Searching for May Maxwell: Bahá’Í Millennial Feminism, Transformative Identity & Globalism in the New World Order

Searching for May Maxwell: Bahá’í Millennial Feminism, Transformative Identity & Globalism in the new World Order Shaping Women’s Role in Early Bahá’i Culture 1898-1940 A Thesis Submitted to the College of Graduate Studies and Research in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, SK, Canada By Selena M. Crosson © Copyright Selena M. Crosson, June 2013. All rights reserved. PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis/dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of this thesis/dissertation in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis/dissertation work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis/dissertation or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis/dissertation. DISCLAIMER Reference in this thesis/dissertation to any specific commercial products, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the University of Saskatchewan. The views and opinions of the author expressed herein do not state or reflect those of the University of Saskatchewan, and shall not be used for advertising or product endorsement purposes. Requests for permission to copy or to make other uses of materials in this thesis/dissertation in whole or part should be addressed to: Head of the Department of History University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5A5 Canada OR Dean College of Graduate Studies and Research University of Saskatchewan 107 Administration Place Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5A2 i ABSTRACT Searching for May Maxwell: Bahá’í Millennial Religious Feminism, Transformative Identity & Globalism in the new World Order (1898-1940) This dissertation demonstrates that a group of western women connected to May Maxwell through ties of faith and friendship exemplified a distinct form of early twentieth-century feminism in their adoption and promotion of the transplanted Bahá’í Faith. In actualizing their doctrinal principles, they worked to inaugurate a millennial new World Order predicated on the spiritual and social equality of women. This group championed a unique organizational structure and transnational perspective that propelled them to female leadership, both as inspirational models and agents of practical change. By examining how Bahá’í doctrines shaped the beliefs, mythologies, relationships and reform goals of women, this dissertation broadens understandings of the ways in which religion can act as a vehicle for female empowerment and transformative identity. Together, western early Bahá’í women built individual and collective capacity, challenging gender prescriptions and social norms. Their millennial worldview advocated a key role for women in shaping nascent Bahá’í culture, and initiating personal, institutional, and societal change. Their inclusive collaborative organizational style, non-western origins and leadership, diverse membership, and global locus of activity, made them one of the first groups to establish and sustain a transnational feminist reform network. Although in some respects this group resembled other religious, feminist, and reform-oriented women, identifiably “Bahá’í” features of their ideology, methodologies, and reform activities made them distinctive. This research contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the role of women in the creation of modern religious and social mythologies and paradigms. A study of Bahá’í millennial religious feminism also expands current conceptions of the boundaries, diversities, and intersections of early twentieth-century western millennial, feminist, religious, and transnational reform movements. KEYWORDS: ‘Abdu’l Bahá, anti-racism, Canada, community, early twentieth century, Esperanto, education, female friendship, first-wave, France, history, Iran, Montreal, myth, Oriental, Persia, religion, Amatu'l-Bahá Rúhíyyih Khánum, Shoghi Effendi, social reform, transnational, women. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to warmly acknowledge the insightful guidance and unfailing support of my supervisor, Dr. Valerie J. Korinek. I am also very appreciative of my excellent advisory committee, comprised of Dr. Lesley Biggs. Dr. Christopher Kent and Dr. Mark Meyers of the Department of History, as well as Dr. Sandra Beardsall, Cognate Member from St. Andrew’s College, University of Saskatchewan. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Dr. Lynne Marks of the University of Victoria, who acted as my outside examiner. I will miss the ongoing cheerful assistance of the History Department staff, Linda Dietz, Nadine Penner, and Ingrid McGregor. The library staff has also been very helpful, especially in processing my many requests for interlibrary loans. I am indebted to Dr. Will van den Hoonaard of the University of New Brunswick and to Dr. Lynn Echevarria of Yukon College for their support and enthusiasm. This study has built upon the ground-breaking work they have done in documenting the Canadian Bahá’í community. Thank you as well to Dr. Donald B. Smith of the University of Calgary for his generosity, and to Dr. Jim Miller of the University of Saskatchewan for teaching me both Canadian history and perseverance. Thank you also to Bruce Filson and Janet Nattress for their timely assistance. I very much appreciate the research assistance offered by archivist Ailsa Hedley Leftwich and the staff at the Canadian Bahá’í Centre in Thornhill, Ontario; archivists Roger Dahl and Lewis Walker at the National Bahá’í Archives of the United States in Wilmette, Illinois; Dr. Richard Virr and Anne Marie Holland at McGill University Archives in Montreal; the staff at the Harriet Irving Library, University of New Brunswick Archives in Fredericton, New Brunswick; and the ongoing support of the Bahá'í World Centre in Haifa, Israel. I would like to thank the University of Saskatchewan, the Department of History, and the Canadian Federation of University Women, for the financial and scholarship assistance they provided for research, study, and travel to carry out this project. Thank you to Dr. Michael Peterman, Dr. Michelle Lacombe, and Dr. Margaret Hobbs of Trent University, to Otto Donald and Barbara Rogers, and to Richard Doyle, who set me on this path. Finally, a special heartfelt special thanks to my PhD colleagues, Colleen Krushelinski and Meagan Gough, two strong and beautiful women who truly understand. iii DEDICATIONS: This dissertation was written for May Maxwell and that intrepid band of early Bahá’í women who blazed a trail for those of us who have followed, and the ever-growing, ever-evolving global Bahá’í community that they helped to “birth.” I am grateful to have been in the warm embrace of my home Saskatoon Bahá’í community while this dissertation was being written. I dedicate this dissertation to my patient, much-loved husband, Randy Gray, and Bahá’í sister- buddy, Sharon Rose, without whose trust, unfailing support, and daily encouragement this project would never have come to fruition. To Valorie Whetung and Deborah Bjerke Tiwari, old friends of my heart, thank you for always believing in me. I also dedicate this dissertation to my dear parents, Inez Crosson, and Francis & Audrey Crosson; my amazing children, Travis, Lindsay, Kenton, and Adrian Doyle; and all the other precious family members and friends who have walked this long and winding path with me. I am very thankful for the love, assistance and encouragement you have always offered, even when you didn’t understand why this was important to do. I offer this dissertation as a tribute to my (and all) children and grandchildren, who know they can accomplish whatever goals they set. You are the future of the world and will build the foundations of the new World Order. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS PERMISSION TO USE & DISCLAIMER i ABSTRACT ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii DEDICATIONS iv TABLE OF CONTENTS v CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 2. ORIGINS: TRANSFORMATIVE FEMALE BAHÁ’Í IDENTITIES 34 CHAPTER 3. A NEW PARADIGM: BAHÁ’Í MILLENNIAL RELIGIOUS FEMINISM 69 CHAPTER 4. OPERATIONALIZING THE NEW WORLD ORDER: BAHÁ’Í MILLENNIAL REFORM 110 CHAPTER 5. MYTH (& COUNTER-MYTH): HEROES, MARTYRS, MOTHERS AND SAINTS IN THE “NEW WORLD ORDER” 159 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION 194 BIBLIOGRAPHY 199 v CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION The emancipation of women, the achievement of full equality between the sexes, is essential to human progress and the transformation of society.1 1. OVERVIEW: May Maxwell, a new World Order & Bahá’í Millennial Religious Feminism In the early twentieth century, a small group of women connected to Mary (May) Ellis Bolles Maxwell (1870-1940), through their shared membership in a new, non-western, spiritual movement, engaged in a wide-ranging transnational feminist reform enterprise. They were some of the earliest western-born followers of the Bahá’í Faith, an “Oriental” religion originating in mid-nineteenth

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