What Is the Emotional Core of the Multidimensional Machiavellian

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What is the emotional core of the multidimensional Machiavellian personality trait? Syrina Al Aïn, Arnaud Carre, Carole Fantini-Hauwel, Jean-Yves Baudouin, Chrystel Besche-Richard

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Syrina Al Aïn, Arnaud Carre, Carole Fantini-Hauwel, Jean-Yves Baudouin, Chrystel Besche-Richard. What is the emotional core of the multidimensional Machiavellian personality trait?. Frontiers in Psychology, Frontiers, 2013, 4, 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00454. hal-01954001

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HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE published: 22 July 2013 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00454 What is the emotional core of the multidimensional Machiavellian personality trait?

Syrina Al Aïn 1*, Arnaud Carré 2, Carole Fantini-Hauwel 3, Jean-Yves Baudouin 1 and Chrystel Besche-Richard 2,4

1 Developmental Ethology and Cognitive Psychology Group, Center for Smell, Taste, and Food Science, UMR 6265, CNRS and 1324 INRA, Université de Bourgogne, Dijon, France 2 Cognition, Santé, Socialisation (C2S) EA 6291, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France 3 Faculté des sciences psychologiques et de l’éducation Unité de psychologie clinique et différentielle, Université libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium 4 Institut Universitaire deFrance,Paris,France

Edited by: Machiavellianism is a personality trait characterized by interpersonal manipulation and Sven-Erik Fernaeus, Karolinska associated with speciﬁc patterns of emotionalandsocialcognitionskills.Theaimofthis Institutet, Sweden study was to investigate its socio-cognitive characteristics by determining its association Reviewed by: and predictors on the basis of a multidimensional approach to Machiavellianism. We used Sven-Erik Fernaeus, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden Mach IV scale to assess “Machiavellian Intelligence” skill of participants (Christie and John Zelenski, Carleton University, Geis, 1970). It includes three subscales that are (1) the use of deceit in interpersonal Canada relationships, (2) a cynical view of human nature and (3) the lack of morality. Associations Erik E. Noftle, Willamette University, were found between Machiavellianism and low levels of empathy and affective ToM, and USA high levels of alexithymia, anhedonia, depression, and anxiety. These associations were *Correspondence: Syrina Al Aïn, Developmental observed in varying proportions depending on thethreesubscalesofMachiavellianism. Ethology and Cognitive Psychology The addition of anhedonia and trait-anxiety to the concepts of empathy and alexithymia Group, Center for Smell, Taste, and made it possible to gain a better understanding of the emotional core of Machiavellianism. Food science, 9E boulevard Jeanne These ﬁndings are discussed in the light of developmental and adaptive perspectives. D’Arc, 21000 Dijon, France e-mail: syrina_al-ain@ etu.u-bourgogne.fr Keywords: Machiavellianism, alexithymia, empathy, theory of mind, anhedonia, anxiety

INTRODUCTION It has also been suggested that Machiavellian individuals Machiavellianism is a concept that has been accorded a grow- have better “mind-reading skills” or Theory of mind (ToM) ing level of interest, especially in the field of personality (Davies and Stone, 2003). In addition, Machiavellian indi- studies (Rauthmann, 2012). People exhibiting high levels of viduals have frequently been characterized in terms of their Machiavellianism (Christie and Geis, 1970)arecharacterizedby detachment and lack of emotional involvement with others interpersonal manipulation, such as the use of flattery and deceit, (Wrightsman, 1991). Their emotional disconnection seems to be as well as by aloof, cynical, and traditionally amoral viewpoints similar to that observed in two emotional deficits: alexithymia adopted in order to promote their own goals/interests (Christie and anhedonia. In addition, the same emotional detach- and Geis, 1970; Fehr et al., 1992; McHoskey, 1995; McHoskey ment has been observed in people suffering from schizophre- et al., 1998; Wilson et al., 1998; Bereczkei et al., 2010). The nia, depression and anxiety disorders (Mennin et al., 2009; Mach-IV scale assesses “Machiavellian Intelligence” competence Demenescu et al., 2010). However, the relationship between of participants (Christie and Geis, 1970). This is a self-report Machiavellianism and emotional deficits has been found to Likert type scale which evaluates three dimensions: (1) the use vary depending on the disorders studied and, at the same of deceit in interpersonal relationships (nine items), (2) a cynical time, the various studies have investigated only a small num- view of human nature (nine items), and (3) the lack of morality ber of disorders, focusing primarily on depressive and anxious (two items). disorders. It seems natural to assume that Machiavellian individuals can The question of the nature of what it is that lies at the easily read the minds of others and understand social situations heart of the emotional impairments associated with the pres- (Davies and Stone, 2003; Czibor and Bereczkei, 2012)whichthey ence of Machiavellian behaviors in a healthy population was can successfully manipulate in the service of their own intrin- addressed in the study reported here in an endeavor to gain a bet- sic motivations (Fehr et al., 1992; Jones and Paulhus, 2009). ter understanding of the characteristics of this multidimensional Consequently, a number of questions have been raised concern- concept. The debate on determination of emotional characteris- ing Machiavellian abilities and their determinants. For example, tics of psychopathology is here applied to the Machiavellianism studies have revealed a non-significant link between this trait and in a dimensional way. We suggest that the infra-clinical approach general intelligence. It has been suggested that this is due to the could help to take into account the facets of Machiavellian behav- specificity of the processes involved in Machiavellianism rather iors and differentiated the cognitive and affective components than to general skills (i.e., such as total IQ) (Wilson et al., 1996; that participate to explain the base of this behavior and its Paulhus and Williams, 2002; Jones and Paulhus, 2009). multidimensional expression.

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MACHIAVELLIANISM, THEORY OF MIND, AND EMPATHY alexithymia, or by an inability to experience pleasure, such as First of all, the empirical data concerning the relation between anhedonia, i.e., deficits that are relatively common in both clin- Machiavellianism and mindreading are subject to some debate ical and non-clinical populations. Alexithymia is defined as the (see Paal and Bereczkei, 2007; Lyons et al., 2010). The ability to absence of the words required to express emotions and feelings deceive others has been positively associated with performances (Sifneos, 1973). In addition, people with alexithymia have (1) dif- on ToM tasks in childhood when false belief tasks were used ficulties in identifying their emotions/feelings, (2) difficulties in (Chandler et al., 1989; Russell et al., 1991)ornegativelyassoci- distinguishing their emotional state from their physical or phys- ated when a faux-pas task was used (Barlow et al., 2010). In the iological state, (3) limited imagination and creative abilities, (4) case of adults, the results are mixed: Paal and Bereczkei (2007) alackofintrospectivecapabilities(Krystal, 1987; Taylor, 2000; found no correlation between Machiavellianism and ToM [using Berthoz et al., 2011; Gumley, 2011). It therefore comes as no acomprehensiontasksthatrequiresmindreadingatdifferent surprise that healthy alexithymic individuals have been found to levels of intentionality (Kinderman et al., 1998)], unlike Lyons obtain high Machiavellianism scores (Simon et al., 1990; Wastell et al. (2010) who found a negative correlation between these and Booth, 2003; Loas et al., 2007)sinceMachiavellianindi- variables [The Imposing Memory Task (IMT) (Kinderman et al., viduals have a dysfunctional connection to their own emotions. 1998; Stiller and Dunbar, 2007)]. Furthermore, some studies have Wastell and Booth (2003) found that Machiavellianism and alex- suggested that Machiavellians are excellent mindreaders (Sutton, ithymia are highly correlated, especially with regard to two com- 2001; Davies and Stone, 2003; Esperger and Bereczkei, 2012). In ponents of alexithymia (assessed using the Toronto Alexithymia addition, the apparent emotional deficit in Machiavellian indi- Scale, TAS): externally orientated thinking (EOT) and difficul- viduals may be indicative of an inability to feel empathy. We ties in identifying feelings (DIF). To date, this model of the link know that Machiavellian individuals exhibit deficits in certain between Machiavellianism and alexithymia has led researchers components of emotional intelligence such as emotion recog- to adopt the concept of “volitional Machiavellianism” in which nition and empathy (see Jones and Paulhus, 2009). Empathy alexithymia causes the lack of empathy (Wastell and Booth, 2003). consists in adopting another person’s point of view in order to The results obtained by Loas et al. (2007) support the view that share and understand other people’s emotions or attribute emo- alexithymia is interlinked with Machiavellianism, in particular at tions to them. This also implies that a distance is maintained the level of the cynical view of human nature it entails. Moreover, between the two speakers in order to avoid confusion between Loas et al. suggested that the association between other dimen- one’s own personal feelings/emotions and those experienced by sions, such as depression or affective blunting (i.e., anhedonia), the other person (Ruby and Decety, 2004). At least the follow- with Machiavellianism should also be studied. ing two components of empathy have been identified: cogni- Indeed, the concept of Machiavellian personality is dominated tive empathy (i.e., recognizing and understanding the emotional by emotional detachment from others and a lack of interpersonal states of others) and affective empathy (i.e., sharing the emo- warmth, a description close to that of alexithymic individuals tional states of others, also referred to as emotional contagion) (Geis, 1978; Fantini-Hauwel et al., 2012). Furthermore, a sec- (Jolliffe and Farrington, 2004). Numerous studies have shown ond emotional deficit, known as anhedonia, has been defined as anegativecorrelationbetweenempathyandMachiavellianism the inability to feel pleasure (Ribot, 1896)accompaniedbythe scores (Watson et al., 1994; Wastell and Booth, 2003; Austin presence of a diminished sensitivity to aversive events (Hardy et al., 2007). However, the results concerning the link between et al., 1986). These emotional deficits are frequent in depression Machiavellianism and the components of empathy (such as affec- and anxiety disorders (Treadway and Zald, 2011). Anhedonia is tive and cognitive empathy) are still ambiguous. Some studies also considered to be factor of vulnerability or a defense mech- have suggested that Machiavellians are deficient only at the level of anism (Chapman et al., 1982; Akiskal, 1992), which could also affective empathy (sharing of emotions), whereas their cognitive be related to Machiavellianism. Nevertheless, to our knowledge, empathy (recognizing and understanding other people’s emo- no study has investigated the relationship between anhedonia and tions using “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” ToM Test) is intact, Machiavellianism. even high [Barnett and Thompson, 1985,quotedinMcIllwain As far as depression and anxiety are concerned, only a small (2003); Repacholi et al. (2003); Richell et al. (2003)]. Conversely, number of studies have investigated the relationship between clin- other studies have reported that Machiavellians are also deficient ical and non-clinical depression and Machiavellianism and the in cognitive empathy and are less able to recognize the emo- results are ambiguous. In a geriatric population, depressed and tions of others, thus indicating that they may not be aware of non-depressed males did not differ in terms of Machiavellianism, the consequences of their acts [Reading the mind in the eyes whereas depressed females tended to be more Machiavellian than test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001; Lyons et al., 2010); facial emotion non-depressed females (LaTorre and McLeoad, 1978). Examining decoding task: (Simon et al., 1990); IRI scale: Laura, 2002, quoted astudentpopulationataMilitaryMedicalSchool,Bakir et al. in McIllwain, 2003]. To summarize, the relationship between (1996) found a positive association between Machiavellianism Machiavellianism, affective empathy and cognitive empathy is still and depression in men only. In contrast, Skinner (1982) found unclear and controversial. no difference between Machiavellianism scores and depression. With regard to anxiety disorders, various older studies have MACHIAVELLIANISM AND EMOTIONAL DEFICITS reported a moderate positive correlation between anxiety and Secondly, Machiavellian individuals might be characterized by a Machiavellianism (Jones et al., 1979; Nigro and Galli, 1985; deficit in feeling and identifying their own emotions, such as Poderico, 1987), whereas a recent study found no link between

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these two dimensions (Ali et al., 2009). In sum, the relationship all obtained at least a High School diploma. Participants were between anxiety and Machiavellianism has been viewed as coun- excluded if they reported any history of head injury, neurolog- terintuitive and it is unclear how this paradox should be inter- ical disease, or psychiatric disorders. These data were collected preted given that both positive (Ramanaiah et al., 1994; Jakobwitz by an in-house questionnaire, and participants had to fill in and Egan, 2005)andnon-significantcorrelations(Allsopp et al., past or present disorders. All successfully completed all the items 1991; Paulhus and Williams, 2002)havebeenfound.Trait-anxiety in all the questionnaires. Informed consent was obtained and is often considered as a unitary concept which underlies the the study was designed in accordance with the Declaration of predisposition to react in an anxious way (Spielberger, 1972; Helsinki. Rudaizky et al., 2012). At the same, one could also hypoth- esize that anxiety, and especially trait-anxiety, takes the form MATERIALS of clusters of negative affects beyond a simple association of Self-report measures anxiety with the emotion of fear (Bados et al., 2010; Corr, Mach IV. Machiavellianism was assessed using the Mach-IV scale 2011). [Christie and Geis, 1970,translationintoFrenchbyRomney Moreover, trait-anxiety could be seen as an awareness of neg- (1979)]. This scale contains 20 items which cover three dimen- ative contexts and consequences. Indeed, Spitzer et al. (2007) sions: (1) the use of deceit in interpersonal relationships (nine pointed out that the neural correlates of social norm compli- items), (2) a cynical view of human nature (nine items) and ance (i.e., prefrontal and orbital cortex, caudate nucleus) are (3) the lack of morality (two items). The participants indicated mobilized more in punishment than in other situations. In their degree of agreement with these statements on a seven-grade Likert-type scale (1 strongly disagree; 7 strongly agree) and addition, participants with high Machiavellianism scores have = = been found to mobilize this neural network more when faced the scores ranged from 20 (Low level of Machiavellianism) to 140 with a risk of repression, and correlations with the activ- (High of Machiavellianism). Cronbach’s a in the current study ity of the orbital cortex are particularly high (Spitzer et al., was 0.69 for the Mach-IV total; 0.51 for the Mach-IV 1; 0.41 for 2007). We hypothesized that the fact that Machiavellianism the Mach-IV 2. appears to be motivated more by a fear of repression than by moral factors could be related to the higher trait-anxiety Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20). The TAS-20 [(Bagby et al., scores. 1994); French version by Loas et al. (2001)]isa20-itemself- To date, only a small number of studies have investigated report questionnaire that provides a measure of alexithymia on the correlation between Machiavellianism and emotional impair- the basis of a three-factor structure: (1) Difficulty Identifying ments, and it is possible that this factor could explain the social Feelings (DIF); (2) Difficulty Describing Feelings (DDF); (3) withdrawal/maladjustment observed in depressed and anxious Externally Oriented Thinking (EOT). Participants are required individuals. to rate their degree of agreement with each item on a five-point Likert Scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). The ISSUES ADDRESSED AND HYPOTHESES score therefore ranges between 20 and 100. Cronbach’s a in the The primary aim of the present study was to examine, in a non- current study was 0.78 for the TAS-20 total score, 0.68 for the clinical population, the association between Machiavellianism, TAS-20 DIF, 0.77 for the TAS-20 DDF, and 0.53 for the TAS-20 affective ToM, affective and cognitive empathy, emotional EOT. deficits—alexithymia, anhedonia, depression and anxiety—in a Snaith–Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS). The SHAPS (Snaith young, general, non-clinical population. et al., 1995;FrenchversionbyLoas et al., 1997)isa14-itemself- We assumed that the Machiavellianism score would correlate report questionnaire used to evaluate physical anhedonia (i.e., negatively with the cognitive and affective empathy scores and inability to experience pleasure). The hedonic physical capacity affective ToM, but positively with levels of alexithymia, depres- (i.e., leisure activities, eating and drink) were assessed on a four- sion, anxiety and anhedonia. point Likert scale (from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”). In order to better understand Machiavellianism, we explored The score therefore ranges between 14 and 56. Cronbach’s a in the the emotional features of each subdimension of the Mach-IV current study was 0.73. scale. Beck Depression Inventory—short form (BDI II—QD-2A). METHOD Depression was evaluated with the BDI II scale (QD-2A short PARTICIPANTS form) (Beck et al., 1961;FrenchversionbyPichot et al., 1984) One hundred and seven native French participants (63 females), consisting of 13 items. Each item comprises four statements cor- recruited from the general population volunteered to take part responding to 4 levels of growing intensity symptoms from 0 to 3. in the study. Participants were recruited via opportunity sam- The total scores can vary from 0 to 39. Cronbach’s a in the current pling from the French general public and students from the study was 0.67. University of Reims and Paris Ouest Nanterre la Défense (students randomly solicited on the University and personal acquain- Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). The STAI tances). They were tested in their homes and classrooms in [Spielberger, 1983;FrenchversionbyGauthier and Bouchard University campus. They were aged between 18 and 30 years, (1993)]consistsoftwo20–itemquestionnaires:thetraitandstate with a mean age of 23.9 years (SD 3.4). These participants had anxiety scales (TAI and SAI). In this study, we used only items =

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from the TAI (STAI form Y-2). Participants reported their level of agreement on a Likert-type scale with the statements: “almost never” (1) to “almost always” (4) and scores ranged from 20 to 80 1. 0 0

points. Cronbach’s a in the current study was 0.89. * 1. 0 0 Basic Empathy Scale (BES). The BES scale (Jolliffe and 0.63 * Farrington, 2006;translatedintoFrenchbyD’Ambrosio et al., * 2009)consistsofa20-itemquestionnaire,ofwhich9itemsassess cognitive empathy and 11 items evaluate affective empathy. The 0.36 . 05

responses were collected with statements on a ﬁve-grade Likert- . 0 12 15 1.00 . .

type scale (from 1 to 5) and the total scores range between 20 < 1. 0 0 0.01 0.33 p −

(lack of empathy) and 100 (high level of empathy). Cronbach’s a * in the current study was 0.78 for the BES tot, 0.69 for the cognitive * 18 0 16 0 19 . . . 1. 0 0 0 0.19 BES and 0.77 for the affective BES. 0 * * Reading the mind in the Eyes Test * 16 16 0 . . 0.45 0 0 0.30 Eyes Test. The Eyes Test (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001)wasused 1. 0 0 0.43 to assess the ability of individuals to identify and attribute * * * * * * significant correlations at emotions to others. Thirty-six photographs of the eye region TAS-DDF, Difficulty Describing Feelings; TAS-EOT, Externally Oriented 0.77 1. 0 0 of the face were shown and each photograph was associated 0.78 with four complex mental state descriptors printed around the picture (one at each corner). One of these words (the target * * * word) correctly identified the mental state of the person in 0.26 0.100.09 0.59 0.22 0.26 0.16 0.29 0.07 0.29 0.19 1. 0 0 − − − − − − the photograph, while the other three were included as foils. − The participants were instructed to choose the word that best * described what the person was thinking or feeling. This task is * * 16 13 . . 0.20 0,12 0.21 0.28 0.02 1. 0 0 0 0 thought to measure cognitive empathy and “pure ToM” (Baron- 0.01 − − − − − Cohen et al., 1997)sincetheparticipantsarerequiredtoattempt − to put themselves into the mind of the person shown in the * * * * * *

photograph, and attribute a relevant mental state to them. 18 . 0.39 1. 0 0 0.43 0.38 0.36 0.24 0.13 0.36 0.17 − − − − − − The test was scored by totaling the number of items (men- − tal states) correctly identiﬁed by the participant. Each correct * * * * * * 07 02 07 0 . . response scores a point, making the range of scores between . 0.33 0.12 0.28 0.33 0.37 0 1. 0 0 0.72 0.91 0 0 − − − 0–36. − − * * * * * * * *

PROCEDURE epression Inventory; STAI-Y-2, Trait-anxiety. Bold values indicate 16 17 . . 0.28 0 0 0.23 0.20 1. 0 0 0.25 0.25 0.32 0.21 0.14 0.24

The test session was conducted in small groups consisting of two 0.05). Mach-IV, Mach-IV scale (Machiavellianism); Mach-IV-I, deceit in interpersonal relationships; Mach-IV-II, cynical view of human nature; − − − − to ﬁve participants. The tests were presented in the following < P * * * * * * * * * * order: The “Eyes Test,” BDI-II, BES, SHAPS, Mach-IV, STAI-Y- * *

2, TAS-20. In the “Eyes Test,” the photographs were presented in 107; 0.33 0.22 0.38 0.36 0.31 1. 0 0 0.45 0.30 0.39 0.17 0.36 0.30 0.23 = − − − the same order in all sessions. All the questionnaires were com- − pleted on paper. Regarding the Eyes Test, thirty-six photographs * * * * * * * * * * *

of the eye region of the face were shown using a computer but the 16 . 0.27 0.35 0.23 0.33 0.12 0.32 0 0.30 0.23 0.30 0.20 0.23 1. 0 0 0.41

answers were reported on paper. − − − − * * * * * * * * * * * * STATISTICAL ANALYSES * * 0.83 0.40 0.31 0.25 0.39 0.25 0.34 0.42 0.84 0.54 0.37 Averages are reported as means (with SD) (Table 1). Pearson 0.27 0.40 0.32 − − − total 1 2 3 total cognitive affective total total DIF DVE EOT total correlations were performed to explore the association between − variables. Statistical significance was set at two-tailed p < 0.05. ) Mach-IV Mach-IV Mach-IV Mach-IV BES BES BES Eyes test TAS-20 TAS TAS TAS SHAPS BDI-II STAI-Y-2 91) 78) 43) 75) 98) 43) 3) 1.00 7) 5) 41) 79) 55) 57) ...... 43) SD Data were analyzed using the Statistica statistical package (ver- . 81 (5 62 (5 31 (2 48 (7 91 (2 91 (2 59 (3 13 (6 64 (1 85 (3 6(4 14 (8 46 (4 77 (4 69 (4) ...... sion 9.0, Statsoft, France). First, we explored the correlations . 3 6 31 41 24 13 78 15 46 71 33 Mean ( 36 43 between the emotional/cognitive variables and Machiavellianism. 17 22 Second, we analyzed the Machiavellianism total score and the three subscales as subdimensions assessed using the Mach-IV, and analyzed the predictors (i.e., affective and cognitive variables) that could indicate the core emotional composition of this particular Mach-IV-II BES affective Eyes Test TAS-DDF TAS-DIF BES total BDI-II Intercorrelations, Bivariate Pearson correlation coefficients (n Mach-IV total Mach-IV-I Table 1 | Correlations amongst Machiavellianism, empathy, affective theory, and emotional deficits. TAS-20 total Mach-IV-III Mach-IV-III, lack of morality; BES, BasicThinking; Empathy Scale SHAPS, total Snaith–Hamilton score; TAS-20, Toronto Pleasure Alexithymia Scale; Scale Difficulty TAS-DIF, (Anhedonia); Identifying Feelings; BDI-II, Beck D BES cognitive STAI-Y-2 SHAPS total personality. TAS-EOT

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RESULTS Table 2 | Predictions of the Mach-IV total score and subscales Descriptive statistics for the emotional and cognitive dimensions amongst empathy, affective theory and emotional deficits scores. for the overall sample are presented in Table 1.Thescoresare Variable B SE B F β R R2 quite similar to those reported in other studies. (FOR MACH-IV-TOTAL SCORE) 0.52 0.27 CORRELATIONS Constant 40.16** 5.37 55.98 Intercorrelations between Machiavellianism, affective ToM, cog- TAS-DDF 0.86** 0.22 15.48 0.33** nitive and affective empathy, alexithymia, anhedonia, depres- SHAPS tot. 0.88** 0.22 16.46 0.34** sion and anxiety calculated using Bravais-Pearson correlations (FOR MACH-IV-I SCORE) 0.47 0.22 are shown in Table 1.Machiavellianismwassignificantlycorre- Constant 36.93** 5.18 50.83 lated with most of the variables, including negative correlations STAI-Y-2 0.19** 0.07 7.28 0.24** with empathy and affective ToM, and positive correlations with BES-affective 0.37** 0.10 13.27 0.33** − − alexithymia, anhedonia, depression, and anxiety. TAS-DDF 0.28* 0.14 4.25 0.19* (FOR MACH-IV-II SCORE) 0.55 0.30 REGRESSIONS Constant 50.63** 8.20 38.17 Step-wise multiple regression analyses were performed in order to BDI-II 0.41* 0193 4.61 0.19* determine which dimensions of emotional functioning best pre- BES-cognitive 0.38* 0.15 6.32 0.23* − − dict Machiavellianism. In fact, this kind of analysis led to identify Eyes Test 0.51* 0.21 6.23 0.21* − − for the total score of the Mach-IV and for each of the subscales SHAPS tot. 0.28* 0.12 4.90 0.21* the differential influence of the socio-emotional factors included (FOR MACH-IV-III SCORE) 0.28 0.08 in the study. Indeed, a regression analysis permits to highlight the Constant 5.20** 0.51 103.27 relative importance of each predictor (i.e., SHAPS, TAS-DIF,...) TAS-DDF 0.11** 0.04 8.76 0.28** and to determine the specific effect of each one because it takes into account the relations between the various predictors entered *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01. Mach-IV, Mach-IV scale (Machiavellianism); Mach-IV-I, in the regression (Howell, 1998). We therefore computed three deceit in interpersonal relationships; Mach-IV-II, cynical view of human nature; linear regressions using as dependent variable each subscale of Mach-IV-III, lack of morality; BES, Basic Empathy Scale total score; TAS-20, the Mach-IV. We also processed an analysis with the total score Toronto Alexithymia Scale; TAS-DDF, Difficulty Describing Feelings; SHAPS, of the scale. We chose a selection method with F > 4andp < Snaith–Hamilton Pleasure Scale (Anhedonia); BDI-II, Beck Depression Inventory; 0.05, that constituted a classical threshold enough restrictive. This STAI-Y-2, Trait-anxiety. permitted to ensure that the selected regressors are not overes- timated and only significant variables are retained (Tenenhaus, Indeed, affective empathy was a predictor of the use of deceit. 1996; Howell, 1998). The total Machiavellianism score appeared Adeficitinthecognitivecomponentofempathyappearedto to be predicted by anhedonia and affective aspects of alexithymia be a factor contributing to a cynical view of humanity. We (TAS-DDF). observed a correlation between Machiavellianism (total score) The use of deceit (Mach-IV-I), a cynical view of humanity and the capacity to identify complex emotions or feelings in the (Mach-IV-II) and lack of morality (Mach-IV-III) were predicted “Eyes Test.” More specifically, these difficulties in mindreading at different levels by anhedonia, difficulties in describing feel- were associated with the cynical aspects of the trait. The results ings (DDF) (DIF and DDF), cognitive or affective empathy and revealed differences between empathy and affective ToM assess- ToM (Eyes Test). This point emphasizes the fact that an exami- ments and consequently suggest a distinction between these two nation of the dimensional aspects of Machiavellianism has made socio-cognitive concepts. The empathy scale corresponds to a self- it possible to show that different combinations of socio-cognitive report that measures an individual’s own assessment of his/her components are involved in Machiavellian traits. ability to identify and understand primary emotions in others The results are presented in detail in Table 2. (i.e., happiness, sadness, anger), whereas the “Eyes Test” evaluates the ability to identify certain complex emotional states. DISCUSSION Evidence in support of this interpretation can be found in the The aim of this study was (1) to explore the emotional character- fact that the correlations between these two concepts were weak. istics of Machiavellianism and (2) to determine which of these Machiavellian individuals may exhibit difficulties in attributing are predictive of the different dimensions of Machiavellianism. complex emotions to others and find it difficult to understand First of all, we found that Machiavellianism was negatively cor- and interpret affective states. This study could also provide addi- related with cognitive and affective empathy. A number of studies tional evidence about the relevance and validity of the Eyes Task. have demonstrated similar results (Barnett and Thompson, 1985; Machiavellian dimensions appeared to be associated with and Watson et al., 1994; Wastell and Booth, 2003; Andrew et al., 2008; predicted by alexithymia (but see Vellante et al., in press). Indeed, Ali and Chamorro-Premuzic, 2010). Consequently, people who the Machiavellian participants found it difficult to identify and are able to feel/share, recognize and understand other people’s describe their own feelings/emotions and were characterized by emotions might have a tendency to inhibit Machiavellian behav- external thinking. The difficulty in describing feelings appeared ior. Difficulties in affective and cognitive empathy were differen- as a predictor of the Machiavellianism and Machiavellian’s traits tially associated with the various dimensions of Machiavellianism. (Mach-IV-I and Mach-IV-III). Machiavellian individuals seem

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to judge human nature more negatively and be more inclined the level of socially desirability could be controlled and more to use duplicitous strategies. These findings are consistent with test measures could be used in this study (e.g., facial expres- previous studies showing a correlation between alexithymia and sions, and physiological responses such as electromyography). Mach-IV (Wastell and Booth, 2003; Loas et al., 2007), as well as In other words, people are prompted to perform Machiavellian between alexithymia and empathy (Davies et al., 1998; Jolliffe and actions in response to their unusual patterns of social cogni- Farrington, 2006; D’Ambrosio et al., 2009; Carré et al., 2013). tion, and other assessments could be able to underline it in a The correlations between the externally oriented thinking stronger way. Despite this, they act as a function of the conse- (TAS-EOT) component of alexithymia and the Mach-IV total quences they risk and of which they are aware. Their level of score or subscales could refer to a concrete and logical mode negative affectivity, which is underpinned by their trait anxiety, of thought which does not take account of emotional reactions. would lead them to act if the feedback and negative consequences Nevertheless, the general Machiavellianism score appeared to be were limited (Spitzer et al., 2007). Another possible limit con- predicted by difficulties in describing feelings. This observation cerns the dimensionality of the Mach-IV: Rauthmann (2013) emphasizes the emotional impairments present in Machiavellian noted that “the dimensionality of the Machiavellianism construct persons. is also conceptually unclear” (p. 388). This author suggests to Second, anhedonia was also found to be positively associated use a new short-version of the Mach-IV, the MACH*, based with Machiavellianism and negatively associated with empathy: on five items exploring cynicism and misanthropy (Rauthmann, people who find it difficult to feel physical pleasure should there- 2013). Finally, we suggest being cautious with the current anal- fore be more Machiavellian and less empathic (at the level of both yses, and suggesting that further studies should be conducted cognitive and affective empathy). To date, no study has addressed with larger samples sizes and therefore with a better account of and investigated this question. Increased levels of anhedonia were colinearity. found to be associated with trait-anxiety as well as with difficulties in cognitive empathy, affective ToM and in describing CONCLUSIONS feelings, and also seemed to be related to cynicism. This finding To date, no study apart from the one reported here has could be seen as proof of the emotional difficulties that lead to used this type of tool to investigate the relationship between Machiavellian behaviors. Machiavellianism and emotional deficits. The results show that In addition, state-depression and trait-anxiety scores were there is a negative association between Machiavellianism and also found to be positively correlated with Machiavellianism (affective/cognitive) empathy and affective ToM, and a posi- scores. In accordance with our hypothesis, the individuals with tive association between Machiavellianism, levels of alexithymia, high scores for depression and/or anxiety symptoms obtained anhedonia, depression, and anxiety. The results of the predictions high Machiavellianism scores. Trait-anxiety, which reflects neg- suggest that statistical tools should be used as part of a dimen- ative affectivity, was a predictor of the Mach-IV-I subscale. This sional approach (i.e., regression) in addition to the category result, which emphasizes the relationship between temperamen- analysis tools. tal anxiety and Machiavellianism, could reflect an awareness of Moreover, our results emphasize the role of these different negative consequences. This point could help highlight differ- emotional components in vulnerability to Machiavellian traits. ences between the “Machiavellian mind” and other personalities Future research should investigate clinical and non-clinical pop- and disorders considered to be related to social maladjustment ulations suffering from depression, schizotypal personality dis- (Spitzer et al., 2007). orders or schizophrenia in order to evaluate the potentially However, we have to be cautious about these interpretations aggravating impact of emotional deficits on Machiavellianism. as this study has used mainly self-questionnaires. Some partici- This type of study could lead to the development of accu- pants might communicate, consciously or not, some information rate evaluation systems and appropriate therapeutic support which is socially acceptable or consensual, instead of true infor- and care as a function of the socio-emotional profile of mation about their personality. Thereby, an assessment about the patient.

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