints and beds of the Conococheague Formation.

Water seeping through the ceiling and walls deposited calcite as dripstone and flowstone. SHIELD GENESIS As seeping waters trickled through the cave, some deposits of clay and silt were reduced. Other deposits, containing residual limestone The most intriguing aspect of Grand Caverns is pebbles, were left. its shield formations. Pondering the origin of such impressive formations results in many more questions than answers. As the valley deepened further, small cave Shields are composed of two parallel planar streams washed more of the fills away, leaving layers of plates separated by a thin space. flows tone bridges and false floors (near Persian Growth is radially concentric from a point of Palace and the Senate Gallery). A large pool of or~g~n similar to a folding fan. Shields are normally inclined but the growth is not always downward from the point of origin. Growth may propagate from a wall outward with one side of * Charlottesville, Virginia.

31 the plates dipping toward the floor and the Should the weight of the lower plate cause it to other side rising toward the ceiling. sag or fall away, growth of the shield stops. Increased flow of capillary water results in the The space between plates must remain thin enough expulsion of saturated waters which may develop for water to adhear to both plates as it migra­ draperies and other flowstone features on the tes by capillary or hydrostatic pressure toward lower plate. the outer growth ring of the formation. Capil­ lary adhesion allows the growth to proceed in The initiation of parallel plates is an intri­ apparent defiance of gravity. Calcite is depo­ guing question. Why does Grand Caverns have so sited along the margin of the plates as carbon many and other caves so few? What is so unique dioxide is released from the water surface in about Grand Caverns? contact with the cave air, which has a lower partial pressure of carbon dioxide.

32 Introduction to Cave Paleontology

Fred Grady* Abstract

Fo~ m~n~ y~ars, paleontologists have described specimens of great sClentlflc lmportance from caves. These range from the spectacular, such as saber toothed cats and giant bears to such animals as mice and bats. Cave owners, cave managers, and cavers should be aware of this resource and make sure it is protected and available for study by paleontologists.

Caves and paleontology are related in two ways. aid in the accumulation of bones in caves. Fossils often occur in the limestones where the Floods also deposit vertebrate remains in caves. caves are formed and fossils may be deposited in Finally, bats roosting in caves die and their caves during and after cave formation. remains become fossil deposits. Some sites derive from a c9mbination of the sources des­ cribed above (Grady and Garton, 1980). The fossils in the limestones are usually marine invertebrates and occasionally fish. They are often hundreds of millions of years old. From a Vertebrate remains in caves are often extremely cave management point of view, these fossils are fragile and collection should be under supervi­ seldom of concern, though there have been cases sion of a paleontologist. Collection of one or of vandalism. These kinds of fossils are fre­ more identifiable items such as a jaw will often quently found more easily accessible outside of allow a professional to make a determination of caves in road cuts and quarries. the scientific importance of a deposit (Wilson, 1980). Such specimens should be wrapped in tissue and placed in a hard container for remov­ The fossils deposited in caves are much younger, al from the cave. Large skeletons, particularly usually less than one million years old. These if fragile to the touch, should be photographed fossils have received more attention from pale­ in place for evaluation. ontologists, as caves are one of the best sources for them. Most important are vertebrate Excavation of a paleontological site is often a remains, usually bones and teeth. time and labor consuming process. Some states and the federal government require permits for excavations on their lands. The excavation Ronald Wilson (1980), in particular, has dis­ itself should be superintended by a paleontolo­ cussed the nature of bone deposits in caves and gist. If the decision is made not to excavate a the types of caves they are likely to be found site, it should be protected from vandalism. in. Allen McCrady (1959) described some of the Cave owners, cave managers, and cavers should be different types of bone deposits in caves. aware of the paleontological resources in caves Vertical entrances and former entrances often and contact a paleontologist upon the discovery have served as traps for unsuspecting animals. of a potential site. A list of members of the Cave entrances are sometimes favored as roosts National Speleological Society Vertebrate Pale­ for predatory birds which deposit remains of ontology study group is provided below. their meals in caves. Carnivores and woodrats Cavers have a long record of working with pale­ ontologists, and it is important to acknowledge the debt of gratitude owed to cavers for the *Smithsonian Institution, Arlington, Virginia. many hours of time and expertise they have put

33 into the discovery and excavation of many im­ H. Gregory McDonald portant paleontological sites. Department of Vertebrate Paleontology Royal Ontario Museum National Speleologoical Society Vertebrate Pale­ 100 Queens Park ontology Study Group Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 2C6

E. Ray Garton Ronald C. Wilson P. o. Box 200 Department of Biology Barrackville, WV 26559 University of Louisville Louisville, KY 40292 Frederick Grady 1201 South Scott St., #123 REFERENCES Arlington, VA 22204 Grady, F. and E. R. Garton. 19Bo. New Trout Cave Oscar Hawksley Bone Dig Annual Report. Karst Kaver 14:2-12. Department of Biology Central Missouri State University McCrady, Allen. 1959. Prospecting Limestone Warrensburg, Mo 64093 Areas for Pleistocene Vertebrate Fossils. The Netherworld News 5:154-161. Allen McCrady Section of Vertebrate Fossils Wilson, Ronald C. 1980. The Recognition, Evalu­ Carnegie Museum of Natural History ation and Management of Cave Bone Deposits. 4400 Forbes Avenue National Cave Management Symposia Proceedings Pittsburgh, PA 15213 1978 and 1980: 121-122.

34 Introduction to Cave Biology

Dr. John R. Holsinger* Abstract

The basic principles of cave ecology and the evolution of cave organisms and ecosystems will be discussed, followed by a review of the diversity of animals found in North American caves.

No Manuscript Received

*Professor of Biological Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences. Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia.

35 Cave Bats, Their Ecology, Identification and Distribution

Dr. Virginia M. Tipton.*

The purpose of this paper is to acquaint the bat to detect and capture gnats and mosquitos reader with various ecological aspects of cave flying through the underbrush. bats necessary to promote the understanding upon which sound management is based. Thus, manage­ The cave bats of the United States are all re­ ment is not specifically addressed. For infor­ latively small (no larger than the size of a mation on management of cave bats, see the paper fist). The majority of them have a diet of by John Brady in this volume and his 1978 paper; insects; a single bat may eat about one-third of Mohr, 1972; Mohr, 1976a; Harvey et al., 1981; its weight in insects during a night. Many of Poulson, 1976; Poulson and Kane, 1977; Tuttle, the bat species hibernate over the winter. 1977; and Tuttle and Stevenson, 1978. Further Hibernation occurs when insect food is unavail­ specific management practices will be included able, and the bats must do something to survive. in the Indiana Bat and Gray Bat Recovery Plans Therefore, they go into a state of almost sus­ which should be available from the U.S. Fish and pended animation where bodily processes are Wildlife Service sometime in 1983. slowed down to such an extent as to require very little food for survival. All the "food" nec­ essary to endure this period of hibernation is 8ats are mammals, warm-blooded, fur-bearing stored as body fat which is slowly used as the animals that give birth to living young and winter progresses. A bat which is awakened too nourish them with mother's milk. They are the many times during the winter will thus die of only mammals capable of flying; "flying starvation because it cannot replenish its food squirrels" merely glide through the air. supply. If the bat survives this critical time Worldwide, bats have a tremendous diversity of in its life history, it emerges from hiberna­ lifestyles; some bats eat fruits and flower tion, lean and hungry for insects in the nectar, some eat insects, some even have a very spring. specialized diet of blood. Bats roost in caves, cliff faces, trees and other vegetation, and Upon leaving the hibernacula in the spring, bats even manmade buildings. Bats range in size from fly to their summer quarters. Very few species no bigger than the end of the thumb to about the of bats are found in caves in the summer, the size of an adult chihuahua. Some bats have huge endangered gray bat being the most notable in eyes that enable them to navigate like owls in the east and the Mexican free-tailed bat in the the night; other bats have less acute vision and west. Many will remain above ground, locating rely much more heavily on echolocation. An themselves in tree hollows, under bark, in "echolocating bat" emits ultrasonic instead of buildings, or such. Of those which do enter audible cries. These ultrasonic pulses bounce caves, the females of most species congregate off objects in the environment and return to the together in nursery colonies. Birth and rearing bat's ears as echoes. The bat then uses this of the young constitute another critical period information to navigate in much the same wayan in the lives of bats. Females readily abort or airplane or submarine does when using radar and abandon their young if they are disturbed too sonar. Our primary sensory information is gain­ much. This is important because bats have a ed through sight; that of the echolocating bat very low reproductive rate, one or two yqung per is hearing, and it is acute enough to allow the year. A slight reduction in the birth rate could have a significant impact upon the popul­ ation. The birth of a baby bat is- fascinating. The mother turns head up (opposite her usual *Associate Professor of Biology, Radford Uni­ resting position) and forms a pouch with her versity, Radford, Virginia. tail (interfemoral) membrane to help catch the

36 newborn bat who emerges feet first. The infant be high enough and the temperature must be ex­ uses its hind feet to climb up the mother so it actly right for each species. Too high a tem­ ~an finally grasp a nipple to nurse. The mother perature will raise the metabolic rate and cause meanwhile is licking and cleaning the baby and the bats to use too much energy; too Iowa tem­ will only leave it (hanging in the nursery) when perature may result in "freezing to death." she goes out to forage at night. Young bats are Summer caves must also have the correct (but able to fly in three to five weeks. Depending higher) temperature. Humidity and quietude are upon the latitude and species of bat, the young also necessary for proper rearing of the young. will be out foraging with their mothers by late Surprisingly, most caves do not qualify as ei­ July or early August. This does not really give ther good hibernacula or nursery roosts. There­ them much time to learn the habits for survival fore, when bats are disturbed and driven from a and put on the weight necessary for hibernation. cave, they may very well not be able even to Besides, shortly after learning to fly, they are find another cave to which they might retreat. making the trek to the winter hibernating Dr, if they remain within the same cave, the grounds, anywhere from several miles for the alternate roost site may not be satisfactory for long-eared bats to several hundred miles for the long-term survival of the species. gray bats. 50 the yearlings are especially vulnerable during their first hibernating seas­ List of Bats on.

Fall swarming may well be as important to the Only the 4B contiguous states of the United survival of bats as winter hibernation and summer States are considered. Of the 40 different birth and rearing of the young. It is not yet species listed by Barbour and Davis (1969), 21 well understood, but this time period has been (or about half) can be found with some regular­ taken into account when restricting access to ity in caves during some part of their life some "bat caves" for protection of the bats. cycle. With some species, still not enough is The term, "swarming," was first introduced by known to make definitive statements about their Wayne Davis in 1964 (Fenton, 1969) to describe habitat (so I made value judgements and categor­ the late summer and early fall nocturnal flights ized them on scanty information). Occasionally, into, out of, and around certain caves. The "no-cave" (or "tree") bats will wander into bats just seem to swarm around the cave en­ caves and thus be found there. Myers (1960) trances all night long. Davis and Hitchcock found many dead tree bats of the genus Lasiurus (1965) surmised that the swarming activity in several Missouri caves. served to help bats locate hibernating sites. In addition, Fenton (1969) suggested that swar­ Following is a list of the 21 "cave bats" with a ming functions in reuniting the sexes for mating brief description and notes on distribution, since he observed mating activity at this time. habitat, and mode of life. The list is se­ Males and females generally roost separately quenced according to taxonomic relationships. during the summer. Courtship occurs mainly Species of bats can be grouped into genera (sin­ during the fall and also into the winter. Males gular = genus) and genera can be grouped into have been found copulating with torpid females families. The species has a two-part name which at hibernacula. In a remarkable departure from is demarcated from the rest of the text by ital­ the usual mammalian sequence of reproductive ics or underlining. The genus is the first name events, the females do not immediately become of the species binomial, and it is capitalized. pregnant. They store the sperm in their repro­ The scientific names were created not to make ductive tracts until the spring, at which time life difficult, but to resolve confusion caused an egg is released from the ovary. This egg by common names (e.g., there are several species will then be fertilized by the sperm, thus ini­ of "long-eared" bats). So I will list the bats tiating development of the embryo. The preg­ by scientific name but will include the common nant females then migrate to their summer or names. Sometimes a part of the scientific name nursery roosts. becomes a common name; Myotis sodalis is some­ times called "sodalis" which is better than the The caves used by bats must be suitable for commonly used "Indiana bat." The forearm mea­ their specific requirements. For hibernation, surement is given because it is one of the ea­ it is not sufficient for a cave just to be dark sier to recognize and more stable characteris­ and quiet to allow successful torpor (lowering tics; the forearm is the largest wingbone seen of metabolic activities), the humidity must also when the bat is hanging at rest. The calcar is

37 also used in descriptions; it is a small pro­ about halfway to the end of the tail membrane jection of one of the foot bones toward the (which is reduced). Small ears. Could be con­ tail, and it helps support the tail (interfemor­ fused with either species of Leptonycteris which al) membrane. Notice that some of the distinc­ both lack a tail. tions between species sound easy until you are Distribution: Extreme SW U.S.--tips of Cali­ actually confronted with the bats and discover fornia, Arizona/New Mexico, southernmost Texas; that only the very experienced bat observer northernmost extension of is range. could actually tell the difference. Distribu­ Habitat: Caves and mines; sometimes buildings. tion information was obtained from Hall (1981). Apparently not found in U.S. in the winter. Habits: Colonial. One of the· few non­ FAMILY: PHYLLOSTOMATIDAE insectivorous bats; they feed on nectar of flo­ wers for which their slender noses and long Mormoops megalophyla tongues are adapted. Remarks: These bats are extremely wary and Common name: Leaf-chinned bat, leaf-chin bat, easily disturbed. moustache bat. Description: Forearm, 51-59 mm. A brownish bat Leptonycteris nivalis with a flatish face that has leaf-like folds of skin in the chin region. One of the larger bats. Cannot be confused with any other species. Distribution: Known only from a few records in Common name: Mexican long-tongued bat, long­ southern Arizona and southern Texas. The nor­ nosed bat. thernmost extension of its range. Description: Forearm, 55-60 mm. One of the Habitat: Usually caves, mines, tunnels and larger bats, sooty brown in color, Very long rarely buildings at any time of the year. slender nose with a triangular nose leaf. There Habits: Colonial, but not clustered in groups is no tail and the tail membrane is reduced. like other colonial bats. Apparently does not Difficult to distinguish from h. sanborni which hibernate. Insectivorous. is only a little smaller in size and has shorter Remarks: The presence of this bat in any given fur that is more reddish. Can be distinguished cave is quite unlikely. from C. mexicana which has a short tail. Distribution: Big Bend area of Texas. Summer Macrotus waterhousii only. Quite rare. Habitat: Caves above 5000 feet in elevation. Common name: Leaf-nosed bat, California leaf­ Habits: Colonial. Feeds on nectar and pollen. nosed bat. Description: Forearm, 47-55 mm. A large gray, big-eared bat with a triangular leaf-like flap Leptonycteris sanborni of skin that projects upward from the end of the nose. The nose leaf distinguishes this bat from other species with which it could be confused. Common name: Sanborn's long-tongued bat, long Relatively large eyes. nosed bat. Distribution: Extreme SW U.S.--California, Description: Forearm, 51-56 mm. One of the Nevada, Arizona; the northernmost extension of larger bats, gray to reddish brown in color. An its range. erect triangular flap of skin (nose leaf) at the Habitat: Abandoned mines and large caves of the end of a long slender nose. There is no tail lowland desert. and the tail membrane is reduced. Very similar Habits: Colonial, but not clustered. These in appearance to h. nivalis which is slightly bats do not hibernate because they occur far larger and does not have the reddish fur. Can enough south that food is available year-round. be distinguished from £. mexicana which has a Insectivorous. short tail. Distribution: Southern Arizona, extreme SW tip Choeronycteris mexicana of New Mexico; northernmost extension of its range. Apparently migrates to r~xico where food Common name: Hog-nosed bat; long-tongued bat. would be more plentiful for the wiQter. Description: Forearm, 43-45 mm. A large brown­ Habitat: Caves and mines in lowland desert ish bat with a very long skinny nose and a prom­ scrub. inent nose leaf. Large eyes. The tail extends Habits: Colonial. Eats pollen, nectar, fruit,

38 and insects. Does not hibernate. description; ~. leibii has keeled calcar; ~. Remarks: One of the 3 cave species with a plant velifer is larger. diet. Distribution: All of Arizona, California, Ore­ FAMILY: VESPERTILIoNIDAE gon, Washington; most of Idaho, extreme western Montana and Nevada, SE Utah, Northern New Mexi­ Myotis lucifugus co, southern and extreme western Colorado. Common name: Little brown bat, lucifugus. Habitat: Caves, mines, buildings, under bridges Description: Forearm, 34-41 mm. Dorsal fur is in the summer in arid regions. Whereabouts bicolor (dark at bases) glossy brown, light basically unknown in the winter. ventral fur. Lo~g hairs extend beyond tips of Habits: Insectivorous. Colonial--summer nur­ claws. Ears, 14-16 mm. In the eastern U.S., series. this species can be distinguished from~. keen­ Myotis austroriparius ii by its shorter ears; distinguished from ~. sodalis by the long toe hairs and lack of a Common name: Southeastern bat, southeastern keeled calcar; distinguished from ~. leibii by myotis, Mississippi myotis, austroriparius. its larger foot and larger size; distinguished Description: Forearm, 36-41 mm. A medium sized from M. grisescens by its smaller size and bi­ Myotis with wooly, dull yellowish-brown hair, on colored dorsal fur; distinguished from ~. back; ventral hair is lighter. Long toe hairs. austroriparius which has dull, wooly fur. In Calcar not keeled. Can be distinguished from the western U.S., can be distinguished from ~. similar species by its wooly fur. Ears are shorter than M. keenii. yamanensis which has dull fur and is usually - --- smaller; M. velifer is usually larger with non­ Distribution: Southeastern U.S. over to extreme glossy fur;~. leibii is smaller; ~. keenii has eastern Texas and Oklahoma. Range extends up longer ears; ~. thysanodes has a fringe of hairs the Mississippi River into the Ohio River drain­ along the edge of the tail (interfemoral) mem­ age in southern Illinois/Indiana. brane. This comparison of lucifugus with other Habitat: Caves, mines, hollow trees, buildings, species with which it could be confused is li­ culverts, beneath bridges. mited to the cave bats. There are other species Habits: Large maternity colonies in caves in of Myotis which I have not included with cave Florida, but they do not frequent the Florida bats that could be confused with lucifugus. caves in the winter because they seem to be too Distribution: This is probably the most abun­ warm for hibernation. In other states hibernate dant bat in the U.S. It is found in every state in caves. Colonial. except Louisiana, most of Texas, most of Flori­ da, most of Nebraska, and the western half of Myotis grisescens Kansas. its range extends south somewhat into Mexico and north across Canada and into Alaska. Common name: Gray bat, cave bat, Howell's bat. Habitat: Caves, mines, and buildings. Caves Description: Forearm, 40-46 mm. A large, big­ and mines in the winter only. It is exceptional footed Myotis. Calcar not keeled. Dull, to find this species in caves in the summer in grayish-brown dorsal fur that is the same color the East; summer nursery colonies may be found from base to tip. Can be distinguished from in caves in the West. confusing species by its unicolor fur and unique ~: Colonial. Hibernates in caves and attachment of wing membrane (at upper part of mines either singly or in loose clusters (com­ ankle rather than at lower part at the base of pared to the tight clusters of the Indiana bat). the toe as in other bats). The colonies may be anywhere from a few indivi­ Distribution: Missouri, Tennessee, Kentucky, duals in a cave to many thousand bats. They Alabama and the fringes of their adjacent seem to prefer hibernating temperatures of 30 to states. 55 degrees F (average 46 degrees) with humidi­ Habitat: Caves, summer and winter. This species ties of 85 to 100 percent (average 89). They is virtually unknown outside of caves. may be covered with water droplets while in Habits:· Extremely colonial. Females form large hibernation, a dramatic sight! maternity colonies, numbering in the thousands. Nearly the entire species hibernates in only 5 Myotis yumanensis caves! The bats form dense clusters (sometimes Common name: Yuma myotis. layered) of up to several thousand individuals. Description: Forearm, 32-38 mm. Dull fur, Remarks: This species is on the Federal En­ light tan to dark brown. Calcar not keeled. dangered Species list. Since it aggregates in Confusing species: M. lucifugus--see lucifugus only a few caves, it is especially vulnerable to

39 local catastrophes and human disturbance. Sum­ around a cave entrance in Pennsylvania in Au­ mer maternity colonies are particularly sensi­ gust, 1931 (Mohr, 1933). tive. Merely shining a light on them will cause large numbers of young to be dropped to the Myotis thysanodes floor, resulting in high mortality (Tuttle, 1976) • Common name: Fringed bat. Description: Forearm, 39-46 mm. a rather large Myotis velifer brownish Myotis with a conspicuous fringe of hair along the free edge of the tail membrane. It is the only Myotis with this trait. Common name: Cave bat, Mexican brown bat. Distribution: Western U.S. to Colorado and New Description: Forearm, 37-47 mm. Dull brown Mexico. A disjunct population is found in wes­ fur. Calcar not keeled. In the eastern part of tern South Dakota and nebraska. the range (Kansas, Oklahoma, central Texas), Habitat: Caves and buildings in the summer. it's larger than other species of Myotis which Habits: Colonial. Winter range unknown. are also more scarce. In the western part of its range, there are more species of Myotis. M. Myotis sodalis thysanodes has longer ears and a fringed inter­ Common name: Indiana bat, social bat, sodalis. femoral membrane. ~. yumanensis and ~. leibii Description: Forearm, 35-41 mm. Keeled calcar. are smaller. Hairs on foot short and inconspicuous. Dorsal Distribution: Southern Arizona and new Mexico, hair brownish. To distinguish from confusing southwestern Texas extending north through species, ~. lucifugus has long toe hairs and no central Oklahoma and into southcentral Kansas. keel on the calcar, ~. keenii has longer ears; Habitat: Mainly caves and mines; sometimes and M. leibii is smaller. buildings. At lower elevations. - --- Distribution: Eastern U.S. from southern Wis- Habits: Highly colonial. Nursery colonies are consin and Michigan to northern Florida, west to mainly in caves, sometimes buildings. Winter eastern Oklahoma. clusters are quite large. Habitat: Caves in the winter. Remarks: This is the most common bat found in Habits: Not found in caves in the summer. caves in its range in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kan­ Extremely colonial in the winter, clustering so sas; found year-round. It is frequently found tightly that all one sees are wrists and faces. clustering with the freetail bat. The clusters contain 500 to 1000 (sometimes as many as 5000) bats. Usually, no droplets of water form on these bats. Remarks: This is a Federally Endangered Species because of its tendency to concentrate the hi­ bernating population in only a few caves. Dur­ Common name: Keen's bat, keenii, Acadian bat. ing the winter months, 94 percent of the known Description: Forearm, 32-39 mm. A medium-sized population of around 500,000 is found in 13 Myotis with long ears (17-19 mm). Brown fur, caves in 5 states. Drastic declines in the not glossy. Calcar not keeled. Could be confus­ population have been documented (see the Indiana ed with ~. thysanodes which has a fringed in­ Bat Recovery Plan). terfemoral membrane. ~. lucifugus has shorter ears (14-16 mm). Distribution: There are 2 disjunct populations. One extends down the coast from Canada into Common name: Small-footed myotis, least brown northwestern Washinton. The other is more ex­ bat, masked bat, leibii. tensive, ranging across the eastern U.S. from Description: Forearm, 30-36 mm. A small brow­ western Montana to northern Florida. nish bat with black ears, a distinct black fa­ Habitat: Caves and mines in the winter. cial mask, and dark wing and tail membranes. Habits: This species uses caves for winter Calcar keeled. The size and presence of ~he dark hibernation. the bats are never abundant in any mask are distinguishing. one cave and are usually found singly where they Distribution: A disjunct population, half of frequently tuck themselves into cracks. In which is in the west from just iRland from the summer, they can be found in caves at night, Pacific coast to middle Dakotas, Nebraska, Kan­ where they may rest after or during feeding sas, and Oklahoma. The eastern nnoulation ex­ sessions. They were noted swarming in scores tends from the New England states completely

40 through West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and nose. This bat is larger than species with on into western Oklahoma with the edge of this which it might be confused. range extending some into the adjacent states. It is not found in the deep south or upper mid­ west. Habitat: Caves in the winter. Habits: Does not spend summer days in caves, but may use them as night roosts. One of the few bats known to hibernate in caves in the west. Solitary, with, hibernating habits similar to the big brown b;t in choosing very cold and drafty hibernating sites. Pipistrellus hesperus Common name: Western pipistrelle, canyon bat. Description: Forearm, 27-33 mm. Keeled calcar. Membranes dark, contrasting with light yellowish to brownish fur. The smallest bat in.the U.S. Two big brown bats stuffed into a crack in the Small size and light coloration are distinguish­ cave wall. These bats commonly hang solitary or in pairs and are frequently found in cracks. ing. Distribution: The deserts and lowlands of southwestern U.S. northward to southern Wash­ Distribution: Throughout all of the U.S. ington. As far east as western Oklahoma in the Habitat: Caves and buildings. south and into western Colorado further north. Habits: Seldom found in in caves in the summer. Habitat: Caves in the winter. Hibernate singly or in small groups within caves Habits: Hibernate singly, never numerous in any near the entrances. They never become beaded single location. May be active during the win­ with moisture like little brown bats and pip­ ter over part of its range. istrelles. Pipistrellus subflavus Common name: eastern pipistrelle, pipistrelle, pip, pygmy bat. Description: Forearm, 31-35 mm. A small bat with unique tricolored fur, each hair has a light band in the middle. Pale, reddish fore­ arms contrasting with dark wing membranes. Anterior third of tail membrane furred. Usually fur is. yellowish. Distribution: Widespread across the eastern U.S. from the eastern edge of Nebraska, back westerly through Oklahoma across to the Atlantic coast. Absent from Michigan. Habitat: Caves for hibernation. ~: Only found in caves in the summer at night being used as nighttime roosts. Solitary hibernator. Seem to prefer warmer hibernating sites. Frequently covered with droplets of water. Remarks: No one cave ever contains thousands of these bats, but just about every cave has at least one or two of them. fptesicus fuscus

Common name: Big brown bat, barn bat, house bat. Pipistrellus subflavus (pipistrelle) with human Description: Forearm, 42-51 mm. Keeled calcar. thumb for scale. These tiny bats hang solitary A large brown bat with glossy fur and a broad rather than in clusters.

41 Plecotus townsendii be confused with P. townsendii--see above de­ scription. Common name: Long-eared bat, big-eared bat, Distribution: Southeast, east to extreme eas­ Western big-eared bat, Townsend's big-eared bat, tern Texas and north to southern Indiana and lump-mosed bat. southern West Virginia. Description: Forearm, 39-48 mm. A medium-sized Habitat: Caves in only part of its range. brown bat with 2 large lumps on the nose. Short Habits: This is not a common bat anywhere in toe hairs. Tan underparts. Huge ears, measur­ its range. Has been found in caves in both ing more than an inch in length. Can be dis­ summer and winter, but records of such findings tinguished from P. rafinesguii which has long are few. toe hairs and whitish ventral fur. Antrozous pallidus lacks the nose lumps. Macrotus wat­ Antrozous pallidus erhousii has a nose leaf. Distribution: There are 4 subspecies (or races) Common name: Desert pallid bat, pallid bat. of this species and their ranges are dispersed Description: Forearm, 48-60 mm. A large pale across the U.S. ~.~. townsendii and ~.~. pal­ yellowish bat with ears over one inch long and lescens have a range that extends from middle large eyes. The ears are widely separated where­ Kansas westward. P.t. ingens, the Ozark big­ as the ears of Plecotus are closer at the bases. eared bat, is found only in northwestern and M. waterhousii has a nose leaf. northcentral Arkansas, southwestern Missouri, Distribution: The Far West. The eastern border and eastern Oklahoma. P.t. virginianus, the extends from western Washington and Oregon, into Virginia big-eared bat, is limited to western western Nevada, across middle Nevada into middle West Virginia, eastern Virginia, and extreme Colorado and into western Texas, with a small notheastern Kentucky. population on the border of central Kansas/Ok­ Habitat: Caves only, summer and winter in the lahoma. east. In the west, may also be found in buil­ Habitat: Caves summer and winter. dings and mines. Habits: More commonly found in rock crevices Habits: May be colonial, forming tight clusters and buildings in the summer. As with most of or solitary; additionally, in the west, may the western bats, scarce in the winter; their occur singly or in small groups. whereabouts are mostly unknown, but some have Remarks: The Ozark and Virginia big-eared bats been found hibernating in caves. are on the Federal Endangered Species list. FAMILY: MOLOSSIDAE This is because their numbers are extremely low to begin with and are declining, and they are Tadarida brasiliensis extremely intolerant to disturbance. In fact, a characteristic of all the individuals of the Common name: Mexican free-tailed bat, Brazilian entire species is that they are very easily disturbed an can readily be caused to abandon free-tailed bat, guano bat, free-tailed bat. Description: Forearm, 36-46 mm. A rather small their roosts. Wildlife biologist Mark Perkins dark-brown bat. The distinguishing trait is the has shown from some of his surveys in Oregon lower half of the tail extending beyond the free that many caves previously inhabited by long­ border of the tail membrane. Hairs as long as eared bats have been abandoned. Apparently, the foot extend beyond the toes. The ears al­ there are no longer any nursery colonies in most meet in the midline but do not actually caves in California either. Some biologists join one another. think the whole species should be considered Distribution: The whole southern U.S. north to endangered or at least threatened because of the southern Washington, northern Colorado, southern bats' exceptional susceptibility to distur­ bance. Nebraska, middle Arkansas, northern Mississippi, northern Georgia, northern South Carolina. Plecotus rafinesguii there are 2 disjunct records in NE Illimois and southern Ohio. Common name: Rafinesquets big-eared bat, eas­ Habitat: Caves in the summer. tern big-eared bat; southeastern big-eared bat; Habits: This species is unusual in that huge eastern lump-nosed bat; long-eared bat. maternity colonies (many thousands of individual Description: Forearm, 40-46 mm. Amedium-sized bats per colony) are found in caves in most of grayish brown bat with 2 large lumps on the nose the western states and large (up to several and huge ears more than an inch in length. thousand) maternity colonies are found in buil­ Underparts whitish. Long toe hairs. Can only dings (but not in caves) in the Southeast and

42 California. ~ost of the bats migrate south for Tech Press, LUbbock, Texas. Part I (1976), the winter, as much as SOD miles into Mexico. Part II (1977), Part III (1979). Some remain in the more northerly areas but are not found in caves. Barbour, R. W. and W. H. Davis. 1969. Bats of Rabies America. Univ. Press of Ky., Lexington•. 286 pp. I just want to emphasize that we have a tendency not to keep bats and rabies in perspective. Brady, John T. 197B. Cave management for en­ Bats can carry ana transmit rabies, which is a dangered bats and other purposes by the St. serious disease. But we should be very fearful Louis District, Corps of Engineeers at Meramec of the automobile which kills far more humans Park Lake, Missouri. pp. 42-46. IN: R. each year, yet we manage to keep that in per­ Zuber et al. (eds.). National Cave Management spective. I think the statement by Dr. Robert Symposium Proceedings, 1977. Adobe Press. Martin (1975) at the University of Main sums it Albuquerque, N. Mex. 140 pp. up, "Although radies is found in bats, my cal­ culations indicate that your chances of being Brady, John T. ·In.Press. Cave management for killed by being run over a blue-painted Mack endangered bats. IN: National Cave Manage­ pulp truck driven by a pipe-smoking 65-year old ment Symp. Proc., 1982. woman who owns six beagles are greater than your changes of dying from rabies contracted from a Davis, Wayne H. and Harold R. Hitchcock. 1965. bat." There is an excellent publication by Dr. Biology and migration of the bat Myotis Merlin Tuttle and Stephen J. Kern entitled "Bats lucifugus in New England. J. Mammal. 46: and Public Health" (1 9S2) that can tell you 269-313. everything you ever wanted to know about bats and rabies and its list of references is exten­ sive. It can be obtained from the Milwaukee Fenton, M. Brock. 1969. Summer activity of Public Museum for $2.00. Myotis lucifugus (Chiroptera: Vespertil­ ionidae) at hibernacula in Ontario and Recommended Books Quebec. Canada J. Zool. 47:597-602.

For further reading on bats, the following Gray Bat Recovery Plan. In preparation. U.S. general works are recommended (full information Fish and Wildlife Service. is found in the References): Barbour and Davis, 1969; Mohr, 19976b; Griffin, 1958; Nivock and Griffin, Donald R. 195B. Listening in the Dark. Leen, 1969; Yalden and Morris, 1975. Sloane Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, Conn. 413 pp. (1977) has a chapter by Charles Mohr on two of the federally endangered bats. For more tech­ Hall, E. Raymond. 1981. The Mammals of North nical reading (although Barbour an Davis and America. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New Griffin would also fit into this category): York. Vol. I. 600 pp. Wimsatt, 1970 (Vols. I and II) and 1977 (Vol. III; Baker et al., 1976 (Part I), 1977 (Part Harvey, Michael J., John J. Cassidy, and II), and 1979 (Part III). G. G. O'Hagan. 1981. Endangered bats of Arkansas: distribution, status, ecology, and management. Ecological Research Center, Memphis State Univ., Tenn. 137 pp. Acknowledgements Indiana Bat Recovery Plan. In preparation. U.S. I am grateful to Charles Mohr who critically Fish and Wildlife Service. reviewed an early draft of this manuscript and offered helpful suggestions. Martin, Robert L. 1975. Maine's changing wild­ life; bats. Maine Audubon News, p. 8. June, References 1975.

Baker, R. J., J. K. Jones, Jr., and D. C. Carter Mohr, Charles E. 1933. Pennsylvania bats of (eds.). 1976, 1977, 1~79. .Biology of Bats of the genus Myotis. Proc. Penn. Acad. Sci. the New World Family Phyllostomatidae. Texas 7:39-43.

43 Mohr, Charles E. 1972. The status of threaten­ Aley and Doug Rhodes (eds.), National Cave ed species of cave-dwelling bats. Bull. Na- Management Symp. Proc., 1976. Speleobooks. tion. Speleol. Society 34:33-47. Albuquerque, NM. 106 pp.

Mohr, Charles E. 1976a. The protection of Tuttle, Merlin D. 1976. Population ecology threatened cave bats. pp. 57-62. IN: Na­ of the gray bat (Myotis grisescens): tional Cave Management Symp. Proc., 1975. factors influencing growth and survival of Speleobooks. Albuquerque, N. Mex. 146 pp. newly volant young. Ecology 57:587-595. Tuttle, Merlin D. 1977. Gating as a means of Mohr, Charles E. 1976b. The World of the Bat. protecting cave dwelling bats. pp. 77-82. IN: J. B. Lippincott Co., New York. 162 pp. T. Aley and D. Rhodes (eds.), National Cave Management Symp. Proc., 1976. Speleobooks. Mohr, Charles E. 1977. Survival: a tale of Albuquerque, NM. 106 pp. two bats. pp. 349-366. IN: Bruce Sloane Caves, and Caving. Rutgers (ed.). Cavers, Tuttle, Merlin D. and Stephen J. Kern. 1981. Univ. Press, NJ. 409 pp. Bats and public health. Milwaukee Public Museum, Contributions in Biology and Geology, Myers, R. F. 1960. Lasiurus from Missouri No. 48, 11 pp. Milwaukee, WI 53233. caves. J. Mammal. 41:114-117. Tuttle, M. D. and Diane E. Stevenson. 1978. Novick, Alvin and Nina Leen. 1969. The Variation in the cave environment and its World of Bats. Holt, Rinehart and Wilson, biological implications. pp. 108-121. IN: m. 1n~. R. Zuber et al. (eds.), National Cave Manage­ ment Symp. Proc., 1977. Adobe Press. Albu­ Perkins, Mark. 19B2. Personal Communication. querque, NM. 140 pp. 5130 SW Idaho, Portland, OR 97221. Wimsatt, William A. 1970, 1977. Biology of Poulson, Thomas L. 1976. Management of bio­ Bats. Academic Press. New York. Vol. I logical resources in caves. pp. 46-52. IN: (1970), Vol. II (1970), Vol. III (1977). National Cave Management. Symp. Proc., 1975. Speleobooks. Albuquerque, NM 146 pp. Yalden, D. W. and P. A. Morris. 1975. The Lives of Bats. Demeter Press. Quadrangle/ Poulson, Thomas L. and Thomas C. Kane. 1977. NY Times Book Co., NY. 247 pp. Ecological diversity and stability: princi­ ples and management. pp. 1B-21. IN: Tom

44 Identification and Significance of Common Archaeological Remains From Cave Deposits

Dr. David T. Clark Jk

No Manuscript Received

*Department of Anthropology, The Catholic Uni­ versity of America, Washington, D.C.

45 A Brief Survey of the Role Played by the Cave in the Work of Art and Literature

Rosemary Balister*

The cave has played its part in world art and men of Israel were in a strait, they hid them­ literature since earliest times. It was with selves in caves" and in Kings that "the prophets this idea in mind that I spent a period of ab­ of the Lord cut off by Jezebel were hidden by sence from the world of gainful employment read­ Obadiah in a cave and lodged there." Of Elijah ing books both from my own collection and those we read the "came hither unto a cave and lodged of local libraries looking specifically for there." Many depictions of the birth of Christ references to caves. I'm sure that they are far show the stable of Bethlehem as a cave and in from complete and I would be glad to learn of Hebrews we read of those "of whom the world was any references particularly from American liter­ not worthy, who wandered in deserts, and in ature. mountains and in dens and caves of the earth." The persecuted Christians in Rome hid away in Most people are aware of the prehistoric uses of catacombs which are a form of artificial cave. caves as basic dwelling places for man from which our modern homes have evolved. Some of us Various manuscripts of medieval literature men­ have also been privileged to see the beautiful tion caves including Chaucer "the legend of good paintings on the walls of caves in France and women" "and to a kaave pryvyly him spedde" and Spain made before the birth of Christ and still much of the Tristan and Isolde Igend is set in a preserved to this very day. Other primitive cave. There are speleo references throughout peoples such as the American Indian and the Shakespeare in Cymbeline, The Rape of Lucretia, Australian aborigine have also left their art on Julius Caesar and picturesquely in Venus and walls and rock shelters. Adonis. 'Or, as the snail, whose tender horns Caves play an important part in Greek and Roman being hit mythology. Zeus is hidden by Rhea, his mother, Struck back into his shelly cave with in a cave on the island of Crete as a child and pain.' later lived with a star maiden in a cave on The Romantic movement in literature brought with Mount Cyllene by whom he had a child Hermes who it a great awareness of nature-mountains, lakes was born and brought up in a cave. The cave and of course grottoes and caves. There are theme also runs right through the labours of numerous references in French, German and Hercules and serves as a home for Hydra, the English literature of this period. Wordsworth many-headed monster, and Cacus, the fire­ wrote a whole poem about Fingal's Cave on the breathing troll. The entrance to the Underworld island of Staffa off the coast of Scotland. The is said to be the great cave of Taenarum and the cave theme runs throughout Coleridge's poem famous labyrinth at Crete has its center a ca­ Kubla Khan and the poem Endymion by Keats has vern. In Roman literature, the cave serves as many references to caves. In German poetry, setting for Hades, entered at Avernus according Goethe's poem Mignon tells of caves as the to the Dido and Aeneas legend. Also, the wor­ dwelling places of dragons the cave ship of Mithras, practiced at garrisons of the salamander perhaps, and of seven references in Roman Army, is said to have taken place in arti­ French poetry I found one by Theophile Gautier ficial caves. the most charming. Caves are mentioned both in the Old and New 'Et la stalactite qui tomee Testaments. In Samuel, we read that "when the Larme blanche de l'antre noir' In American poetry Thoreau writes of "caves rabbitted" and in a delightful poem "Mind" by Richard Wilbur the workings of the human brain *Charlottesville, Virginia. are compared to a cave bat. "That be~ts about 46 in caverns all alone". Perhaps this is a ven­ tual cave is in the National Gallery in O. C., ture into a new field of speleo-psychiatry. the lovely "Grotte de la Loue" by Courbet, a painting of a cave entrance with water flowing There are a lot of references to caves in novels into it. Recently, I also saw at a special both in the classics and in works of general exhibition in the National Gallery an unusual fiction. Two of the novels of Jules Verne painting liThe Grotto" by Paul Oelvaux. We can "Journey to the Center of the Earth" and "The also read about caves in our daily newspapers. Mysterious Island" have long passages in them the state of groundwater in Virginia is of with vivid descriptions of caves. Few people constant concern. In addition to cave accidents know that the British novelist Thomas Hardy which always make the headlines, there are re­ wrote a delightful book for children "Our Ex­ ports of archaeological finds in caves and even ploits in West Poleyll in which the entire action a cave hold-up. They have been in the news re­ was set in a cave in the West of England. In cently as storage places for cheese being dist­ American literature, the book "The Adventures of ributed to the poor and also of interest is Tom Sawyer II by Mark Twain and the part played by their possible use for the disposal of radio­ a cave in Missouri is almost too well-known to active waste. mention. I did, however, also find reference to a book "Cudjo I s Cavell by J. R. Trowbridge Last year, the 8th International Congress of published in 1864 and set in Tennessee at the speleology was held at Bowling Green, Kentucky. outbreak of the Civil War. In works of general This was the first time outside Europe and to fiction, the cave is mentioned as a place of publicize the event it was hoped to persuade the refuge from the world, in association with the Post Office to issue a special stamp or set of supernatural or for the adventure of explora­ stamps, depicting scenes from America's very tion. The cave trip itself is seen as a test of lovely caves. Efforts were, however, in vain. character for those taking part. For what man refused to do in the way of publi­ city, nature took upon herself, and in Florida a We have dealt with cave art and primitive man, large sinkhole obligingly opened up, swallowing but the cave also has a role in classical art. houses, cars, etc. In Albemarle County, closer Part of the inspiration for the background of to home in Virginia, a sinkhole collapsed in a Leonard da Vinci's "Madonna of the Rocks" was a farmer's field and in Charlottesville, a phot­ visit when the artist was young to the Grotto di ograph of a pedestrian walking under an under­ Fiumeletti. Paintings and enravings of the pass in the rain giving the appearance of stal­ Nativity of Christ are often set in a rocky cave actites made the front page of the local paper and perhaps the most famous painting of an ac- and the Washinton Post.

47 This page • IS blank RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Prescriptions for Cave Management

Robert S tit t *an d James N i e I and ** Abstract The Gifford Pinchot National Forest is developing management plans to guide its resource management. A committee of concerned cavers from the Northwest Caving Association of the NSS is developing a set of "prescriptions" for cave management which can be used as a basis for caver input to this planning effort. This paper includes a discussion of how cavers can contribute to the planning effort and presents a number of the "prescriptions" being prepared. These "prescriptions" go beyond the usual management guidelines which address only cave inventory and assessment and are guidelines for the ongoing management of caves within the overall Forest management scheme, in accord with the goal of protecting the cave resources while allowing other uses of the Forest.

The administration of the Gifford Pinchot Na­ used to manage caves in the area. Coinciden­ tional Forest in southwestern Washington State is tally, it was learned that the U.S. Forest Ser­ developing two management plans for the Forest: vice was seeking inputs for its own management an overall Forest Management Plan, and a plan planning process. It was decided to combine the for the specific management of Mt. St. Helens two projects--the cavers would prepare a list of National Geologic Monument. This planning pro­ recommendations for management -that could be cess involves development of a proposed plan, used by the Forest Service in the development of obtaining public inputs, and eventually, after its own management plans. several years of both public and private dis­ cussion, environmental impact analysis, and A group of concerned cavers met at the Yale public hearings, the plans will be adopted. An School on August 14, 1982. First, we reviewed early stage of the planning process involves the current state of cave management planning in discussion and inputs with interested user the Forest Service. groups. There has been a considerable local planning In the summer of 1982, following the NSS Con­ effort in the Gifford Pinchot National Forest; vention at 8end, Oregon, cavers from the North­ it has been the subject of several papers pre­ west Caving Association (an NSS Region) met at sented at previous National and regional Cave Dead Horse Cave in southern Washington for a Management Symposia (1)(2). In the last few post-convention trip. During the discussion years, the Forest Service Manual (3), which around the campfire one night, the subject of could be characterized as the "bible" of Forest cave management naturally came up. Various Service management, has had a supplement on cave problems of cave management in southern Wash­ management added (at least for Region 5 which, ington on both the part of cavers and manage­ unfortunately, does not include the Gifford ment agencies were discussed. It was eventually Pinchot National Forest). This supplement is decided that what was really needed was for the fairly comprehensive with respect to two aspects cavers to get their act together and prepare a of cave management: Inventory and Classifica­ list of specific management tools that could be tion. However, the supplement does not include guidelines for carrying on with the day-to-day management of the caves once they have been *President, National Speleological Society, inventoried and classified. It Was decided by Seattle, Washington. the group that the next step should be taken: **Visitor Information Specialist, Gifford Pin­ managers should be given a set of guidelines for chot National Forest, Ariel, Washington. dealing specifically with the problems that they

50 would face in dealing with the caves and in where possible, inventory should include placing caves into the overall management pers- visits at more than one time of year. pective of the entire forest. 4. Biological inventory must recognize that This approach fits quite nicely with the ap­ small and inconspicuous invertebrate animals proach currently being taken by the Forest Ser­ contribute a large part of a cave's biolog­ vice: the development of a series of management ical importance, and should also consider "prescriptions" for carrying out management the often unusual plant communities in cave goals. The temain~er of this paper will consist entrances. of those "prescriptions" that were developed. 5. Inventory must consider a cave's interaction It should be remembered in the discussion that with its surface and subsurface surround- follows that the caves of the Gifford Pinchot ings. National Forest are lava tubes. "Prescriptions" developed for limestone caves or even in other TIMBER geographical areas may be different because of different environmental conditions and different Cave roofs can be thin and present a hazard to management concerns. equipment and operators. This may restrict the logging methods and techniques used over caves and the methods of slash disposal. CAVES: GENERAL DIRECTION Cave entrances should not be used as disposal Caves are a resource having unique scientific, sites for slash, refuse, spoils, etc. recreational, educational, cultural, and scenic values. These values can be endangered by re­ Alterations to cave entrances will be avoided as source management activities or, in some in­ a part of timber harvest activities. stances, by uncontrolled visitation. When caves are encountered in project areas, they will be Cave sedimentation and nutrient flow into cave preserved in as nearly as possible an undis­ ecosystems can be affected by surface modifica­ turbed condition until an inventory of their tions to lands above cave passages or near cave values is completed and a plan for their man­ entrances, including timber harvest and slash agement written. The inventory and plan should disposal. Generally, slash should not be burnt be written by a person or persons knowledgeable or the ground surface significantly disturbed in speleology·. within the runoff area draining into cave en­ trances. A management plan should address the goal of preserving and protecting the cave and its envi­ Slash burning that has the potential of steril­ ronment while permitting compatible uses. 1z1ng thin soils above cave passages should carefully be considered before the project is undertaken to determine its effects. The following elements will be considered when an inventory is conducted. In some instances, it may be necessary to leave vegetative buffer areas around cave entrances to protect their micro-environments, and/or over 1. Resource inventory of a cave should commence cave passages to protect the cave's biota. with inquiries to local caving organizations and cave scientists and a search for any In cases where it is permissible to cut timber relevent information in published litera­ adjacent to or within entrance areas, the timber ture. should be directionally felled away from the entrances and slash disposed of by hand meth­ 2. Inventory takers should consider all pos­ ods. sible values of a cave, whether scientific (including geology, biology, archaeology, etc.), recreational, or other. ROADS

3. Some aspects of a cave's value may be sea­ sonal in nature (e.g., ice speleothems or Generally, roads should be routed away from cave seasonal fauna such as bats); therefore, entrances and avoid crossing over the caves'

51 course. No alterations to cave entrances will highest form of recreation and to protection of be made. cave values.

1. Road construction will not interfere with The following caves may not be appropriate for the natural hydrology. Surface drainage unrestricted or directed recreational use: shall not be diverted into caves. 1. Caves under scientific study where recrea­ 2. Cave roofs can be structurally unstable and tional use could be detrimental to the pro­ may in some cases be unable to support ject. roads. 2. Caves which contain sensitive or endangered 3. By locating roads away from cave entrances species. increased visitation and resulting adverse impacts can be reduced. 3. Caves containing delicate geologic features which can easily be damaged. WILDLIFE 4. Caves requiring specialized technical equip­ Some caves within the Gifford Pinchot National ment or skills. Forest contain unique and fragile biologic com­ munities which need to be protected. The fol­ Would-be cave explorers should be educated in lowing considerations will help preserve these cave safety and conservation and, where pos­ values: sible. directed to appropriate caving organiza­ tions for the training. 1. Maintain the integrity of the caves and their surroundings; DEVELOPED SITES

2. Preserve vegetation at entrances and over Caves should be developed for public use only the course of the cave where needed; when they can be properly interpreted and pro­ tected and should be utilized as an educational 3. Protect water quality; resource. Development should be considered when such development would be benficial to protecting 4. Sensitive wildlife (e.g., bats) should be the resource. protected by minimizing human visitation as needed; When development takes place, care should be taken to minimize impact on the cave. Cave 5. The use of pesticides, herbicides, fertili­ development will be carried out using estab­ zers, and chemicals could cause adverse im­ lished cave management techniques. Some of the pacts to cave life and should be avoided in impacts to be considered include the following: the hydrologic setting; 1. Parking lot and road construction and loca­ 6. Human impacts can be minimized through pUb­ tion; lic education in appropriate behavior and use of caves. 2. Sewage disposal; RECREATION 3. Visual quality; Caves can provide many aspects of recreation, but not all caves are suitable for recreational 4. Trail placement and design; uses. Caves generally are not overly hazar­ dous but exceptions do exist for ill prepared 5. Lighting design; individuals. In some instances, hazards do exist in the form of unstable breakdown or 6. Protection of delicate features; pits. 7. Carrying capacity; Certain caves, cave entrances, or vicinities may be suitable for more than one type of recreation 8. Control of the public; or recreation development. When conflicts a­ rise. consideration should be given to the 9. Design of interpretive programs;

52 10. Litter clean up and control. a cave's values will be affected. Removal of speleothems, rock slabs, sand, or other geolog­ DISPERSED RECREATION ical features shall not be permitted. Develop­ ment of borrow pits, quarries, or other excava~ The thrill of discovering and exploring wild tions shall be done in such a manner as to pre­ caves is a vital recreational experience. The vent runoff or sediment from entering caves. following will help maintain this value: REFERENCES 1. Limit the publication of cave locations on maps and brochures to developed sites; Neiland, James, Libby Nieland and Ellen Benedict. 1978. "Special Management Considerations of 2. References to wild caves and wild cave lo­ Lava Caves." In 1977 National Cave Management cations should generally be omitted from Symposium Proceedings. Albuquerque. Adobe publications prepared for widespread public Press. pp. 85-91. attention to wild caves; Seesholtz, David. 1978. "The Management Plan for 3. Trail and road signs should not direct pub­ the Lava Caves Area on Mt. St. Helens." In lic attention to wild caves; 1977 National Cave Management Symposium Pro­ ceedings, Albuquerque. Adobe Press. pp. 4. By locating trails away from cave en­ 32-33. trances, increased visitation and its impacts can be reduced. U.S. Forest Service. July, 1980. Forest Service Manual. Title 2300 - Recreational Management, MINING Sections 2362.42--1 thru -15, Region 5 Supple­ ment No. 118. San Francisco, California (Cite Mining is inappropriate in or around caves when as FSM 7/80 R-5 SUPP 118).

53 A Cave Inventory System III

.,,, J. B. "Buzz" Hummel Abstract In order to manage a cave and protect its values as well as the visitor, some type of management plan must be devised. Since plans are based on information, eventually some type of inventory or pool of knowledge on a cave's contents must be compiled and put down in a standard format. This paper deals with the standardization of inventory systems, classification and the compiling of cave files.

INTRODUCTION Information extrapolated from raw data is the trip; and then, a critique was held. Useful most important tool of the cave manager. In input from this critique was then incorporated order to make intelligent decisions, the deci­ into the cave inventory system. sion maker must have as much information on the resource as possible. This knowledge will hope­ Present needs of the Bureau of Land Management, fully enable the manager to weigh alternatives in the field of cave management, call for de­ and determine which actions are in the best tailed information on cave biologic, mineralogic interest of the resource and the public. and geologic resources. This information is needed to both provide management information Cave managers usually compile their data bases and to rank caves by their contents. This lat­ from some type of cave inventory, literature and est inventory system is divided into three record search and by word of mouth. This data parts: a General Cave Inventory and Classifica­ is then pooled and used to construct a cave file tion System; a Cave Biologic segment; and a Cave based upon a resource report. Mineralogic and Geologic Feature segment.

What is needed in the field of cave management The two new segments can be utilized when more is some type of standard or similar cave inven­ information on cave biota or cave mineral and tory and classification system. With managers geologic features is needed or becomes avail­ using a standard inventory system and writing able. These ·two expanded inventories will as­ reports in standard or similar formats, ideas, sist in ranking caves and in identifying diver­ knowledge, and management methods can more eas­ sity among cave systems. ily be exchanged. CAVE INVENTORY SYSTEM III This Inventory/Classification System is composed of five items: This paper essentially deals with an expansion and updating of the cave classification and 1. Field Inventory Forms inventory system developed by Jerry Trout for the Lincoln National Forest. This initial system This is composed of a comprehensive check list was presented in a paper at the Third Cave Man­ of items which may be inventoried for. agement Symposium held in Big Sky, Montana. 2. Cave Card File A modified version of this system was again pre­ sented in three parts: a work shop; a field A 5 x 8 inch card maintained for each cave. This is essentially a reduced copy of the field inventory form. *Outdoor Planner/Cave Specialist, US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, 3. Coding Key For Cave Inventory CaTd File & Roswell District, Roswell, New Mexico. Field Inventory Form (see appendices)

54 4. Format For Cave Inventory Report c. List all other names on separate cards, with a reference to the Data from field inventory form and field studies final assigned cave name. is detailed in a report which forms the bulk of your data base, from which information is drawn (1) List all other names under to be used in making management decisions. "Remarks" on cave card.

A. General Inventory and Cave Classification (2) List all other names in the Master Cave File. 1. County - New IY1exico 4. Legal Location: BE Bernalillo IYlO Mora CA Catron oT Otero State, County, Township, Range, Section, 1/4 of CH Chaves QU Quay 1/4 of 1/4, USGS quad and series. CO Colfax RA Rio Arriba CU Curry Ro Roosevelt DB DeBaca SO San Doval 5. Photo Number: DA Dona Ana SJ San Juan ED Eddy SM San Miguel List the number of aerial photo that the cave GR Grant SF Santa Fe is pin-pointed on. GU Guadalupe SI Sierra HA Harding SO Socorro 6. Overlay: HI Hidalgo TA Taos LE Lea TO Torrance Cave location indicated on master planning unit LI Lincoln UN Union overlays: Y- Yes N - No Lo Los Alamos VA Valencia LU Luna Me McKinley 7. Map:

2. Cave Number and Ownership Cave map available: Y- Yes N- No

a. Agency initials, or "p" for pri­ vately owned. 8. Geologic Formation: b. State (use U. S. Post Office abbreviations). Start with the formation the cave entrance is located in, and then, the progressive forma­ c. District number. tions encountered as one would move further into the cave entrance. d. Cave number, starting with 001. 9. Altitude/Elevation of Entrance (1) A BLM cave located in the Roswell District would be a. Altimeter reading of 4,723 feet ­ numbered: BLM-NM-06o-oo1. A4723.

3. Cave Name: b. Estimated reading of 4,723 feet - E4723. Assign name. Make sure name is unused. Some caves are already known by several names. In 10. Type of Cave: this case, the following is suggested for final name assigning: R- rock shelter L- lava tube or lava cave feature a. Historic name or name given by T- talus first person discovering cave. S- solutional F- fissure or tectonic type b. If "A" is underterminable, then p - pit only use the name that is most des­ C - pit with cave criptive of the cave. H - sink hole

55 A - littoral or sea cave - 368 A- Approximately 368' below entrance o - other 19. Pattern of Cave: 11. Number of Levels: 5 - single passage/room only a, 2, 3, etc. p - pit only/no passages or rooms R- rectilinear pattern 12. Dominant Rock Types: o - dendritic pattern, bifurcating M- maze, boneyard, solution, anasto- co - conglomerate mosed network DO - dolomite T- trellis/joint control maze GY - gypsum C - pit with cave'passage HA - halite A- alcove or rock shelter IX - igneous o other TR - travertine LS - limestone 20. Water Elements: MX - other metamorphic SH - shale A- arid, no water 50 - soil o - dripping water 55 - sandstone F- flooded MA - marble I- intermittently flooded IL - igneous lava L- lakes present (100 sq. ft. of 00 - other (snow, shale, etc.) surface. avg. of at least 6" deep) • 13. Type of Entrance: M- moist earth U- mud floor Code as many as apply, starting with the "Main" p - pool present (less than lake) entrance. 5 - stream or river system in cave W- overall wet and muddy cave Q- Quarry or road cut gives access o - other B- Side or bottom or sinkhole H- Horizontal (give size) 21. Hazards Present: V- Vertical (give size and depth) o - Other Code as many as apply. 14. Number of Entrances: C- confusing passageways 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. 5 - long passageways o - disease present G- gases present 15. Trend of Cave From Entrance L- loose rock/ice or cave in hazard Bearing: T264 True North V- vertical drops E- slippery ice or rock M264 Magnetic North W- water with no alternate route reptile~ 16. Aspect of Cave Entrance: p - poisonous insects and/or F- flooding NW - Northwest I- intermittent flooding 50 - Due South T- low temperature H- high temperature 17. Length of All Known Passages: o - other N- none 51250 - Surveyed 1,250 feet A14Do - Approximately 1,400 feet 22. Specialized Skills Required: C- technical climbing 18. Vertical Relief of Cave From Entrance: o - diving (scuba or air hose) R- rapelling, prisiking, cable + 368 5 - Surveyed 368' above entrance ladder, ascending - rope work

56 W- swimming required wet or dry o - other suit N- none S - swimming P- good physical condition 27. Cave Marked With Brass Cap or Sign At o - other Entrance N- none Y - Yes N - No

23. Special Equipment Needed: 28. Background/History Compiled:

Y - Yes N - No Y- Yes N - No

24. Cave Contacts: 29. Carrying Capacity:

Code as many as apply. Give # and location

A - archaeological (artifacts) H - historical 30. Card File: B- biological (organisms) G- geological (structural, hydro- logical, genetic, etc) Y- Yes N - No p - paleontological (fossils) S - speleothems 31. Dual Classification Coding: o - other N- none, no special attraction or Content - A, B, C, 0, E, or F significance Hazard - I, II, II, IV, V or VI

25. Type of Protection Recommended: This is a general classification system used for management purposes. The system consists of a A- entrance hidden two-part rating: one part for resource values; G- gate and, a second part for hazards. More detailed L- location not divulged classification and inventorying systems for Cave H- sign concerning hazards Biotic Communities and Geophysical Cave Types F- fence are contained in parts Band C. S - sign concerning protection p - permanent closure (dynamite a. Content Ratings etc. ) C - road closed or locked (1) Class "A" Caves R- remote monitoring E- public education Caves which contain few or no items of scenic or o - other scientific value. If any such items are present p - patrolled within the cave, they are of the type which N - none cannot, without great effort, be destroyed or removed from the cave. Basically, a cave in 26. Type of Protection Provided: which frequent visitation by any and all types of cavers will cause little or no change within G- gate the cave. L - location not made public H - sign concerning hazards (2) Class "B" Caves S- sign concerning protection p - permanent closure (dynamite, Caves which contain secondary deposit-type for­ etc.) mations of the ordinary type, such as stalag­ F- fence mites, stalactites, columns, flowstone, draper­ C- road closure ies, and rimstone dams, which are either of such R- remote monitoring size or are so positioned within the cave that E- public education they are not easily damaged and vandalized; or T- patrolled any items of scientific value which are of the 57 type which cavers could not seriously disturb or light sources per person, boots with nonskid destroy. soles, and protective clothing.

(3) Class "c" Caves The following are general characteristics of Class "I" caves. Caves which contain secondary deposit-type for­ mations of the ordinary type, such as stalag­ (a) Single, well defined main mites, stalactites, columns, flowstone, draper­ passageway, with no later­ ies, and rimstone dams which are either of such al passages. size, or so positioned within the cave that they are quite susceptible to breakage and vandalism; (b) No passageways less than 1 or any items of scientific value which are of meter in diameter. the type which cavers could seriously disturb or destroy. (c) No step-type drops over 1 meter.

(4) Class "D" Caves (d) Stable ceiling rocks.

Caves which contain formations that are of unu­ (e) Stable floor material. sual quality or are very delicate and suscep­ tible to breakage, even by well-trained and very (2) Class "II" Caves careful cavers; or any items of scientific value which are of the type which cavers could seri­ The Class "II" cave contains moderate hazards, ously disturb or destroy. Examples of Class "D" and is mostly horizontal in structure. Exper­ Cave formations would be selenite needles, gyp­ ience indicates that exploration should be con­ sum flowers, epsonite formations or crystals, ducted by no less than three cavers, one of cave helictites, etc. which is experiened, who observes caving safety rules, and uses the following basic equipment: (5) Class "E" Caves hard hats, three light sources per person, boots with nonskid sales, and protective clothing. Caves which contain items of scientific value which could be seriously disturbed or destroyed The following are general characteristics of by frequent visits, or by visits of uninformed Class "II" caves. cavers as to the item or items of scientific value, i.e., a biological species which has a (a) Well defined main passage­ delicate habitat, or is in danger of extinction ways, with only dead-end in the area or within the particular cave. The lateral passages. items of scientific value could be either ar­ chaeological, biological, or paleontological in (b) Crawlways less than 60 nature, or rare cave formations. centimeters (24 inches).

(c) No step-type drops over 3 (6) Class "F" Caves meters (10 feet).

To be assigned. (d) Stable ceiling rocks.

(e) Stable floor material. b. Hazard Ratings (3) Class "III" Caves

(1) Class "I" Caves The Class "III" cave contains structural hazards not found in Class I and II caves. Experience indicates that exploration should be conducted The Class "I" cave offers the least hazard to by no less than three cavers, two of whom have the caver. Experience indicates that explora­ moderate caving experience (incloding vertical tion should be conducted by no less than three descent and climbing), who observe caving and cavers, who observe caving safety rules, and use vertical safety rules, and use the following the following basic equipment: hard hats, three basic equipment: hard hats, three light sources

58 per person, boots with nonskid soles, vertical reptiles, airborne diseases, dangerous gases, descent and climbing gear, and protective cloth­ flooding, passages requiring cave diving, or any ing with no loose or protruding attachments other hazard which requires special equipment to which might become entangled while doing verti­ protect the caver. Class "V" caves should only cal work. Each caver should have a complete set be entered by qualified cavers, with special of climbing equipment. (Note: Vertical equip­ equipment, and only if there is a real necessity ment may not be needed in some Class "III" for information which is deemed valuable in caves.) relation to the risk involved. The minimum party should consist of six cavers, with two The following are general characteristics of remaining in a supporting position in the event Class "III" caves. of an emergency. Extra precautions should be taken, and special communications and rescue (a) Multiple passageways, with capabilities available. straight connecting pas­ sages. (6) Class "VI" Caves

(b) Crawlways less than 60 To be assigned. centimeters (24 inches). B. Inventory and Classification System for (c) Vertical drops up to 15 Cave Biotic Communities meters (50 feet). 32. Bat Roost: (d) Unstable rocks on ceilings over 2 meters in height. Y- Yes Stable rocks on passages N- No less than 2 meters in U- Unknown height. R- Roost in past/presently not used.

(4) Class "IV" Caves 33. Roost Type: Class "IV" caves are the most hazardous from the structural standpoint. Experience indicates H- Hibernaculum that exploration should be conducted by no less N- Nursery than four cavers, all of whom have considerable S- Summer Roost caving experience (including vertical descent o - Occasional Use R- Night Roost and climbing), who observe caving and vertical safety rules, and use the following basic U- Unknown equipment: hard hats, three light sources per T- Transitory person, boots with nonskid soles, protective 34. Species and Population Estimates clothing with no loose or protruding attachments of Bats which might become entangled while doing verti­ cal work. Each caver should have a complete set of vertical equipment. Species/# Species/# The following are general characteristics of Class "IV" caves. MV - Myotis velifer (a) "Maze-type" passageways. ML - Myotis lucifugus MA - Myotis auriculus (b) Vertical drops over 15 ME - Myotis evotis meters. MT - Myotis thysanades MO - Myotis volans (c) Unstable ceiling rocks on Me - Myotis californicus crawlways under 2 meters. MI - Myotis leibii MY - Myotis yumansis (5) Class "V" Caves LN - Lasionycteris noctivagans PH - Pysistrellus hesperus Class "V" caves are extremely hazardous due to EF - Eptstcus fuscus characteristics such as poisonous insects and/or LC - Lasiurus cinereus

59 LB - Lasiurus borealis bats which have a high potential LE - Lasiurus ega of being disrupted by man. EM - Euderma maculatum pp - Plecotus phyllotis E- Roost of bats which are on the PT - Plecotus townsendii state or federal T&E list. AP - Antrogous pallidus EP - Eumops perotis F- Unique or rare roost. TF - Tadarida femorosacca TM - Tadarida macrotis 40. RESERVED TB - Tadarida brasiliensia IP - Idionycteris phyllotis II. Cave Climate & Substrate EP - Eumops perotis 41. Cave Relative Humidity 35. Bat Population A- Fluctuating humidity I- increasing to %) o - decreasing (- B - Near constant humidity of C- constant to %) U- unknown (- C - Unknown 36. Bat Species Status: 42. Cave Temperature FE - Federal Endangered Species A- Fluctuating temperature FT - Federal Threatened (_ to _ F/C degrees) SE - State Endangered Species, Group I B Near constant temperature ST - State Endangered Species, Group (_ to F/C degrees) II C- Unknown BL - BLM Sensitive Species o - Other 42. Reserved 37. Relative Threat Destruction/Disruption: 44. Aquatic Substrate A- No present threat B- Slight threat A- Periodic perched pools from C- Medium threat D- High threat flooding by surface waters E- Presently being impacted B- Perched water-pools from drip­ F - Headed for destruction ping ceiling C- Periodic flooding and perched pools from raising ground waters 39. Bat Roost Classification: o - Pools/water from periodic spring/ streams A, B, C, 0, E, F. E- Pools/water from perennial spring/streams A- Minor transitory roost of little F- Perennial lakes/streams/rivers importance. No management or from moving groundwaters protection needed. G- Other

B- Bat roosting site in a remote lo­ 45. Terrestrial cation where man and his activ­ ities should not impact roost. A- Dry cave floor on non-organic matter C- Major roost of common bats which B - Dry cave floor with organic matter have the low potential of being C- Moist to mud cave floor without disrupted by man. organic matter D- Moist to mud cave floor with o - Major roost (Hibernaculum/ organic matter Nursery) which contains common E- Cave floor also with sand/gravel 60 F- Cave floor also with large rocks EB Eleodes Beetle G- Reserved DB Rove Beetle H- Reserved EB Embacphion Beetle IB - Diving Beetle 46. Energy Input for Cave Communities GB - Ground Beetle LB - Flat Back Beetle Boitic Input U8 - Unknown Cricket CL - Ceuthophilus Longipes A- Organic matter carried in by CA - Ceuthophilus Carsbadensis animals CO - Ceuthophilus Conicaudus B- Organic matter from animal carcasses MP - Millipedes C- Guano from mammals and birds and CP - Centipedes crickets o - Tree and plant roots SP - Springtails E- Bat guano 01 - Diplurons FL - Flies Abiotic Input FE - Fleas BF - Bat Flys F- Diffuse input from percolating LI - Lice water AT - Ants G- Concentrated input from water 8T - 8ristletails transport CE - Collemboa H- Organic matter blown in by the wind UA - Unknown Arachnid I- Other HA - Harvestmen SR - Spiders 47. Cave Adapted Biota Potential MI - Mites SC - Scorpions A- Climate and substrate and a lack TI - Ticks of organic matter provide low PS - Pseudoscorpions potential SI - Spiders B- Climate, substrate and presence of organic matter provide a medium (YD - Moths potential for cave life C- Cave climate and high presence of FW - Flat Worms organic matter provide high poten­ UW - Unknown Worms tial for cave adapted life TW - Tubeifax Worms o - Cave adapted biota has been col­ lected from this cave E- Unknown UL Unknown larva AD - "Accidentals". Mammals, birds, 4B. Inventory or collection has identi­ reptiles, invertebrates, etc., fied the following invertebrates which are washed or fall into to inhibit the cave. After two caves. These animals are not digit species code, place adaptation able to live and reproduce in code Ao-TB-TP-TX-UN the cave environment. T8 - "Troglobites". Animals that live UN - Unknown Amphipods in caves and nowhere else. They UC - Unknown Copepods must complete their whole life UI - Unknown Isopods cycle in a cave. TP - "Troglophiles". Can live and UB - Unknown Beetle complete its life cycle in caves RB - Rhadine Beetle and other suitable environments FB - Round F~gus Beetle outside the cave. SB - Scavenger Beetle TX - "Trogloxene". Animals which live DB - oarking Beetle in caves but which must return to

61 the surface for certain needs, C- Epsomite i.e., food. Bats are trogloxenes. o - Gypsun UN - Unknown Adaptation E- Halite F- Hydromagnesite G- Ice Example of species/adaptation readout. H- Lava I- Limonite /Species code/Adaptation code J- Mirabilite line 48. UB/UN, MP/TB, K- Mud L- Re-solutioned Line 48 reads: Cave contains an unknown species M- Selenite and a of beetle which is of unknown adaptation N- Sulfate millipede which is troglobitic. o - Other p - Reserved 49. Relative Threat Destruction/ Disruption of Cave Biotic Community Form

A- No present threat XA - Balloons/Bubbles B- Slight threat XB - Bacon Rind C- Medium threat XC Bell Canopy o - High threat XD - Boxwork E- Presently being impacted XE - Canopy F- Headed for destruction XF - Cave Pearls XG - Cave Cotton 50. Cave Biotic Community Classification XH - Cave Hair XI - Coating/Crust A- Cave with no known troglobitic XJ - Coralloids biota and with a low potential to XK - Draperies support a biotic community. XL - Flowers B- Cave which has potential to sup­ XM - Flowstone port a biotic community but with XN - Focia no known species present. XO - Gours C- Cave with a low population and XP - Heligmites diversity among its cave biota XQ - Helictites and which is not being impacted XR - Moonmilk by man. XS - Needles 0 - Cave with high populations and XT - Popcorn diversity among its cave commu­ XU - Rafts nity. Subject to man's impact. XV - Rimstone Dams E - Cave with state or federal rare, XW Shelfstone/Tables threatened or endangered species. XX - Shields F - Cave with unique, rare or di­ XY Stalactites verse species which are of high Xl - Stalagmites research value. YA - Trees G - Reserved YB - Reserved C. Cave Mineralogic and Geologic Features YC - Other 51. Speleothems/Petromophs Unique Features Cave deposits will receive a three digit code. The first digit will tell the source of the lAA - Cave Velvet deposit while the last two will tell what form lAB - Calcite Roses (Blades) the speleothem is taking. lAC - Dogtooth Spar lAD - Endellite Source lAE - Nitrates/Niter lAF - Nailhead Spar A Aragonite lAG - Quartz Euhedral Crystais B Calcite lAH - Spathites

62 ZAI - Tabular Gypsum 54. Relative Threat of Destruction/Damage ZAJ - Reserved to Cave Features ZAK - Other A- No threat, presently B- Potential threat from surface activities or cave visitors 52. Speleogens C- High potential for damage, result­ ing from surface activities or AA - Anastomoses cave resources very delicate which BB - Boxwork could be easily destroyed by CC - Bridges visitors DO - Dome o - Cave features presently being EE - Dome pit destroyed by vandals or surface FF - Floor slot activities GG - Flutes E- Cave features destroyed, little HH - Joint cavities left of original speleothem II - Meander niche JJ - Meander 55. Cave Mineralogic and Geologic Feature KK - Pillar Classification LL - Rills (YIYJ - Scallops A- Cave with features of few or no NN - Spongework features of scenic or scientific 00 - Tepee value. PP - Vugs B Cave contains some features with some diversity. Medium scenic value and/or low scientific 53. Speleothem Status value. C- Cave contains many features with A- No growth, dry cave, some a high diversity of forms. High deterioration of speleothems scenic value and/or medium scien­ B- No growth, but no apparent tific values. deterioration of speleothems o - Cave contains a remarkable amount C- Isolated areas in cave showing of features with a high amount speleothem growth of diversity in their form, and/or o - More than 40% of cave with a very high scientific value. speleothem growth E- Cave contains either rare, unique, E - More than 70% of cave with active or features of very high scienti­ growth taking place. fic value.

63 Appendix 1

FORMAT FOR CAVE INVENTORY REPORT

CAVE NAME

CAVE NUMBER:

COUNTY, STATE:

LEGAL LOCATION:

LOCATION: Description in road log format, walking distance and time.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: When found, by whom, how located, historical values, etc.

DESCRIPTION: Detailed description of the cave. Include major features formations, passages and brief description of biological, hydrological, and geological, etc. findings.

CAVE CONTENTS: Detailed description of cave's contents by scientific field.

A. Archaeological (artifacts).

B. Biological (organisms).

C. Geological (structural, hydrological, genetic, etc.)

D. Paleontological (fossils).

E. Speleothems.

F. Other.

64 Appendix 2

CAvE INvENTORY AND CLASSIFICATION SYS1[MS ....F 1.ld inv.ntory and ".'Yut" COding fo",.

C.ve "-.e: Stct lon: To \~t 1on Dtlt of ObHrut \on' _

A. GENEAAl CAvE INVENTORY! ClASSIFIUTION AND I'AKAGE~NT PROfilE.

(1) County: (2) CIV' n_.r/""n."hlo: (3') CIV' n_('I: _

(.') l.gll locIUon/USGS Ould: (S') Air ohoto , (6) O••rlly: T •

(7) Hlo: ~ (e) ~Ioglc fo,.,..Uon: (9) Altltud. of .nt'Oncf: _

(10) TYl'" of ctVf: R LT SF PC H A 0 (II) N_or of l.v.l" (1Z) OOoolnlnt rock tyo<: CO DO 'Y IlA IX TR LS Ml SH SO SS * IL 00 (IJ) Tyo. of .ntr.nce: ~ (I.) N...cor of .nt"nc.. : (IS) Trend of C.v.: _

( 16) ASpect of C....f fntranCf: _ (17) L.ngth of O..\lg.,, (Ie) V.rt. r.lI.f of C." fr.,. .ntr.nc.: _

(lg) P.ttern of c...: S PRO H TC A 0 (10) WIt.r .1_nt: A 8 0 FH IL H UPS W 0 (11) Hlurd, or...nt: CF SO G LHVE W PI K THO"

(m SoO< hlt'.d 'k II h r.qulr.d: CDR W S P 0 N (lJ) Spec 1.1 'oul_nt n••d.d: ~(l.) c••• cont.nt" A::....:H:...:.8...:G:....:.P_S::....::0:....::. _ (lS) Typ. of protection ro<"""",nd.d: A G L HFSPC REO T (16) Typ. of protecUon provld.d: G l HSPFC RET 0" (V) C.....rked with (l1) cont. ClP or 'Ign:...!...!!....lle) 8otkground hl" (19) Corryl"'l (lplClty: _

(30) Surf.co E\I.t. St.tu" (ll) Htn.,,1 E't.t. Own."hlp _

( lZ) Hlner.1 (Hlle St9rtqltton\: _ (JJ) HI,.."I E\I.t. Stltu': _

(3.) Surftce ('l.tt Af'stricttons: _ (JS) Acc .." _ (J6) C.rd Fll.:-!..!! (31) au. I c linIf IClt ton codIng 'yH.....• ..Cont.nt A 8 C °EF H.unl I II III IV V VI (Je) SP.c If Ie R.,ourc. d.. lgnlt lon: _ ( l8) (;entr"l RKrenlon poltnU.': _ (.0) R...rv.d: _ (.1) R.,.rv.d :, _

(.1) So

R...ork': _

R...ork" _

R....rk" _

R...ork': _

8. CAVE BIQOGIC RESOURCES

(•• ) 81t roo\l:.!.....!!.J!... (.S) Roo,t typ.: H N S 0 RUT G H (.6) So

(.1) BIt pooulttlon Hltu" 10C U W V SF (.e) Btt 'P.eI.. ,tltU" FA FP F8 FC FE FT 51: ST Bl ON NO uo (.g) R.ltth. thrut: A 8 CO EF G (SO) 81t gu.no o.po,lt" ABC °E F 0 (S1) Other Ob'.rY.d Vert.br.t., _ (SZlBlt rooH cltulllc.Uon: ABC 0 E G (SJ) CIV. r.1 h...ldlty: ~(S.) CI•• t_: ~..!_f....~_..lSS) R.'.rvOO _

(S6) Aqu.Uc ,ub\tr.t.: A 8 C 0 E r 0 U N (SI) hrr.Hrlll: A 8 C °EF G HSI °H (Se) E,..rgy Inout for (I" ,y\l"" A 8 C °EFG HI J (S9) C.v. blotl pot.nU.,: A 8 CO E F (60) CI•• Inv.rtob"t.. (61) R.llthe thr.tt: ABC 0 E r

(61) C.v. bloUc cltulflClUon: ABC 0 E F G H (6J) StltU' of c••• Flunt: FP FA FC F8 FE FT 51: ST 8l 0 " U (6.) Res.rYed _ (6S) R...rYOO (66) In••ntorled by O.t. _

(61) So

C. CAVE HIIlERAlOGIC AHO GEQOGIC FEATURES

(6e) So

(69) Spelto

(11) CIY...In.r.I/g.ologlc cltUlllc.tlon: A 8 C 0 E F (lJ) Type, 01 Fonlh _

(I. ) R.UrY.d: (IS) R.'.rYed: (16) R...ry'O: _ (11) R...rY.d: _ (Ie) R...rYed: _

PART 'A" GE.ERAl CAVE I"VENTORY AND CLASSIF ICATION STSTEMS. PART 'B' CAVE BIQOGIC RESOURCES. PART ·c' CAVE HI.ERAlOGIC AHO GEQOGIC FEATURES.

MOTE: ·x· t" Iny entry tndtClt" dot-s not apply. -.- In .ny tntry 'neStCllt" Itf ducrtptton under rBlt.r"'s . ••• 1n Iny ,"'try Indlc,h, _ that this ,In locltlon h not to be 9htn out uc~t by the tNn'9 i ng Itt'nc:)' or own,r.

COI9f:.TS

79 A:~4Ir1l': _

80 R....rk" .;...._--'- _

...... rks: _ RNUk': _

65 A Simple, Low Cost Computer Data Management Technique for Missouri's Cave Fauna Inventory

Elizabeth A. Cook* Abstract

Management and analysis of large data sets are major concerns of any researcher. Traditional methods such as keeping handwritten catalogs or index cards offer limited flexibility, besides being time-consuming to maintain and interpret. More and more, researchers of all disciplines are turning to computers to "simplify" these tasks. However, with little familiarity of programming languages and computer hardware, this can potentially be a frustrating venture.

In the past decade, several computer systems for data analysis have been developed and marketed by commercial firms. In one easy-to-use system, these software packages provide all the tools needed for data storage, sorting, modification, statistical analysis, and report writing. The analyst does not need a high degree of computer sophistication to become a competent user of these systems.

In 1978, a joint effort was undertaken by the Mark Twain National Forest, North Central Forest Experiment Station-Columbia, Missouri, Missouri Department of Conservation, and Missouri Department of Natural Resources to inventory the fauna and physical characteristics of caves occurring on their lands. At the onset, less than 300 caves were known to exist; a total of 387 have been inventoried to date. Nearly 4,000 specimens of invertebrates have been collected, in addition to records of over 1,000 vertebrate observations. These data, as well as geographic and physical information about each cave, form one of the most comprehensive cavernicolous data sets for any region of the world.

Three separate data sets (invetebrates, vertebrates, and caves) generated from Missouri's cave inventory are being managed as computer files using the data analysis package called SAS (Statistical Analysis System). Although it was developed primarily as a statistical tool, SAS serves many other computing needs and is quite useful for mainipulating work data. The invertebrate information was organized into a SAS computer file by specimen collection number, with the complete set of associated data included (genus, species, cave name, habitat notes, etc.). Vertebrate observations were similarly described. Information for each cave consists of cave name, legal description, county and area where located, length of cave in meters, cave entry restriction notes, cave map availability, and extraneous comments such as "partly water filled."

SAS procedures allow data to be sorted, grouped, modified, and printed out in nearly any format the user desires with relatively few com£uter program statements. For example, SAS has been used to sort these data

-Resources Planner, Missouri Department of Con­ servation, Jefferson City, Missouri.

66 by genera, by U.S. Forest Service management districts, and by cave zones and habitat associations. Anyone of these analyses done by hand sorting would be very tedious. The average cost of one sort and print job for the 4,000 line invertebrate data set is $10.00.

No Manuscript Received

67 Results of a Cooperative Cave Inventory in Missouri

James E. Gardner* Abstract A comprehensive cave inventory involving most of Missouri's public lands began in October, 1980. The cooperative study included caves managed by Mark Twain National Forest, Missouri Department of Conservation and Missouri Department of Natural Resources. The primary objective of the study was to collect and compile data from. their caves and use the data to develop recommendations for a responsible cave management program.

After four years of study, 387 caves were successfully inventoried. A total of 139 caves (or 36%) of the 387 caves studied were new, previously unrecorded caves for Missouri. These caves account for more than nine percent of the over 4,200 known caves in Missouri and represent a very significant portion of the state's diverse cave resources.

A cave classification and management system based on resource content and hazards was developed to insure proper stewardship of the caves. As a result of this system, 104 caves (or 27%) received a restricted classification. Only 10 caves (or 2%) are closed to recreational caving. The remaining 273 caves (or 71%) continue to be unrestricted.

Primary emphasis of the study was on gathering biological data. Over 3,300 specimens of cave invertebrates were collected. In excess of 386 species were identified from these specimens by over 40 cooperating taxonomists world-wide. These specimens also represent 22 new species to science (undescribed).

A total of 68 species of vertebrates were observed and identified from study caves. Several of these records are of federally listed threatened and endangered species and Missouri listed rare and endangered species.

With the continuation of study on Missouri Department of Conservation lands and the inclusion of selected caves within Ozark National Scenic Riverways (National Park Service), significant additional cave resources are expected to be discovered.

No Manuscript Received

·Wildlife Biologist, Missouri Department of Conservation, Natural History Section, Jeffer­ son City, Missouri.

68 Volunteerism for Cave Management

Harry B. Mahoney * Abstract

Volunteerism provides an opportunity for individuals and organizations to participate in conservation and management of caves on National Forest lands and to stretch budgets to make real progress toward cave management objectives.

Forest Service Volunteers are working on every National Forest in practically every aspect of protection and management of National Forest resources. Although volunteers receive no compensation, volunteer agreements may provide for payment of incidental expenses such as transportation, lodging, and subsistence. In addition, the volunteer is protected under provisions of the Tort Claim Act and Federal Employees Compensation Act while working within the scope of the agreement. This paper will discuss the opportunities, benefits and procedures for this approach to National Forest cave management.

In 1972, Congress passed, and the President response when it passed the "Volunteers in the signed, Public Law 92-300 which stated in part National Forests Act" ten years ago. that the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture WHO ARE THESE VOLUNTEERS?

"is authorized to recruit, train, The average age of 315 sampled 1981 volunteeers and accept without regard to the was 26, but about 50% were over 45 years of age Civil Service classification laws, and 16% were over 66. They averaged 14 years of rules, or regulations the services education and about 17% had more than a bache­ of individuals to serve without lor's degree, but 38% had 12 years or less of compensation as volunteers." schooling. A third of the sample had family income of less than $10,000 and only 15% had These volunteers are authorized to assist in any incomes over $30,000. Forest Service program or activity. These figures do not represent a good statisti­ What could be more fair that that? Here is an cal survey but are indicative of one important opportunity for an individual to help out in aspect of the program - volunteers do not fit anything the Forest Service does without having any particular sociological model. The basic to put up with all the hassle and embarrassment requirement is that the individual be motivated of being paid for it. In 1981, 16,445 people to volunteer his or her services and to believe took advantage of this opportunity and an esti­ he or she has something to offer. mated 30,000 got on the bandwagon this past year. It is projected that some 36,000 people The specific motivations may be as varied as the will be doing it, as the bumper stickers say, on number of volunteers, but surveys indicate that National Forests allover the country in 1983. they are usually related to expectation of some I doubt that Congress really anticipated this desirable type of experience. Frequently, these are expressed as being able to "enjoy scenic beauty", "enjoy sights and sounds of nature", etc., but other reasons such as an opportunity *Forester, Monogahela National Forest, Elkins, to "meet new people", "apply my skills and West Virginia. knowledge", "challenge myself", "do things with

69 the family II (or IIget away from my familyll) are necessary first step. In others, it might also voiced and even such things as lito help supplement an ongoing program or might maintain accomplish the mission of the Forest Servicell a program that would otherwise die. and lito help reduce government expensesll have been listed as very or extremely important by The possible opportunities are as varied as the 30-40% of volunteers. scope of the term "cave management" and the expertise and interests of those interested in WHAT DO VOLUNTEERS DO? the cave resource.

- They build and maintain trails. We can see a role for volunteers in a long list - They do historical research. of activities related to management and conser­ - They serve as hosts at National Forest camp- vation of caves including, but not necessarily grounds. limited to, the following: - They conduct interpretive programs. - They build structures. - Cave location and preliminary inventory - They perform surveys of wildlife habitat and - Specialized resource inventory (biological, populations. historical, recreational) - They take photographs. - Survey and mapping - They control erosion. - Classification and Planning - Design and installation of gates The possibilities are limited only by the will­ - Cave tour guiding and interpretation ingness, interest and ability of the volunteer Cave resource restoration and the agreement that a given job will benefit - Photography Forest Service programs and that the volunteer - Monitoring of use is qualified to do it. - Public information Access trail construction and signing (or Volunteers could even contribute to a program of obliteration) National Forest Cave management. The list could be extended. HOW? SO, HOW DOES ONE BECOME A VOLUNTEER? Cave management, in all its interpretations ranging from a simple inventory to intensive Like getting married, the actual process is development and operation, falls within the pretty simple, but the courtship rituals may scope of Forest Service activities somewhere and have their frustrations. One officially becomes sometime. a volunteer merely by entering into a one page agreement signed by the volunteer and the Forest However, for a great variety of reasons, manage­ Officer such as a District Ranger. A copy of ment of National Forest cave resources has re­ the agreement form is attached. The description ceived relatively little attention and conse­ of duties may be extremely brief and informal, quently relatively few funds have been bUdgeted or may be supplemented by making attachments. for cave management in the past, with some not­ The details of such an agreement are subject to able exceptions. Despite a growing recognition infinite variation and may be revised or modi­ of the importance of some aspects of the values fied. of cave resources, it would not be realistic to anticipate any significant increase in budgets There are undoubtedly many people who would be in the foreseeable future. interested, willing, and able to perform volun­ tary work related to management of National The caving community encompasses a considerable Forest caves. I know there are already many number of interested people and specialized cavers providing services and information with­ expertise that could contribute greatly to the out the formality of a signed agreement. conservation and management of National Forest cave resources. In most cases, even a modest There are also District Rangers, Forest Super­ contribution by a few individuals would repre­ visors and Staff personnel who-recognize the sent a huge accomplishment in proportion to what need to manage these resources better than they has been done in the past. In many cases, such have in the past, or at least to find out a contribution would represent a critical and whether special management is warranted. There

70 are also lots of Forest Service officials who to an available job or stimulate creation of a would welcome the assistance of volunteers if job to utilize available skills. they were convinced that there was a need. b. The Forest Service also maintains a roster The trick is to get the prospective volunteer of prospective volunteers with special skills and the appropriate resource manager together. for use by National Forests or Regions. As an example, a paleontologist willing to volunteer There are three approaches to accomplishing his/her skills might be matched with a specific this: management need anywhere in the country.

1. The Forest Service may issue an invitation WHY GO TO ALL THIS TROUBLE? through local media or other means for people to participate in the Volunteer Many reasonable projects which would contribute Program. A list of specific openings and to National Forest cave management programs opportunities for participation may be pro­ could be (and have been) done by volunteers vided and such a list could even include an without any written agreement, environmental as­ opportunity related to some aspect of cave sessments, or official reviews. There must be management. But I wouldn't bet on it. some reason to take the trouble to enter into even this relatively simple agreement. 2. John Q. Caver of a local, statewide, or national organization may approach the The agreement actually offers several possible Forest Service with some sort of proposal. advantages to the volunteer depending on the de­ This proposal could address any aspect of tails of the work to be performed and the cave management the individual or organiza­ conditions in the area, and the individual tion feels would be worthwhile. If the volunteer. ranger agrees, it could be a simple step to a signed agreement. 1. Legal Status of Volunteers Although volunteers are not federal employees in re­ gard to recruitment, employment, compensa­ However, there may also be frustrations be­ tion, and benefits, they are considered fore an agreement can be finalized. The employees in relation to tort claims and Ranger may not be convinced that the vol­ workmen's compensation. In other words, they unteer's proposal will meet a management will have the same degree of protection if need or that the volunteer is qualified to they cause damage or injury to a private perform the service. He may decide that an citizen or are injured themselves, while Environmental Assessment is needed where acting within the scope of their agreement. there is risk of an undesirable impact on the environment, or he may feel that the 2. Incidental Volunteer Expenses Although proposal should be reviewed with staff volunteers receive no salary from the Forest specialists before an agreement is signed. Service, they ~ receive reimbursement or Such delays do not necessarily represent a allowances for incidental expenses such as lack of empathy or bureaucratic red type. transportation, uniforms, lodging, subsis­ We have learned by experience that taking a tence, and miscellaneous expenses. Notice little time to evaluate any project proposal the verb "may". An individual agreement may is usually worth it in the long run. The cover all, some, or none of these in whole or secret is obviously to allow enough lead in part as determined on a case by case time for this type of consideration. basis, tailored to the individual, the job being accomplished, available budgets, and agency priorities. 3. The prospective volunteer may submit an ap­ plication. 3. Possible Reguirements for Authorization Some actions, such as erecting a gate, con­ a. Form 1BOO-17 "Prospective Volunteer Appli­ structing a trail, cutting trees, or entering cation" (a copy is attached) may be submitted to a closed area require some form or authoriza­ the appropriate Forest Service Office (such as a tion. Volunteers, acting within the terms of National Forest Supervisor's Office) listing an agreement, ~ be authorized to do such special skills or interests which may be matched things. It should also be noted that most

71 structures require some sort of design with have been located but not yet inventoried; and appropriate approval. 59 more have been reported but not found. At present, 222 of the caves are open to the public 4. Other Possible Benefits - (Again these mayor without restriction; 3 have been gated but may may not be provided). be entered on a permit basis; and 1 has been physically blocked to prevent entrapment by a. A government driver's license and vehicle or flash floods. other transportation ~ be provided. 2. The Shawnee National Forest (Illinois) b. Training, office space, equipment, etc., ~ be provided. At least 7 caves are known to occur on National Forest land on the basis of the Illinois De­ c. Quarters, if available, or a campsite ~ be partment of National Resources "Natural Areas provided without charge. Inventory". All are open to the public.

d. A uniform, volunteer vest or jacket, or i­ 3. The Wayne-Hoosier National Forest (Indiana­ dentification ~ be provided. Ohio)

5. Creditable Work or Education Experience­ There are 24 identified caves on the Forest. Volunteer service can be used as creditable They are open to the pUblic, but use is neither work experience toward formal employment and encouraged nor discouraged, and they receive may frequently be used to satisfy college re­ little official attention. quirements or obtain college credits. 4. The Monogahela National Forest (West 6. Good Management Practice - This may not Virginia) appear to be of particular value to the vol­ unteer at first glance, but in reality, it About 80 caves are known on National Forest may be the most important benefit. If we as­ lands ranging in length from less than 100 feet sume that one major motivation for the to about four miles of passage. Endangered bats volunteer is to promote and accomplish con­ are known to use four of these caves at least servation and sound resource management, for parts of the year and two of these are gated development of a volunteer agreement repre­ during critical periods. There has been no sents a commitment by both the volunteer and attempts to inventory or classify these caves the Forest Service to work toward some common systematically, although a continuing survey of objective. It provides both parties an bat habitat and populations has been conducted. opportunity to be assured that the work is consistent with overall resource management This very brief overview of the present status objectives and policies. of cave management on the National Forests in the Eastern Region suggests that there could be WHAT OPPORTUNITIES IN CAVE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT plenty of opportunity for volunteer involvement ARE AVAILABLE FOR VOLUNTEERS? in such aspects as basic inventory, mapping, specialized inventory, and classification. I can only speak for the National Forests of the Eastern Region of the Forest Service (from It is unlikely that we will be able to ac­ Missouri to Maine), but I suspect that our situ­ complish more than a modest level of management ation is quite typical except for a few isolated of cave resources with available or anticipated cases. funding and employment levels, except where considerations of critical habitat or other At least four of the 14 National Forests in the special management concerns dictate special Eastern Region have at least some caves. I'll attention. In many cases, no management may be briefly summarize the cave management situation the best management, but in general, some level on each of these. of inventory and classification is needed as a minimum to support such a decision. 1. The Mark Twain National Forest (Missouri) Volunteerism can help to fill the gap between Since 1978, 226 caves with about 10 miles of that which is realistically probable and that passage have been located and inventoried; 54 which might be desirable. It represents an

72 opportunity both for the Forest Service and for to sell your idea or yourself, but there's the caving community. The National Forests nothing wrong with that if you think the need is Volunteer Program provides a vehicle for ac­ there. complishing mutually desirable objectives but, it will take a sincere effort both on the part In closing, several speakers here today have of the potential volunteers and on the part of emphasized that volunteer contributions will be Forest Service managers. necessary if much effective cave management is to be accomplished. The opportunities for vol­ I would suggest that anyone interested in unteer participation are not limited to National exploring this- ~dea further contact a Forest Forests. Both the National Park Service and the Service office, either at the District, Forest, Bureau of Land Management have similar volunteer or Regional level to see what opportunities programs and a number of state land management there might be to match your interests and agencies will welcome volunteer assistance. skills with cave management needs. You may have

73 Appendix 1

AGREEMENT FOR SPONSORED VOLUNTARY SERVICES (Act of Moy 18. 1972. P. L. 92·300)

(If mar. apoce I. n ••d.d, loll. ,..v.r••) 1. Oeu;:rtpllon of work '0 b. performed:

2. Th. obo .... .

3. W. will provide th. For•• , S.rvic:. with a Ii.ting of ,ertlclpontl and man-hour. or man-day. contribut.d to occompli,h the work in item I abo",••

.4,. w...... ;11 obtain parental or guardian con••nt for each intlivi"uol und., 18 yean of 09' and wiil comply with child labor lowl.

5. ______1. h.,.by ••• ivnot.d to lerve ., our li,ilon wi*' the For•• t S.rvice in dayeto-

6. W. under.tond that .ith.r th. For•• t S.rvic., or W., "'oy canc.1 !hI. agr••m....' .t any ti".. by notifying "'••ther party.

SICONATVP\[ I Dna

ACCEPTANCE FOR THE FOREST SERVICE

1. Prov,d. Iych mot.riol., equipment, and fociliti., o. are ovoIJQ~d. and ne.d.d in p.rfonning the woric de.crlbed above.

2. Finonce "ec•• aory inc,dentol expens.s of ,pan,or.d participants to the ext.". such expenlel cannot be bomed by the aponlor, and to th. ext.nt For•• , S.rvic. fund. or. availabl•• The maximum For.,' S.rvic. funding of .uch incidental ••p~.e••holl b• • e1 forth in on occomponying financiol pion for each fi.eol ye

3. Conlider Ipenlared participant. 01 f.d.rol .mplay••• for the purpo... af tort c1oim. ond camp.,aotion for work iniuriea, to the ex'ent nof covered by the aponsor,

4. Avthori1e Iponlor.d por,icipanh to op.rat. f.d.rol motor venicl ...... h.n "ece••ory; provid.d the IndlvidtJol qualifi.s for, and i. IIIU.d,o V.5, Go .... rnm.nl Operotor', Id.ntification Cord. "G"'ATU~[ ------ITITLE

TERMINATION OF AGRI!EMENT

Month, Oar. Y_,

Remorka:

Q,~O ...... " 1100..'1 (717J)

74 Appendix 2

PROSPECTIVE VOLUNTEER APPLICATION

DATE (11 !jIR1H rLLl:.p,iONl.:.. Nt)

If UNt)l II 10 (lAI1~ 01 !\{.L, ClvL NJ~Ml Of IIAIlLNl OR GUARDIAN TELEPHONe NO. (lncll... dlrll cud";

CIRCLl:.. tq(OIH.ST Llvf.L 0': (DuCAl'ON COMPLETE.D:

LLL Ml: r,n AU 'r ~CI100L. HIGH SCHOOL: 10 11 12 COLLEGE: 3 4

LIST SPE.CIAL (JUALlF" ICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE. HORTICULTURE, ENGINEERING, HISTORICAL, ETC .. AND ANY SKILLS IN TRADES OR OCCUPATIUN,

us I ALL rl~AININC RECEivED. IF AN V, INCLUDING HOuRS.

BRIEFLY DESCRIBE PAST AND PRESENT EMPLOYMENT.

LIST INTERESTS AND HOBBIES. ------"------

LiST ANY PREVIOUS VOLUNTEER SERVICES. INCLUDING DATES AND/OR COMMENTS.

LiST VOLUNTEER WORK INTERESTS. -----"-"------

-"------"------

DATE OF AVAILABILITY 5t-iOW AREA OF AVAIi ABILITY (Natiunal Fo~,t, Stolfi. ~tc.)

CI nCLf DAVIS) U,' Wt-I K 0" AVAILABILITY AND SHOW HOURS. FRIDAY SATURDAY DAYS SUNDAY MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY

HOURS

SIGNATUH[ IOATE

------FS·1800·17 (1182) CI"O "a.e2'

75 The Use of the Significant Cave List as a Cave Conservation Tool

H Bob Custard: Dr. John R. Holsinger ­ and PhiII i pC. L u cas *** Abstract

In 1980, the Virginia Cave Commission completed compilation of a comprehensive listing of Virginia's significant cave resources. The list was designed to assist land use planners and reviewers of environmental impact statements in identifying and protecting those caves and karst areas which provide the best remaining examples of Virginia's spelean wilderness. Approximately ten percent of Virginia's 2500 caves were identified as significant on the basis of their length, depth, biology, geology, hydrology, paleontology, archaeology, historical significance, recreational use, economic vallie, or aesthetic value. Since completion of the list, several organizations involved.in the conservation of cave resources have used the list to help them establish priorities for various conservation projects. Also, designation of several caves as significant has assisted in making a case for their protection when they have been threatened by development. Limited and selective distribution of the significant cave list has avoided stimulating additional caving pressure on the designated caves.

No Manuscript Received

*Geologist, Virginia Division of Mineral Re­ sources, Charlottesville, Virginia. **Professor of Biological Sciences, Old Domin­ ion University, Norfolk, Virginia. ***Virginia Electric and Power Company, Charlot­ tesville, Virginia.

76 General Cave Gate Considerations

Roy D. Powers, Jr.* Abstract

The requirements for effective cave gate designs that let the bats and other cave creatures in and out of the cave but keep unwanted people out, are listed and explained. The psychological factors in cave gates are explained in ways that would help one prevent attempts to reach the gate. Features that make cave gates difficult to circumvent will be demonstrated. The trade-offs of weak links versus medium strength weak links and the no true weak links methods will be compared, as well as other alternatives such as supervision, fencing and other barriers. Cave protection situations where fences would be more desirable than gates, situations where no barriers are needed and situations where gate supervision may be required, are all weighed from a cost-effectiveness point of view.

INTROOUCTION type of vandal. It may have a reinforced con­ crete foundation integrated with a massive sill A cave should be gated only as a last resort and plate. and a heavy steel framework tied to the when other methods of protection will not suf­ top, bottom, and sides of the passageway. The fice. Once it is determined that a cave must be locking device and hinge pins are protected. gated, a careful determination must be made as All exposed edges of the steel framework, which to the type of gate to be selected. might be attacked by hacksaws are hardened. Special tools such as cutting torches are re­ Cave gates exist in three general categories. quired to defeat this type of gate. which are listed and defined below: DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Type -- The token protection gate. Gates in The cave should determine the design of the this category provide little or no resistance to gate. Most caves do not fall in the category of breaching. This type of gate may be violated being "bat caves". This is not to say, however, with little effort. requiring no tools to effect that in the future bats will not elect to use entry. An example of this type is the fence them if they are available. It is suggested gate. that all caves which have the possibility of future bat occupation be gated as if they were ~ -- The m~n~mum protection gate. Gates in bat caves. The difference in construction cost this category require tools and greater effort and effort required to install a gate which is to breach than the Type 1 gate. This type of acceptable to bats is small. As population in gate may be breached with boltcutters, hacksaw, caving areas increase, the traffic in the caves sissor jack. and possibly sledge hammers. will increase, and it is conceivable that only a previously gated cave is acceptable to a dis­ Type 3 -- Maximum protection gates. This type placed bat population. of gate requires a maximum of effort and spec­ EXPENSE ialized tools to effect breaching. This type of gate is engineered to defeat the most persistent Cost is one factor which has. too often in the past. played a major role in determining the type of gates installed in caves. *Assistant Professor, Electronic Engineering Technology. Mountain Empire Community College, A cave gate should be well thought out and prop­ erly designed before expense should enter into Big Stone Gap. Virginia.

77 the design considerations. There are many en­ reasons given above. In addition to these rea­ gineering and cost trade offs that can be made, sons, the rational has been that this gives the but these trade offs should have major consider­ vandal less room in which to work. This ration­ ations only at the last stage of design. Fi­ al may be correct, but it should not be a design nancing exists now from many sources. Several consideration. A small work area makes it very organizations exist which make funding for gates difficult to properly construct a gate. The available. Among these are the Nature Conser­ location should be chosen to facilitate proper vancy, Cave Conservancy of the Virginias, the construction as much as possible. Fish and Wildlife Commission, and other state agencies. In some instances, the property owner If the features to be protected are remote or if himself is willing to share all or some of the they are contained in a discrete section of the cost. The materials for Madison and Fountain cave, then the location of the gate should be Caves (Augusta Co., Va.) were purchased by the chosen to keep as much of the cave open as pos­ owners. Large and small comppanies alike are sible. There is much opposition to gating from willing to donate material. Southern Railroad, members of the caving community and from sport for example, has recently donated 300' of rail­ cavers alike. A gate should serve only to pro­ road steel to the Cave Conservancy of the Vir­ tect some feature or animal. Many gates that ginias to be used for gating projects. Individ­ have been installed, restrict traffic through ual donations are also a possibility. The steel large areas and in some cases, whole caves, for the Unthanks gate (Lee Co., Va.) was donated unnecessarily. This is very bad public rela­ by an individual. Another source is the caving tions and can be avoided in many cases. community itself. Fund raising projects by grottos and regions of the N.S.S. are distinct The final factor governing the location of the possibilities. cave gate is air flow. Air flow must not be restricted in any way. One way of minimizing LOCATION the effect of the gate on the air flow is to choose a location which lies between two cross­ Location of the gate is determined by the geom­ sectional areas that have greater restrictions etry of the cave and the location of the fea­ than the gate. An example is the General Davis tures that are to be protected. There is no set gate in Greenbrier Co., West Virginia. rule to the location of the gate. There are GATE GEOMETRY advantages and disadvantages to any location. A gate at or near the entrance makes it easier to The size of the openings in the gate have been construct, maintain, and patrol. It also expos­ very well defined. A gate should have openings es the gate to many people who visit the front with a minimum vertical height of 6" and a part of the cave and in some cases, visitors who minimum horizontal width of 24" (Tuttle 1976). would not normally visit the cave. A gate lo­ This is the accepted minimum size opening that cated in or near the entrance also exposes bats will permit bats to enter and exit flying. It who are using the cave to predation by limiting is fortunate that the 6" dimension will their speed and maneuverability. A gate located effectively limit passage of the majority of the a distance from the entrance has the disadvan­ human population. Vertical bars have a greater tage of more difficult construction and mainte­ disturbing effect on bats than horizontal bars. nance. It is more difficult to patrol and also It is, therefore, desirable to have as few gives a measure of privacy to the vandal intent vertical bars as possible. The distance between on forced entry. It does, however, have the vertical bars is governed by the strength and advantage of discouraging predatation of bats rigidity of the gate material. and limits the exposure of the gate to a smaller AIR FLOW population of persons entering the cave. There are many factors governing air flow in a Cross-sectional area of the passageway is also a cave system. Among these are volume, cross­ factor governing gate location. It is obvious sectional area and shape, elevation differences that the larger the cross-sectional area, the between entrances, outside barometric pressure, greater the cost and effort required to con­ and entrance size. struct the gate. Temperatures within a cave are governed, in It has been standard practice in the past to part, by the air flow in and out of the cave. gate the smallest cross-sectional area for the Bats choose a particular cave for a variety of

78 reasons but the main reason appears to be the it would be if the air encountered a flat plate temperature. If the air flow is altered, the normal to the air flow. This type of design temperature within is altered. Air flow also would work well at even high velocities. The governs humidity, which not only affects the cross-sectional area of the gate is effectively biota, but formations. For these reasons, it is the sum of the area of the edges of the individ­ of major importance that the air flow be unal­ ual plates. tered. The use of angle iron permits greater spans, Air flow is poorly understood by gate designers, reducing the number of columns required. The gate buildeFs, and' speleologists. The greatest square columns in this type design are rotated misconception is that air flow is proportional so that they deflect rather than restrict the to cross-sectional area. This is not true of air flow. One word of caution on using this low to medium air velocity. type of design is that on 6" vertical spacing, the maximum size of angle iron should not exceed It is not yet determined how much restriction 4" on the back leg. If this dimension is ex­ versus air velocity is permitted before air flow ceeded, the air at high velocities may strike is seriously affected. It is conceivable that the back leg normal to the surface. at low to medium velocities 20% is feasable and perhaps up to 40% at low velocities is accept­ Using a design of this type along with careful able. location choice should solve all but the most severe air flow problems. The easiest way to address the air flow re­ striction problem is to design the gate so that OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS air flow is not restricted but simply redirec­ ted. A design of this type is shown in Figure Water is the enemy of the gate. Water can cause 1. locks to fail, hinges to freeze and the gate material to rust. The completed gate should be protected by paint or other preservative. Locks 4 11 x4 11 x I /4 11 ANGLE and hinges should be protected from direct moisture. Maintenance for any gate should be performed on a regular basis.

AIR FLOW -;. ~ THE ACTIVE GATE ~ ~

With the advent of inexpensive solid state low power electronics, a fourth type of gate is now feasable. The active gate is one which actually becomes active when the presence of people at the gate is detected or if a violation of the gate is attempted. Such a gate could deliver a harmless shock, sound a remote alarm or photo­ Figure 1 graph the vandals. A gate could be designed to remain open until approached and then shut. Unlimited possibilities exist, depending only on The air approaching the front of the gate is the imagination and skill of the designer. deflected upwards instead of being blocked, as

79 This page • IS blank MANAGEMENT PROJECTS Cave Conservation in the Klamath Mountains

Mike Sims{~ Abstract

The Klamath Mountains Conservation Task Force was organized in 1973 with the objective of "preventive conservation," Le., applying the concept of a task force to promote cave conservation in a relatively unknown area before a crisis situation arises. Toward this objective, the KMCTF has located and assessed little-known or previously unknown caves within the Klamath Mountains and actively sought liaison with the government agencies possessing the caves. The KMCTF also sought to increase the awareness of the government agencies toward management of their cave resources.

The concept of National Speleological Society the exclusion, perceived or actual, of others. Conservation Task Forces (CTF) was established There are many examples of cavers establishing under Act 50-238 of the NSS Board of Governors control over a cave by use permit, mining claim, on March 31, 1971. This act states: "The Con­ or just by constructing a gate. Then, the cave servation Committee should actively seek out becomes a playground for one group to the ex­ conservation problems throughout the counry and clusion of all others, either by design or by establish task forces under the Conservation clash of caver personalities. Committee to seek out the facts in each case and publicize the problem through the NSS News and If the foregoing generalizations are correct, it other publications." This concept is fairly would seem that the ideal conservation situation typical of the cave conservation efforts of the would be a cave unknown locally, under the own­ NSS. In other words, wait until a cave or cav­ ership of a person or agency receptive to man­ ing area is suffering acutely or is in imminent agement development, and which is in original danger and solve the problem by jumping in with condition. In other words, the ideal situation great outcry and publicity, but with the obvious is a newly discovered cave, found by conserva­ danger of the effort being too little, too tion-oriented cavers. Conservation could then late. be carried out before a problem developed -­ i.e., preventitive conservation.

Other factors may come into the picture when the These ideas developed through a series of camp­ "crisis" method of conservation task forces is fire discussions over a period of some years. used. For example, it usually is the case that There were ample examples of the shortcomings of when a cave becomes well known and well used by crisis-oriented cave conservation efforts and cavers, especially the locals, it becomes very even more examples of failure of the "conserva­ difficult, if not impossible, to change the tion by exclusion" efforts. Therefore, to pursue patterns of use of the cave. People react the concept of preventive ~onservation, Steve strongly and perhaps irrationally when deprived Knutson, Lynne Sims and I formed the Klamath of what they consider to be their rights and Mountains Conservation Task Force. Our basic freedom of access. It has proven to be very mission, as formulated in our discussion, was to difficult to keep a gate intact on a relatively find new caves, and then go to the owning person well-known cave. Also, all too often the con­ or agency and impress upon them the need for servation effort is undertaken by one group to cave management and conservation (whether they like it or not). Our major selling point was to be the value of the cave as a resource. Beside the obvious scientific values, caves are a true *Oirector, Klamath Mountains Conservation Task wilderness. One need not go very far into a Force, Oregon City, Oregon. cave to gain a wilderness experience equivalent

82 to many miles of surface wilderness. The con­ first summer in the Marble Mountains, we found cept of "underground wilderness" was just gain­ our largest cave was already the third longest ing currency in the NSS and our ideas were in California and the fifth deepest in the U.S. doubtless influenced by this. Fighting off the alternate urges to "keep it secret just for us!" and to go for the big The Klamath Mountains Physiographic Province is ego trip with wide pUblicity, we began to real­ an area of complex geology with scattered marble ize that here was a near ideal situation to deposits. It is a lens-shaped area with the further develop our ideas of preventive conser­ points north and south. It runs from just west vation. We contacted the responsible Forest of Red Bluff in Northern California to just Service District of Klamath National Forest, south of Rosebur~ in Oregon. In 1973, there arranged a meeting and showed them our slides were only a few caves known in the area and, due and maps. The rangers were politely impressed, to its isolation from population centers and but really didn't know what to do with us. This from organized caving, it seemed to be an ideal we expected and assured them that it would all place to find the caves required for our pre­ work out. ventive conservation. It was also apparent that the caves which had seen use by the locals were Now, it is some nine years later and the origin­ badly vandalized, seeming to strengthen one of al three cavers of the KMCTF have become several our basic assumptions. dozen cavers, with participation from Califor­ nia, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, and elsewhere. In the autumn of 1973, we began to search for We continue to explore, map, inventory hazards caves and cave leads in Northern California. and contents of the caves, and aid students and Our first coordination with a cave-owning agency others in pursuing speleological studies. We was with the Big Bar Ranger District of Trinity have, for the most part, been successful in National Forest. Locals, including Forest Ser­ avoiding the controversies that have often sur­ vice personnel, had discovered a cave only a few rounded CTF and other conservation efforts mod­ years before. We contacted the Forest Service, eled on the "crisis\! and exclusion concepts. were guided to the cave, and proceeded to map and inventory the· cave. This cave was a sub­ How was this accomplished? From the time we stantial discovery in California at the time, first contacted the Forest Service, we emphasiz­ and it spurred on our search for new caves. ed that the caves were unique resources posses­ sing recreational, wilderness, and scientific We found several other small caves, and convinc­ values. We emphasized the unique features: ed of the potential of the Klamath Mountains as formations, biological species, and physical a caving area, we applied to the NSS Conserva­ factors of length, depth, and size -- any unu­ tion Committee for status as the Klamath sual nature of the specific caves. We also set Mountains Conservation Task Force. Our request out to educate the Forest Service personnel. We was approved by the NSS Board of Governors on deluged them with conservation articles, copies April 2, 1974 and we set out to implement some of proceedings from the various cave management of our ideas. symposia, and information on what other agencies were doing. We enlisted and infiltrated agency In the summer of 1974, we were rewarded in the staff whenever possible. We provided bones to extreme. In the Marble Mountains Wilderness, we their archaeologists. We got their hydrologists found an alpine karst area which was to become interested in cave hydrology. We related the one of the major caving areas of the Far West. caves and karst features to Forest Service ac­ This area has yielded over 45 caves, with over tivities, e.g., karst hydrology related to her­ fifteen miles of mapped cave, including Bigfoot bicide spraying and logging activities. We Cave System which, with a depth of 1,205 feet constantly (but gently) reminded them that con­ and nine and one quarter miles of mapped pas­ servation of natural resources was a primary sage, was from 1977 to 1980, the deepest cave in mission of the Forest Service. And finally, we the continental U.S. and the longest cave west did not go away. We had personal and telephone of the Continental Divide. The great majority contact. We prepared and presented annual re­ of these caves had not previously seen the pas­ ports of our efforts and findings and conducted sage of man. annual meetings. payoff. It was apparent quite early on that we were on Over time, these efforts began to emerging to something good. Assembling the data from our Presumably, we were reinforcing an

83 awareness in the government of the potential The cooperation we have received from the Forest values of natural resources for scientific and Service and the National Park Service has been recreational uses. Finally, we were able to get outstanding. And, within the NSS, other con­ management-level personnel from both the Klamath servation task forces have been modeled after National Forest and from Region 5 Headquarters the KMCTF -- to us the sincerest form of flat­ to attend a National Cave Management Symposium tery. (at Mountain View, Arkansas in 1976). It turned out that this was the ideal symposium for them The main point to be made, though, is not the to attend. They were exposed ~o the cave man­ glorious caves we were lucky' enough to find, agement plans being put into effect in New Mex­ nor the flattery of our task force serving as a ico's Guadalupe and Lincoln National Forests and model for others. The point is that we have at the Buffalo National River in Arkansas. achieved our goal. We feel that this is due to Also, the symposium included a tour of Blanchard two factors: First, the Marble Mountains is in Springs Cavern, the crown jewel of the Forest an ideal management situation; 1) no locals have Service's show caves. a claim to the caves; 2) the caves are isolated within a surface wilderness; 3) the cavers of This resulted in a request from the Forest Ser­ the region are willing to see the cave area vice for the KMCTF to submit a proposal for a managed; 4) the governing agency has been made cooperative agreement concerning inventory and aware and is interested in management of the investigation of the caves of the Marble Moun­ cave resource; 5) due to the low key nature of tains in Klamath National Forest. The coopera­ the effort, when the caves inventory is com­ tive agreement was signed in April 1977. A plete, the cave resource will be in essentially further result was the development of a cave original condition. management plan for all National Forests in Region 5 of the Forest Service. This plan was The second factor in a successful preventive drafted and circulated to caver groups for com­ conservation project is the effort and style of ment before implementation. In July 1980, the the cavers in dealing with the responsible gov­ cave management guidelines were implemented as a ernment agency. I suggest the following as supplement to the Forest Service Manual for hints on "how to do it": 1) be friendly and Region 5. open; 2) show your enthusiasm; 3) provide the agency with the things they need: share your The Region 5 Cave Management Plan is based upon data, maps, pictures, articles, and significant the "New Mexico" plans which rate caves accord­ information on the caves; 4) conduct the inven­ ing to their contents and hazards. A further tory using the format and techniques required by feature of the Region 5 plan is management the agency; 5) don't be condescending; your job guidelines tied to the contents and hazards rat­ is to educate the agency personnel, not to im­ ings. The plan also provides for limited re­ press them with your knowledge; 6) accept your creational use of caves by various options responsibilities and gently insist that the ranging from open caves to guided trips by agency accept theirs; 7) above all, be persis­ either volunteers or Forest Service employees. tent; don't go away; and let the agency know that you will be there as long as necessary to In summary, we believe that our efforts in pre­ accomplish the goal. ventive conservation have proven successful.

84 The Formation of the Trout Rock Conservation Task Force of the National Speleological Society

Fred Grady* Abstract

The closing of the caves of Trout Rock stimulated the formation of the Trout Rock Conservation Task Force, whose goals are to obtain the caves by purchase and donate them to the National Speleological Society. The caves are significant historically, recreationally and especially paleontologically.

During April of 1981, the owners of the caves at By the time of the 1982 National Cave Conserva­ Trout Rock, Trout, New Trout, and Hamilton de­ tion and Management Symposium, 5-7 November, cided to enforce the closure of the caves. 1982, about 2/3 of the necessary funds had been This halted surveys and other scientific work at donated or pledged. Thus, it appeared that the the caves and diverted sport cavers to other Trout Rock Conservation Task Force was close to caves. The property consists of approximately achieving its stated goal, the purchase of the 42 acres of steeply forested hillside and the caves at Trout Rock. owners were anxious to sell it. While it had been on the market for several years, there had been no serious interest due to the unrealisti­ POSTSCRIPT cally high price. On January 26, 1983, initial papers were signed A group of cavers from West Virginia and the transferring the Trout Rock Cave property to the Washington, D.C. area discussed the possibility National Speleological Society. Using several of buying the property and approached the Na­ loans from cavers and the NSS Save the Caves tional Speleological Society (NSS) for assist­ Fund, final payment was made on March 16. The ance and support. The result was the formation final selling price was $40,000 (Garton et. al., of the Trout Rock Conservation Task Force of the NSS News, April, 1983, p. 128). At this time, NSS. Negotiations with the agents of the land­ it was decided to name the property the John owners were opened and proceeded over a number Guilday Cave Preserve in memory of the late John of months. A brochure was put together and Guilday, a caver and paleontologist. The Trout circulated at various gatherings of cavers. The Rock Conservation Task Force then became the brochure included maps of the property and the management committee of the NSS for the John caves, as well as information on the signifi­ Guilday Cave Preserve. One of the first acts of cance of the caves recreationally, historically, the committee was to declare the caves open to and paleontologically. all qualified cavers.

*Smithsonian Institution, Arlington, Virginia.

85 Cave Management for the Endangered Indiana Bat (Myotis sodalis) and Gray Bat (Myotis grisescens)

Jf- John T. Brady'

Abstract

The Indiana/Gray Bat Recovery Team has been preparing recovery plans for the Indiana and Gray Bats. The plans will determine criteria for protecting caves for these species as well as prioritize which caves are more important. Management options such as public acquisition of caves, posting of warning signs and erection of fences and gates to exclude human entry are discussed.

INTRODUCTION the hibernacula as early as early September (LaVal, et al., 1977). Indiana bats have The Indiana bat and gray bat both have been specific requirements for hibernation, gen­ designated as endangered species by the U.S. erally choosing roost sites within caves or Fish and Wildlife Service and are protected mines which have stable temperatures of 4-B under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as degrees C allowing the bats to maintain a amended (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 197B). low metabolism and conserve fat reserves The Indiana/Gray Bat Recovery Team was appointed until spring (Humphrey, 197B). The bats by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to prepare usually hibernate in large, dense clusters a recovery plan for the gray bat and revise the of about 300 bats per square foot (Hall, recovery plan that was prepared for the Indiana 1962; Engel, "et al., 1976; Clawson, et al., Bat in 1976 (Engel, et al., 1976). 19BO) • DISTRIBUTION Current studies indicate that females form The Indiana bat is found in the midwestern and nursery colonies mostly in riparian and eastern United States, from extreme northern flood plain areas of small to medium sized Florida north to Vermont, Michigan, Wisconsin, streams, (Humphrey, et al., 1977; Cope, et west to Iowa, Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma. al., 197B; Sparling, et al., 1979; Gardner The winter range is primarily Missouri, In­ and Gardner, 19BO). Riparian habitat was diana, Kentucky, and Tennessee. found to be occupied from mid-May until mid­ September (Humphrey, et al., 1977). Gray bat populations are found mainly in Ala­ bama, northern Arkansas, Kentucky, Missouri and 2. Gray Bat. The gray bat is, perhaps, the most Tennessee, but a few occur in northwestern Flor­ restricted to cave habitats of any U.S. ida, western Georgia, southeastern Kansas, mammal (Hall and Wilson, 1966, Barbour and southernmost Indiana, southern and southwestern Daves, 1969; Tuttle, 1976a). With rare Illinois, northeastern Oklahoma, northeastern exceptions (Hays and Bingham, 1964), it Mississippi, western Virginia and possibly wes­ roosts in caves year-round. Because of tern North Carolina (Hall, 19B1; Tuttle, 1979). highly specific roost and habitat require­ ments, fewer than 5 percent of available HABITAT REQUIREMENTS caves are suitable for occupation by gray 1. Indiana Bat. Depending on local weather bats (Tuttle, 1979). Colonies move season­ conditions, Indiana bats are in hibernation ally between unusually warm (14-25 degrees from October to April with some arriving at C) and cold (6-11 degrees C) caves (See Figure 1).

*Wildlife Biologist, St. Louis District, Corps Most winter caves are deep and vertical; all of Engineers, St. Louis, Missouri. provide large volume below the lowest en-

86 KEEP OUT OF MATERNITY AND BACHELOR CAVES

KEEP OUT OF KEEP OUT OF HIBERNACULA HIBERNACULA

I LACATATION I

I PREGNANT I

EMERGE ~MERGE tfOUNG YOUNG ENTER ENTER BORN BEGIN HIBERNAT ION HI BER- 00 CJeJ a R...Y o 0 I~I~ I II I I I I I I I I I I JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

FIGURi 1. Annual chronology of the gray bat (Myotis grisescens), showing seasons when caves should not be visited. Some maternity and bachelor colonies naturally leave their caves as early as 1 August annually, and at such locations entry is permissable theresfter.

trance and act as cold air traps. A much disturbance (Tuttle, pers. comm.). Gray bats wider variety of cave types are used during are also vulnerable at maternity caves when spring and fall transient periods. In sum­ flightless young are on roosts and thousands may mer, maternity colonies prefer caves that die from a single disturbance. Most human dis­ act as warm air traps or that provide re­ turbance is the result of people who don't know stricted rooms or domed ceilings that are any better, but there are also cases of deliber­ capable of trapping the combined body heat ate vandalism against both species. from thousands of clustered individuals (Tuttle, 1975; Tuttle and Stevenson, 1978). Other reasons for population declines are flood­ At all seasons, males and yearling females ing, ceiling collapse, especially in abandoned seem less restricted to specific caves and mines, careless handling of bats by biologists, roost types (Tuttle, 1976a). commercialization of caves, exclusion of bats by poorly designed gates, changes in cave micro­ Summer caves, especially those used by ma­ climate by opening of additional entrances or ternity colonies, are nearly always located blocking air flow by poorly designed gates; within a kilometer of rivers or reservoirs flooding of caves by reservoirs, clearing of (rarely more than 4 km) over which the bats forests, and pesticide poisoning. feed (Tuttle, 1976b). CAVE MANAGEMENT REASONS FOR DECLINE Signs, fences, and gates may be required to Human disturbance is the most serious cause of reduce or eliminate human disturbance at Indiana population decline for both species. Hibernat­ and gray bat caves. Generally, Indiana bat hi­ ing Indiana and gray bats are vulnerable and can bernacula should be closed to human entry lose as much as 10 to 30 days of fat supply per between September and 30 April. Figure 1

87 shows when the different types of gray bat caves sign in Figure 2 is used at gray bat summer should be closed. caves in Missouri, and is especially suitable for maternity caves; Figure 3 is used at 1. Signs. At a cave which is infrequently vi­ Indiana bat hibernacula. The interpretive sited, or easily observed by its owner, a message has been modified for certain other sign alone may be adequate to prevent dis­ types of gray bat caves as follows: (1) for turbance. Under certain circumstances, a gray bat hibernacula "The gray bat, an sign might call unnecessary attention to a endangered species that hibernates in this cave, in which case the management agency cave, must survive the winter on stored fat. might opt for placement of the sign inside When disturbed, they arouse, using up this fat. Bats that have been aroused two or three times may die before insects on which they feed are again available in spring." (2) caves in year-round use by gray bats ­ "The gray bat, a highly beneficial endangered species that occurs in this cave throughout the year, is intolerant of disturbance. In the summer, baby bats may fall to their deaths if disturbed. In the winter, bats may arouse from hibernation, using up the stored fat they need to survive until spring."

FIGOOE 2. Warning sign used on a gray bat maternity cave by the Missouri Department of Conservation.

the cave. Signs must be of durable con­ struction and fixed solidly in place to mini­ mize vandalism, and should not be placed where bat movement or air flow might be im­ peded. They must be located where potential violators can see them, and should be placed FIGURE 3. Warning sign used on an Indiana just behind the gate or fence if such a bat hibernaculum by the Missouri Department structure has been erected. of Conservation.

Wording will vary from cave to cave, depend­ At some caves, visitor entry can be per­ ing on the history of use of the cave by both mitted during seasons when bats are not pre­ bats and people. If law enforcement offi­ sent. A smaller sign containing that mes­ cials are to have a strong case against vio­ sage, plus information on how to obtain a lators, the sign must contain a warning mes­ key to a gated cave or other pertinent sage similar to that of the upper half of the details, might encourage the cooperation of signs shown in Figures 2 and 3. All signs spelunkers~ should include an interpretive message, as exemplified by the one shown on the lower In cases where a cave is located in a public half of the sign in Figures 2 and 3. The use area, the management agency may wish to

88 use a more detailed interpretive message. from April through September (flights For example, a sign with the following are especially impressive in July and wording was posted at Blowing Wind Cave, August); however, penalties for un­ National Gray' Bat Sanctuary in northern authorized entry beyond this gate or Alabama: other molestation of endangered spe­ cies, range up to fines of $10,000 ·BLOWING WINO CAVE and/or imprisonment. Also, it is il­ Wildlife Sanctuary-Unauthorized Entry legal to damage Federal property. For Prohibited further information you may contact the Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge, P.O. Box 1643, Decatur, AL 35602." "This cave is critical habitat for endangered Gray and Indiana Bats as 2. Fences. Although fences may not afford the well as for threatened Eastern Big­ same level of protection as steel gates, the eared Bats and the Tennessee Cave presence of a fence makes it clear that Salamander. As a result of human unauthorized entry is illegal. Fences may disturbance, all of these species have be less expensive than gates, but are easier decreased dramatically in numbers, requiring protection from unauthorized entry. When this cave was purchased by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1979, populations of all but the Gray Bat were nearly extinct here, and even this species had been reduced to less than half of former numbers.

Gray Bats have declined by more than 54 percent throughout much of their range in the last six years alone. Due to this cave's unique structure and strong, seasonally reversing air flow patterns, it is the most impor­ tant summer cave known for gray bats. It contains roughly a quarter of all FIGURE 4. Fence erected at Norris Dam Cave, known gray bats and the colony here is Tennessee by Tennessee Valley Authority. the largest anywhere. With careful (Photo credit, Robert Currie) protection it is hoped that this col­ ony will soon recover to former num­ bers (between 250,000 and 50o,000).

These bats are very beneficial and deserving of human understanding and protection. Individuals often eat 3000 or more insects in a single night, including many harmful kinds such as mosquitos. Insects, eaten nightly by the whole colony number roughly a billion and weigh more than a tonI

Since thousands of these bats some­ times die from a single ill-timed disturbance of their roost, human entry into this cave must be carefully FIGURE 5. Fence erected at Hambrick Cave, controlled. Please help us protect Alabama by Tennessee Valley Authority. Fence them. You are welcome to quietly is located approximately 30 feet from cave watch the emergence and return of entrance. (Photo credit, Tennessee Valley these bats at dusk and dawn each day Authority) 89 to climb or cut. Nevertheless, some caves abandonment by the bats. The U.S. Fish and are impractical to gate, due to size or Wildlife Service is currently conducting a configuration of entrances, or because gat­ study on the effects of gates on bats. This ing would result in probable abandonment of study is scheduled for completion in 19B4. the cave by bats. Chainlink, barbed-wire­ topped fences (Figure 4), with posts set in concrete are best. Barbed-wire should not Welded steel bar gates 'provide the most extend into flight space required by bats. secure means of preventing human entry into Several fences have proven highly effective a cave. Even the best-designed and well­ in reducing human disturbance, permitting built gate can be vandalized. Routine in­ gray bat maternity colonies to increase spections will identify damage so that re­ greatly in size. Fences also have been used pairs can be made promptly. successfully to protect caves with flooded entrances adjacent to reservoirs (Figure Each gate must be designed specifically for 5). the cave to be protected, considering num­ bers of bats, type of colony, air flow, and 3. Gates. Gates must be used only with extreme entrance size and shape. In spite of the care to avoid detrimental effects. They number of variables involved, certain gen­ should not be used at gray bats summer caves eralizations about gate design can be made. unless free flight space can be provided a­ bove. They should not be horizontal or used Gates should be constructed of steel bars in entrances smaller than 6 feet in dia­ of sufficient size to be invulnerable to meter. Gates in small entrances are most bolt cutters. Steel bars 3/4-inch to 1-inch likely to restrict air flow or increase bat in diameter (ASTM* A 242) are recommended. vulnerability to predation (Tuttle, 1977; All welds should be made carefully, using Tuttle and Stevenson. 1978), leadina to arc weldino eauioment.

FIGURE 6. Great Scott Cave gate erected by the Missouri Department of Conservation. (Photo Credit, Rick Clawson)

90 FIGURE 7. Bear Cave gate (a "cage" gate) erected by the fllissouri Department of Conservation. (Photo credit, Rick Clawsen).

Access openings in gates should be const­ Unfortunately, a simple vertical gate (Fig­ ructed to the same standards, with the most ure 6) seldom can be constructed at a cave durable hinges, hasps, and locks. In a with a sinkhole entrance. Horizontal gates situation where vandalism seems likely, have two serious drawbacks: (1) Bats are re­ weak-link design may be employed. The lock, luctant to fly up through such a gate; and hasp, or some other easily replaceable por­ (2) A horizontal gate may become blocked tion of the gate should be relatively weak with debris, preventing entry and exit by so that vandals will not try to breach the bats, as well as blocking normal air flow. main body of the gate. Locks should be A solution is provided by a "cage" gate, chosen with care, as many common types are similar to that shown in Figure 7. extremely easy to force open. Although gates that cover entire entrances Free ends of all bars should be grouted into may provide maximum security, their use solid rock. In some caves, it may be nec­ should be restricted. Pregnant gray bat fe­ essary to pour a concrete footing (although males and females with young apparently will it should not rise above original ground not fly through them. Until a full gate can level), or to dig through a deep clay or be designed that proves acceptable to gray gravel fill to reach the underlying floor. bats using maternity caves, such caves must be "half-gated." A half-gate is practical Openings in gates through which bats are only in a large cave entrance, where it ex­ expected to fly should be approximately 6 tends from the floor part way to the ceil­ inches vertically and at least 24 inches ing. It should allow adequate space through horizontally. Lengths greater than 24 in­ which bats may fly (at least 3 feet of space ches between vertical bars increase the pro­ and preferably more, depending on entrance bability that the bars can be spread by use width and colony size). It is relatively of hydraulic jacks. easy to climb over a half-gate unless the

91 ~EEFLIG~ SPACE SIDE VIEW ...l ...l .1. ..\...... ~.l... .1. J. .1. .1. J.. J.. .l... .l....J...... ~ POINTED ", !5"! ~ 90· TIPS I 6" '\ ~ 24" -1 ,

\ \ \ \ J \ / \ / \. / / ./100' "',- SC ALE

FIGURE 8. Drawing of a gate with free flight space. sdspted from Blackwell Cave Gate, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Kansas City District.

top is designed to make the climb difficult levee to protect a gray bat cave from flood­ (Figure 8). ing at Harry S. Truman Lake in Missouri. Care must be taken to prevent water from Full gates have one additional limitation backing up into the cave, behind the levee. which cannot be overcome by the half-gate design. Gray bats are apparently very sen­ 6. Resource Groups and Agencies. No modi­ sitive to any gate or other structure placed fication should be made to either an Indiana across a small entrance (less than 6 feet in bat or gray bat cave without consulting the diameter). One such cave, when gated, was appropriate Regional Director of the U.S. promptly abandoned by a bachelor colony of Fish and Wildlife Service. 40,000 bats that had been present the pre­ vious year. The following groups and agencies have had the most experience with bat cave manage­ 4. Restrict Approach to Cave. Few people find ment, and can be consulted for advice when caves without the aid of trails and roads. management actions are being planned: Obliteration of jeep and foot trails may greatly reduce human traffic to the caves. (1) The Recovery Team; The Tennessee Valley Authority has blocked boat approaches to two of its caves, pre­ (2) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region venting access. Other opportunities for re­ 4; stricting approach may present themselves at specific cave sites. (3) Missouri Department of Conservation;

5. Levees. The Kansas City District, Corps of (4) Tennessee Valley Authority, Office of Engineers have successfuly used an earthen Natural Resources; and

92 (5) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, St. Louis Fish and Wildlife Service on 8 July 1982. and Kansas City Districts. Cave protectiQn is also the key in protec­ Recovery Efforts ting this species. In addition to the im­ portant hibernacula, the critical maturity 1. Indiana Bat. An agency review draft Indiana caves must also be protected. The following Bat Recovery Plan was dist~ibuted on 10 Aug­ cave protection priorities were developed ust 1982. A final plan should be available for gray bat caves: in 1983. The most important way to protect this species is to protect their hibernating Priority 1- Major hibernacula and their most caves. The following cave protection prior­ important maturity colonies. ities were developed: Priority 2- Caves containing fewer bats that Priority 1 - Hibernacula with recorded pop­ are important for geographic or ulation greater than 30,000 other reasons. since 1960. Priority 3- Caves that require further in­ Priority 2 - Hibernacula with recorded popu­ vestigation. lation greater than 1,000 but less than 30,000 since 1960. Priority 4- All remaining caves, most of which are of marginal conse­ Table 1 displays the distribution of Indiana quence and require no action. bats and their important hibernacula by state. As can be seen from this table, a Table 2 displays the distribution of gray number of these caves are already in public bats and their important caves by state. The ownership. number of caves in public ownership is also shown. 2. Gray 8at. The final Gray 8at Recovery Plan was approved by the Director of the U.S. *American Society of Testing Material

TABLE 1 INDIANA BAT POPULATION AND RECOVERY STATUS

fl Priority 1 Priority 2

State Hibernacula Hibernacula Population*

Missouri 3 (1) 8 (5) 281,700 Indiana 2 (2) 4 (1) 167,600 Kentucky 3 (2) 13 (3) 110,400 Tennessee 0 4 (2) 22,500 Arkansas 0 3 (1) 6,200 New York 0 2 (0) 1,700 Pennsylvania 0 1 (1) 200 Virginia 0 1 (0) 600 West Virginia 0 1 (0) 1,500

TOTAL 8 (5) 37 (13 ) 592,400

() Number of caves that have been purchased, leased, or have a cooperative agreement with a public or private conservation agency.

*The most recent population census was used• In most cases this was taken in 19B1-82.

93 TABLE 2 GRAY BAT POPULATION AND RECOVERY STATUS

Population of Major Hibernacula Priority 1 Priority 2 State Hibernacula Hibernacula (Estimate)lI

Alabama 7 (5) 13 (2) 700,000 Arkansas 3 (1) 2-6 (1O) 250,000 Florida 4 (1) 3 Illinois 1 0 Kansas 1 (1) Kentucky °1 15 (1) 25,000 Missouri 11 (6) 54 (14 ) 300,000 Oklahoma 1 3 Tennessee 9 (2) 26 (5) 300,000 Virginia ° 1 TOTAL 37 (15 ) 142 (31) 1,575,000

() Number of caves that have been purchased, leased, or have a cooperative agreement with a public or private conservation agency.

*Estimates are only displayed for major populations.

REFERENCES 3 Reading Public Mus. and Art Gallery, Sci. PUbl., 12 :1-6B. Clawson, R. L., R. K. LaVal, and W. Carie. 1980. Clustering behavior of hibernating Myotis Hall, J. S., and N. Wilson. 1966. Seasonal popu­ sodalis in Missouri. J. Mamm., 61:245-243. lations and movements of the gray bat in the Kentucky area. Amer. Midland Nat., 75:317-324. Cope, J. B., Richter, A.R., and O. A. Searley. 1978. A survey of bats in the Big Blue Lake Hays, H. A. and D. C. Bingham. 1964. A colony of project area in Indiana•.Joseph Moore 'Museum, gray bats in southeastern Kansas. J. Mamm., 45: Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana. 150.

Engel, J. M., et ale 1976. Recovery Plan for the Humphrey, S. R. 1978. Status, winter habitat, Indiana bat. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and management of the endangered Indiana bat, Washington, D.C., 34 pp. Myotis sodalis. Florida Sci., 41:65-76.

Gardner, J. E., and T. L. Gardner. 1980. Deter­ Humphrey, S. R., A. R. Richter, and J. B. Cope. mination of presence and habitat sUitability 1977. Summer habitat and ecology of the en­ for the Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) and dangered Indiana bat, Myotis sodalis. J. gray bat (Myotis grisescens) for portions Mamm., 58:334-346. of the lower 6.6 miles of McKee Creek, McGee Creek Drainage and Levee District, Pike Co., LaVal, R. K., R. L. Clawson, W. Caire, L. R. Illinois. St. Louis District, Corps of Wingate, and M. L. LaVal. 1977. An evaluation Engineers, St. Louis, Missouri. of the status of myotine bats in the proposed Meramec Park Lake and Union Lake Project Hall, E. R. 1981. The Mammals of North America. areas, Missouri. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1:1-600 and 90. St. Louis District, 136 pp. ~

Hall J. S. 1962. A life history and taxonomic Sparling, D. W., Sponsler, M., and T. Hickman. study of the Indiana bat, Myotis sodalis. 1979. Limited biological assessment of Galum 94 Creek. Cooperative Wildlife Research Labora­ young. Ecology, 57:587-595. tory, Southern Illimois University. Carbondale Illinois. Tuttle, M. D. 1977. Gating as a means of pro­ tecting cave dwelling bats. National Cave Tuttle, M. D., pers. comm. Milwaukee Public Management Symposium Proceedings, 1976. Museum. T. Aley and D. Rhodes. eds.). Speleobooks, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Tuttle, M. D. 1975. Population ecology of the gray bat (Myotis grisescens): factors in Tuttle, M. D. 1979. Status, causes of decline, fluencing early growth and development. and management of endangered gray bats. ~D~cc;:;a;:;s::.;.:...... :.P...;:a:.<:p;.=e:.::.r~s....;M:...:;u;:;s::.;.:.....:.N:.:a:.:t;.:•....:..:H:.::.is:::.t=-.:.z.' Univ• Kansas. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 43:1-17. 36:1-24. Tuttle, M. D., and D. E. Stevenson. 1978. Vari­ Tuttle. M. D. 1976a. Population ecology of the ation in the cave environment and its bio­ gray bat (Myotis grisescens): philopatry, logical implications. National Cave Manage­ timing and patterns of movement, weight loss ment Symposium Proceedings, 1977. (R. Zuber, during migration, and seasonal adaptive et al•• eds.), Adobe Press. Albuquerque. strategies. Occas. Papers Mus. Nat. Hist., New Mexico. Univ. Kansas, 54:1-38. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1978. List of Tuttle, M. D. 1976b. Population ecology of the endangered and threatened wildlife and gray bat (Myotis grisescens): factors in­ plants. Federal Register, 43(238):58031, fluencing growth and survival of newly volant 11 December 1978.

95 This page • IS blank CAVE HISTORY A Brief History of Grand Caverns

Bob Custard~-

Grand Caverns was discovered in 1804 and opened Fortunately, the continuous commercial operation as a commercial attraction under the name of of Grand Caverns has served to protect much of Weyer's Cave in 1808. It rapidly eclipsed the cave's beauty from vandalism. (In contrast, nearby Madison's Cave in popularity and became a both nearby Madison's Saltpetre Cave and Foun­ nationally known tourist attraction. It is the tain Cave have been heavily vandalized.) There oldest" commercial cave in operation in the Unit­ are areas of the cave where pieces of formations ed States. have been broken off by tourists seeking souve­ nirs, but this type of vandalism has been reduc­ Throughout the early 1800's, Weyer's Cave en­ ed to a minimum as a result of the watchfulness joyed considerable success as an enterprise, of the tour guides and the emphasis placed on especially during the summer tourist season. the protection given the cave under the Virginia Square dances were held in the cave's Ballroom. Cave Protection Act early in each guest's tour. During the Civil War, armies from both sides Parts of the cave, especially in the Drapery camped near and visited Weyer's Cave (and prob­ Room and near the cave's natural entrance, have ably the other caves on Cave Hill). Most not­ abundant graffiti. Much of this artistry dates ably, Stonewall Jackson camped his troops here to th~ early 1800s and the Civil War when leav­ following the battles of Cross Keys and Port ing one's signature on the cave walls was con­ Republic at the end of his famous Valley Cam­ sidered more socially acceptable, but modern day paign in 1862. Jackson's Hall in the cave is graffiti is, unfortunately, also fairly common. named for him. In the summer of 1981, a group of juveniles After the Civil War, Weyer's Cave resumed com­ broke into Grand Caverns and vandalized the mercial operation. In 1874, a railroad was cave. Their arrest represents the first time built through Grottoes and tourists began coming anyone in Virginia was charged with cave vandal­ to the cave by train rather than stagecoach. ism. Through an alternative sentencing arrange­ The Western Electric Company installed electric ment in juvenile court, the vandals agreed to lighting in the cave in 1889. In the Depression perform a public service project for the Park of 1893, the company which owned the cave went Authority. In fulfillment of their obligations, bankrupt and the cave passed back into private the vandals and their parents purchased play­ ownership. ground equipment for the park and installed it.

In 1926, the stone lodge on the caverns property Most recently, the cave was threatened by the was built and the cave's name was changed to proposed construction of a water storage tank on Grand Caverns. In 1974, Grand Caverns was ac­ top of Cave Hill by the nearby town of Grottoes. quired by the Upper Valley Regional Park Author­ Of principle concern to the Park Authority was ity. Since then, development of the property by the potential damage to the cave's delicate the Park Authority has transformed the park into shield formations that blasting might cause. a complete recreational facility which includes The Park Authority asked the Virginia Cave Com­ a swimming pool, tennis courts, picnic areas, mission to advise them. Eventually an agreement hiking trails, and a miniature golf course. The was reached between the town of Grottoes, the Park Authority's administrative offices are Park Authority, and the Cave Commission banning located in the stone lodge. the use of explosives on Cave Hill and setting up a procedure to monitor any construction ac­ tivities which could create shock waves that might damage the cave. *Geologist, Executiv~ Director, Cave Conservancy of the Virginias, Richmond. Virginia.

98 A Brief Overview of the History, Geology, and Management of Fountain Cave

Bob Custard*

In 1835, a major cave was discovered by Edmund some areas, tree roots penetrate the cave ceil­ Weaste on Cave Hill to the south of Weyer's Cave ing and fine organic debris filters into the (Grand Caverns). It was known briefly as cave along solution-enlarged joints. The room Weaste's Cave, but subsequently, the name was at the very back of the cave is actually over­ changed to Cave of the Fountains or simply lain by a small cave opening onto the east side Fountain Cave. During the 1800's, it enjoyed a of Cave Hill south of the Fountain Cave en­ period of popularity as a commercial cave. trance. This small cave undoubtedly provides a Together with Weyer's Cave, the commercial caves conduit for much of the organic debris seen in on Cave Hill were known as the Grottos of the the back of Fountain Cave, but there is no pass­ Shenandoah. The stone archway at the Fountain able connection between the caves. Cave entrance and the many stone steps within the cave remain as evidence of the cave's for­ As even the casual visitor to Fountain Cave will mation commercialization. notice, the cave has been heavily vandalized. Most of the easily accessible small formations The geology of the Fountain Cave differs from have been broken and many of the lower hanging that of nearby Grand Caverns and Madison's stalactites and draperies have been damaged by Saltpetre Cave in that the limestone in the cave rock-throwing vandals. A number of formations has a relatively low angle of dip in comparison have holes or pock marks caused by gunfire. to the vertical dip of the limestone in the Spray paint and graffiti is ubiquitous through­ caves further north in Cave Hill. This differ­ out the cave. Litter and broken glass can be ence is the principle reason that Fountain Cave found in almost every hole where trash can con­ is characterized by larger and wider rooms, veniently be dumped. flatter ceilings, and large breakdown blocks. Passage development is predominantly along strike and secondarily along intersecting joints In October, 1981, four local university students as with the other caves on Cave Hill. Although were arrested after they were caught by members the cave exhibits some evidence of vadose modi­ of the Richmond Area Speleological. Society car­ fication where the cave comes particularly close rying formations from the cave. The case was to the surface, the passage development is pri­ tried in the county general district court. marily of the phreatic type. Despite testimony from several witnesses, pic­ tures of the culprits leaving the cave carrying Fountain Cave is characterized by a profusion of formations, and statements from the culprits massive speleothems. In a number of areas, incriminating each other, the judge, in effect, these formations choke off cave passages leading let the accused off with a warning under the away from known areas of the cave. As with the provision that they do something to further other caves on Cave Hill, many columns and sta­ awareness of the Cave Protection Act. The stu­ lagmites in the cave were deposited on soft dents arranged to have a short article on the sediments which subsequently settled under the Cave Protection Act published in their school weight of the formations. Numerous cracked and paper. Apparently, the judge didn't take the tilted formations attest to this process. offense very seriously because it was only a Class 3 misdemeanor with a maximum penalty of a Where the cave comes particularly close to the $500 fine. As a result of this incident; the surface, mud and talus slopes are common. In Virginia Cave Commission proposed that cave vandalism under the Cave Protection Act be made a Class 1 misdemeanor with a maximum penalty of *Geologist, Executive Director, Cave Conservancy a $1000 fine and a year in jail. In 1982, the of the Virginias, Richmond, Virginia. Virginia General Assembly followed the Cave

99 Commission's recommendation and made cave van­ good caving ethics and the legal protection dalism a Class 1 misdemeanor. given caves under state law.

The week after the four students were caught During the summer of 1982, vandals using a vandalizing Fountain Cave, the Cave Commission, hacksaw were able to penetrate the cave gate and in cooperation with the Cave Conservancy of the enter the cave. The gate is scheduled to be Virginias, gated the entrance and erected a sign repaired and reinforced during the National Cave stating the provisions of the Cave Protection Conservation and Management Symposium. Des­ Act. A management plan for the cave was then pite the breach in the gate, the management plan devloped by the Cave Commission in cooperation seems to have for the most part stemmed unauth­ with the Upper Valley Regional Park Authority. orized visitation and vandalism of the cave. A The plan provides for recreational use of the large-scale project to clean up and restore the cave under guidelines designed to protect the cave is now being planned for next year. cave and make those entering the cave aware of

100 A Brief History of Massanutten Caverns

Bob Custard *

Massanutten Caverns was discovered on November gala grand opening on the 4th of July of that 5, 1892 by Augustine Armentrout and five workmen year. Guest cottages, a nine-hole golf course, who were blasting for limestone in a small an airstrip, and an olympic-sized swimming pool quarry on the Armentrout property. Work to were also built on the caverns property. Cave clear tourist trails in the cave began almost formations removed from the cave by the immediately and continued for a number of years Armentrouts during its development and by fits and starts as the economy of the time stockpiled for sale as souvenirs were used by roller coastered from boom to bust. Rock was workmen as ballast in the bottom of the swimming removed from the cave using sledgehammers and pool. To create a loop in the cave tour a star drills. passage was cut through from the Wonderland Room to The Ballroom. In the early 1930's, Crawling tours of the cave probably began motorcycle races were held on the caverns shortly after the cave was discovered. An property. inscription which reads "G. Loewner, Nov. 13, 1892" still survives on the cave's walls. By In 1932, the Harrisonburg Massanutten the summer of 1893, the Armentrouts were Corporation went bankrupt and the court took conducting guided tours of the cave lighted by possession of the property to protect the kerosene lamps hung from the cave ceiling. In interest of the creditors. The cave was leased 1906, Augustine Armentrout died, and control and for six years to the Brown family, owners of management of the cave passed to his heirs. nearby Endless Caverns. During this period, During this period, tours were characterized by Johnson Armentrout continued to help manage the fanciful descriptions and names for the many cave and served as a guide. Information on the formations found in the cave. Little genesis of the- cave and its formation was by information about how the cave and its this time incorporated in the caverns tour and speleothems formed was known or presented to the the tendency towards sensationalism and fanciful public, however. In 1926, the cave and exaggeration had been somewhat curbed. In 1933, surrounding property were purchased by the the last room of the cave was joined to the Harrisonburg Massanutten Corporation for entrance room to create a complete loop tour. development into a resort. Stocks and bonds Excavation for the last passage was done by issued by the corporation were sold to numerous blasting the rock away using one-eighth of a local investors. Although most of the stick of dynamite at a time. Armentrout family sold their interest in the cave, Johnson Armentrout, Augustine's youngest In 1938, the Brown family chose not to renew son, traded his interest in the cave for stock their lease or exercise their option to buy the in the corporation and continued to work at the property, and the court again took over cave as a manager and guide. operation of the cave. Around 1940, Miss Ethyl Erwin bought the property. Johnson Armentrout The lodge building near the cave entrance was continued as caverns manager. The acquisition built in early 1926 and the new owners held a of Massanutten Caverns by Miss Erwin roughly coincided with the founding of the National Speleological Society in nearby Washington, D.C., and many early NSS members including *Geologist, Executive Director, Cave Conservancy Robbie Robertson and Bill and Merle Stephenson of the Virginias, Richmond, Virginia. became close friends of Miss Erwin. Through contacts with the NSS, much additional Prepared by Bob Custard from information scientific information about how the cave and provided by Bradford Cobb its speleothems formed was added to the

101 information provided to the public by cavern and 85 acres of the property surrounding it. guides. In 1946, Johnson Armentrout died and Since 1955, Massanutten Caverns has been thus ended the long connection of the Armentrout operated by Mr. Cobb as a commercial attraction. family with the cave. The adjacent property and lodge are now owned by the Wolverley Corporation, a real estate In the early fifties, an attempt was made to investment firm which bought the property from reopen the pool adjacent to the caverns lodge. Miss Erwin and now is in the process of selling Bob Lutz, an early NSS member, served as chief it. waterworks engineer for the project, and the pool was open for three summers. Water supply In the fall of 1980, Massanutten Caverns was problems, however, made operation of the pool broken into and vandalized while Mr. Cobb was impractical, and the pool has never been open away. This incident prompted the installation since. It was also about this time that the of the massive steel door at the caverns Stephenson's daughter, Sandra, spent a summer at entrance and the erection of two signs stating the caverns working as a guide and Miss Erwin the provisions of the Virginia Cave Protection participated in the famous C-3 Expedition to Act. Also, as an outgrowth of this incident, Floyd Collins Crystal Cave in Kentucky. During the Cave Conservancy of the Viginias, with the this period, the lodge building was used as a help of members of the Viginia Region of the dance hall on Saturday nights. National Speleological Society established a $500 reward for information leading to the In 1953, Bradford Cobb, an NSS member from New arrest and conviction of anyone violating the York, was hired by Miss Erwin as caverns Cave Protection Act of Virginia, West Virginia, manager. Two years later on April 10th, 1955, or Maryland. Subsequently, this reward was Mr. Cobb contracted to buy the cave. Miss expanded by the NSS to encompass the entire Erwin, however, retained ownership of the lodge United States.

102 GENERAL Cave Rescue

Tom Vines* and Dave Morrow** Abstract

This session will cover what you need to know and do if a rescue is needed. \vhat is involved in a cave rescue; how you can help; what resources and skills these cave rescue groups can bring and contribute to a cave rescue; potential problems one might encounter in a cave rescue and many other aspects of cave rescue.

No Manuscript Received

*Coordinator, National Cave Rescue Commission, Chevy Chase, Maryland. **Coordinator, Cave Rescue Communications Net­ work, Charlottesville, Virginia.

104 Cave Diving for the Cave Manager

Arthur T. Leitheuser* and Dennis Williams** Abstract

Cave diving is the highly specialized sport of scuba diving in water-filled caves. No other type of diving activity is as dependent on proper techniques, equipment and teamwork. Cave diving procedures and equipment must be utilized, since at any time direct access to the surface is limited.

Recognizing the unique environmental conditions characteristic of underwater caves is essential to the safety of the cave diving team. If di~ect access to the surface is limited, all problems must be dealt with when and where they occur. The most serious problem in cave diving is becoming lost. However, the proper use of a guideline and specially designed reel will provide a safe exit from the cave when visibility is reduced due to either light failure or silting. This can be a very difficult and stressful task. There is absolutely no substitute for experience for the proper execution of safe cave diving practices. Equipment redundancy is very important in cave diving. The cave's darkness is complete, making it necessary for the cave diver to carry adequate lights. Lights are an important backup system for exiting a cave and are also useful for communicating and keeping track of diving partners.

Proper training is essential to safe cave diving practices. Cave and cavern diving courses are available through" both the National Association for Cave Diving and the National Speleological Society. Safety concepts which have been developed are based upon experience, common sense and a constant updating of training standards.

No Manuscript Received

*Biologist, Old Dominion University Research Foundation, Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. **Flight Instructor, Freeport Flying Club, Free­ port, Grand Bahama Island, Bahamas.

105 Using Photography to Educate and Communicate Cave Conservation

Abstract

Much of the work of cave conservation is the education of new cavers in the fragile nature of the spelean environment. Photography is ideally suited to this purpose. People respond to photographs but the images must be dynamic and appropriate to the message.

No Manuscript Received

*Visual Information Specialist, Smithsonian In­ stitution, Museum of Natural History, Washing­ ton, D.C.

106 Perception of the NSS by Show Cave Operators

Dr. G e 0 r 9 eN. H u p per t -~ and Bet t y W h eel e r ** Abstract

Between Uecember of 1981 and May of 1982, a survey was conducted of twenty-five state or federal cave operators and seventy-five private show cave managers. The survey was set up to determine the image of the NSS as an organization and of individuals within the organization. In general, the NSS has a fair to good image throughout the country. However, the image varies greatly regionally. It seems the Society fares least well in the central states (e.g., Missouri, Arkansas, etc.) and in the border south (such as Kentucky and Tennessee). Significantly, these states have a great concentration of commercial caves and high regional caving pressure. This has great implications for cave conservation, as commercial caves have the broadest appeal of all caves to the public and are an ideal medium to promulgate the precepts of .conservation. Introduction with the National Caves Association and the National Speleological Society and their goals. After a number of years of hearing many, some­ Secondarily, the questionnaire asks a number of times conflicting, statements of what the opera­ questions concerning cave protection laws, van­ tors of commercial caves think of the National dalism problems, budget constraints, conserva­ Speleological Society, the authors decided to tion messages, etc. Table 1 summarizes the take a survey to quantitatively determine atti­ collective responses to selected questions. tudes, if that is possible; to define and de­ scribe trends in perceptions; and to identify There are some significant response patterns to ~y, problem areas. Between December, 1981 and note in Table 1. While all of the privately 1982, one hundred questionnaires were mailed to owned commercial cave tours have some sort of show cave managers. Seventy-five were sent to conservation message, only 80% of the federal privately owned caves and twenty-five were sent and state managed caves have such a message. to state or federally managed caves. Thirty­ This is not what one would expect. Also note four (i.e., 45%J of the private cave question­ that the great majority of operators would sup­ naires and twenty-one (84%) of the government port a cave protection law, and most would press cave questionnaires were returned, for a return charges against a vandal. It WCluld seem obvious of fifty-five (or 55%) of the one hundred sent. that commercial operators are an excellent The fifty-five returns represent about 25% of source of support to get a cave protection law the total number of commercial caves presently passed. operating in the United States, as listed in ~ Gurnee Guide to American Caves (Gurnee and Gur­ The NSS should recognize that a very few c0m­ nee, 1980). mercial cave owners or managers (only 20% gov­ ernment and 29.4% private) are members of the Results of the Survey Society. It seems the managers perceive the The primary objective of the study is to deter­ Society as having little to offer them. Such a mine how familiar commercial cave operators are negative perception contradicts the overall image of the NSS membership, which is tabulated from the questionnaire responses in Table 2. *Assistant Professor of Geography and Earth This table clearly shows that the NSS has a Science, University of Wisconsin, La Crosse, rather good image with commercial cave opera­ Wisconsin. tors. Well over 80% of the managers responding **Graduate Student in Park Administration, Uni­ regard' the Society as a group of responsible, versity' of Wisconsin, La Crosse, Wisconsin. respectful cavers and largely a conservation

107 TABLE 1

government private combined

Is vandalism in the cave serious? 20.0 17.6 20.4 00 you have a conservation message? 80.0 100.0 92.5 Are you aware of a cave protection law in your state? 75.0 67.6 70.3 Would you support a cave protection law? 95.0 94.1 94.4 Have you brought charges against a vandal? 25.0 29.4 27.7 Would you press charges against a vandal? 85.0 91 .1 88.8 Are you a member of the NCA? 20.0 73.5 53.7 Are you familiar with the NCA and its goals? 50.0 97.0 79.6 Are you an NSS member? 20.0 29.4 25.9 Are you familiar with the NSS and its goals? 75.0 94.1 87.0 Are you a member of any other cave organization? 15.0 47.0 35.2

*Otherorganizationsmentioned by respondents include Missouri Cave Associa­ tion, Black Hills Cave Association, West Viginia Caves Association, and Pennsylvania Caves Association (all are state commercial caves groups). Several grottos of the NSS were also mentioned. group rather than a scientific society. Inter­ magnify these overall trends; only 50% are fami­ estingly, the Society is not generally consider­ liar with the NCA. Yet an equal number (20%) of ed to be a group of recreational cavers; only those cave managers belong to each organiza­ 17% of the responoents feel that way. Yet very tion. It appears that the reputation of the NSS few commercial cave operators claim either in­ is more generally known, yet the NCA seems to be stitutional or individual membership in the NSS. the more favored organization with which to be The Society seems-highly regarded but few manag­ involved, once the managers are familiarized ers seem to feel that they personally have any­ with it and its goals. thing to gain from membership. Unfavorable responses about the Society were few The same number of government managers (20%) but significant. Responses from government cave said they are members of both the NSS and the operators rated NSS members a few prcentage NCA. A significantly larger number of private points poorer than did private managers. ~st cave managers indicated they are members of the of these responses described NSS members as NCA (73.5%) than claimed membership to the NSS irresponsible and general nuisances on tours. (29.4%). In line with this tie to the NCA, 97% of all private managers expressed familiarity There were some specific unsolicited comments with the NCA and is goals, but only 50% of the made on the survey with which the NSS should be government managers indicated such familiarity. concerned. Most of the remarks dealt with in­ These statistics can be contrasted with the dividuals or groups within the Society, not the familiarity with the NSS and its goals; 75% of NSS as a whole; however, these people were the government and over 94% of the private man­ identified as being associated with the Society. agers responded affirmatively on this question. Most of these additional comments related to For good or bad, a larger total number of cave unsavory actions of cavers and groups that were managers feel they know what the NSS is about using the cave property for regional or local through their perception of its reputation, as meetings. The majority of such comments were compared with their familiarity with the NCA. concerned with the Mississippi Valley Ozark Yet more than twice as many of the combined Region. There were a few comments'about cavers' totals of cave managers actually belong to the appearance on tours, cavers' demands for special NCA, compared with membership to the NSS. In treatment, and "smart" remarks made on tours addition, the government managers, as a group, which make the guide appear inadequate. Perhaps

108 even more disturbing were comments regarding that the government caves are generally open specific members or officers who have in the year-round, and that they usually have more than past made promises to the managers that were one employee. Thus, it may be relatively con­ never kept. Examples of such promises include venient for them to complete a questionnaire offers for information or help at the cave which such as this. ~any private caves, however, are were never given, or encouragements for parti­ open only during the summer or tourist season cipation on NSS projects, but no prior notices months. Therefore, there may be some problem in of meetings were ever sent. Officers and mem­ receiving mail between December and May. Also, bers should realize that cave managers are pro­ during those months the manager may be the only fessional businessmen and businesswomen, and all employ~e, and it might be very inconvenient for contacts with them should be carried out in a him to complete any questionnaire at that time. professional way, especially including the Still, note that more than one-half of the pri­ maintenance of frequent contacts. It should be vate managers did not bother to return the added that almost all of these additional res­ questionnaire. Few other questions on the sur­ ponses included a statement by the manager that vey seem to shed light on the problem of return he realizes that the misdeeds enumerated are not levels. However, some unsolicited comments of indicative of the Society as a whole, but were one manager should be considered; perhaps his only the actions of a few inconsiderate indivi­ thoughts reflect the feelings of others as well. duals. This manager mentioned that he has received an abundance of similar surveys in the past. He Another interesting aspect involves the question indicated that he has never so far seen any of why there was not a higher return of the benefit to his business by cooperating in these survey from show cave managers. Note that only surveys; yet he believes that by answering such 45% of the private, while 84% of the government surveys he is divulging private information, and managers responded to the survey. It would be he resents being asked to do so. It seems that instructive to know why there was such a differ­ this manager is making a plea to the NSS: If ence in numbers of returns. The survey found the NSS is truly concerned with establishing

TA8LE 2

What do you perceive the NSS to be? Please check all that apply.

govt. private combined

88.2 97.0 93.3 A group of basically responsible cavers. 11.8 7.7 9.4 A group of basically irresponsible cavers. 82.9 88.5 86.1 Persons who are respectful of your cave and employees. 17.1 5.7 10.6 Persons who are disrespectful of your cave and employees. 13.2 14.4 13.9 Egomaniacs who only want free passes and to get off route. 17.5 15.4 16.3 Nuisances on tours because they show off their knowledge. 15.7 32.7 25.5 Helpful on tours because of their knowledge. 48.0 53.8 51.5 A scientific organization. 81.0 73.0 76.6 A cave conservation/protection society. 8.7 23.0 17.0 A group only interested in recreational caving. 5.2 o 2.2 I have heard of the NSS but don't know anything about it. 5.2 3.8 4.4 I have never met an NSS memb~r

(Numbers represent the percentage in each category that checked that questions.)

109 good relations with show cave managers, it may be able to make good use of the should make a meaningful commitment to do so. 'captive audience' on a tour to get If the NSS is unwilling to make such a commit­ across a strong conservation message. ment, then - the show cave managers may not want to be bothered by future requests from the NSS c. A medium should be found to keep tour or its members. cave managers informed of activities of the Society and achievements in spele­ Financially, it is important to be aware that ology in general. This should be a free any caver and his actions may be associated with service; that is the only way to be sure the Society, even if he is not a member. So the every manager gets a copy. This would NSS is frequently brushed with the guilt of the only have to be a short informational actions of non-member cavers. flyer. If the reader doesn't think the NSS must communicate with show cave man­ Conclusions and Suggestions agers, the statistics in Table 2 show that some 5% of government cave managers In general, the Society has a good reputation have never heard of the National Speleo­ with both government and privately managed com­ logical Society! mercial cave operators. The paradox here is 2. The NSS must take the actions of their mem­ that even though the NSS is well regarded as a bers and groups more seriously. For exam­ conservation and scientific group, show cave ple, the Society has an informal 'code of managers apparently do not perceive a need to ethics' which is often stated. Yet grottos belong to the Society. It seems they do not and the Society administration do little to think the NSS has much to offer that would ben­ really enforce it. Some actions should be efit them in their business. taken to modify the behavior of some indiv­ uals. After a sincere effort at persuasion, Problems do exist, but they can usually be as­ if there is no significant change, those cribed to the actions of a few inconsiderate individuals or groups should be removed from individuals and groups, and not to the actions the NSS. The Society should not shirk from and policies of the NSS as a whole. One excep­ issuing official reprimands or expelling tion was the comment of one manager who wanted chronic offenders. This statement is not to work directly with the Society and other to be taken as a charge against people en­ managers to improve the relationship between the joying themselves at official Society or two groups and thus improve the management of grotto funtions. It does mean that good, caves. This individual's efforts were ignored common sense and consideration should be by the NSS leadership, and as a result he used to modify some actions in regions where withdrew his membership and interest in the NSS. such behavior is considered offensive. However, it should again be pointed out that even though there are some difficulties, the Many of the commercial caves in this country are relationships between the Society, its sub­ among the most beautiful of all caves, and they groups, or its individual members, and the vast are certainly valuable scientific, educational, majority of show cave managers are excellent. and recreational resources when properly manag­ This does not mean there is no room for improve­ ed. The caves, the managers, individual cavers, ment. The following list suggests some possibi­ and the Society have much to offer one another, lities. so positive communications must be maintained. 1. The Society should initiate a more positive The Society must make a sincere effort to im­ line of communication with commercial cave prove the tarnished areas of a generally excel­ operators. lent image, so that interaction can continue with managers. Together ways can be found to a. Show cave managers should be aware of the put across a stronger lasting conservation mes­ management, scientific, and exploration sage to the cave touring public. skills of members of the Society that REFERENCES may be of benefit to them. While a large number of managers are aware of these Gurnee, Russell and Jeanne Gurnee. L980. skills, many are not. Gurnee Guide to American Caves: A Comprehen­ sive Guide to the Caves in the United States b. Where a good relationship exists with Open to the Public. Zephyrus Press, Inc., managers of commercial caves, the Society Teaneck, New Jersey. 252 pp.

110 The NSS and Cave Management

Bob Liebman* Abstract

A brief history of the founding and purposes of the NSS. Its role in cave exploration, conservation and speleology will be explained. The resources available to the NSS and some of the projects it has undertaken will be described. The strengths and weaknesses of the organization in what it can do to help, manage and conserve caves will be presented along with reasons why you might wish to join the NSS as a member and participate.

No Manuscript Received

*Director and Member, Board of Governors, Na­ tional Speleological Society.

111 FILM: Underground Rivers

Abstract

As caves in the Canadian national parks are closed to the general public because they often contain fragile formations and hazards dangerous to the inexperienced, this film was produced in order to allow the public to experience several caves in Glacier National Park vicariously. Rather than attempting to explain in detail the processes of cave formation or the techniques of caving, the film concentrates on trying to convey the experience of caving, emphasizing in particular the visible and audible presence of the "underground rivers" which have formed the Nakimu and Cascade cave systems.

This film was produced by Dream Machine Film Corporation for the National Film Board of Canada and Parks, Canada. It was released in 1982.

112 ROAD LOGS Road Log

David A. Hubbard

This field trip is divided into two segments. This segment entails a visit to Massanutten Caverns. The latter segment involves visits to Shenandoah Caverns and Luray Caverns. Both excursions depart from the Sheraton Motor Inn, Harrisonburg, Virginia.

Segment 1: Massanuttan Caverns

Cumulative Interval Mileage Mileage Explanation

0.00 0.00 Sheraton Motor Inn. Turn left and proceed south­ east on U.S. Highway 33.

2.30 2.30 Massanutten Mountain, the southern end of this syn­ clinorium is the southwestern limit of Silurian sandstones in the Shenandoah Valley.

3.70 1.40 Junction of U. S. Highway 33 and State Road 620. Turn left and proceed past Keezletown on Cambro­ Ordovician carbonates of the Conococheague Forma­ tion and the Beekmantown Group. Watch for dog leg to right in Keezletown.

5.70 2.00 Junction of State Road 620 and State Road 685. Turn right and proceed to Massanutten Caverns.

6.20 0.50 STOP at Massanutten Caverns. This beautiful cavern is developed in the Middle Ordovician Lincolnshire and New Market limestones. McGill (1933) reports the cave is located on an anticline. This semi­ maze cave shows strike and joint orientation.

8.65 2.45 Return to U. S. Highway 33 by turning left on State Road 620. Turn right and return to the Sheraton Motor Inn.

9.70 1.05 Staunton Rault thrusts Cambrian carbonates of the Elbrook Formation over Ordovician carbonates of the Beekmantown Group.

12.20 2.50 Sheraton Motor Inn access road.

114 Massanutten Caverns ,., "...... , __ ,,:_,,- ... , ... ~- ...._ " .• '_:.0'

Scol, 0--- o :=:=-

,

Segment 2: Shenandoah and Luray Caverns

Cumulative Interval Mileage Mileage Explanation

0.00 0.00 Sheraton Motor Inn. Turn right and proceed north­ west on U.S. Highway 33.

0.25 0.25 Junction U. S. Highway 33 and Interstate 81. Turn right and proceed north on Interstate 81 towards Winchester.

2.50 2.25 Hills to the east, up to a half mile away, are com­ posed of New Market and Lincolnshire limestones. These formations are often quarried for high cal­ cium limestones. The Interstate overlies the Ordo­ vician Edinburg Formation. A few small sinkholes may be observed occasionally along the Interstate.

4.60 2.10 Beefalo Ranch.

115 6.70 2.10 Melrose Caverns lies approximately 0.6 miles to the west. Formerly known as Blue Grottoes and Virgin­ ia Caverns, this former commercial attraction is developed in an anticline in the Middle Ordovician New Market and Lincolnshire limestones.

10.50 3.80 Ten miles to the west, an anomalous Upper Orodvi­ cian-Lower Silurian sandstone section is exposed at Brocks Gap. Rader and Perry (1976) provide an in­ terpretation of this section. Note the continuance of the New Market and Lincolnshire limestones form­ ing the ridge to the west.

13.50 3.00 Approximately 2.5 miles to the east lies Endless Caverns. This large cave (excess of 1.5 miles) is developed in the carbonates of the Beekmantown Group. This cave is situated on the western limb of a NNE plunging anticlne. Passages are strike and joint controlled.

15.00 1.50 The limestone and chert ridge of the New Market and and Lincolnshire limestones continues just to the west.

21.75 6.75 Exit 68, Shenandoah Caverns. Turn left (west) on Route 730.

22.05 .30 Bear right (north) continuing on Route 730.

23.05 1.00 STOP 1: Shenandoah Caverns. These caverns are de­ veloped along joints and a fault in the Cambrian Conococheague carbonates along the axis of the Mount Jackson Anticline.

24.20 1.15 Return to Interstate 81. Turn right and proceed south towards Harrisonburg. 28.70 4.50 Exit "67, New Market. Turn left (east) on Route 260 towards New Market.

29.00 .30 In New Market turn left (north) on U.S. Route 11.

29.25 .25 Junction of U. S. Highway 11 and U. S. Highway 211. Turn right and proceed east. The wind gap ahead of of you is New Market Gap. This gap occurs at a structural high in the plunge of the Massanutten synclinorium, where the Massanutten sandstone is breached (Gathright and Rader, 1981). You will be on the Ordovician Martinsburg Formation (shale) un­ til you cross the Shenandoah River.

32.90 3.65 New Market Gap. During the late Middle and Late Ordovician, the eastern portion of the Appalachian miogeocline was subsiding rapidly and receiving sediments from the east. Some formed turbidites. Typical base- and top-truncated Bouma cycles are preserved in the Martinsburg Formation in the

116 Massanutten synclinorium. The Martinsburg is over­ lain by the Massanutten Sandstone (Lower and Middle Silurian) (Gathright and Rader, 1981). Roberts and Kite (1978) have described the depositional history of the Massanutten Sandstone.

35.90 3.00 Typical Martinsburg turbidites can be observed along the highway for three miles.

38.40 2.50 South Fork Shenandoah River. Here disharmonic, re­ cumbent folds and klippen occur in the carbonates underlying the Martinsburg Formation. Note the sinkholes along the road to Luray Caverns.

41.65 3.25 Junction U.S. Highway 211 and State Road 647. Turn left. Luray Caverns are located in the hill to your left.

41.90 .25 STOP 2: Luray Caverns is developed along strike and joints in dolomite of the Ordovician Beekman­ town Group. A geological description of Luray Caverns is provided by Hack and Durloo (1962).

PROFILE --.- -. \ \ \

, '--.,-- , L

117 SPECIAL WOOOEN BRIDGE TOUR

Any history buffs in our group may want to visit historic Meems Bottom Bridge while they are in the vicinity of Shenandoah Caverns. To see this I- historic old covered bridge continue west from Shenandoah Caverns on Route 730 for 1/4 mile to N Route 69B. Turn right and proceed north for .70 mile to Route 720. Turn right and proceed east for .90 mile to Meems Bottom Bridge. To return to the road log route cross the bridge and con­ tinue east for 1/2 mile to U.S. Route 11. Turn right and proceed south for .B5 mile to Route 70. Turn right and proceed west to interstate 81. Here you can pick up the road log at the 24.20 mile mark. (This short detour adds about 2-1/2 miles to your trip.)

One bridge normally in use is a 204-foot, single-span Burr truss in the Shanandoah Valley, where the romanticist can step back into the past while less than a half-mile away 20th cen­ tury traffic rolls along today's modern Inter­ state B1.

This site is known locally as Meems Bottom, taking its name from the Meems family, who owned Strathmore estate west of the river. The bridge was burned and almost completely destroyed by

vandals on Halloween, 1976. It was reconstruc­ ted, using some of the original wood, and re­ opened to traffic in August, 1979.

The long span, over the North Fork of the She­ . nandoah River about two miles south of Mount Jackson and just west of U.S. 11 (the Valley Turnpike of yesteryear), has been carrying traffic for some B5 years. The bridge was built in 1B92-93 from materials hewed and quarried nearby for the massive arch supports and the stone abutments, which extend 10 feet below the riverbed.

It succeeded at . least two other bridges. Re­ cords show that one was burned in 1B92 as Jack­ son went up the Valley ahead of Fremont, prior to the battl~s of Harrisonburg, Cross Keys and Port Republic, and another was ~shed pway dur­ ing a flood in 1B70. "Up the VaHey·" here is southward since rivers flow northward to joint the Potomac at Harpers Ferry.

118 REFERENCES Caves. Virginia Division of Mineral Resouces Bull. B5. 450 pp. Douglas, H. H. 1964. Caves of Viginia. Falls Church, VA. Viginia Cave Survey. 761 pp. McGill, W. M. 1933. Caverns of Virginia. Virginia Geol. Survey Bull. 35. 187 pp. Gathright, T. M., II, and Rader, E. K. 1981. Field Guide to selected Paleozoic rocks Rader, E. K., and Perry, W. J., Jr. 1976. Valley-Ridge province, Virginia. Virginia Reinterpretation of the geology of Brocks Minerals, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 17-23. Gap, Rockingham County, Virginia. Virginia Minerals, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 37-45. Hack, J. T. and Durloo, L. H., Jr. 1962. Geo­ logy of Luray Caverns. Virginia. Virginia Roberts, W. P., and Kite, J. S. 1978. Syntec­ Division of Mineral Resources, Rept. Inv. 6, tonic deposition of Lower to Middle Silurian 65 pp. sandstones, Central Shenandoah Valley, Virginia. Virginia Mineral, vol. 24, no. 1, Holsinger, J. R. 1975. Descriptions of Virginia pp. 1-5.

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