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showing that the top ten recipients of remittances were primarily from developing countries, and the top ten sources of remittances were mainly developed countries. Remittance flows have continuously increased since then and in 2015, it was reported that remittance flows from developed countries to developing countries, stood at USD 441 billion (KNOMAD, 2016). This growth in remittance flows has led to a resultant increase in the importance of the role of remittances in the economies of many developing countries, comprising of more than 20 per cent of their GDPs (Banga & Sahu, 2010). It can thus be seen that at a global scale, migration and remittances play a significant role in the development of economies and livelihoods, especially in developing countries. Figure 1.1. Top Ten Remittance Receiving Countries, 2014 Source: KNOMAD, 2016. Migration trends in the Pacific context have followed a similar pattern to global trends. Migratory trends in the Pacific have reached phenomenal levels with a large number of Pacific Islanders undertaking cross-border migration. Contemporary scholars theorise that the Pacific tradition and history of long voyages and navigation have carried down to this modern age as Pacific islanders continue to migrate within their home countries and across borders. 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Fiji Islands Merchandise Trade Statistics 2006-2016 Source: Fiji Bureau of Statistics, 2016b. 4.2.2: Population, Demography and Socio-Cultural Groups As of the last nationwide census in 2007, Fiji has a population of 837,271. This is an increase of 62, IURP)LML¶VSUHYLRXVFHQVXVLQ )LMLVSRSXODWLRQLVSURMHFWHG to reach the one million mark in 2030 (Fiji Bureau of Statistics, 2008). Fiji comprises of a multicultural society, with indigenous Fijians (iTaukei) making up the majority (almost 58 per cent) of Fijis population. Indo-Fijians (descendants of indentured labourers from India) make up around 37 per cent of Fijis population. Other ethnic groups make up almost 6 per cent of Fijis population. Christianity is the dominant religion practiced in Fiji. In the 2007 census, 64 per cent of Fiji citizens identified themselves as Christians, 28 per cent as Hindus, while 6 per cent of the population identify themselves as Muslims (Fiji Bureau of Statistics, 2015a). Christianity is mostly practiced by indigenous Fijians, while Indo-Fijians are usually identified with the Muslim and Hindu faith (Musudroka, 2012: 60). 4.2.3: Migration and Remittances in Fiji 6LQFH )LML¶V ILUVW FRXS LQ WKHUH KDV EHHQ VLJQLILFDQW RXWPLJUDWLRQ IURP )LML Bedford (1989) estimates that more than 100,000 skilled workers migrated out of the country in the coups aftermath. 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DURXQG WKH 3DFLILF 7KLV GHVLUH WR WUDYHO KDV FDUULHG RQ WR WKLV GD\ DQG SDUWLDOO\ FRQWULEXWHG WR HDUO\ RXWPLJUDWLRQ IURP WKH LVODQG DV LW ODWHU OHG WR \RXQJ PHQEHLQJFRQVLGHUHGREOLJDWHGWRFRPSOHWHDYR\DJHRQDVKLSEHIRUHWKH\VHWWOHG GRZQEDFNLQ5RWXPD +RZDUG $GGLWLRQDOO\ZKLOH5RWXPD¶VOXVKWHUUHVWULDO DQG PDULQH UHVRXUFHV PHDQ WKDW VXEVLVWHQFH OLYLQJ LV SRVVLEOH LWV JHRJUDSKLF LVRODWLRQDQGVPDOOVL]HPHDQVWKDWWKHUHDUHUHODWLYHO\IHZHGXFDWLRQDODQGHFRQRPLF RSSRUWXQLWLHV DYDLODEOH 5RWXPDQV FRQVHTXHQWO\ WUDYHO WR PDLQODQG )LML DV )LML¶V GLYHUVLILHGHFRQRP\SURYLGHVRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUIXUWKHUHGXFDWLRQDVZHOODVDEURDG HPSOR\PHQW EDVH 5HQVHO )XUWKHUPRUH LQ PDQ\ FDVHV 5RWXPDQV DUH HQFRXUDJHGIURPD\RXQJDJHWRVHHNWKHLUIXWXUHRXWVLGHRIWKHLVODQGWRDYRLGWKH VWUHQXRXVOLIHVW\OHRIVXEVLVWHQFHOLYLQJLQ5RWXPD The desire of Rotumans to migrate and seek their fortunes outside of Rotuma has been facilitated by 5RWXPD¶V political integration with Fiji. This has ensured that Rotumans have ease of access to mainland Fiji and the various opportunities offered by Fiji¶s more diversified economy. Rotumans have made great use of this opportunity with more than 80 per cent of the population dwelling outside of the island as of 2007. Given the enduring lack of opportunities available on the island, this trend is expected to continue. This ongoing migration trend has resulted in the population of Rotuma Island dwindling even further. By 2015 the Rotuma rural hospital recorded that Rotuma Island had a population of 1,734 persons. Additionally, due to the ongoing migration of youths, 5RWXPD¶V population is now divided into two broad categories; the old, and the young. This is shown in the population pyramid in Figure 4.3. Figure 4.3. 5RWXPD¶V Population Pyramid, 2015 Source: Rotuma Rural Hospital, 2015. The desire to seek better opportunities for their families is especially significant as the Rotuman culture like other Pacific cultures revolves around webs of kinship and the fundamentals of communal living and reciprocity (Hannan, 2009). A result of this is that Rotuman migrants still maintain their ties and commitment to families and communities on the island. 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griculture Rotumans historically relied upon subsistence livelihoods. 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7KH SRSXODWLRQ KDV LQFUHDVHG IURP RYHU LQ WR RYHU LQ )LJXUH 'XULQJ WR WKH 5RWXPDQ SRSXODWLRQ LQ PDLQODQG )LML ZDV ORZ 6LQFH KRZHYHU WKH 5RWXPDQ SRSXODWLRQ LQ PDLQODQG )LMLKDVUDSLGO\LQFUHDVH2YHU5RWXPDQVQRZOLYHLQPDLQODQG)LML7KHUDSLG LQFUHDVHLQWKH5RWXPDQSRSXODWLRQRQPDLQODQG)LMLDQGWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJGHFOLQH LQ WKH SRSXODWLRQ RQ 5RWXPD ,VODQG FOHDUO\ VXJJHVW WKDW WKHUH KDV EHHQ UDSLG PLJUDWLRQRI5RWXPDQVIURPWKHLVODQGRI5RWXPDWRPDLQODQG)LML Figure 5.1. Trends in Rotuman Population on Rotuma & Mainland Fiji 1921- 2015 Source: Fiji Bureau of Statistics, 2015, Howard and Rensel, 1997, and Rotuma Rural Hospital, 2015. Rotuma is no stranger to the push pull migration factors that typify the migration process in other parts of the world. The desire for further education, better medical facilities is dominant factors that have influenced Rotuman migration. On the other hand, declining natural resources and farming and fishing activities in Rotuma act as major push factors to drive people to move from Rotuma. Apart from these standard factors, Rotumans have also been noted to migrate due to more unique reasons. Howard (1961) noted Rotuman women would periodically travel to Fiji as a means of contraception. Essentially, Rotumans have a high fertility rate, but lacked knowledge of contraceptive techniques. Consequently, Howard (1961: 281) notes that: «:RPHQVRPHWLPHVH[SUHVVWKHGHVLUHWRKDYHDUHVWDQGHLWKHUD woman or her husband may depart for Fiji. 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FKDLUVKDGEHHQGHOLYHUHG 6XUYH\$QDO\VLVRI0LJUDWLRQDQG5HPLWWDQFHVLQ5RWXPD 7KHUHODWLRQVKLSWKDWPLJUDWLRQDQGUHPLWWDQFHVKDYHZLWKOLYHOLKRRGVKDVEHHQDQRIW GHEDWHGWRSLFLQGHYHORSPHQWDOGLVFRXUVH7KH ILQGLQJVIURPWKHKRXVHKROGVXUYH\ XQGHUWDNHQ LQ 5RWXPD UHYHDOHG WKDW UHPLWWDQFHV KDYH VHUYHG SURIRXQGO\ WR DOWHU 5RWXPD¶VVRFLRFXOWXUDODQGHFRQRPLFPDNHXS 'HPRJUDSKLFVRI+RXVHKROGV 7KLVVHFWLRQSURYLGHVDQRYHUYLHZRIWKHKRXVHKROGVVXUYH\HG7KHKRXVHKROGVL]H DYHUDJHLQFRPHDQGDJHFDWHJRULHVRIKRXVHKROGKHDGVLQ5RWXPDDUHDVVHVVHG KWWSV ZZZIDFHERRNFRPJURXSVURWXPDQVSHUPDOLQN KWWSV ZZZIDFHERRNFRPJURXSVURWXPDQVSHUPDOLQN 5.3.1.1: Gender of Household Representative Interviewed Figure 5.2 outlines the gender of the heads of each household. 97 per cent of household heads were male while 3 per cent were female. Figure 5.2. Gender of Household Head in Rotuma Source: Household Survey, 2015. 5.3.1.2: Age of Household Heads Figure 5.3 shows the age distribution of household heads. Just over 1 per cent was in the age group 18 to 25 years. 8 per cent were between the ages 26 to 35 years, and just over 21 per cent were in the age group 36 to 45 years. It is worth noting that over 66 per cent of household heads are over the age of 46 years. The researcher noted that in such cases, the household head was typically an individual who previously migrated to Fiji, worked, retired, and then, returned to Rotuma. Conversely, more youthful household heads were generally individuals who had dwelt in Rotuma for most of their lives. This implication supports Bryants (1990) observation that: ³All the groups moving between provinces in Fiji, Rotumans are the least likely to undertake return migration to their island. Those that do are usually the older migrants who return in their retirement´ 89 Figure 5.3. Age of Household Heads in Rotuma Source: Household Survey, 2015. 5.3.2: Livelihoods of Households In this section, sources of households¶OLYHOLKRRGDUHDQDO\VHd and the factors such as employment status, traditional livelihood activities and income are discussed. 5.3.2.1: Employment in Households Figure 5.4 shows the employment status of household heads in Rotuma. The study notes that only around 11 per cent of households head were involved in formal wage earning. These individuals mostly worked for the civil service, while one individual worked as a catechist. This finding affirms the aspects of a MIRAB economy that had been posited by Bertram and Watters (1986). Rotuma relies on employment in the bureaucracy for wage income. 87 per cent were self-employed, with most households reporting that their household heads earned an income through farming, fishing, and the sale of copra and 3 per cent of households reported that the head of household was a pensioner. 90 Figure 5.4. Employment Status of Household Head Source: Household Survey, 2015. 5.3.2.2: Livelihood Activities in Rotuma Figure 5.5 shows the varying activities undertaken by households for the purpose of meeting their basic needs. 56 per cent of households relied on farming and 6 per cent of households depended upon fishing in meeting their basic needs. Another 21 per cent of households relied upon the sale of copra to make a living (Figure 5.5). The study notes a decrease in copra selling which was once a quintessential income generating activity for Rotumans. Past studies by Howard, Rensel, Hereniko, and other scholars of Rotuma have alluded to the role that copra played in the Rotuman economy. These scholars also noted the slow decline of the industry. Now, the industry has reached new lows. 91 Figure 5.5. Livelihood Activities Undertaken by Households Source: Household Survey, 2015. The study notes that Rotuma would appear to have a dominantly agrarian system, with most of the respondents (56 per cent) undertaking farming, as opposed to fishing (Figure 5.5). This is quite in contrast with traditional Rotuman livelihood systems. In essence, while agriculture has historically been a livelihood source for Rotuman families, there was balance in terms of farming and fishing. The fact that only 6 per cent of households were involved in fishing, is indicative of a sharp decline in this sector which was a once significant livelihood activity in Rotuma. Box 5.1 highlights this issue. 92 %R[ 3HUFHSWLRQRID ³,OLNHILVKLQJDQG,IHHGP\IDPLO\YHU\ZHOOZLWKLW$OVR, FDQ VHOO WKH ILVK DQG OREVWHUV WR WKH JRYHUQPHQW ZRUNHUV DW µ$K̩X , PDNH JRRG PRQH\ IURP LW , VHOO RQH EXFNHW RI OREVWHUV DSSUR[LPDWHO\ OREVWHUV LQ D EXFNHW VHH 3KRWRJUDSK IRU GROODUV 7KH\ DOZD\V ZDQW OREVWHUV HYHU\JRYHUQPHQWSD\ZHHN:LWKWKHPRQH\,PDNH,VHQG P\NLGVWRVFKRRODQGEX\ZKDWWKHIDPLO\QHHGV,GRQ¶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ox 5.2. The Perception of a 55 Year Old Housewife on Weaving in Rotuma A 55 year old housewife explained weaving activity in Rotuma as follows: ³Now, when we have funerals and weddings, the amount of mats that you see presented are declining. Before, it was all mats given. Now you will see some mats, and people SUHVHQWLQJUROOVRIILQHPDWHULDOIURP)LML7KDW¶VQLFHEXWLW¶V not our culture. Women are not weaving as much as in the SDVW,W¶VDFWXDOO\JRRGIRUPHEHFDXVH,VWLOOZHDYHDQGVR, get lots of orders for mats. But before I used to weave to send to Fiji, now I also weave to supply Rotuma. The older generations who know how to weave, have stopped, and they DUHQ¶WWHDFKLQJWKHLUGDXJKWHUV´ Source: Household Survey, 2015. 5.3.2.3 Average Incomes from Livelihood Activities Figure 5.6 highlights the average weekly income earned by the households. As shown in Figure 5.6, a combined total of about 87 per cent of households earned FJD 300 or less per week from traditional livelihood activities. 53 per cent of respondents have a weekly income of FJD 100 or less. Nearly 5 per cent of households said that their average income fell between FJD 300-600. None of the households surveyed earned a weekly income of more than FJD 600 from the livelihood activities that they undertook. Figure 5.6. Average Weekly Income from Livelihood Activities Source: Household Survey, 2015. 94 5.3.2.4: Household Size Figure 5.7 shows the number of individuals living in the households studied. 65 per cent of households comprised of 1to 5 individuals, 32 per cent of households comprised of 6 to 10 individuals, and just over 1 per cent of households comprised of more than 15 individuals. None of the households surveyed had more than 15 members. It is worth noting that 65 per cent of households comprise of between 1 to 5 individuals. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the number of individuals that comprise household sizes have been decreasing. Families prefer to live in smaller nuclear family units rather than dwelling with extended family members (Rensel, 1991). This represents a further development to the phenomena that Rensel noted, with only 1.33 per cent of households comprising of between 11 to 15 individuals, and no households comprising of more than 15 members. This indicates a significant change in the Rotuman communal living system. Figure 5.7. Average Household Size in Rotuma Source: Household Survey, 2015. The changes in Rotuman household sizes are indicative of a chasm that is gradually developing in communal and familial relations. During the course of the fieldwork, the researcher noted a trend whereby newly married couples on the island would construct new homes and form nuclear families rather than dwelling in the extended families house. This has resulted in cases where on a single plot of clan land, there are multiple houses present that each represent a nuclear family, which is in turn part 95 RIWKHH[WHQGHGIDPLO\FODQZKRRZQVWKHODQG:KLOHWKHVHQXFOHDUIDPLOLHVUHPDLQ D SDUW RI WKH H[WHQGHG IDPLO\ DQG JUHDWO\ FRQWULEXWH WRZDUGV H[WHQGHG IDPLO\ REOLJDWLRQV WKH IXWXUH UDPLILFDWLRQV RI VXFK SUDFWLFHV RQ WKH VRFLDO QHWZRUNV WKDW 5RWXPDQVKDYHDFFHVVWRLVZRUWKQRWLQJ7KHFDVHVWXG\RQ%R[GHPRQVWUDWHV WKLVLVVXH %R[ 5HFROOHFWLRQVRID 6RXUFH %\-7LWLIDQXH /D¶PD̨O̩OXP 0LJUDWLRQIURP5RWXPD $QHWKQRJUDSKLFREVHUYDWLRQE\WKH5HVHDUFKHU VKRZV 6PDOOFORXGVRIDURPDWLFWDOFXPSRZGHUZDIWDFURVVWKH2LQDIDZKDUI7KH\RXWKV ZKR ZRXOG EH WUDYHOOLQJ WR )LML VWRRG FORVHO\ E\ WKHLU SDUHQWV DQG IDPLO\ 7KH IORZHUVRIWKHWƝIXL 5RWXPDQ*DUODQG WKDWDGRUQHGWKHPDGGHGDQDURPDWLFVFHQW WR WKH VPHOO RI WKH VHD 6PRNH IURP WKH VKLSV GLHVHO HQJLQHV SURYLGHG D ELWLQJ FRQWUDVWWRWKLVFODVKRIRGRXUV7KHWLPHKDGFRPHIRUWKHFXUUHQWVWUHDPRI\HDU VWXGHQWVWRGHSDUWIRU)LML)RUIXUWKHUHGXFDWLRQ")RUHPSOR\PHQW":KDWHYHUWKHLU SXUSRVHWKH\ZHUHGHSDUWLQJZLWKWKHLU SDUHQWVEOHVVLQJ VHHNLQJ DOLIH RXWVLGHRI 5RWXPD¶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¶PD̩O̩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humorous anecdote a household representative used during the Household Survey (2015) was that: ³/RRN DW WKH QXPEHU RI IOLHV DQG PRVTXLWRHV ZH KDYH QRZ ,W KDV really iQFUHDVHG )RU WKH IOLHV 5RWXPD LV JRRG EHFDXVH WKHUH¶V VR much fruit trees around and not enough people to eat all the fruits. 6RWKH\IDOODQGURWDQGWKHIOLHVHDWZHOO´ Figure 5.8. Number of Households with Migrant Members Source: Household Survey, 2015. 5.3.3.2: Migrants per Household Figure 5.9 illustrates the average number of migrant members in each household. It reveals that about 48 per cent of households had between 1-5 migrants, 19 per cent of households had between 6 to10 migrants, and about 3 per cent had between 11 to 15 migrants. About 27 per cent of households revealed that they had more than 15 migrants in their households, another 4 per cent of households did not have any migrants DV WKH\ ZHUH µQHZO\ IRUPHG¶ KRXVHKROGV FRPSULVLQJ of newly wedded couples. Thus, while they did not have any migrants from their households, they did have migrant relatives. 98 Figure 5.9. Number of Migrants per Household in Rotuma Source: Household Survey, 2015. The study notes that the households with higher numbers of migrant members, are typically long established extended family households. Such households can FRPSULVHRIPXOWLSOHµH[WHQGHGIDPLOLHVthat belong to the same clan. This accounted for the large number of migrants such households possessed. The households with smaller migrant number were typically nuclear family households. 5.3.3.3: Duration of Migration Figure 5.10 illustrates the average amount of time that migrants in the household surveyed have spent away from the island. Figure 5.10 shows that nearly 55 per cent of households have migrants who spent more than 20 years away from Rotuma. An additional 25 per cent of households reported that they had migrants who spent between 6 to 12 years outside of Rotuma. 1 per cent of households had migrants who had spent between 13 to 20 years outside of Rotuma. 99 Figure 5.10. Number of Years Spent Away From Rotuma, by Migrants Source: Household Survey, 2015. The study notes that households with migrants who have spent between 1-8 years abroad, are typically households made up of nuclear families with fewer migrants. In such cases, the migrants are typically the offspring of the members of the household who have migrated for the purpose of education and seeking employment. Conversely, households with larger numbers of migrants who have spent a longer period of time abroad are extended family households. In such households, the dominant trend is thDWWKHKRXVHKROGLVW\SLFDOO\³KXD¶´ ORRNHGDIWHU E\DPHPEHU of the extended family while most of the family is abroad. The extended family member with his own family, will typically dwell in, and look after the household. 7KHKXD¶RIWKHKRXVHZLOODOVo serve to ensure that should members of the extended family visit Rotuma, they will ag forau (host their guests in a comfortable manner) towards their visiting relatives. 5.3.3.4: Destination of Rotuman Migrants Figure 5.11 provides an overview of the typical destinations of Rotuman migrants. Figure 5.11 reveals that 70 per cent of households had migrants that had moved to mainland Fiji. Another 13 per cent of households said that they had migrants abroad, and 14 per cent of households reported that they had migrants both in Fiji as well as abroad. 100 Figure 5.11. Destination of Migrants in Households Source: Household Survey, 2015. Unsurprisingly, as shown in Figure 5.11, Fiji remains the most popular migrant destination. It is worth noting that none of the households surveyed had migrant members who had settled in other Pacific Island Countries (PICs) outside of Fiji. However, through ethnographic, and insider observation, the researcher is aware of many Rotumans who dwell in other PICs. Through informal conversations with village and district communities, as well as surveyed households, this study notes and posits that, many Rotuman migrants dwelling in other PICs are typically first or second generation migrants whose parents or grandparents, were the migrants, originally born in Rotuma. 5.3.3.4.1 Country Specific Migrant Destinations Figure 5.12 provides a more specific breakdown of details on the destination countries of migrants. The study notes that the majority of households said that their migrants (around 73 per cent), are located in mainland Fiji. 10 per cent of households reported that they had migrants dwelling in Australia, while almost 6 per cent of households had migrants residing in the United States of America. Around 6 per cent of households each reported that they had members living in Canada, Korea, Japan, and Somalia. 101 Figure 5.12. Country of Residence of Rotuman Migrants Source: Household Survey, 2015. 5.3.3.5: Connection to Migrants Figure 5.13 portrays the familial connection that households have with migrant members. 57 per cent of migrants are siblings of the heads of the surveyed households. 20 per cent, are the offspring of the heads of the households. With regards to the respondHQWVZKRUHYHDOHGWKDWWKH\ZHUHUHODWHGE\µRWKHU¶PHDQVWR the migrants, the research notes that for most of them were cousins and/or nieces and nephews. It is worth noting that none of the migrants from the households was a, husband, or wife to those in Rotuma. This indicates that previous practices noted by +RZDUG ZKHUHE\DZLIHRUKXVEDQGZRXOGWUDYHOWR)LMLIRUµFRQWUDFHSWLYH¶ purposes, have ceased to be practiced. 102 Figure 5.13. Familial Connection with Migrants Source: Household Survey, 2015. 5.3.3.6: Reasons for Migration Figure 5.14 shows various reasons as to why Rotumans migrated from their respective households. The desire for education accounted for about 71 per cent. Another 21 per cent migrated to seek employment. The study notes that in the case of those whose household members had migrated for the purpose of education, all further elaborated, that their relatives had migrated for education, and to seek better opportunities elsewhere upon completion of education. In essence, the migrants who left Rotuma for further education, intended to further seek their destinies outside of Rotuma. None of the households surveyed had members who migrated for further HGXFDWLRQLQRUGHUWRµreturn and help back home (Rotuma)¶ Education is a both a push and a pull factor for Rotuman migrants. In Rotuma, full primary and secondary school education (year 1 - 13) is offered. There are four primary schools (1 to 8 years) located in Sumi (Juju District), Paptea (Oinafa District), Motusa (ItX¶WL¶X'LVWULFW DQG(OVLR 0DOKD¶D'LVWULFW 7KHUHLVRQHKLJK VFKRROWKDWLVDOVRORFDWHGLQ0DOKD¶DGLVWULFWWKDWSURYLGHV\HDU ± 13 education for all high school students on the island. However, while the educational facilities do exist, families who are able to send their children to be educated in Fiji, regularly 103 choose to do so. The households surveyed revealed that when possible, they would prefer to have their children educated in Fiji, as the schools in Rotuma were not as well-resourced as those in mainland Fiji. Additionally, it is worth noting that none of the households had migrants who had HPLJUDWHGRXWRIDSXUHGHVLUHWRµVHHWKHZRUOG¶7KLVLVTXLWHFRQWUDU\WRWKHHDUOLHU discussed historical observations of Allardyce (1885), and Gardiner (1898), which Howard (1961) had summarised. The study notes that while migration remains a part and parcel of Rotuman life, Rotumans migrate for more pragmatic reasons as opposed to a simple motivation to travel and see the world. Figure 5.14. Reasons for Family Members Migrating From Rotuma Source: Household Survey, 2015. 5.3.3.7: Interaction between Households and Migrants Figure 5.15 shows the average frequency of communication between migrant households and their migrants. It reveals that nearly 55 per cent of households said WKDWWKH\FRPPXQLFDWHGZLWKWKHLUPLJUDQWVµYHU\RIWHQ¶DQGDQRWKHUSHUFHQWVDLG that they do µRFFDVLRQDOO\¶ SHU FHQW RI KRXVHKROGV UHSRUWHG WKDW WKH\ µUDUHO\¶ communicated with the migrants. Of these households, 96 per cent of households 104 revealed that they communicated with their migrant members by phone23. The survey notes, that none of the households surveyed said that they used social media for the purpose of communication, despite the use of social media being very much in evidence amongst the youth of the island of Rotuma. Figure 5.15. Average Frequency of Communication between Migrant Households and Migrants Source: Household Survey, 2015. The findings in Figure 5.15 serves to reinforce the past research observations, that there remains a significant level of connection between Rotuman migrants and their households (Hannan, 2009; Howard, 2012; Rensel, 1993). In the case of the one household who had no answer, the household clarified that their daughter had only just left for further education in Fiji, and so they had yet to receive word from her24. 5.3.4: Remittances to Rotuma In this section, the remittance patterns in Rotuma are assessed. Frequency of remittance receipts, conduits of sending remittances, types of remittances received, and the use of these remittances are discussed in this section. 23 4 per cent had no answer to this question, for two key reasons. One household had never communicated with their migrant relatives (Figure 5.16). While in the case of the other households, the individuals interviewed, were not the persons who were primarily contacted by migrants 24 The household in question was interviewed 2 days after their daughter had left the island by ship. Thus the daughter was still at sea 105 5.3.4.1: Receipt of Remittances Figure 5.16 illustrates the proportion of Rotuman households, which do receive remittances. 76 per cent of the households surveyed receive remittances in the form of cash and/or kind, while 20 per cent of households did not receive any form of remittance. 4 per cent of households did not have an answer to this question as they felt uncomfortable with answering the question. Previous research works on migration and remittances in Rotuma have alluded to the fact that given its small population, Rotuma receives a significant amount of remittances. Hannan (2009: 233) noted that in 2007, Rotuma had received FJD one million in a single month. She noted that given 5RWXPD¶V population at the time, this amounted to $FJD 500 for every Rotuman on the island (p.234). However, as Figure 5.16 has shown, not all Rotumans are remittance recipients. Figure 5.16. Number of Households Receiving Remittances Source: Household Survey, 2015. 5.3.4.2: Types of Remittances Figure 5.17 is a breakdown of the types of remittances that Rotuman households receive. Of the households who received remittances, about 63 per cent received remittance in the form of both cash and kind. Another 21 per cent of remittance 106 recipient households were receiving only cash, and 16 per cent by kind. The study notes that in the case of the households that solely received cash remittance, the majority of these households were small households that mainly comprised of individuals over the age of 50 years. The more elderly individuals stated that with their advanced age, their relatives abroad sent them money so that they could purchase for themselves what they needed for their day-to-day living. At their age, they personally found that sending cash was more convenient than sending remittances in kind whereby the individuals would have to personally collect their goods from the wharf which they found to be very inconvenient to them. Other individuals in the category were retirees who returned to the island with their own resources to facilitate the building/rebuilding of their family homes. These individuals stated that they had brought most of the goods in kind that they needed, and would only request for monetary remittances when the need arose. Figure 5.17. Types of Remittances Received by Households Source: Household Survey, 2015. 5.3.4.3: Cash Remittance Flow and Utilisation In this sub-section, the flow, receipt, and utilisation of cash remittances, is scrutinised. The frequency of cash transfer and means of channelizing remittances is 107 assessed. This section also assesses the purposes for which remittance monies are sent, and how they are actually utilised. 5.3.4.3.1 Frequency of Cash Transfers Figure 5.18 reveals the frequency with which households receive remittances. 59 per cent of the remittance receiving households receive remittances when need arises. 28 per cent of households received remittances on a quarterly basis, while around 5 per cent of households each receive weekly or fortnightly remittances. Nearly 4 per cent of households reported that they received remittances on a monthly basis, and just over 1 per cent received yearly remittances. Figure 5.18. Frequency of Cash Remittance Receipts by Households Source: Household Survey, 2015. The study notes that remittances are typically sent in the assistance of household as well as cultural events. In terms of household events, families in Rotuma will often request remittances in both cash and kind for events such as weddings, and the ceremonial mounting of tombstones (Box 5.4). Of particular interest, is a seemingly counterintuitive revelation by many households, that the receipt of remittances is not particularly high for funerals. When queried upon this, households cited that as there was no mortuary in Rotuma, funerals were relatively accelerated affairs whereby the 108 GHFHDVHGSHUVRQZDVEXULHGDGD\DIWHUWKH\KDGSDVVHGDZD\7KXVLWZDVW\SLFDOO\ OHIWWRWKHIDPLO\LQ5RWXPDWRIDFLOLWDWHWKHIXQHUDODUUDQJHPHQWV%R[SURYLGHV JUHDWHUFODULW\RQWKLV %R[ 2QH+RXVHKROGV3HUFHSWLRQRQ5HPLWWDQFHVDQG)XQHUDOV $ KRXVHKROG UHIOHFWHG LWV SHUFHSWLRQ RQ WKH LQIOXHQFH WKDW UHPLWWDQFHV KDG RQ IXQHUDOVDVIROORZV ³:KHQWKHUHLVDIXQHUDOZHGRQ¶WKDYHDPRUWXDU\KHUHZKLFKLQDZD\LVJRRG EHFDXVH WKDW PHDQV WKH IXQHUDOV DUH ORQJ DQG H[SHQVLYH OLNH \RX JDQJ GR >UHIHUHQFHWR5RWXPDQVOLYLQJLQ)LML@6RWKHUHLVQRWLPHIRU)LMLWRVHQGDOOWKH IRRGDQGWKLQJVOLNHWKDW2XUFORVHIDPLO\ZLOOVHQGXVPRQH\WRKHOSEXWWKDW¶V DERXWLWEHFDXVHRIWKHVKRUWWLPH6RWKHIXQHUDOVDUHQRWWKDWH[SHQVLYHDQGWKH\ DUHTXLFNO\RUJDQLVHG7KHWLPHZKHQWKHIDPLO\LQ)LMLVHQGVDORWRIWKLQJVLV ZKHQ ZH KDYH WKH K|W¶DN K̩IX 0RXQWLQJ RI WRPEVWRQH RYHU D JUDYH ZKLFK LV FDUULHGRXWRQH\HDUDIWHUWKHGHDWKRIDSHUVRQ 7KHQWKRVHLQ)LMLFDQRUJDQLVH DQGVHQGWKHVWRQHDQGWKH\VHQGPRQH\DQGIRRGWRKHOSZLWKWKHHDWLQJ>IHDVW WKDWLVWUDGLWLRQDOO\KHOGIRUDWWHQGHHV@´ 6RXUFH )LHOG6XUYH\E\WKH5HVHDUFKHU 7KHVWXG\QRWHVWKDWUHPLWWDQFHVVHQWIRUFXOWXUDOHYHQWVDUHW\SLFDOO\VHQWLQ-DQXDU\ 0D\ DQG 'HFHPEHU 7KLV LV EHFDXVH LQ 0D\ WKH 5RWXPD GD\ FHOHEUDWLRQVDUH FDUULHGRXW7KH'HFHPEHU-DQXDU\SHULRGLVWKHƗYPDQH¶D /LWHUDOO\WUDQVODWHGDV µWLPHWR SOD\¶ SHULRG'XULQJWKLV SHULRGWKHLVODQGLV IXOORIYLVLWRUVDQGYDULRXV IHVWLYH DFWLYLWLHV DUH RUJDQLVHG &DVK UHPLWWDQFHV DUH VHQW GXULQJ WKHVH SHULRGV WR IDFLOLWDWHWKHIHVWLYHDFWLYLWLHVDQGDOVRWRKHOSIXQG&KULVWPDVDQG1HZ 5RWXPD 'D\ FHOHEUDWLRQ DUH FDUULHG RXW WR FRPPHPRUDWH 5RWXPD¶V FHVVLRQ WR *UHDW %ULWDLQ &HOHEUDWLRQVDUHW\SLFDOO\KHOGRQWKHWKRI0D\ %R[ &DVK5HPLWWDQFHVLQ5RWXPD'XULQJƗY.HVPҥVL &KULVWPDV WLPH $QHWKQRJUDSKLFREVHUYDWLRQE\WKH5HVHDUFKHU UHYHDOVWKDW 7KH 3RVW 2IILFH LQ 5RWXPD LV ORFDWHG LQ WKH KR¶DJD YLOODJH RIµ$K̩X µ$K̩X VHUYHV DV WKH DGPLQLVWUDWLYH KXE RI 5RWXPD ZKHUH WKH YDULRXV JRYHUQPHQWDO RIILFHVDQGVHUYLFHVDUHORFDWHG5RWXPDQVZKRUHFHLYHUHPLWWDQFHVWKXVWUDYHOWR WKH3RVW2IILFHLQRUGHUWRFROOHFWWKHLU702VRU:HVWHUQ8QLRQFDVKWUDQVIHUV /RFDWHGULJKWEHVLGHWKHSRVWDORIILFHLVDPLQLDWXUHVXSHUPDUNHWWKDWLVRSHUDWHG E\WKHSRVWRIILFH 'XULQJWKHIHVWLYHSHULRGLQ5RWXPDWKHUHVHDUFKHUPDGHLWDSRLQWWR VLWRXWVLGHWKHSRVWRIILFHGXULQJWKH'HFHPEHUVW±WKSHULRGDQGREVHUYHWKH YDULRXVWUDQVDFWLRQVWDNLQJSODFH7KHUHVHDUFKHUQRWHGWKDWGXULQJWKLVSHULRG FDUULHUVWUDQVSRUWLQJLQGLYLGXDOVIURPDOODURXQG5RWXPDZRXOGFRQVWDQWO\DUULYH DWµ$K̩XDQGGLVFKDUJHWKHLUSDVVHQJHUVEHIRUHOHDYLQJWRFROOHFWPRUHSHUVRQV ,Q D VLQJOH GD\ GXULQJDQ KRXU SHULRG WKH UHVHDUFKHU QRWHG WKH DUULYDO RI WUXFNORDGVRISDVVHQJHUVWKDWHDFKWUDQVSRUWHGDQDYHUDJHRILQGLYLGXDOV 7KHPDMRULW\RIWKHVHLQGLYLGXDOVZRXOGILUVWYLVLWWKHSRVWRIILFHZKHUHWKH\ZRXOG FROOHFWFDVKUHPLWWDQFH2QFHWKH\KDGFROOHFWHGWKHLUPRQLHVWKH\ZRXOGµPRYH QH[W GRRU¶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igure 5.19. Average Remittances Received Per Transfer by Household Source: Household Survey, 2015. 5.3.4.3.3 Conduits of Cash Remittances The various means by which Rotumans receive monetary remittances, in both formal and informal channels are shown in Figure 5.20. Almost 60 per cent of remittance receiving households relied upon Telegraphic Money Orders26 (TMOs) for the receipt of cash remittances. About 21 per cent of households reported that they received monies through Western Union27. The study notes that the majority of cash remittances are still sent from migrants located in mainland Fiji. The researcher notes, that even remittance receiving households, whose migrant members are primarily located outside of Fiji, still receive their monies through domestic cash transfers (TMOs). In such households, remittance senders abroad would send the money to relatives in mainland Fiji, who would in turn send the monies to Rotuma. This trend typically occurred for two purposes. Firstly, migrants abroad preferred to channelize remittance monies via mainland Fiji in order to ensure that they could provide for both their relatives on Rotuma, and those outside of Rotuma. Secondly, migrants abroad would send monies to those in mainland Fiji, so that they could use 26 Telegraphic Money Orders (TMOs) in this context, refers to the electronic transmition of money within Fiji. TMO services are offered by Post Fiji 27 Western Union is an international corporation that facilitates cross border money transfers 111 portions of the monies, to purchase remittances in kind, to send to Rotuma, while the remainder of the cash was transferred to Rotuma via TMOs. The response of one housewife on remittances from the Household Survey (2015) was: ³My oldest son is working in Canada, and I have a daughter who is studying in Suva. So he will send the money to his sister. Some of it is for her spending, the rest she either sends here, or uses it to buy things we need and send it on the next boat´ Figure 5.20. Mechanisms of Receiving Remittances in Rotuma Source: Household Survey, 2015. Based on Figure 5.20, the research notes that no households referred to remittances that were brought by visitors to the island. This contrasts findings by scholars such as Hannan (2009: 234), who noted how Rotuman migrants visiting the island would bring funds and gifts for their families. This type of informal flow of remittances to Rotuma is very common. However, households revealed that in such cases, such gifts brought were also used to help facilitate the stay of the visitors. Thus, participants in the survey did not view such gifts as being remittances. The study also notes that despite EFTPOS28 services being offered at the Post office, µQRQHRIWKHKRXVHKROGV received funds via bank transfers. Households revealed that this was because the island did not have any bank branches. Thus, opening a bank account would have necessitated a visit to mainland Fiji. Furthermore, Automated Teller Machines 28 ()7326UHIHUVWRµElectronic Funds Transfer at Point Of Sale¶&RQVXPHUVFDQXVHWKLVVHUYLFHWR electronically pay for their purchases and also withdraw money from their Bank Accounts. 112 (ATMs) are not present on the island, and using EFTPOS services to make money withdrawals would first necessitate making purchases worth ten dollars or more, before they could withdraw funds. Thus, in the context of cash remittances, electronic/bank transfers are not favoured. 5.3.4.3.4 Purposes of Sending Cash Remittances Figure 5.21 graphs out the general reasons as to why migrants would send cash remittances to Rotuma. The majority of households (43 per cent), indicated that their migrant family members sent remittances back for the purpose of helping with living expenses. Assisting with church contributions (22 per cent) and community fundraisings (22 per cent) were also cited as key reasons for the sending of remittances. The study notes that when combined, the sending of remittances for the purpose of church and community contributions actually outweighs the sending of remittances for the purpose of meeting living expenses. 5 per cent of households stated that migrants sent them remittances to help build/extend their homes, and another 5 per cent reported that cash remittances were sent to assist with education costs. 1 per cent of households each reported that migrants sent remittances for the purpose of assisting with medical expenses, the purchasing of farming implements, and the purchasing of livestock. Figure 5.21. Purpose of Migrants Sending Cash Remittances to Rotuma Source: Household Survey, 2015. 113 5.3.4.3.5 Utilisation of Cash Remittances Figure 5.22 illustrates how the households surveyed commonly utilise cash remittances that they receive. Most remittance receiving households interviewed, revealed that in terms of the specific activities they spent the monies on, they spent the bulk on living expenses (41 per cent). However, further queries revealed that they also set aside money for church (23 per cent) and community contributions (22 per cent). Consequently, the accrual of these various other expenses led to significant portions of monies being used for church contributions and community fundraisings. Almost 6 per cent reported that they used cash remittances to assist with education costs, and another 4 per cent of households stated that they used remittances to help build/extend their homes. Just fewer than 3 per cent of households used remittances to purchase farming implements, and 1 per cent of households each reported that they used remittances for the purpose of assisting with medical expenses, and purchasing livestock. Figure 5.22. Utilisation of Cash Remittances by Households Source: Household Survey, 2015. 114 Figure 5.23 shows the purpose of migrants sending remittances, and their actual utilisation. Remittances are utilised for the main purposes for which they are sent. Figure 5.23. Purpose of Migrants Sending Remittances, vs. their Actual Utilisation Source: Household Survey, 2015. The study notes that in comparison to the purpose for which remittance monies are sent, there is an increase in the usage of remittance monies for church contributions (23 per cent), and community fundraisings (22 per cent). Consequently, contributions to church and community fundraisings make up a significant proportion of remittance usage (45 per cent) that outweighs the usage of remittances for living expenses (41 per cent). The study notes that none of the households surveyed reported using remittance monies for the purpose of starting small businesses. %R[LOOXVWUDWHVDFDVHVWXG\EDVHGRQWKHUHVHDUFKHUV¶SDUWLFLSDQWREVHUYDWLRQRQ the field work site, with regard to contributions made by households to religious events. 115 %R[ &DVH6WXG\RQ8VDJHRI5HPLWWDQFHIRU&KXUFK&RPPXQLW\ $FWLYLWLHV$Q$QDO\VLVRIWKH0RWXVD&LUFXLW 7KH0RWXVD&LUFXLWLVDQDGPLQLVWUDWLYHXQLWRIWKH0HWKRGLVW&KXUFKLQ)LMLDQG 5RWXPD7KHFLUFXLWFRPSULVHVRIVHYHUDO5RWXPDQGLVWULFWVDQGYLOODJHV :KLOH HDFK GLVWULFW KDV LWV RZQ SODFHV RI ZRUVKLS WKH 0RWXVD FLUFXLW LV WKH NH\ DGPLQLVWUDWLYHERG\DQGLVEDVHGLQWKHVXEGLVWULFWRI0RWXVDZLWKLQWKHGLVWULFW RI,WX¶WL¶X2QDPRQWKO\EDVLVVSHFLDOLQWHUFRQJUHJDWLRQDOFKXUFKVHUYLFHVDUH KHOG DW WKH 0HWKRGLVW &KXUFK LQ 0RWXVD 'XULQJ VXFK VHUYLFHV WKH YDULRXV FRQJUHJDWLRQVIURPWKHRWKHUFKXUFKHVZLOODOOWUDYHOWR0RWXVDIRUDFRPELQHG FKXUFK VHUYLFH 7KH FKXUFK VHUYLFH LV W\SLFDOO\ IROORZHG E\ D FRPPXQDO IHDVW ZKHUH HDFK SDUWLFLSDQW FRQJUHJDWLRQ LV WDVNHG ZLWK SURYLGLQJ D FHUWDLQ µLµ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³LRPNDY NLUµ̩NL´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oods and Merchandise Remitted to Rotuma Figure 5.24 depicts the various types and quantities of remittances in kind that are received by households in Rotuma. About 54 per cent of households stated that remittances received typically comprised of food items. 20 per cent of households stated that they received educational materials, and about 13 per cent of households reported that they received clothing. Building materials make up nearly 9 per cent of good received, while farming implements comprise of 5 per cent. Figure 5.24. Household Response on Remittances in Kind Source: Household Survey, 2015. The study notes that at first glance the data shown in Figure 5.24 may imply a primary focus on food items, and consumption, as opposed to the sending of remittances to facilitate education and farming. However, it must be noted that the sending of farming implements is something that is typically only necessitated when families in Rotuma need new tools to replace items lost through wear and tear. Similarly, building materials are only necessitated when there is construction work underway. With regard to educational materials, this typically only required on an annual basis when the new school year commences. In essence, the demand for educational materials, building materials, and farming implements is elastic. 117 However, the demand for food products is inelastic and thus accounts for the high per-centage of food products being sent. The researcher noted upon visits to the wharf when a ship was berthed, that each shipment would bring vast quantities of cargo ranging from basic food items, to furniture, construction materials, and motorcycles. Photograph 5.8 illustrates the variety of goods that are typically delivered to Rotuma with each shipment that arrives. It must be noted that while this does imply a vast inflow of remittances in kind, shipping services are irregular29 and thus partially account for the large amounts of cargo that are delivered by each ship. Photograph 5.8. Collage of Cargoes Typically Delivered to Rotuma Source: By J.Titifanue, 2015. 29 Shipping services to Rotuma are notoriously irregular. There are instances where multiple months can elapse before a ship arrives. When the researcher arrived in Rotuma (By plane), there had been no ships arriving in almost 2 months. Consequently, there was a shortage (or complete absence) of food products and basic items at the various shops in Rotuma. For instance, at the Post Office supermarket, which was typically the best resourced and stocked business in Rotuma, the shelves were completely bare of all food items. 118 5.3.4.4.2 Purpose of Sending Remittances in Kind Figure 5.25 shows the reasons as to why migrants send remittances in kind to Rotuma. The majority of households (around 52 per cent), indicated that their migrant family members sent such remittances for the purpose of helping them with their basic needs. A common phrase that participants used to describe the sending of VXFKSURGXFWVZDVµLULVQƗODK̩LDVRDJVHµƗWƝ¶ WKH\VHQWLW>IRRGSURGXFWV@WRKHOS ZLWKRXUGLHWV RUµLULVQƗWƝODLRPWƯ¶ 7KH\JDYHWKLQJV>IRRGSURGXFWV@IRUWHD Improving literacy (Almost 17 per cent) and assisting with the education of children (Almost 17 per cent) were also common reasons for the sending of remittances in kind. Households spoke of how their migrant relatives would send school materials such as text books, fictional novels, uniforms and general stationery in order to ensure that the school children in the family were provided with necessary materials. 8 per cent of households reported that the remittances were intended to assist in the renovation of dwellings, while 4 per cent revealed that the remittances were sent to help improve cultivation. 2 per cent of households reported that the remittances had been sent to assist in the construction of new houses. Figure 5.25. Purpose of Migrants Sending Remittances in Kind Source: Household Survey, 2015. 119 7KHVWXG\QRWHVWKDWVLPLODUWRFDVKUHPLWWDQFHVWKHVHQGLQJRIUHPLWWDQFHVLQNLQG WHQGVWRSHDNGXULQJWKH0D\ 5RWXPD'D\ DQG'HFHPEHU±-DQXDU\ ƗYPDQH¶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µ3DOP¶EUDQGFRUQHGEHHI7KLVSDUWLFXODUO\EUDQGZDVD1HZ=HDODQGSURGXFWDQG TXLWHH[SHQVLYH7KXVLWZDVVHHQDVDPDUNRIDIIOXHQFHLIIDPLOLHVFRXOGVHUYHVXFK GHOLFDFLHVDWDIHDVW :LWK UHJDUG WR WKH ƗY PDQH¶D SHULRG WKLV LV D SHULRG ZKHQ WKHUH DUH QXPHURXV YLVLWRUVWRWKHLVODQGDQGYDULRXVIHVWLYHHYHQWVDUHFDUULHGRXW2QFHDJDLQPLJUDQWV SURYLGH DVVLVWDQFH WKURXJK VHQGLQJ UHPLWWDQFHV LQ NLQG 7KH UHVHDUFKHU DWWHQGHG YDULRXV IHVWLYH HYHQWV GXULQJ KLV ILHOGZRUN LQ 5RWXPD 7KH UHVHDUFKHU QRWHG KRZ PLJUDQWVLQ)LMLKDGVHQWEDOHVRIFORWKWRSURYLGHK̩¶I̩OL VDURQJVZRUQDURXQGWKH ZDLVW DVIHVWLYHDWWLUHIRUWKHLUFRPPXQLWLHVGXULQJWKHIHVWLYLWLHV 8WLOLVDWLRQRI5HPLWWDQFHVLQ.LQG )LJXUHSURYLGHVDQRYHUYLHZRIKRZKRXVHKROGVDFWXDOO\XWLOLVHGWKHPDWHULDO JRRGV WKDW WKH\ UHFHLYH IURP PLJUDQWV 7KH ILJXUH VKRZV WKDW SHU FHQW RI KRXVHKROGV XVHG UHPLWWDQFHV VHQW LQ NLQG IRU WKH SXUSRVH RI PHHWLQJ WKHLU EDVLF QHHGVSHUFHQWRIKRXVHKROGVHDFKUHSRUWHGWKDWWKHUHPLWWDQFHVZHUHXWLOLVHGIRU LPSURYLQJ OLWHUDF\ DQG WR LPSURYH FKLOGUHQ¶V HGXFDWLRQ SHU FHQW RI KRXVHKROGV XVHGUHPLWWDQFHVWRUHQRYDWHWKHLUGZHOOLQJVDQGSHUFHQWWRLQFUHDVHWKHDPRXQWRI ODQG WKDW WKH\ FXOWLYDWHG SHU FHQW RI KRXVHKROGV UHSRUWHG WKDW WKH\ KDG XWLOLVHG UHPLWWDQFHVUHFHLYHGWRFRQVWUXFWQHZKRXVHV Figure 5.26. Actual Usage of Remittances in Kind Source: Household Survey, 2015 Figure 5.27 shows a comparison between the purpose of migrants sending remittances in kind, and such remittances are actually utilised. The study notes that the actual usage of such remittances generally correlates with the purposes for which the remittances are sent. Figure 5.27 shows, most remittance receiving households interviewed, revealed that in terms of the specific usage of the material goods sent, much of the goods went into consumption. In essence, much of the merchandise they received was food items that helped supplement their diets. Households cited that this was cheaper as it meant they would minimise the frequency with which they needed to purchase food items at exorbitant costs in Rotuma. 121 Figure 5.27. Comparison of the Purpose of Migrants Sending Remittances in Kind, and their Actual Utilisation Source: Household Survey, 2015 As aforementioned, the costs of goods and services in Rotuma are exorbitantly high. This can be attributed to the irregularity of shipping to Rotuma and the geographic isolation of the island. These factors have meant high shipping costs which in turn have led to the cost of goods and services in Rotuma being quite high. Box 5.7 SURYLGHV DQ RYHUYLHZ RI WKH UHVHDUFKHUV¶ H[SHULHQFHV DQG REVHUYDWLRQV LQ 5RWXPD upon the arrival of a ship. 122 %R[ 7KH$UULYDORI7ZR6KLSVLQ5RWXPD WK1RYHPEHU DQGWK'HFHPEHU 7KURXJKSDUWLFLSDQW REVHUYDWLRQDW WKH2LQDID :KDUILQ 5RWXPDWKHUHVHDUFKHU QRWHGWKHIROORZLQJ 2QWKHWKRI1RYHPEHUWKHJRYHUQPHQWRSHUDWHGEDUJHDUULYHGLQ5RWXPD7KLV DUULYDOZDVNHHQO\DQWLFLSDWHGDVQRVKLSKDGYLVLWHG5RWXPDLQRYHUDPRQWKDQG WKHVKHOYHVRIVKRSVZHUHEDUH)XHOZDVEHLQJUDWLRQHGDQGXWLOLVHGVROHO\IRUWKH WUDQVSRUWDWLRQRIVFKRROFKLOGUHQDQGIRUXVHE\JRYHUQPHQWYHKLFOHV$VWKHVKLS ZDV JRYHUQPHQW RSHUDWHG LW SULPDULO\ VKLSSHG PDWHULDO IRU WKH JRYHUQPHQW GHSDUWPHQWV ZLWK D PLQLPDO FDUJR RI SULYDWH IUHLJKW +RZHYHU 5RWXPDQV VWLOO NHHQO\DQWLFLSDWHGWKHDUULYDORIWKHVKLSDVLWZRXOGEULQJIXHOVXSSOLHV2QFHWKH FDUJR KDG EHHQ RIIORDGHG WKH YDULRXV VWRUH RZQHUV DURXQG WKH LVODQG FODLPHG WKHLU JRRGV DQG IXHO VXSSOLHV DQG WUDQVSRUWHG WKHP EDFN WR WKHLU UHVSHFWLYH GLVWULFWV $W WKH VWRUH ORFDWHG FORVH WR ZKHUH WKH UHVHDUFKHU ZDV VWD\LQJ WKHUH ZHUHDOUHDG\LQGLYLGXDOV FRQJUHJDWHGZLWKMHUU\ FDQV DQG YDULRXV IODVNV DZDLWLQJWKHDUULYDORISHWUROWRFRPPHQFHWKHLUSXUFKDVHV7KLVZDVDFRPPRQ VFHQHDW5RWXPDQVKRSVZKHQHYHUVKLSPHQWVZRXOGDUULYH7KHUHVHDUFKHUZDVDW WKHVKRSWRDOVRSXUFKDVHIXHOWRIDFLOLWDWHUHVHDUFKWUDYHOKRZHYHUDUULYLQJ PLQXWHVODWHPHDQWWKDWWKHUHVHDUFKHUKDGWRZDLWXQWLOHYHU\RQHDKHDGRIKLP KDGFRPSOHWHGWKHLUSXUFKDVHV&RQVHTXHQWO\RQO\DPHDJUHOLWUHVRISHWURO ZHUHOHIWIRUSXUFKDVH 2QWKHWKRI'HFHPEHU7KHUHVHDUFKHURQFHDJDLQYLVLWHGWKHZKDUIWRREVHUYH HYHQWVDVWKHVKLSEHUWKHG,QWKLVFDVHDVWKHVKLSZDVDFRPPHUFLDOYHVVHOWKHUH ZDVDODUJHDPRXQWRIFDUJRWKDWZDVGHOLYHUHG5RWXPDQVIORFNHGWRWKH2LQDID ZKDUIWRFROOHFWWKHLUFDUJR&DUJRHVEURXJKWLQFOXGHGWLPEHUEDJVRIFHPHQW GUXPVRIIXHOF\OLQGHUVRIFRRNLQJJDVIXUQLWXUHDQGHOHFWULFDOLWHPVDQGYDVW TXDQWLWLHVRIWLQQHGIRRGDQGIUR]HQPHDWV6RPHUHPDUNVPDGHDVLQGLYLGXDOV FROOHFWHGWKHLUFDUJRZHUH µ¶LVSƗµƗSXDWNDXµHD¶ ZHZDQWWRKDYHWLQQHGEHHI 6RXUFH 3DUWLFLSDQW2EVHUYDWLRQE\WKH5HVHDUFKHU +RXVHKROG3HUFHSWLRQRQ0LJUDWLRQDQG5HPLWWDQFHV 6HFWLRQKDVDVVHVVHGWKHW\SHVRIUHPLWWDQFHVKRXVHKROGVUHFHLYHGWKHSXUSRVHV IRUZKLFKWKRVHUHPLWWDQFHVZHUHVHQWDQGWKHPDQQHULQZKLFKWKH\ZHUHXWLOLVHG,Q DGGLWLRQ WR WKLV KRXVHKROGV ZHUH DVNHG DERXW WKHLU SHUFHSWLRQV RI WKH UROH WKDW PLJUDWLRQDQGUHPLWWDQFHVSOD\LQ5RWXPD7KLVVHFWLRQWKXVDVVHVVHVSHUFHSWLRQVRQ WKHUROHWKDWPLJUDQWVSOD\LQWHUPVRIKHDOWKFDUHHGXFDWLRQDQGEDVLFOLYHOLKRRGVLQ 5RWXPD +RXVHKROG UHVSRQVHV DUH JUDSKHG DQG DQDO\VHG &DVH VWXGLHV DQG TXRWHV IURPKRXVHKROGVDQGNH\SHUVRQVDUHXVHGWRVXSSOHPHQWWKHTXDQWLWDWLYHDQDO\VLV 5.3.5.1 Household Perception on the Impacts of Remittances on Health Figure 5.28 shows that a total of 85 per cent of respondents believed that remittances played a very significant or significant role in helping develop health facilities. The role of migrants in developing health facilities is generally held in a high regarded. Households cited that while there was a rural hospital in Rotuma that offered free medical services, remittances IURP PLJUDQWV KHOSHG µILOO LQ WKH JDSV¶ LQ PHdical needs. The response of an individual in the Household Survey (2015) is as follows: ³7KH KRVSLWDO SURYLGHV WKH GRFWRUV DQG PHGLFLQH EXW WKHUH DUH RWKHUWKLQJVWKDWWKH\GRQ¶WKDYHRUDUHVKRUW6RVRPHRIWKRVH things, our families send. They give wheelchairs, walking sticks, diapers for the really old people and other things to help make the sick live well. We see a lot of it now because most of the youth are JRQHDQGZHKDYHPDQ\ROGSHRSOHKHUHQRZ´ A combined total of 8 per cent of respondents believed that remittances from migrants played an insignificant to very insignificant role in terms of its impact on health. Households cited the reason that people in Rotuma needed to look after themselves better. One household stated that health was the goYHUQPHQW¶V UHVSRQVLELOLW\DQGSHRSOHVKRXOGVWRSWKHWUHQGRI³tu̩Q¶lNQƝVƝ)LWL´ UHO\LQJRQ)LML [migrants in Fiji]). Figure 5.28. Household Response on Impact of Remittances on Health Source: Household Survey, 2015. 124 5.3.5.2: Household Perception on the Impact of Remittances on Education Figure 5.29 shows that a total of 84 per cent of households believed that remittances played a very significant or significant role in helping Rotumans achieve better education. 60 per cent of the respondents stated that they believed that remittances SOD\HG D µYHU\ VLJQLILFDQW UROH¶ ZKLOH SHU FHQW RI UHVSRndents believed that remittances SOD\HG D µVLJQLILFDQW UROH¶ $ FRPELQHG WRWDO RI DERXW SHU FHQW RI respondents believed that remittances played an insignificant to very insignificant role in terms of its impact on education. Such households mainly cited that it was the duty of the parents to provide for their children and to see that their offspring attained an education. These perceptions could be summed up by the response of an individual in the Household Survey (2015), which was as follows: ³When I was growing up, my father would cut copra and mum would weave mats to sell in Fiji to get money. They did all this so that we [reference to sLEOLQJV@FRXOGDOOJRWRVFKRRO,WZDVQ¶WHDV\EXWWKH\GLGLWVRWKDWWKH\ can provide for us. They also went through all that because they know that they [referring to migrants in Fiji] have their own families that they needed to look after, and they did not want to add to the burden´ Figure 5.29. Household Perception on the Impact of Remittances on Education Source: Household Survey, 2015. 125 7KHTXRWHKLJKOLJKWHGLQ%R[LOOXVWUDWHVKRZUHPLWWDQFHVKDYHKHOSHGDSDUWLFXODU KRXVHKROGLQWHUPVRIHGXFDWLQJLWVFKLOGUHQ %R[ $)DPLO\([SHULHQFHRIWKH,PSDFWRI5HPLWWDQFHVRQ (GXFDWLRQ ³(GXFDWLRQ LV IUHH QRZ ZLWK WKH JRYHUQPHQW EXW LW FDQ VWLOO EH H[SHQVLYH 7KH WH[WERRNVDQGWKHXQLIRUPVDQGDOOWKDW0\IDPLO\LQ)LMLUHDOO\KHOSV0\HOGHVW 6XPDVDIX 3VHXGRQ\P LV LQ IRUP Source: Household Survey, 2015. A customary chief who was part of the survey offered the perspective that while he could not say with certainty as to whether more children were attending school or not, he did believe that remittances were helping increase completion rates of students (Box 5.9). Box 5.9. A District Chiefs View on Remittances and Education ³Education is something that parents in Rotuma really want. We all tell them [children] that they need to go to school. Life here is hard, cutting copra and farming and fishing all your life is hard. [Remark to Researcher] Remember what they said in HerenikRVPRYLH">5HIHUHQFHWRWKH5RWXPDQILOPµ/DQG+DV(\HV¶ ZKLFKZDVGLUHFWHGE\3URIHVVRU9LOVRQL+HUHQLNR@ 127 +RXVHKROG3HUFHSWLRQRQ,PSDFWRI5HPLWWDQFHVRQ/LYLQJ6WDQGDUGV )LJXUHUHYHDOVKRXVHKROGSHUFHSWLRQVRQWKHUROHWKDWUHPLWWDQFHVKDYHSOD\HGLQ GHYHORSLQJOLYLQJVWDQGDUGV$FOHDUPDMRULW\RIKRXVHKROGVVXUYH\HGEHOLHYHGWKDW UHPLWWDQFHVSOD\HGDµYHU\VLJQLILFDQW¶ DURXQGSHUFHQW RUµVLJQLILFDQWUROH¶ SHU FHQW LQ IDFLOLWDWLQJ WKH SRVLWLYH GHYHORSPHQW RI OLYLQJ VWDQGDUGV $ FRPELQHG WRWDO RI SHU FHQW RI KRXVHKROGV IHOW WKDW UHPLWWDQFHV KDYH SOD\HG D µYHU\ LQVLJQLILFDQW¶ SHU FHQW RU µLQVLJQLILFDQW UROH¶ DURXQG SHU FHQW LQ LPSURYLQJ OLYLQJVWDQGDUGV ,QWHUPVRIWKHSHUFHQWRIKRXVHKROGVZKRSHUFHLYHGWKDWWKDWUHPLWWDQFHVSOD\HG D VLJQLILFDQW UROH LQ LPSURYLQJ OLYHOLKRRGV FKDQJHV LQ GLHW ZHUH D FRPPRQ IDFWRU FLWHG0DQ\KRXVHKROGVZRXOGUHIHUWRKRZIDPLOLHVZHUHµHDWLQJEHWWHU¶7KLVZDVLQ UHIHUHQFH WR KRZ D JUHDWHU YDULHW\ RI LPSRUWHG IRRGV ZHUH QRZ DYDLODEOH DQG LQFUHDVLQJO\FRQVXPHGE\IDPLOLHVLQ5RWXPD 7KHUHVSRQVHRIDJUDQGSDUHQWLQ-XMXGLVWULFWGXULQJWKH+RXVHKROG6XUYH\ ZDV ³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efore, in the places where the electricity went up to,30 families would all go to one house when the power was on, so that they can watch movies. Now if you go around the places where the power goes up to, many houses have their own T.Vs and radios. During the fieldwork, migrant members of the family hosting the researcher sent 5 solar panels for installation, to enable their relatives on the island to have electricity access. Figure 5.31. Household Response on the Impact of Remittances on Living Standards Source: Household Survey, 2015. 5.3.5.3.1 Household Perception on the Extent of Changes in Living Standards Participants were asked as to whether they believed that remittance receipts had facilitated changes in living standards over the past 5 years. As shown in Figure 5.32, 95 per cent of respondents believed that remittances had contributed to changes in Rotuman living standards. Another 5 per cent did not believe that there had been changes in Rotuman living standards. 30 In Rotuma, not all areas have irregular or no access to electricity. Some communities have communal generators that are switched on for certain periods of time, while some households have their own generators that they utilise for their own needs. However, all the generators are reliant on fuel supplies that tend to run short when shipping services to the island are delayed. 129 Figure 5.32. Household Perception on Changes in Living Standards Source: Household Survey, 2015. Figure 5.33 shows household perceptions on the extent to which living standards in Rotuma have changed. A combined total of 83 percent of households stated that they believed that living standards had change either substantially (80 per cent), or to a great extent (3 per cent)31. 5 per cent chose not to answer this question as they stated they felt more comfortable talking about their own households, and did not wish to comment on others. The study notes that for most of the households, the participants felt that living standards in Rotuma had undergone extensive changes. 11 per cent of households surveyed, believed that there had been little change to living standards in Rotuma. Key reasons cited by the households were that they could still observe people practicing traditional activities. The response of a farmer from Juju district during the Household Survey (2015) was that: ³While people live in cement houses now and eat better than before, people still do traditional work. You can still see people fishing and farming´ 31 :KLOHµ6XEVWDQWLDOO\¶DQGµ7RDJUHDWH[WHQW¶PD\VHHPWREHLGHQWLFDOFDWHJRULHVWKHVHWZRWHUPV were selected due to the fact that questionnaires and interviews were carried out using the Rotuman language. 130 Figure 5.33. Household Perception on Extent of Change in Living Standards Source: Household Survey, 2015. 5.3.5.3.2 Household Perception on the Impact of Change in Living Standards Figure 5.34 outlines perceptions households have with regard to the impact of the living standard changes that they observed. The majority of participants (53 per cent) felt that the changes had been positive. The response of one household during the household survey (2015) was that: ³We see beautiful houses around the island. Peoples eating has changed, we have radios and T.V. You can see a lot more families owning generators in the places thDWGRQ¶WKDYHHOHFWULFLW\2XUDQFHVWRUVZRUNHG hard and sent their children to Fiji so that we can get these blessings´ Around 7 per cent chose not to answer this question as they stated they did not wish to make general comments that might cast other households in a negative light. Around 23 per cent of respondents had mixed feelings on the living standard changes that they had observed. They felt that there was a mix of positive and negative elements in the changes in living standards. This participant basically alluded to how Rotumans now had access to greater varieties of imported foods. However, she felt that this came at the price of drastic changes to Rotuman traditions. 131 Around 19 per cent of households felt that the changes had been negative citing various reasons. Increases in health problems and pollution were cited as reasons for this. During the Household Survey (2015), a village nurse reported: ³1RZ ZH VHH LQFUHDVLQJ QXPEHUV RI SHRSOH QHHGLQJ WUHDWPHQW IRU diabetes and high blood pressure. Rotuma did not have this problem EHIRUH %XW QRZ WKHUH DUH PDQ\ ZKR VXIIHU IURP WKHVH WKLQJV ,W¶V because people are relying on Fiji, and they prefer all the imported food LQVWHDGRIKHDOWK\ORFDOIRRG«$OVRDOOWKHWLQQHGIRRGDQGJODVVERWWOHV that come in. where does the rubbish go? .... [Question to researcher] did you see rubbish trucks around the island? See, all the rubbish is either EXUQWRUEXULHG«,IZHGRQ¶WGRVRPHWKLQJVRRQZHZLOOKDYHDYHU\ EDGOLWWHUSUREOHP´ Figure 5.34. Household Perception on the Impact of Change in Living Standards Source: Household Survey, 2015. The response of one household member during the Household Survey (2015) was that: ³:HKDYH79DQGUDGLR:HHDWEHWWHUIRRG>LPSRUWHGIRRG@WKDQZHXVHGWR But now, people are ignoring their tradition. Look at our festivals now. See KRZ WKH\ SUHVHQW FRUQHG EHHIOLNHLW¶VDWUDGLWLRQDO IRRG [Photograph 5.9]. $OVR VR PDQ\SHRSOHGRQ¶W SODQWILVK >RU@ZHDYH$ORWRI RXUDQFHVWRU¶V ZLVGRPLVEHLQJIRUJRWWHQ´ 132 3KRWRJUDSK )RRG3UHSDUHGIRUD7UDGLWLRQDO&HUHPRQ\ 6RXUFH %\ -7LWLIDQXH ,Q WHUPV RI WKH SHU FHQW ZKR IHOW WKDW FKDQJHV LQ OLYLQJ VWDQGDUGV KDV EHHQ QHJDWLYHDFRPPRQUHDVRQFLWHGZDVWKHEUHDNGRZQWKDWSHRSOHIHOWKDGWDNHQSODFH LQWKHFRPPXQDOOLYHOLKRRGV\VWHP,QHVVHQFHKRXVHKROGVIHOWWKDWWKHUHKDGEHHQ DQLQIOX[RIPDWHULDOJRRGVLQ5RWXPDZKLFKKDGOHGWRDEUHDNGRZQLQµFRPPXQDO YDOXHV¶7KHFDVHVWXG\LQ%R[SURYLGHVIXUWKHUFODULW\RQWKLVLVVXH %R[ 7KH([SHULHQFHVRID5HWLUHHIURP/RSWD2LQDID $ \HDU ROG UHWLUHH UHVLGLQJ LQ /RSWD YLOODJH VKDUHG KLV SHUFHSWLRQV RQ OLYLQJ VWDQGDUGFKDQJHVLQ5RWXPD+LVYLHZVDUHRXWOLQHGEHORZ 6XPDVDIX 3VHXGRQ\P LV D UHWLUHH ZKR GHFLGHG WR UHWXUQ WR 5RWXPD +DYLQJ FROOHFWHG WKH SHQVLRQ PRQLHV KH ZDV RZHG KH SXUFKDVHG PDWHULDOV WKDW KH UHTXLUHGLQRUGHUWRFRQVWUXFWDKRPHIRUKLPVHOIRQWKHLVODQG8SRQDUULYLQJRQ WKHLVODQG6XPDVDIXH[SHULHQFHG³WKHQHZZD\WKLQJVZHUHGRQH´+HIRXQGWKDW QR ORQJHU GLG IDPLOLHV PDNH UHTXHVW WR WKHLU IULHQGV UHODWLYHV DQG QHLJKERXUV ZKHQPDQSRZHUZDVQHHGHG,QVWHDGKHIRXQGWKDWKHQHHGHGWRKLUHZRUNHUVDQG SD\ WKHP DW UDWHV KH FRQVLGHUHG WR EH PRUH FRVWO\ WKDQ ZRXOG EH WKH FDVH LQ PDLQODQG)LML+HIHOWWKDWZLWKWKHLQIOX[RIPDWHULDOJRRGVLQ5RWXPDHYHU\WKLQJ QRZVHHPHGWRUHYROYHDURXQGPRQH\$VDUHVXOWWKHFRPPXQDOLQWHUFRQQHFWLYLW\ KHUHPHPEHUHGIURPKLV\RXWKVHHPHGWRKDYHEHHQVHYHUHO\HURGHG 6RXUFH 7KH+RXVHKROG6XUYH\ 5.3.5.4 Household Perception on the Impact of Remittances on Livelihoods Household perceptions on the role remittances play in facilitating good livelihoods are shown in Figure 5.35. A combined total of 89 per cent of households felt that remittances SOD\HGDµYHU\VLJQLILFDQW SHUFHQW RUµVLJQLILFDQW SHUFHQW UROH in facilitating positive livelihood development in households. The study notes that a very common theme cited by households was µƗWƝ¶ HDWLQJGLHW ,QHVVHQFHPDQ\ households felt that changes in diet were the greatest indicator of the impact of remittances. Many households felt that remittances played a significant role in improving livelihoods as evidenced by access to a greater range of imported foods. Other households felt that changes in diets had resulted in an increased reliance on imported foods that lacked nutritional value. Figure 5.35. Household Response on the Impact of Remittances on Livelihoods Source: Household Survey, 2015. 5.3.5.5 Impact of Remittances on Traditional Livelihood Activities Household perception on whether they have been undertaking less traditional livelihood activities due to the remittances they receive is shown in Figure 5.36. Of these households, 60 per cent felt that they were undertaking less traditional 134 livelihood activities due to the remittances that they were receiving. Many households stated that they had worked hard to ensure that their children had better opportunities than they did. Thus, they felt that with their children working outside of Rotuma, they can now enjoy the fruits of their toil. An elderly couple highlight of their perception during the Household Survey (2015) is: ³:KHQZHKDGRXUFKLOGUHQKH>UHIHUHQFHWRKXVEDQG@ZRXOGDOZD\VEH cutting copra and doing things to get money so we can send the children to school. While he was doing all that work, I was making mats and selling them [to buyers in Fiji]. So our oldest daughter managed to go to F.I.T32. She finished and worked as a secretary, and was able to help pay for her brothers school fees. Now, she is working and our son has graduated and working they send us money and gifts so that wH GRQ¶W KDYH WR VWUXJJOH DQ\PRUH´ 40 per cent of households believed that they were not undertaking less traditional livelihood activities due to remittances received. The study notes that such households were typically those who only received remittances RQ DQ µDV QHHGHG¶ basis. Additionally, such households did not typically receive large quantities of remittance monies. Figure 5.36. Household Response on Impact of Remittances on Traditional Livelihood Activities Source: Household Survey, 2015. 32 Fiji Institute of Technology a vocational school that is now part of the Fiji National University 135 5HPLWWDQFHVDQGWKH'HYHORSPHQWRI/LYHOLKRRG$FWLYLWLHV )LJXUHLOOXVWUDWHVKRXVHKROGSHUFHSWLRQVRQZKHWKHUUHPLWWDQFHVKDYHIDFLOLWDWHG WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI VPDOO VFDOH OLYHOLKRRG HQWHUSULVHV SHU FHQW RI KRXVHKROGV UHVSRQGHGLQWKHDIILUPDWLYH7KH\IHOWWKDWWKURXJKUHPLWWDQFHUHFHLSWVKRXVHKROGV ZHUHDEOHWRGHYHORSVPDOOVFDOHOLYHOLKRRGDFWLYLWLHV7KHVWXG\QRWHVWKDWDOOWKH KRXVHKROGVZKRDQVZHUHGµ\HV¶FLWHGWKHSXUFKDVLQJRIPRUHOLYHVWRFNDVNH\UHDVRQ IRU WKLV SHUFHSWLRQ 7KH VWXG\ QRWHV WKDW ZKLOH PDQ\ RI WKH KRXVHKROGV FLWHG DFTXLVLWLRQRIOLYHVWRFNYHU\IHZSURYLGHGH[DPSOHVRIPRQH\JHQHUDWLQJDFWLYLWLHV WKDWKDGEHHQGHYHORSHGWKURXJKUHPLWWDQFHV,QHVVHQFHWKHUHDULQJRIOLYHVWRFNLV GRQHWRHQVXUHWKDWWKHUHDUHVWRFNVRIPHDWDYDLODEOHIRUWUDGLWLRQDOHYHQWVDQGQRW DVDFRPPHUFLDOYHQWXUH $SDUWLFLSDQWLQWKH+RXVHKROG6XUYH\ VWDWHGWKDW ³ SHU FHQW RI KRXVHKROGV EHOLHYHG WKDW UHPLWWDQFHV KDG QRW IDFLOLWDWHG WKH GHYHORSPHQWRIVPDOOVFDOHOLYHOLKRRGDFWLYLWLHV6XFKKRXVHKROGVIHOWWKDWPXFKRI WKHUHPLWWDQFHVZHUHEHLQJXVHGWRIXHOLQFUHDVHGFRQVXPSWLRQRQWKHLVODQG6XFK KRXVHKROGV IHOW WKDW UHPLWWDQFH PRQLHV ZHUH EHLQJ DEXVHG 7KH UHVSRQVH RI RQH SDUWLFLSDQWLQWKH+RXVHKROG6XUYH\ LVDVIROORZV ³,I \RX ORRN DW VRPH IDPLOLHV QRZ WKH\ JHW WKH PRQH\ DQG HDW DQG GULQN /RRNDWWKHODVWERDWWKDWFDPH$OOWKDWEHHUWKDWZDVEURXJKWDQGLW¶VDOO ILQLVKHGLQRQHZHHN :KHUHDUHSHRSOHJHWWLQJWKHPRQH\IURP"«1RZ SHRSOHFDQVWDUWGULQNLQJNDYDIURPLQWKHPRUQLQJ)HHOVRUU\IRUWKRVH ZRUNLQJKDUGLQ)LMLZKRVHQGVPRQH\DQGLWVZDVWHG/DVWZHHNRQHPDQ FDPHWREX\'DORIURPPHWRVHQGWRKLVIDPLO\>LQ)LML@7KHIDPLO\VHQGV PRQH\DQGWKH\MXVWUHOD[« Figure 5.37. Household Perception on Impact of Remittances on the Development of Small Scale Livelihood Activities Source: Household Survey, 2015. 5.3.5.5.2 Household Perception on Effectiveness of Remittances in Development Figure 5.38 outlines household perceptions on how effective they felt remittances had been, in facilitating development. Respondents were asked to rank how effective they believed remittances had been in facilitating development. This ranking was done on a scale of one to five, with one being the lowest, and five being the highest. 20 per cent of households ranked the effectiveness of remittances DW µ¶ ZKLOH DQRWKHU SHUFHQW UHSRUWHG D UDQNLQJ RI µ¶ 7KHVH SDUWLFipants believed that remittances had played a pivotal role in development for Rotuma. Respondents cited, WKDWZLWKWKHµKHOSIURP)LML¶SHRSOHFRXOGQRZDFFHVVDJUHDWHUYDULHW\RILPSRUWHG goods and luxuries. The response of one household in the Household Survey (2015) is as follows: ³:HKDYHPRUHIRRGDWWKHVKRSVDQGLW¶VVRPXFKHDVLHUWRFRRNZLWK JDV LQVWHDG RI XVLQJ WKH RSHQ ILUHV OLNH EHIRUH « ORRN DW WKH VFKRRO library, a lot of the books are sent by those in Fiji, who want to help. When the hospital is out of things like wheelchairs, those in Fiji send it WRKHOSRXW,W¶VDKXJHKHOSWKDWLVFRPLQJIURP>PLJUDQWVLQ@)LML´ 40 per cent of participants, were ambivalent, and ranked the success at 3 out of 5. They felt that while remittances did have some positive effects, there were also 137 negative aspects that needed to be weighed. These respondents cited a variety of reasons for this. The loss of the significance of traditional practices, and drastic decreases in the amount of planting and fishing taking place were some of the key negative aspects that were cited. Responses of households in the Household Survey (2015) are as follows: ³:LWKDOOWKHPRQH\RXUWUDGLWLRQDOJLIWVORVHWKHLULPSRUWDQFH%HIRUH for weddings and funeral, you can take mats and animals to help. Now, you need to take money or boxes of corned beef or it will be seen as if \RX¶UHQRWUHDOO\KHOSLQJ´ Another household provided the following response in the Households Survey (2015) with regards to farming practices in Rotuma: ³ Figure 5.38 Ranking of Household Perception on Impact of Remittances Source: Household Survey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