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AUTHOR Hyman, Julia E. Labor and Practice in . Bureau of Labor Statistics (IDOL), Washington, D.C. I REPORT NO BLS-R-390 PUB DATE 72 NOTE 78p.

EDRS PRICE MP-80.65 HC-$3.29 DESCRIPTORS Cultural Factors; Economic Factors; *Employment Practices; *Foreign Countries; * Resources; Industrial Relations; *Labor Force; Labor ; *Labor ; Labor Unions; ; Social Factors; Wages; Working IDENTIFIERS *Denmark

ABSTRACT This publication was prepared to provide background material for U.S. businessmen and others who be employing local workers in Denmark, and labor specialists, consulting economists, and students. Incicded is a discussion of: (1) manpower resources and geographic, political, economic cultural, and social factors, (2) the Danish and legislation affecting labor, (3) labor and management and industrial relations, and (4)-employment conditions, including employment practices, working hours, benefits, wages, workmen's compensations, social insurance, and employee cooperatives (SB)

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gr ...if.-- , U S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION ii`, Labor THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO- Law DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORIG. INATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR - IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU- and Practice CATION POSITION OR POLICY 2in DENMARK

REPORT 310 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR James C. Hodgpon, Secretary BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Osoffrvi H. Moe, Consmariseer

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For sale by the of Documents,U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402Price 704 This report is one ofa series prepared in the Division Conditions, Bureau of Labor of Foreign labor Statistics. The series istiutendedto provide background material forU.S. businessmen and employing local workers others who may be abroad, trade union andlabor specialists,con- sulting economists, andstudents. The report alsowill be useful to persons concerned in more generalways with labor in foreign countries. Source material used to prepare the studyincluded information gathered in by theauthor, U.S. Foreign tions of the Government reports, publica- of Denmark and of tradeunion and management organizations, and otherprinted sources. Mostof the research completed in ; was a limited amount of additionaldata sub- sequently became availableand has been incorporated. This report was preparedby Julia E.. Hyman, Special the Division Chief. Assistan+ to

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DI i Contents

P.I. Part I. The Country and itsworkers 1 Chapter I. Geographic, political, andeconomic factors Geographic setting 1 Political history and government 1 The national Chapter IL Cultural factors 6 Ethnic and linguisticgroups 6 Chapter III. Social factors 6 The of the society 7 Education 7 Living conditions 12 Health conditionss Women and children 18 Chapter IV. Manpowerr 14 15 Population and labor supply_ _ ..... _- National service system 15 21 Special characteristics of thelabor force 22 Part II. Government and labor ,- 23 Chapter V. Government_ _ Public administration 23 28 Administrative bodies concerned withlabor 23 Participation in internationalorganizations Chapter VI. Legislation affecting 25 labor 26 Constitutional guarantees Summary of basic labor legislation 26 Enforcement 27 Part III. Labor and management 80 Chapter VII. Labor and managementorganizations Labor organizations 30 International ties SO Management organizations 32 33 ChapterVIIL -Industrial-relations 86 Collective bargaining_ _ _ . _ Settlement of disputes 86 Relations in nonunion enterprises 88 40 Part IV. Conditions of employment . _ _. _ 41 Chapter IX. Employmentpractices Records and reports 41 41 Contents--Continued

Pam Part IV. Conditions of employment--Continued Preemployment inquiries Hiring Notice periods and separations Disciplinary actions Chapter . Hours of work and premiums Hours of work Nightwork Overtime premium Paid leave Periodic rest day premium Holiday premiums Chapter XI. Wages and supplemental payments Base pay Supplemental payments Withholdings and deductions Pay changes Travel and transportation expenses Total compensation and costs Pay period frequency Chapter XII. Health, safety, and workmen's compensation Health and sanitation Safety conditions and required precautions Accident and occupational disease compensation Chapter XIII. Social insurance and employee cooperatives General social insurance system Other insurance and retirement systems Employees cooperatives

Appendix: A. ILO Conventions Ratified by Denmark as of January 1971-- 67

Selected bibliography 68

Tables: I. Number of wage earners, value of production and value added by , of manufacturing establishments, 1968 4 2. Population and labor force, by age and sex, /May 1970 _ 17 8. Labor force by branch of economic activity and industry, April -29;1970 4. Structure of the economically active population, 27, 1965 19 5. Labor force by occupation and sex, , 1965 20 6. Labor force by class of worker and sex, September 26, 1960, and April 29, 1970 20 7. Labor force by class of worker and industry or occupation, April 29,1970 21

vl ContentsContinued

Paw 8. Membership of the Danish of Labor, 31, 1969 31 9. Average hourly earnings for adult workers inselected indus- tries, - 51 10. Average hourly earnings in various occupations andindustries, 1969 52 11. Average money-wages of agricultural employees,1969-70 and 1970-71 53 12. Average wages in manufacturing industries,.-1969 56 Charts: L Danish school system and percentages ofage group in attend- ance, 1967-68 9 2. Distribution of the labor force by branch of economicactivity, 1950,1960, and 1970

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PART L THE COUNTRY AND ITSWORKERS

Chapter L Geographic, Political, andEconomic Factors

Geographic Setting feet above , and the highest pointis only about 500 feet About 90 percent of The Kingdom of Denmark, excluding Green- Jut- land and 99 percent of the landareas are land and the Faroe ,* occupies 16,600 in productive use. square miles, an about twice the sire of The country has a temperate maritimecli- the of . It is madeup of mate with comparatively cool almost 500 islands and the peninsula of Jut- and mild , despite its northerly latitude. Itis land (Jylland), which constitutemore than very windy; prevailing westerly winds blow two-thirds of the total land area and hasa across the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, 42-mile land frontier with to and moderate the temperature. Cyclonicstorms the south. The most important of the islands with winds frequently stronger than47 knots are: (Sjaelland), with an area of 2,912 sweep across the Atlantic in all and square miles; Funen (Fyn), 1,344 square are responsible for pronounced day-to-day vari- miles; Lo Hand, 495 square miles; Fa later, 198 ations in the weather. Overcast skiespredom- square miles; and , 227 square miles, inate and the air is humid in all months. which is some distance to theeast and almost The climate has little effecton work attendance equi-distant between and . and performance, except for that resulting The country's water boundariesare the from on the west, and its respiratory illnesses, whichare prevalent be- arms, the cause of the high humidity and lack ofsun- Skagerrak and the Kattegat, which separate shine. (See Health Conditions.) northern Denmark from and Sweden, The population stood at about t9 millionin respectively; a very narrow strip, the Sound 1969-70. Population density (Oresund), which lies between Zealand was thus about and 300 persona per square mile,or less 'than half the southeretip, of Sweden; and the Baltic that of (643 including Sea to the southeast. West ) and about one-fourth less thanthat Because of its pivotal position linking the of East Germany (408 including East Berlin), populous of continental to Nor- but slightly more than Poland (278)and way, Sweden, and-, Denmark has long several times that of the neighboring Scan- been an important commercial center in north- dinavian countries, Sweden (47) and Norway ern Europe. Its geographic location and its (81). Denmark's population is close ties with the other Scandinavian countries a little greater than that, of the State of Massachusetts,so have led to some migration of workers,the that its population density is about halfthat most significant movement being of Danish of the New State. workers to Sweden, wherean average of The capital of (14benhavn), about 19,000 were working in 1967-70. by far the most important business andcom- Denmark is a low-lying country and hasa mercial center, has, with its suburbs,a popula- fiat or undulating landscape. Only about 1per- tion, cent of the land area rises tomore than 800 of about 1.4 million, or over 25 percent of the total population. Five other metropolitan oreenlund and the Faroe Islandsare not covered areas have over 50,000 inhabitante : Arhus, in in this study. eastern Jutland; , in Funen; Alborg-

1 Norresundby and , in northern Jut- among the political parties, to make up for the land; and , in western Jutland. number of votes cast for them and under- represented by constitutency . The parlia- Political History and Government mentary year begins on the first, Tuesday in October. Formally the session lasts the en- At one time Denmark ruled the of north- tire year. Usually, however, during some per- ern Europe and controlled allof present-day iods no meetings are held; the Folketing re- , England, and parts of Germany. cesses for several months every . A series of wars led to the loss of England The sovereires consists of a prime (1042), Sweden (1523), Norway (1814), and and a variable number of other min- finally the of Schleswig, Holstein, isters, who are generally members of the poli- and (1864), though in a 1920 pleb-tical party or coalition commanding a legisla- iscite North Schleswig became s part of Den- tive majority. No minister may remain in of- mark. became a kingdom in union with fice after the Folketing has passed a vote of no Denmark in 1918, but dissolved the union in confidence in him. A minister occasionally may 1944. Denmark recognized Iceland's im- head more than one ministry. In February mediately after of War H. 1972 there were, in addition to the prime min- Denmark is a constitutional . The ister, 18 other ministers, heading up the fol- reigning sovereign since ,1972, has lowing ministries : been Queen Margarethe II, born in 1940, who Ministry of succeeded her father King Frederick IX, on Ministry of Affairs his after 25 years on the throne. Ministry of Commerce Legislative power is vested jointly in the Ministry of Cultural Affairs and the (Foiketing); execu- Ministry of Ministry of Economic and Budget Affairs tive power in the sovereign, who exercises it Ministry of Education through his ministers; and judicial power in Ministry of Finance the . The office of , based Ministry of Fisheries on the Swedish prototype, became operative in MhihAry of Foreign Affairs 1955. (See Constitutional Guarantees.) Ministry of Foreign Economic Affairs, European The division of power among the three Market Relations and Nordic Affairs Ministry of branches of government is not absolute. The Ministry of Housing ministers, who in practice constitute the ex- Ministry of Interior ecutive power, are almost members of Ministry of the Folketing, and therefore share in passing Ministry of Labor legislation as well as in proposing it. The min- Ministry of Social Affairs isters present most of the bills to the Fotket- Ministry of , Communications, and En- vironmental Protection ing; every member of tire Folketing, however, has the right to propose a new . In order to The administrative work of the various min- acquire validity, all acts passed by the Folk- istries and is carried out in con- sting must be signed by the sovereign and junction with decentralized administration in countersigned by at least one minister, but the country's different : 2 communes the ministers have sole responsibility for gov- (komminer)Copenhagen and ; ernment decisions. 14 (amtskommuner) s; and about 800 The Folketing, which has been unicameral since 1953, is elected no less frequently than boroughs (primaerkommuner), which are sub- every 4 years, by direct, secret balloting of divisions of the counties.' Each runty is headed Danish citizens aged 21 years and over. Two ' See frontispiece map. of its 179 members are elected in the Faroe ' The system was reorganised effec- Islands and two in Greenland. Of the remain- tive April 1, 1970. Before that date, Denmark was ing 175 members, 185 are elected by propor- divided We 89 boroughs (k0Ostawisr) and townships, and 25 authorities (antskommunar), the latter tional representationin 124 constituencies. subdivided into over 1,800 authorities (woo; The 40 "supplementary" seats are divided kontmouw). The tiny, densely poulated commune of

2 by a (andniand) ; Copenhagen, in- (iiiiiesteret). Some legalcases may be decided cluding Frederiksberg, by a Chief Prefect at a lower level thana regular (or "establish- (overpraesident). All of these officialsare ap- ed") or before formal proceedingsam- pointed by the and are re- mence in the regular court. Minor offenses, sponsible directly to the Minister of Interior, such as traffic violations,may be disposed of by although they also perform duties forother officials, the procedure beinganalogous ministries, e.g., the Ministry of Justice and to that in police courts in the . the Ministry of Social Affairs. Appointed for Lower Courts may hearcases on from an indefinite term on the recommendation of police courts, but are primarily trialcourts the _Cabinet, they supervise the work of the of first instance involving penaltiesof lesi than local civil servants and make decisions 8 years' imprisonment and not of sucha minor number of cases concerning legal matters. In nature as to be heard by police courts.They each of the three types of , the also exercise first instance jurisdictionin minor populace elects a council or governing body, civil .cases. There aremore than 100 judicial which in turn elects its chief (burg- in Denmark, each of which hasa lower omaster or ) : overborgmester (in Co- court with one or more legally trainedjudges. penhagen), andsbortniester (county),or berg- There are two High Courts---theEastern wester (borough and Frederiksberg commune). in Copenhagen withjurisdiction The anduand and overpraesidentserve. as over the islands, and the Western High-Court, nonvoting members of the respectivecoun- at Viborg, with jurisdiction cils. over the of Jutland. These courts have originaljuris- The county councils meet four timesa year. diction in major civilcases and in all criminal Their duties include: levying , preparing cases involving a possible penalty of 8 years' a budget, making appropriations, scrutiniz- imprisonment or longer, and hear appealsfrom ing the work of paid county officials,super- the lower courts. Theyare the only Danish vising administration of , buildingand courts using the system (12 jurors).In maintaining highways (largely financed all involving serious offenses,including by county funds), and supervising thebor- political , a jury is required eughs, particularly in the purchase by law; in or sale of other cases a three- panel decides.In jury public , borrowing ofmoney, or any trials a "' vote byas few as eight jurors unusual increase in the local rate. The is sufficient for conviction: borough councils evaluate , deter- The consists of15 member mine individual ability topay taxes, collect , at least 5 of whom must national income and property taxes, administer participate in each cue and all 15 in extremelyimportant relief and social legislation, and superviselocal instances. education affairs, the building of local roads, In addition to the regular courts, there and the preparation of voter lists for localand are national balloting. also a Labor Court (see Settlement of Dis- putes), a Maritime and Commercial Court, The country is divided into 72 policedis- and several other specialized courts. tricts, each headed by a Chief Constable,who also serves as the public prosecutorat the local court. His duties include issuance oftrade li- The National Economy censes and administration of trade laws, and duties in connection with the buildingauthor'- Denmark has one of the most highly de- ties, the fire-fighting services, andconscription. veloped among the small countries The regular court system has threeechelons : of the world. Its , according the Lower Courts (Underretter),the High to most indexes, is among the highest in Eu- Courts (Landtsretter), and the SupremeCourt rope. This prosperity is based on an advanced industrial development, efficient agricultural Frederiksberg (about 102,750 inhabitantsin8.886 production, and well-functioning social andpo- square miles) has for years been completely surrounded litical institutions. Its development intoa mod- by Copenhagen commune but has beenallowed to re- ern industrial state with a diversified and dy- tain its local elected administration. namic economy, in the face ofan almost com- plete lack of industrial raw materials and fuels, TAILS 1. NUMBER OF WADS EARNERS, VALUE OP PRO - has come about through wise utilization of in- DUCTION AND VALUE ADDED SY MANUFACTURING, OF MAJOR MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS, 1968 vestment capital since II. By 1969 the gross national product (GNP) (Values Is tailor. of Danish kroner had risen almost 25 percent above the 1964 Value of prothictioa Number Value level, to the equivalent of US$14 billion at cur- Imiesta of wags 01111111111 Total Pereest prices. The 1969 per capita GNP in Den- vase Amountof total mark was the equivalent of US$2,860 (cf. value US$2,850 per capita national income), well All lairstrlas M5.117 40.870 18,4114 45.2 Food 10.642 24.5 abovetheaverageforWesternEurope Beserase 1.1411 66.8 Tabasco 804 (US$1,870 for the Organization for Economic Textile 1.7118 41.5 and Sothis, _- 1,527 48.7 Cooperation and Development member - Wood artieleo 511 51.7 54.2 ries of Europe) and higher than for most non- FaxPaper 1.125 45.8 PrIatles Mad oublIelthat -- - 2,674 Communist countries of - Leather sad Nadler products - 02U 1 41.5 Rubber Ai the (US$1,970), the Nether- Clustleal 45.5 OE sad awl modals 111.6.8/575 21.1 lands (US$2,190), (US$2,360), West Store. elar. auralglass 1,887 Kari 1.011 Germany (US$2,520), and Norway (US$2,530) Metal 46.511.116 sadsad WO touristy - - 5.8 -but considerably below that in Sweden Mettrical seselise 2,286 5L11, Trassport outImmest 51.1 (US$3,490), which had the highest per capita Illiotellassors 1.540101 11.0 GNP in Europe. In 1968, the latest date for HotaMINimeeds urpley(rot 6 wage turrets or more. which information is available, manufacturing DWIET...1100.14L provided over one-fourth (28.2 percent) of to- SOURCE: U.S. 1bakasw. Cassabas's. JIM 4. 1071. tal GNP; government services (14.9 percent) and trade (13.5 percent) were in im- earners or more), theirnumbers of wage earn- portance, as shown in the tabulation below: ers, and gross value of productionand value Pereast added by manufacturing in 1968. An sabre 1400 Danish industry is mainly the creationof free enterprise, and the great majorityof the Aortas Kau Formers sad SAW .7 industrial establishments are owned by private Maims aril gumming individuals and . In the early 1960's, Mututoetertits Gmetrretior about one-third were limited liability compan- Sm, oral water sot ies, and these were responsible for about two- Transportation artreentrariestler ILO . Intim& aril trail 14.5 thirds of total industrial employment. Rankles. Issurarse. sad real L0 Most industrial enterprises when measured Dwane lip if duellists Li Goversatert oarMeas 14.11 by number of employees are relatively small. Mlsoellersora wriest 4.5 The average number of employees is 100,and * Imo then 11 percent. half the industrial labor force Ark is in es- tablishments of this size or smaller. In the Danish industrial production covers a wide early 1960's, the largest enterprjseemployed range. Most of the highly specialized manu- about 8,000 workers, and only 20 employed facturing industries depend upon imported raw over 1,000 workers each. In1965 the size of materials. This is particularly true of the larg- 6,764 industrial establishments was as follows: est single group, the metal and metal process- Pease asiesame,,t. of We ing, and machine industries, which provided Mismier of mesknues eutokiatort about 28 percent of the total manufacturing Number Percad output in 1968. However, the second largest Total .0,764 IWO 180.5 27.5 IN or mere 115 1,4 group, the , depends mainly on IN 4.2 20.8 600-40 111.8 1110-1110 458 LS domestic raw materials. The expansionary 50-00 877 111.0 14.7 147116 20.7 trend in chemistry, electronics, and other forms 1,26$ 1MIAL5 2.8 (Leostitert0-0 10 of advanced production requiring considerable capital , is noteworthy. Table 1 shows About three-fourths of Denmark'stotal land the distribution by industry of the major - area is devoted to agriculture.The country is ufacturing enterprises (those having six wage almost entirely self-sufficient agriculturally,and

4 its surplus agricultural production, bothproc- Denmark has a relatively large volume of essed and unprocessed, accounts for aboutone- foreign trade ; about 25 percent of totalGNP third the total value of exports. Although agri- is exported. In 1968, food productsaccounted culture accounts for less than 10 percent of the for about 84 percent of totalexports of GNP, highly intensive cultivation and theap- US$2,575 million f.o.b.; fish, another 4per- plication of artificial and natural cent. Industrial products provided 59 percent, to the land produce yieldsper acre of , with machinery (20 percent) leading inthis , and thatare among the highest cate.nry -"her important industrial exports in the world. Danish farms also turn outcon- v te218 and pharmaceuticals, textile siderable quantities of root crops, other grains, pi ..4; metal manufactures, and . By and grass. Nevertheless, additional amounts of 1970 agriculture's share in exports hadde- imported feedstuffs are needed for livestock dined to 25 percent.Imports, valuedat production, which in 1967 accounted for 90 US$8,200 million c.i.f. in 1968, consistedpri- percent of the total estimated value (DKr9.5 marily of raw materials and semimanufactured billion) of all vegetable and animal production. products for domestic industry and An estimated 98 percent of all farms agricul- are pri- ture. The principal imported commodities vately owned and 95 percentare operated by were their owners. About 85 percent of the country's machinery and equipment (about 17percent farms are under 25acres, but large holdings of the 1968 total), solid fueland bring the average size to 48acres, larger than products(11percent), motor vehicles(5 the average for any other Western European percent), base metals (8 percent), chemicals country except England. Danish farmsare (9 percent including fertilizers),textiles (8 becoming fewer and larger despitean 86-acre percent), timber, grain, feedatuffi, andoil- size limitation imposed by the Governmenton seeds. Although about 80 percent of Denmark's farm mergers. trade is with European countries, the United Denmark ranks third among the nations of States ranks fourth among its tradingpart- Europe in fishing, and fifthamong the na- tions of the world in fish exporting. ners, as shown below in percent of value of exports and imports in 1968 and 1970: Denmark has excellent transportationand communications systems. Inland goods trans- mimes I:spits is fairly evenly distributedamong rail, INS 1111 11100 ION road, andbuter transport, although the biggest West Osman, it 11 11 t5 Swede. 16 18 It xi share, including practically all short hauls,is 17411 Endo= 14 14 81 11 WW1 states 1 by road; this share is increasing. During1980 t 11 I 68 the number of automobilesrose by about one and one-third, trucks and vans by about Denmark has had large annual trade deficits half, and buses and coaches by one-third,so over the put decade. Substantial increases in that although railroads adequatelyserve the industrial exports have been insufficient to country's economic needs, increasingtraffic is nance increasing imports resulting fromex- straining the capacity of the highways.Den- panding consumption and investment. The sit- mark's telecommunications facilities satisfythe uation is in some measure helped by earnings requirements of the Government andthe pub- from shipping, travel expenditures, and other lic for telephone, telegraph, andbroadcast serv- invisibles but not enough to preventa recurring ices. payments deficit.

5 Chapter II.Cultural Factors

7 t .iic rnd Linguistic Groups ical Lutheran Church. About 1 percent belong to other Protestant Christian denominations. Th.. Danish population is racially and cul- The state officially recognizes nine churches turally homogenous. About 99 percent of all other than the Evangelical Lutheranthe Ro- are of Nordic racial stock, descended man Catholic (27,000 members in the early from wandering Germanic tribesAngles, Sax- 1960's), the Reformed, the Baptist (12,000 in ons, and Daneswho settled in Denmark dur- 1968), the Methodist (5,000 in 1968), and the ing the first centuries after Christ. The only Jewish (6,000 in the early 1960's), and in significant non-Danish minority are the appro- Copenhagen the Churches of England, of Swe- ximately 30,000 persons of German origin, most den (2,100 in 1968), and of Norway, and the of whom live near the German frontier, in Russian Orthodox. The ceremonies performed . They are permitted to have by the clergy of these nine have the same legal their own schools and churches. validity as those of the , which Danish, the , belongs to the is not true for denominations such as Jehovah's East Scandinavian group of Germanic langu- (12,000 members in 1968), Pente- ages. It is so closely related to Swedish and costal (5,000 in 1968), Seventh Day Advent- Norwegian that natives of these three Scandi- ists (4,000 in 1968), and other, smaller con- navian countries, without special training, can gregations. Probably no more than 15,000 per- read all three languages, and albeit with some sons have no religious affiliation. In spite of difficulty can even converse with each other, the large memberships, however, only about 7 each speaking in his own language. There are percent of all Danes attend church regularly. many dialects of the spoken Although most church members are apathetic in the various parts of the country, but the toward formal religious participation, over influence of communications is bringing three-fourths of all Danes have their children about a uniformity of usage Oa pronunciation. baptized and confirmed in the church, and the Although the various dialects can be under- large majority of weddings and funerals are stood by all Danes, they are distinct enough church ceremonies. for most Danes to "place" a person through The supreme authority of the churchcon- his speech. trary to the intention of the Both English and German are taught to a rests with Parliament' The state administers considerable degree in the schools. (See Edu- and supervises the affairs of the Evangelical cation.) The average Dane, however, has no Lutheran Church through the Ministry of knowledge of English or is limited to a few Church Affairs. The Ministry levies the state basic English expressions, although a number tax on communicants for the maintenance of of Danes, including businessmen, government thenationalchurch and recommends the officials, and professional people, are quite fluent amount of direct state support that is granted in English and many others have some pro- annually for the purpose by Parliament. In fis- ficiency. A few officials and some other more cal 1965 the Ministry collected DKr142 mil- highly educated persons speak French. lion (US$20.6 million) by direct taxation, and Parliament granted it another DKr71 million Religion (US$10.8 million). The Ministry indirectly in-

The Constitution guarantees freedom of re- ' The Constitution provides that the constitution of ligious worship. While church and state are the National Chuich shall be settled by law. "This was legally separate, "the Evangelical Lutheran meant to indicate a relatively independent , with Church is the national , and Church representation and constitution. Later, the as such is supported by the state." As in other provision was interpreted, contrary to its spirit, as meaning that the affairs of the National Church should Scandinavian countries, the overwhelming ma- be settled by legislation. Thus in reality Parliament has jority or abotit 97 percent of the Danish pop- become the supreme ecclesiastical authority."Den- ulation associate themselves with the Evangel- mark, an Official Handbook, p. 213. I fluences all other denominations by determin- larly in northern Europe, is a well-developed ing which ones will be recognized bythe state sense of social responsibility or civic conscious- and therefore receive tax support (fromits ness, and the way was paved in the 19th cen- communicants) and direct state . An aspir- tury for the extension of social justice and a ant religious body must fulfill the constitu- national climate of opinion favorable to the tional requirement of- not being at variance evolution of the in the 20th cen-. with and public order, musthave an tury. Emphasis on the comprehensive social "adequately educated clergy," and mustpro- welfare programs so successfully instituted in vide reasonable assurance that it will bea the Scandinavian countries has proved com- permanent organization. In spiritual affairs patible with the almost equal emphasis placed the national church has no real head. The bish- by Protestants on self reliance. ops, who also appoint the deans in their dio- There are few known social antagonisms in ceses upon recommendations of the pastors, do Denmark stemming from religious beliefs. Open make rulings but these often donot anti-Catholic sentiment is rare, although sus- acquire official status as church doctrine. The picion of the papacy and of the Roman Catholic clergy of the national churchare civil servants. hierarchy may linger among older Danes; not- A millenium of exposure to and withstanding the marked advances. of ecu- over 400 years of pervasive, unchallenged ex- menicalsentiment.Anti-Jeviishfeelingis posure to Lutheran Protestanism have strongly not apparent. The small Jewish element is influenced the culture, outlook, and behavior of completely assimilated into Danish life and the Danes. National attitudes thatappear to there are bitter memories of the Nazi German stem at least in part from the Protestant occupation force and its largely unsuccessful Christian ethic are belief in providence, in the efforts to--round up, deport, or execute the essential worthiness of personal industry, and entire Danish Jewie h population. These efforts in a desire for material improvement.Fre- were foiled with the help of the Danish popu- quently identified with , particu- lation.

Chapter TM' Social Factors

The Nature of the Society riers persist, although the classes are not well defined nor are antagonisms between them pro- Danish society is among the least hierarchi- nounced. cal of all nations. Most of the population is Recognized factors determining social status incorporated in an amorphous middleclass. The leveling of the society has are education, professional attainment, wealth, come about in family, and occupation. Conforming to the Eu- part because of the welfare state, which init- ropean pattern, intellectual attainment and self is a reflection of the Danishcharacter, with its accent on tolerance, accommodation, membership in respected occupations are more and significant in fixing class status than is wealth. group interest, and its extreme aversion to For example, a teacher is accorded greater sta- strong forms of competition anddependence. than is a skilled laborer, even though Extensive social welfare legislation,a tax struc- the income of the latter may be higher. The ture which restricts high incomes,increased most common avenues for the penetration of industrialization and education, andtrade union class barriers are professional pursuits in the activities have contributed to thenarrowing of the spread between income school system, the , politics, and groups. Both the . lack of wealth within the country and the high Danish society is composed basically of the taxes required for the social welfareprograms three usual major categories: (1) The upper limit the accumulation of wealthby an indi- class, consisting of the , whose legal vidual. Despite the foregoing,some class - prerogatives- were abolished in 1849, wealthy

7 businessmen, large-scale farmers, and a sprin- Penned ofsogray kling of doctors, , and higher civil ser- Grade istingted ego 110T-13 Ida 1-7 7-11 100.0 111.0 vants, constitutes less than 1 percent of the 1 14 11.0 04.0 population. (2) The middle class accounts for 1 16 77.0 16.0 10 10 40.0 17.0 over 85 percent; it includes within its three U 17 12.0 14.6 basic subdivisions (upper middle, middle, and 12 11 10.0 12.6- lower middle) the great majority of profes- sional people, skilled workers, and independent The basic framework for child education con- farmers. (3) The small lower class, largely sists of a 7-year primary school ; voluntary confined to unskilled workers and farm labor- eighth, ninth, and 10th year classes; and ers, accounts for the remaining 14 percent. Gymnasium, -preparatory secondary edu- Members of the lower middle and lower classes cation. Children receive the same basic edu- are more class conscious than their counter- cation through the fifth grade. Beginning in parts in the United States. Intermarriage be- the sixth and continuing through the seventh tween members of the lower class and those grade they may enter either the nonacademic above is not common. Although there is at ("a"-line) track or the academic ("b"-line) least as much social mobility in Denmark as track, or may remain in the undivided continua- in most other highly developed western societ- tion program ("c"-line), which most of them ies, opportunities for advancement are still do. (See chart 1.) fewer than in the United States. In the eighth, ninth, and 10th classes, in- The extent to which some vestiges of class struction follows one of two patterns : (1) One consciousness remains characteristic of most follows the nonacademic, "a"-line track; in- Danes is reflected in the widespread use of struction is given in occupationally slanted as 'Amities, even in ordinary conversation. The well as general subjects. A number of optional continuance of the monarchicalinstitution subjects also have been introduced along with and royal entourage, although essentially a uni- the compulsory ones, partly to facilitate the fying symbol, also may reflect popular ac- transition to practical work in a subsequent oc- quiescence in an older hierarchical order. Some cupation for those pupils who lack either the de- class ,consciousness is reflected also in telephone sire or the ability to study further. One special directory listings. As in Sweden, the title or line of instruction leads up to a technical pre- occupation is listed before the given name. paratory examination which gives access to Consideration is being given, however, to con- short technical courses. (2) Those pupils on version to the strictly alphabetical pattern the "b" or "c" line whom the schools consider customary in most other countries. suitable may go on to the examination divi- sion ("realefdeling" or "real" classes) ; on ter- Education mination school-leaving examination is taken. Passing this examination enables a pupil to Denmark has a literacy rate of over 99.9 advance to various forms of , percent. Since 1814, education has been com- and also is required for a number of positions pulsory for children between 7 and 14 years. in adult life. After completing primary school, most young Admission to Gymnasium normally takes Danes continue their education for another place after the first 2 years of reaktfdeling and 2-8 years beyond the compulsory period. Al- is determined partly by results of special - though matriculation still falls off sharply there- ten tests in Danish and mathematics and partly after, the proportions of childien attending by recommendations of the realafdang con- postprimaty classes at all levels have been in- cerning the pupil's aptitude for Gymnasium creasing rapidly. In 1988-44 only 8 percent of instruction. Admission also may take place the 18-year-olds and 80 percent of the 14-year- olds were still in school. By 1967 -68 these per- after completion of a third year in a fee/Wal- centages had increased to 10 and 91 percent, ing. Gymnasiums provide a continuation of gen- respectively, and by 1969, to 12.5 and 94 per- eral instruction but are divided into various cent, respectively, as shown in the following lines. In the first year the program is divided tabulation: into two main lineslanguage and mathe-

8 _AL AN, _Al a matics ; for the 2d and Sd years of instruction seeks employment in occupational fieldscover- the language line is further split into modern- ed by the courses. Training is normally availa- languages, classical languages, and , and ble to persons over 18 years of age, although the mathematics line into mathematics-physics, in some instances persons under 18may qual- natural science, and civics. Throughout-the- 3 ify. Applicants are given an allowance equal years about half of all lessons are common to to the insurance benefit they both lines. would receive if they were eligible for such Adult and regular school education exist assistance. Workers who leave their jobs to by side. Folk high schools, agricultural schools, take up such training are givenan additional and home economics schools are voluntary, non- 50 percent of the unemployment insurance bene- vocational schools for general adult educa- fit, but in no case can the benefit equal more tion: In 1967-68 and 1968-69 about 12,000 than90percent of the worker's earnings. students were registered each year in these As with the apprenticeship program, train- schools. ing of unskilled workers is largely the responsi- Vocational training is extensive in Denmark. bility of the major employer and worker organ- The two major programs are the training of izations. Overall responsibility for administra- apprentices, leading to certification as journey- tion of the program rests with a 15-member men, and the training of unskilled workers Training Board, composed of a chairman and for the acquisition of skills designated as seven representatives each of employers and "semiskilled." workers. Branch committees for each trade, The Apprenticeship Act of 1956 guarantees composed of an equal number of employers' both labor and management a decisive influence and workers' representatives, examine training in the training of apprentices. A joint com- needs and establish the necessary coursework. mittee composed of four representatives each of Currently, 200 courses are given, covering 74 the Danish Employers' (DEC) occupational fields. In1967-68,the total num- and of the Danish Federationof Trade ber of trainees was estimated at 11,000-1%000; Unions (LO) has.been set up for each of about many take more than one course. 160 trades. Each committee draws up plans, In addition to this program for unskilled which include the number of apprentices to workers, a similar program is offered for skil- be accepted each year, and length of the ap- led workers who want to learn about the latest prenticeship. The various trade committees are developments in their crafts. Courses for about under the authority of an autonomous Ap- 30 trades are available to persons over 18 years prenticeship Council, also composed of employ- of age. In1967-68,a total of 5,500 persons er and worker representatives. The Appren- took advantage of such training. ticeship Council, in consultation with tWe joint The 1969 Retraining Act is aimed at helping committees, establishes the training regula- those in need of "occupational readjustment." tions. Such persons must be (1) unemployed, (2) The apprenticeship period, usually of 4years, likely to become unemployed, or (8) forced by is spent primarily on the , but increasing technological and occupational developments to emphasis is being given to off-the-job full- change their occupation wholly or in part. time training in schools and other formal in- The act applies particularly to "self-employed structional institutions for periods lastingas persons in agriculture or retail trade who have long as 6 months. Indentured apprentices num- to give up their trade or buziness owing to the bered about 23,200 in 1968, and technical trend of developments," as well as to persons schools were training some 52,810 apprentices who want to re-enter the labor market after in 1968-69. several years' absence. No data on the number The Vocational Training Act of 1960was of trainees in the program have yet been pub- designed to provide the type of vocational lished. training for unskilled workersas might be re- The higher education system includes two quired in the light of technological develop- major universities, the state - supported Univer- ments and labor market conditions. Training sity of Copenhagen, which was founded in is available to any person who is employednr 1479, and the University of Arhus, which was

10 1

inaugurated in 1928 as a college and achieved technical in aim, geared primarily to students full university status in 1934. The latter is a who wish to work in production and operation. semiprivate institution; its constitution and Study at all three institutions is divided into are subject to the approval of brancheschemical, electrical, construc- Ministry of Education and it is heavily sub- tion, and mechanical engineering; entrancere- sidized by state funds. Both are "complete" quires passing a "university entrance examina- universities and ea*. has five : theo- tion, mathematics-physics line, or equivalent logy, , medicine, ." (the humanities), and mathematics-natural Advanced technical education is also provid- sciences. To meet the growing demands for ed by nine engineering schools (Teknika) lo- higher education, a third university, the Uni- cated throughout the 'ountry(at Alborg, versity of Odense, was established in 1966; Arhus, Copenhagen, Ejsberg, Elsinore, Haslev, it has colleges of medicine and of the human- , Odense, and Sonderborg), which con- ities. Supplementing the three universities are fer the diploma oftechnological' engineer 12 important specialized colleges or institu- (teknikumingenior); graduation is based on a tions of higher learning, each covering a parti- final examination at the end of 3 years of cularfield,such asdentistry,pharmacy, study. Entrance requirements into one of the engineering, economics, library science, fine five branches of studyelectro-, building, me- arts, music, etc. Enrollment and graduates of chanical engineering, production, and tech- these 15 schools in 1969-70 were as follows: nologyare some practical training, and either Enrollees Graduates an entrance examination or the university University of Copenhagen 21,907 1,101 entrance examination with mathematics. The University of Arhus _ _ _ . 9,1818 447 practical training may consist of either appren- University of Odense .... 908 9 Technical College of Denmark. 2,971 379 ticeship training in a relevant subject or 1 Danish Engineering Academy of year's attendance at a workshop school followed Copenhagen 1.216 220 Danish Engineering Academy of Alborg Ng 57 by 15 months of Practical experience. Enroll- Royal Veterinary and Agricultural ment in 1969-70 was about 4,400; graduates College 1.494 219 Dental College of Copenhagen IN 121 numbered 917. Dental College of Arhus 496 77 There is a wide range of other technical Danish School of Pharmacy 697 99' Copenhagen School of Commerce and training courses at many levels and in many Resins' Economics 4,979 898 specialized subjects at two technological in- Arhus School of Commerce and Business ZOIMOITACII 1,04 SOS stitutes (teknologiske institutter), in Copen- Royal Academy of Fine Arts 1,992 3 103 and Arhus; at technical schools (tek- Royal Academy of Musk SO2 63 Jutland Academy of Music 149 13 niske skoler), which in 1969-70 numbered 55, 2 All in . in all areas; and at some other specialized Doctoral degrees were granted in 1969-70 by schools. "They include courses for advancing the Universities of Copenhagen (35), Arhus an already achieved technical level, leading up (15), and Odense (3) ; the Technical College to authorization examinations; training in su- (4) ;the Royal- Veterinary and Agricultnral pervisory work; work study; management College (5); the Dental College of Copenhagen training; etc...." In 1969-70 the institutes (2); and the Danish School of Pharmacy (2). provided day or evening courses, ambulant The Technical College grants a diploma of courses, vocational lectures, or correspond- civil engineer (oivilingenifir) after satisfac- ence courses, to 87,588 enrollees. The technical tory completion of a 5-51 /2 year program of schools train building constructors; building, study, and since 1953, a degree of technical electronic, chemical, laboratory, and engine (licentiatus teckdcus) to civilen- technicians; and laboratory assistants. Enroll- gineers who haie completed a piece of scienti- ment in these courses in 1969-70 was 16,825 fic research and passed special tests ina spe- students plus 50,134 apprentices; graduates cially arranged 2-3 years' course of study. The numbered 2,305. Certification usually requires two Engineering Academies confer the title of satisfactory completion of 20-60 weeks' train- academy engineer (akad,etniingeni#r) after a ing plus 1 year or more of practical training 3 1/2-4-year course; instruction is distinctly before or during the course.

11 A large number of other schools and insti- gas cooking facilities, about 91 percent had tutes serve students who attend for less than flush , and about two-thirds had baths 4 full years (in many cases much less). They and central heating, as shown in the follow- specialize in various fields and in most cases ing tabulation : grant certificates or diplomas. The fields of Metric or cooking Rusk Central specialization include teacher training, physical faellittee Baths Wets /matins education, brewing, home economics, midwifery, AD Denmark 00.7 th.4 01.0 I14.7 and social work. Copenhaan 93.9 07.0 11.0 Other urban areas* U.* 97.1 76.4 Living Conditions Dural arms 03.1 U.0 70.1 01.1 s Having more than 1,000 Inhabitants. The average Dane is well clothed, well fed, and well housed. He spends approximately 10 Although considerable building has been percent of his income on clothing and foot- done since World War II (so that their facili- wear and 25 percent on food. Quality of cloth- ties are fairly modern), almost 25 percent of ing, which consiits largely of woolens, is very all dwellings are over 70 years old. Of the good, and the quantity available to the average 1,578,400 dwellings in 1965, 62.3 percent were Dane issufficientfor the fairly frequent built before 1941; 24.5 percent were built dur- changes that are customary in this sanitation- ing 1941-60, and 9.7 percent during 1961-65. conscious society. In average daily caloric in- Data are not available for 1966, but during take (3,330 in 1964-65) and percentage of 1967-69 a total of 188,900 new dwellings were food that is of animal origin (44 percent), completed and 61,800 were under . Denmark ranks second only to About 3.5 percent of the dwelling units in among the best fed countries in the world. 1965 were of one room; 772 percent had two- In variety and excellence of cuisine, the Dane four rooms. Some 75.4 percent in Copenhagen comes as close to the favored Frenchman as were apartments,primarily of two-three any other European. He eats more rich foods rooms, compared with 45.9 percent in other , butterfats, and cheesethan any of his urban areas. In rural areas, the three-four Scandinavian neighbors. Consumption of room single-family house predominates; 41.8 and fish, , , and eggs has been rising, percent of the dwelling units in 1965 were primarily at the expense of products and farm houses and 49.8 percent were one-family potatoes. Under Danish law vitamins must be houses. About 47 percent of all dwellings in added to widely used and inexpensive foods 1965 were owner . such as margarine, oatmeal, wheat , Houses generally are made of concrete or and and wheat . Although the Danish ; wood is scarce and normally is used only diet contains liberal amounts of vegetable for trim and decoration. Thatch is still used starches and animal proteins, it is relatively for roofing on some rural houses. Local au- low in green vegetables and fruits. thorities are empowered to prevent slum de- Denmark has been considerably more success- velopment and are required to have a ful than most other European countries in plan regulating the type and use of buildings overcoming the housing shortage caused by and building density. An attractive feature of World War II. Although the Dane spends less the larger Danish urban areas is the garden than 15 percent of his income on housing, his , featuring, on the outskirts of town, accommodations in terms of number of persons summer cottages with small cultivable plots of per room, electricity, and bathing and ground. facilities are the best in Europe, except for Although Denmak has handled its housing . The number of persons per dwell- shortage much better than most European ing in 1965 was estimatedat2.98. The countries, a marked shortage still remains, cre- number of persons per room averages less ated in large measure by the migration of farm than 1. Urban and rural electrification is virtu- workers and their .,families ,to urban centers. ally . According to an official 10-per- The shortage ii especially pronounced for young cent sampling of the 1965 census data, practi- couples, who are often forced to pay rent out cally all urban dwellings had either electric or of proportion to their earnings.

12 Transportation and communications factors by cancer in 1968. Among this age group the pose no serious problems regarding workers' numbers and proportions of deaths from heart attendance or performance. Public intra- and disease and arteriosclerosis increased from 27 inter-urban rail and bus service is frequent percent in 1967 to 29 percent in 1968 for and of high standard, and fares are low. The males, and from 12 percent to 14 percent for traditional is increasingly giving way females. to motorized transportation, and overloaded Approximately 97 percent of the population streets and highways result in some incon- receive hospitalization and medical benefits as veniences during rush hours. In 1967-68 there members of societies; the was one private automobile for each 5 mem- other 3 percent, for various reasons, have elect- bers of the population, one bicycle for each 2.5 ed to forego free and medical services. persons, and one motorcycle for every 85 per- (See General Social Insurance System.) The sons (cf. one for every 40 in 1960) ; one tele- Danish National Assistance Act of 1960 au- phone for each 3.2 (cf. for every 2 in the United thorizes medical service for every citizen who States), a ratio exceeded in Europe only by is unable to provide for himself. Medicalcare Sweden, Switzerland, and Iceland; and one facilities,adequately staffed with qualified radio for every three and a TV for every four medicalpersonnel,aredistributedevenly persons. throughout the country, and sufficient medical supplies are readily available. Each county has Health Conditions available to every citizen one or more general hospitals within easy traveling distance. Most The health of the Danish worker is generally hospitals are run by local municipal and county good. Most epidemic-prone diseases have been authorities, but they often receive state sup- eradicated. However, the maritime climate, port. In 1966-67 there were 269 hospitals, high relative humidity, and lack of sunshine sanitoria, , and homes. These contribute to a comparatively high incidence had a total of 46,061 beds, or about 9.6 beds of respiratory illness and are unfavorable for (cf. 8.7 in the United States in 1965) per persons subject to asthma and rheumatism. 1,000 population, distributed as follows: Common colds, influenza, and other respiratory Numbs,. of Number of illnesses, the most common diseases, result in melts some worker absenteeism and lowered work Total 141 41.111 performance. Throat infections, according to General hospitals 124 20.001 official statistics on diseases reported by doc- Private clinks 5 24 Infirmaries . 74 2.021 tors, usually lead the list (with 207,529 cases Tuberculosis . etc. 40 1.412 reported in 1968), followed by acute respira- Mental beepltals . 12 10.118 tory illness (202,882) and influenza (175,644). Nuroins booms In Copenhagen- - 2 1.724 However, influenza is of greater seriousness to persons of working age: Approximately 60 Denmark is well supplied with , percent of the influenza cases in 1988 were whose medical education is of high quality. among persons age 15-64, compared with 40 The Universities of Copenhagen and of Arhus percent for throat infections and 20 percent each has a medical college, and several of the for acute respiratory illness. The 1968 hospitals in these two are teaching hospi- for all three illnesses were considerably higher tals associated with the universities. In 1967, than the 1968-67 averages (excluding 1965, physicians numbered 6,825, or about 1 physi- for which no data are available), although the cian for each 706 persons (cf. 1:671 in the incidence of influenza was well below the United States in 1965), one of the world's 290,000 reported in 1962 and the 205,089 for highest. Over half were employed by hospitals, 1966. about one-third were general practioners, and As in other highly developed countries, the most of the rest were divided equally between principal causes of death are heart and cir- specialists in private practice and doctors en- culatory ailments and cancer. In the working gaged in scientific, administrative, social, or age group, about 27 percent of all male deaths preventive work. To become a specialist re- and 48 percent of all female deaths were caused quires 6-10 years of postgraduate training. No

18 general practitioner and very few specialists subsidized by national and local authorities in private practice have hospital privileges. The and run either by the local authoritiesor either treats the patient in his office charitable foundations or by employers,free or refers him to the hospital, where the staff mothers of young children from the responsi- physician takes over. Dentists in 1967 num- bilities of child care during the workday.The bered 1,840, or about 1 for each 2,625 persons number of job opportunities forwomen has (cf. 1:1,786 in the United States in 1965). been increasing, although Danish employers The 's two dental colleges in Copen- in general still tend to think thatmen perform hagen and Arhus in 1967-68 and 1968-69 had better than women and some occupationsre- a combined annual enrollment of about 1,300 main closed to females. Women stillare dis- students, and graduated over 190 a year. Most criminated against in terms ofwages and doctors and dentists speak English. salaries (although Denmark has ratified the Hospital nurses numbered 14,235 and public 1951 ILO on Equal Remuneration); health nurses 498 in 1967. A totalof types of occupations, training opportunities, were employed in the 114 municipal and county and even labor union attitudes. Unions actual- hospitals. In the mid-1960's .Denmark had 32 ly negotiate separate rates ofpay for males and hospital nursing schools approved by the Na- females; the separat.c. is accentuated by the tional Health Service, plus a postgraduate existence of a Women's General Workers Union. school of nursing education at Arhus Univer- However, women are becomingmore aware and sity. Midwives numbered 604 in 1967. They more assertive in their role in the economy are trained at a special school in Copenhagen, and the society. Their demandsare growing a state institution over 200 years old, which for better jobs and job opportunities, for better usually has an enrollment of just over 100, pay, for improved training, and for improved and graduates about 30 each year. The 3-year child-care facilities, the quantity and quality training course includes practical experience of which varies considerably. in hospital wards. Approximately 31 percent. of the 1969 female labor force were in administration and thepro- Women and Children fessions, over half of whomwere employed Although Danish society is traditionally pa- in the health service and social welfare in- triarchal, with the 's role preferably stitutions. About 15 percent were in otherserv- confined to the home, approximately 35 per- ice industries; 21 percent in manufacturing cent of all females, and over 45 percent of those (over half in textiles, clothing, and footwear, ; age 14 years and over, are now economically and in food, beverages, and ); 19 per- active. Females constituted close to 38 percent cent in commerce (mostly in retail trade); of the estimated 1969 labor force. About 45 8 percent in agriculture; and 4 percent in percent of all married or separatedwomen were transportation and communications. In several economically active; about 60 percent of all occupations females outnumber males. Exclud- working females are or have been married. ing all "assisting wives," in 1969women con- Although most of the economically activemar- stituted 98-100 percent of all seamstresses, ried women worked outside the home, about char workers, telephone operators, and book- 14 percent of the total female labor forcewere binding workers; about 87 percent of both "assisting wives," mostly wives of independent health (practically all nurses and dental tech- farmers or tradesmen assisting their husbands nicians) and catering personnel (waitresses, in their businesses. About 4 percentwere self- kitchen workers, etc.) ; 66 percent of all clerical employed, 46 percent were salaried employees, employees; and 52-53 percent of all teachers, and the remainder were wage earners. shop assistants, and photographers. Increased , the high cost of the Legislation prohibitsthe employment of welfare state, and the simple desire for greater children under age 14 who have not completed material wealth, have promptedan increasing their , except after school number of women to enter the labor force. In for no more than 2 hours, as messengers, in addition, a growing number of creches,nurs- delivery service, or in other light work (Law eries, and , many of whichare No. 226 of June 11, 1954, as amended). Pro-

14 tective legislation for minors is extensive. No employer is required by law to assure, and to person under 18 may work from 6 p.m. to 6 pay for, a medical examination for him. If the a.m., with a few exceptions, such as in the young person is retained in a particular job, baking, dairy, and service industries, and to the physician's certificate must be cleared by some extent in agriculture. the district inspector. The overall policy of the Danish Government In 1965, of the 486,220 young people age 14- is to foster the education of all young people 19, a total of 280,520 (including 24,520 female to the maximum of their ability and desire to domestic servants and unpaid family helpers), acquire useful education. Over the years many or 58 percent, were economically active. Of ha* been nade to increase com- the 412,577 age 15-19, a total of 270,555, or pulsory education beyond the present 7 years 65.6 percent, were economically active, so that to the eighth, ninth, and even 10th years about 10,000 children age 14, or slightly less and toincrease the minimum age of em- than 14 percent of the children in this age ployment from the present 14 years to 15 or group, were in the labor force in 1965. The 16. Solid resistance has been met from the 1965 data show a drop from 1960, when 70.9 farm bloc, but according to some predictions percent of persons age 15-19 were economically the change may be forthcoming in the early.active, and later data indicate a continuation 1970's. In the meantime, it is the policy of of this downward trend. On the basis of the the Government to provide protection to pre- 1965 census data, the Danish National In- adult workers with regard to their physical stitute of Social Research reported that of the and psychical well-being, not only in the form young people age 14-20, some 42 percent were of various restrictions on the number of hours full-time students, 20 percent were working worked and kinds of work for which young full time, 28 percent were receiving appren- people can be used, but also in guaranteeing ticeship or on-the-job training, and the remain- free time and special holiday benefits. Within ing 10 percent were engaged primarily in house- 4 weeks of engaging a person under 18, the work.

Chapter IV. Manpower Resources

Population and Labor Supply the four counties (amtekommune) of Viborg, RingkObing, Ribe, and Silderjyllands had only The population in 1970 was estimated at 128-168 persons a square mile. Copenhagen and about 4.9 million. Average annual growth over Frederiksberg communes (kommune) together the past two decades has been at a rate of about, had a density of over 20,479 inhabitants per 0.7 percent, one of the lowest in Western square mile. (See accompanying map.) Europe. Denmark, like other Scandinavian countries, The population is largely urban. Approx- has a relatively high proportion of older people. imately 62 percent live in cities and , (See table 2.) The population has aged con- including their suburbs. In 1965 (latest data siderably over the past three decades, as a re- available), about 55 percent of the total popula- suit of declining birth rates and better health tion resided in towns and cities with popula- care for older people. Probably no more than tions of over 10,000. Over one-fourth (1.4 8-10 other countries have as large a percentage million in 1968) live in Copenhagen and its (12.2 percent in 1970) of their populations suburbs. Other important urban areas are in the group age 65 years and over, and even Arhus (191,506 inhabitants in 1968), Odense fewer have as low a proportion (28.8 percent (154,454), and Alborg (129695). in 1970) of children age 14 and younger. Populatioh densities are highest in the north- At the beginning of 1970, Denniark had eastern third of Zealand, and lowest in western 1,018 females for every 1,000 males. The num- and southern Jutland, where, in April 1970, ber of males exceeds that of females in all

15 DENMARK

POPULATION DENSITY per square mile, 1970 128 163

EaD 190 223 263 320

428 486

3,032

20,135'

ICepennegen and Fredenksberg kommunes

V16040 tit

tY RINOKOSINO

RISE

SONDEILMIANDS

16 TABLE 2. POPULATIONAND LABOR FORCE, BYAGE AND SEX, APRIL-MAT 1970

Labor forte Population (in thousands) Age group Number ( in thousands) Percent of age group Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total. 4.920.9 2.442.6 2.478.3 2.389.8 1.469.3 920.5 48.1 60.2 17.1 Under 5- 389.4 199.9 189.6 6-9 390.3 199.6 190.7 -..------10-14. ._ _ . 367.3 188.3 179.0 _ 16-19 372.1 191.0 181.1 20-24 1.3 76.3 45.2 48.7 41.6 417.3 214.7 202.6 319.3 175.2 144.1 76.1 26-34 671.4 81.6 71.1 342.5 328.9 542.0 236.8 205.2 882.00.7 913 62.4 15-44 _ 664.4 281.4 283.0 461.5 279.3 134.2 594.1 993 66.1 293.2 300.9 443.6 277.8 186.7 78.0 94.7 11.7 545-546-64 552.0 267.0 285.0 343.8 227.1 106.7 62.8 65-74 387.4 87.4 174.6 212.3 89.4 70.1 19.8 23.1 40.1 9.1 75 and over 216.2 90.4 124.8 NOTE: Population figures are for May 1 : labor force. for April 29. SOURCE: Denmark, Danish Statistical Office. Statistik etrbog 1971(Statistical Yearbook 1971). pp. 42, 43, and 62.

5-year age groups up through that age 30-34 TABLE 3.LABOR FORCE BY BRANCH OF ECONOMIC AC- years; females outnumber males thereafter. TIVITY AND INDUSTRY, APRIL 29, 1970 As of April 29, 1970, the labor forcewas an lin thousands) estimated 2,389,800, or 48.6 percent of the Branch of economic activity and industry Total1Male Female population, compared with 47.1 percent in 1965 All industries 2,310.81.419.3 920.0 and 45.0 percent in 1960. The increase in the Agriculture, fishing. and 266.5 111.6 74.0 Agriculture 211.0 147.8 mu rate of labor' force participation5 Fishing 11.0 12.4 .1 results pri- Foreetry and other agricultural. marily froin the fact thatmore and more fe- efirviLes 41.5 81.8 10.2 Manufacturing 700.8 507.0 193.8 males are entering the labor force. The parti- Food. beverages, and tobacco __ . _ 114.2 69.7 44.1 Textile. clothing. and footwear - . 71.1 11.6 61.5 cipation rate of women increased from 27.9 Wood, , and 64.8 46.6 8.0 Paper, printing, and publishing _ 57.5 119.9 17.6 percent in 1960 to 30.8 percent in 1965, and Tannery and chemical 81.1 16.1 10.1 I Stone, Mai, and Mass 29.9 16.2 4.7 to approximately 37.1 percent in 1970. The Iron and metal products 182.5 150.8 81.7 Transport equipment 84.6 79.4 L2 male labor force participation rate,on the Other. including-public utilities 67.1 47.11 193 Building and construction 206.1 194.4 12.2 other hand, declined over the 10-year period, Commerce 878.1 2003 178.0 Wholesale trade 111.1 ELS 82.2 from 63.7 percent in 1960 to 60.2 percent in Retail trade 100.2 81.4 106.8 Financial institutions. insurance, 1970, primarily because of lower ratesamong andrealproperty 69.8 86.3 1143 Transportation and communication _ 117.1 112.7 14.6 those age 15-.24, who were continuing their ed- Railways, tramways. and buses 26.7 21.1 8.1 Hatcerntractor, messenger ucation longer. 87.4 81.2 1.2 Shipping, loading, and unloading. - 29.2 27.1 1.1 As the pattern of the economy has changed, Telephone. post, and telegraph service 48.2 26.9 11.1 marked shifts have come in the distributionof Other transport services 21.8 16.9 5.9 Administration and professions .... 104.8 194.1 110.7 the labor force by branch of economic-activity, Public administration. pollee, and the most notable being the growth armed forego 105.1 68.4 U.S (from 10.4 Education, libraries, and church - 181.9 60.1 773 Health service, social welfare percent in 1950 to 27.9 percent in April1970) Institutions 200.9 29.1 171.1 Other professional activities 611.0 16.5 21.1 in the proportions engaged in services,and Other services 111.5 44.7 111.8 Entertainment, . and the decline (from 27.0 percent in 1950 to11.1 restaurant 16.8 11.8 11.0 percent in 1970) in those in agriculture. Other services 06.2 13.4 77.3 (See Cenory4n64 Awlnet ple.whreAsseApel 20.5 11.6 1.9 chart 2.) In 1970, about 504,300, or almost 76 SOURCE: Denmark. Danish Statistical OSA, Stead& Arbeg uri percent, of the 665,800 engaged in serviceswere (Statistical Yearbook 1971), p, in public administration and theprofessions, especially in education, health, and welfare. The occupational structure of the labor force Iron and metal products manufacturingin- also reflects the changing pattern of the eco- dustries employed about 26 percentofall nomy. The trends apparent from data for 1960- workers in manufacturing in 1970, followed 65 (latest available) have undoubtedly con- by food, beverage, and tobaccomanufacturing, tinued. The most significant of these is the with 16 percent. (See table 3.) unusually high growth rate in the numbers of professional, technical, and clerical workers, `The labor force participation rate is thepercentage of the population or ofa segment of the population that and the decline in the number of farmers. By is economically active. 1965, clerical workers accounted for 10.5 per-

17

cent, and professional, technical,and related TABLE5. LABOR FORCE BY OCCUPATIONAND 810t,SEP- workers for 9.5 percent ofthe labor force, as TEMBER27, 1985 a result of 30-percent increases in their num- Occupation bers. However, the largest Total Male Female segments of the Persons employed in trade and labor force were still the Industry group classified as Self employed 2,198,6291,481,575711,054 craftsmen, In agriculture 403.975 311.501 42,474 production-process workers, and In gardening 161,401 157.341 6,060 workers not elsewhere classified, In fisheries 7,635 7,214 321 -which con- In manufacturing 5,120 5,107 28 53.924 49,281 4,688 tinued to comprise about 32percent (despite an In building( and construction 29,454 In wholesale trade 29,275 179 increase of about 47,000in their numbers, In retail trade 15.196 14,514 2 or In transport 59,636 46.506 13.48130 about 10 percent), and thefarmer, fisherman, In professions 15.332 484 In other service industries 2c18,7842as 18,052 5,286 hunter, logger, and related 21.9.6 11.846 10,090 worker group, Other selfemployed 6:7011 4.028 Assisting wives 1,681 which accounted for 14.7 80,368 80.868 percent in 1965, as In agriculture 44,078 44,073 shown in the tabulation below: In retail trade 15,1129 15,629 In other industries...... 20.666 20.666 Salaried employees In agriculture 699,781 235.714261 11110 Int 6,793 6,651 Total Administrative staff in central 100.0 100.0 and local government 8,503 7,527 976 Tekacherin 'Mod and kindergartene 45,154 Professional, technical, and related workers_ 7.8 9.5 20,750 24.204 Personnel 18,695 18,509 125 Administrative, exectitive, and managerial workers 1.7 1.6 , dentist, veterinary Clerical workers .... 8.8 10.5 surgeon 5,676 4.216 1.460 Sales workers Nurse, etc. $8.664 2.071 65.481 9.8 10.1 Policeman, customs officer. Farmers, fishermen, hunters, loggers. and related etc. workers 14,422 14.114 306 17.7 14.6 Functionary of the Danish Workers in transport and communications State Railways 28,506 6.5 6.2 27.724 1,062 Employee of bank, etc. 18.865 11.104 7.561 Craftsmen, production process workers, andworkers Telephone service personnel. 8,215 215 not elsewhere classified .197 32.2 ILO Office personnel 218,006 76,6591471.349 Service, sport, and recreation workers Shop personnel 14061 17.019 11.8 11.1 Technician Workers not classifiable by occupation 82,254 674266.90290 15,246 - 3.1 6.6 In sea and air transport.._ 10.644 10,110 734 Members of the armed forces .. .6 .8 Other employees 31,729 20,149 11.580 SkiTed workers 324.642 809142 17,493 By 1965, women outnumbered Gardener 7..461 866 men in profes- rM111 7, 4,140 4 Butcher 18.1.265 11,126 189 sional and technical occupations,in clerical Baker 589 8.427 work, and in service, sport, SBkilledtobacco worker 1,321 434 $85 and recreation oc- Tailor 2.781 2.481 SOO Boot and operative 3,276 1.964 1.322 cupations, (See table 4.) 'Therewere signi- Saddler, furrier, etc. 1,149 842 487 ficantly more female than male Joiner 22.401 22.1121 77 nurses; teach Upholsterer 2,611 666 26 era, in schools and kindergartens; Graphic industries 16.0141 15.3.173 458 unskilled Glass and ceramicsindustry 1,128 02 226 workers in the food, beverage, Smith 85,267 35.9192 $6 tobacco, textile, Mechanic 44,052 48.198 64 andclothing,and Car mechanichan 34,633 34.675 58 electro-mechanicalin- Moulder 1,417 1,414 dustries; and laundry workers and Goldsmith 1,781 1,565 216 cleaning tbuilder 1,925 1,925 0 and kitchen personnel. (See CBoaoachmaker 1,075 1,075 .. table 5.) As of Fi 6,080 8.011 4 April 1970, the largest single Dental technician 1,114 806 828 groups of fe- Watchmaker 946 928 18 male workers were salaried Bricklayer 111,361 18,310 55 clerical and shop CerckPentyer 22,702 22,157 45 workers, "assisting wives" Painter 17,287 18.819 428 (family workers), Glazier 1,010 992 18 and unskilled char workers. Plumbe 7,959 7.941 18 (See table 6.) Electriciran 18,10/ 18,046 42 Cook 1,667 8.475 92 Waiter 5,525 (NHS 22 TABLE 4.STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMICALLYACTIVE POP- Hairdresser 12.197 LIU ULATION, SEPTEMBER27, 1965 Photographer 2, 1,023 Other skilled workers 11,629086 5.914 609 (In thousands( Unskilled workers - 687,801 452.89522088 Agricultural worker 77 .,90 75,495 2.485 Occupational groups Horticultural worker &On 5,521 2.502 Both sexes-Male Female Forester - 1,906 8.141 64 Total Fisherman - 8,725 8.641 14 2.261.8 1.487.4 764.2 Seamstress 28.894 2 13,192 Professional, technical, and related In foodstuff, beverage and workers 214.8 105.7 tobseco industries - - 48.198 20,131 23.070 Administrative, executive, and 109.1 Intextile and clothing industries 22.528 7.725 14,808 managerial workers 35.6 30.4 5.1 Clerical workers 236.9 In 14.287 11.311 2.476 Sales workers 88.0 148.9 In paper and graphic 227.5 130.1 97.2 Farmers, fishermen, hunters, loggers. industries 12.750 6.127 7.268 and related workers In 12.855 9.028 1,682 Workers in transport and 328.6 272.6 66.0 In stone, , and geig communications 138.6 126.4 industries 17.181 15.859 2,022 Crai omen, production process workers, 13.1 In iron, metal, and engineering and workers not elsewhere inustries 8268 26,952 5,661 14.2.081 6,015 8,041 classified 720.9 689.1 131.8 In eldectromechanical industry Service, sport, and recreation workers. 250.0 66.4 In transport industry 9 9.245 186 193.6 81 11,966 Workers not claseltleAe by occupation- 80.4 71.2 Other factory workers 39..8584 27,925 9.2 In building and contraction . 61,427 61.248 179 Members of the armed forces.. - - . 18.7 18.6 .2 Sailor, naval stoker, etc. 11,068 10625 413 Driver, coachman 52.1129 52.160 tn

19 TABLE 5.LABOR FORCE BY OCCUPATION AND SEX, SEP- through other training or experience, but such TEMBER 27, 1965-Continued training qualifies them only for the category Occupation Total Male Female of "special" worker. The term "semiskilled" Messenger 9,045 7,116 1,929 does not appear to be used in Denmark. Port and warehouse worker - 20,800 19,391 1,409 driver, ettgineman 10,837 10,829 8 Among the employers and self-employed, Hotel and restaurant personnel 12.320 1,114 11,204 those in agriculture and commerce predominate. , furnaceman .. 10,544 8.991 1,553 Laundry workers ..... 9,809 646 9,163 The largest single groups among salaried em- Cleaning and kitchen Personnel 69,762 2,138 87,614 ployees are clerical and shop workers. In 1970, Other unskilled workers . 61,267 42,884 8,383 Persons not employed in trade and clerical workers accounted for 31.4 percent of industry 63,168 53,168 Maid-servants...... 24.474 34,474 all salaried employees and 11.6 percent of the Daughters at home who are maids 18,684 _ ... 18.684 total labor force; shop workers, for 16.4 per-

SOURCE: Denmark, Danish StatisticalOffiee.Statistik Arbop cent and 6.1 percent, respectively. Among wage 1971(Statistical Yearbook 1971), pp. 58-69. earners, unskilled factory workers predom- inated, followed by skilled smiths and mechan- The compositiOn of the labor force by class ics, and unskilled charworkers. (See table 7,) of worker has shifted considerably. Enterprises Normally unemployment in Denmark does have increased in size, and many small - not constitute a serious problem, the only un- tions have gone out of business, with the result employment of any proportions being seasonal that by April 1970, employers and self-employed innature. --Unemploymentgenerallyrises persons constituted only about 15 percent of the sharply during the months when agri- estimated labor force (see table 6), compared culture, construction, and fall off, and with over 20 percent in 1960. Salaried em- most seasonal layoffs occur. Whereas Norway ployees increased by 319,000 or almost 57 per- and Sweden can shift their unskilled workers cent-41 percent for males and 76 percent for and some other categories of construction females-to comprise 37 percent of the labor workers into their industries during this force (compared with 27 percent in 1960), period, Denmark does not have. these resourc- made up almost equally of males and females. es; the Government is studying the develop- The transfer of large numbers of workers out ment of other industries to absorb the - of the employer/self-employed group into the ally surplus workers. A period of relatively salaried group, the growth of larger enter- high unemployment occurred beginning in late prises requiring more administrative staff, the 1967 following a low period and continued for increase in the service sector (especially the ), the growing number of females TABLE 6.LABOR FORCE BY CLASS OF WORKER AND fin, entering the labor force, and a trend among SEPTEMS112 26, 1960, AND APRIL 29, 1970 employers toward remuneration by the month (In thousands] have all contributed to the increase in num- 1960 census April 197 Category bers of salaried employees. Total MaleFemaleTotal MaleFemale Skilled workers comprised about 15 percent Total.. 2,093.61,447.5646.12,389.81,469.3920.6 of the labor force, as they did in 1960. The Employers and self-employed .. 420.6 375.5 46.1 348.8 311.3 37.6 number of unskilled workers has been declin- Wage and salary earners 1,627.81,072.0665.81,918.21,168.0760.2 ing, with the result that their share of the labor Domestic servants 30.6 0 $0.8 force has fallen from 33.3 percent in 1960 to Salaried employees 882.7 487.2446.6 27.3 percent in 1970. Within this group, there Skilled workers.. 353.6 337.9 16.7 has been a marked change in distribution by Unskilled workers... 661.8 382.9268.4 sex, there being in 1970 about 88,000 fewer Family woriers . 122.8 0 122.8 males than in 1960, mostly ex-farmers, but Estimate for April 29, 1970. 70,000 more females, mostly charworkers. How- Data for 1960 include about 86,000 domestic servants, including 30,000 daughters working at home as maids. Data for 1970 include ever, the use of the term "skilled" and "un- 80,600 kraal* "domestic assistants." No explanation is available for the onormous increase between skilled" worker in Denmark differs significantly 1960 and 1970, but it may result in part from differing btatistical methods used. from that in most other countries. A Danish NOTE: Because of rounding, sums of individual items may not "skilled" worker has completed 4 years as an equal totals. SOURCE: Denmark, Danish StatisticalOffice,StatistikAeb09 apprentice. Other workers may have equal or 1171(Statistical Yearbook 1970), p. 61, and International Labor Office,Year Rook of Labour Statistics, 1970(Geneva 1911), pp. 244- greater skill, acquired in vocational schools or 247.

20 TABU 7.LABOR FORCE BY CLASS or WORKER ANDIN- The 1967-69 annual unemployment rates were DUSTRY OR OCCUPATION, APRIL 29, 1970 (Inthousands) highest among seamen and tobacco workers. Geographically,unemploymentratesare Gass of works and industry or occupation Total Malerentals lowest in the Copenhagen, Arhus, and Si nder- All classes of workers 2.389.81.469.8920.; borg areas and highest in North Jutland, Born- Employer and self employed 348.8 311.3 37.5 Agriculture. fishing. and forestry 138.9 1355 8.3 holm, and -. Manufacturing 45.9 42.0 3.9 nuilding and eonstruction 27.4 17.1 .3 Commerce 69.6 57.8 11.8 National Service System Transport 15.8 15.4 .4 Administration and professions 25.4 19.3 7.1 Other services 24.8 14.1 10.7 Danish men between the ages of 18 and 50 Salaried employees 882.7 437.2445.5 Agriculture LI 4.9 .2 years are subject to 12 months' compulsory Central and local government and defense $3.3 81.3 LO . Certain categories of students, Teachers 87.1 40.4 45.7 Librarians. scientist', and clergymen- - 11.8 7.4 4.2 and men who have severe personal or family Hsi* service 87.5 11.5 75.7 Civil servants, middle and lower grades. 51.1 47.9 3.2 problems, may obtain deferments. Conscienti- Employees of banks 27.5 15.7 11.9 Editors. newspaper designers 8.1 2.7 .4 ous objectors may be granted permission, on Ships* Sick& 11.4 11.4 0 Employes of air traffics 3.5 2.0 1.5 request, to perform their military service in a Tedephone exchange personnel.. . 5.4 0 5.4 Clerical employer 277.5 88.8183.3 unit; those who eschew this al- Shop usistants 145.2 71.5 73.6 Engineers and architects 87.3 $5.5- .3 ternative are sent to work in . Other technical employer 82.5 59.4 28.1 Other employees 13.5 5.6 7.9 camps for an 18-month period. Plans to permit Skilled workers 553.5 187.9 15.7 Food, beverages, and tobacco 50.1 29.5 .6 conscientious objectors to perform their mili- Textile workers. dressmakers 3,9 2.5 1.3 tary obligations in underdeveloped countries, Shoemarkers 3.3 2. 4 .9 Woodworkers 27.8 27.5 .3 Printing 17.9 17.5 .4 in a manner similar to that of the US G l a s s and ceramic w o r k e r s...... 1.6 1.1 .4 Corps, are under consideration. Smiths. mechanics 180.1 129.9 .2 Others in metal industry...... 14.5 13.5 1.0 In 1970, the regular Danish Armed Forces Construction workers 99.2 97.7 1.6 Other. 2L 3 15.1 9.29 totaled about 45,600 and mobilization reserves Unskilled workers 551.3 552.9168.4 Agriculture, forestry, and gardening. _ 45.4 40.5 4.9 118,500, distributed among the three services Fishing LI 4.7 .4 Seamstresses 27.9 0 27.9 as follows : Factory workers 218.5 127.7 8L9 Sending and construction workers .. 35.3 35.2 .1 Regular Materna Sailors, naval stokers 9.8 11.8 .5 Driven. dockers. and freight handlers Waring . $4.5 59.5 5.0 Total 45,600 118.300 11.8 1.1 10.7 Army 28,000 70.000 Porters and stokes 21.1 18-.5 2.5 Char workers 125.5 3.5128.0 7.90 20.000 Other workers 50.5 511.1 7.5 Air Force 10.300 28.500 Domestic servants 80.5 0 30.6 "Assisting wives" (family workers)- - - - 1223 0122.5 In addition to the regular armed forces, Den- SOURCE: Denmark. Danish Statistleal omee Shaba Arks, 1971 (Statistical Yearbook 1971). p. 61. mark has a -military arm, the Danish . Established in 1949, the Home about 2 years. It reached an annual peak of 5 Guard has a current strength of approxi, percentin the 1968, as a result of government mately 50,000, primarily men and women vo!- measures to combat inflation and bal- unteers; many of these are former soldiers, ance of payment difficulties. By mid-1970, how- who keep up their military training in their ever, unemployment rates had dropped be- spare time. The Guard is administered jointly low the 1967 low; 1970average by a general officer the regular army and rate was only 2.9 percent, and the previous a civilian member of Parliament, assisted by annual high for the decade was 4.2, in 1968. a full-time staff of 12 army officers and an ad- Unemployment primarily affects unskilled visory council of nine civilian consultants. male workers. Annual average rates ofunem- The Civil Defense organization, under the ployment in 1967-70 were as follows: Ministry of Interior, consists of 22,000 men and women, mostly volunteers. Their mission 19118 1,19 1970 All workers.... 5.0 8.9 2,9 in peacetime is to assist in cases of disaster, Male unskilled workers .. 3.2 8.3 5.1 and in wartime to provide relief and protec- Male construction workers 5.1 3.5 3.2 Other male workers 5.2 2.2 1.5 tion for civilians, both as to life and property, Female workers 8.3 8.4 2.3 in situations resulting from military action. Annual rates of unemploymentare based on aver- Defense expenditures when compared with age weekly recordings for insured members of trade those ofother North Atlantic Or- union funds. ganization (NATO) countries are low; only

21 11 percent of the total budget and 2.5 percent 1966 has been 10-15 percent. The largest num- of the GNP go for defense. ber with work permits came from West - During an emergency, the Danish Armed many (5,396 in 1970), followed by the United Forces would rely heavily on the civilian com- Kingdom (2,162), Yugoslavia (2,185), Tur- munity and labor force, particularly for sup- key (1,755), and the United States (1,208). plies, transportation, and maintenance. Denmark's industrial workers are highly A volunteer program within the Army and skilled, and its agricultural workers are among Navy provides limited special training in a var- the most productive in Europe. The country iety of skills, to assure desirable employment has modern, efficient industries that produce for interested service personnel when they com- quality goods by the combined use of its well- plete their service. Generally, however, con- trained labor force and a production apparatus scripts are not in service long enough to master of high technical standard. Quality, precision, any skills other than basic ones needed by a and modern design are predominant features of soldier. Danish industrial production, as is an ability to fillspecial requirements, and there is a Special Characteristics of the Labor Force tradition of thorough labor training atall levels. Workers are admitted to the skilled Seasonality in employment is considerable trades only after they have successfully com- in Denmark, and is of serious concern to the pleted a period of apprenticeship averaging Government, which is attempting to develop 4 years. industries and other projects to combat the According to official data, there were in p. oblem. Full employment usually character- April 1970 a total of 353,600 skilled workers izes the middle half of the year during the (excluding those who might be so character- peak period of agricultural activity, construc- ized among the self-employed and salaried tion, and tourism, at which time labor short- employees) and 651,300 unskilled, out of a total ages develop, especially among male unskilled of 2,236,400 economically active, exclusive of workers and workers in the building trades. 153,400 domestic servants and assisting wives. This is also, however, the period when most No separation out of the semiskilled is avail- workers want, and need, to take vacations, able, they are probably included with the un- in order to have as much time as possible in skilled. (See Population and Labor Force for a the sun, since the rest of the year is gray and description of the pecularities of the Danish damp. As indicated by the unemployment and terminology regarding skills.) Among those underemployment data given under PopUlation listed as skilled, the large majority were de- and Labor Supply, employment opportunities scribed as smiths, machine operators, and drop sharply during the winter months. mechanics (130,100), and construction workers Rural-urban drift is a characteristic of man- (99,200). The most numerous among the un- power in Denmark as in other areas, although skilled were factory workers (213,600), clean- many new industries are being built away from ing workers (126,600), and motor vehicle op- the main metropolitan areas. erators, dockworkers, and freight handlers In 1967-70, Danish workers employed in Swe- (94,600). Shortage of skills is not a problem den averaged about 19,000. On the other hand, in Denmark, except in a few highly specialized a considerable number of foreign workers, fields. Whereas US industry has developed tech- mostly unskilled, work in Denmark. In 1970 niques of mass production, Danish industry is there were 37,920 aliens in Denmark, of whom largely built upon small and medium-sized 24,244 had work permits. The average annual units producing highly refined industrial and increase of foreigners with work permits since agricultural products for export.

22 PART II. GOVERNMENT AND LABOR

Chapter V. Government

Public Administration of these were women. Distribution by branch of service was as follows : Denmark has an efficient civil service, which reflects the excellent, educational system of the Total 30.354 country and the Danish tradition of honesty Central government administration - 11,127 and responsibility. Appointment is on the bases Local government administration 25.001 Customs service . 4,522 of merit and of job requisites; political appoint- Lawcourts. police...... 14,337 ment does not exist in Denmark, except at the Military and civil defense.. 25,367 ministerial level. The Folketing has no control By April 29, 1970, the total had risen to 108,500, over administrative bodies. Government officials or 4.54 percent of the labor force. assume personal liability for official actions, and the civil servant is expected to be neutral Administrative Bodies Concerned With Labor in the exercise of his duties. Although the Prime Minister and the other The Ministry of Labor has the primary re- ministers are appointed by thesovereign, sponsibility for labor matters. Other ministries and change when the political situation changes, and agencies, however, are responsible forcer- the civil service is stable and provides contin- tain special labor-connected functions. Worker uity of operation. The civil servant enjoysa education and training, for example,are ad- high degree of ; legislationguaran- ministered by several bodies. Whereas thegen- tees protection against arbitrary dismissal. eral training of unskilled workerscomes under Job tenure is usually lengthy, and jobs fre- the aegis of the Labor Ministry, vocational quently are held for a lifetime. Civil servants training is directed by the Ministry of Edu- are guaranteed complete freedom of expres- cation, which has jurisdiction of the: Appren- sion in politics and are permitted to hold ef- ticeship Act although the Directorate of Labor fective office on the national or local level with- and the labor exchanges have various func- out sacrificing permanent job status. tions under the Act. The retraining of skilled Government employees enjoy considerable workers is administered by a spec;a1;committee prestige in the society; most of themare con- composed of employers' and workers' represen- sidered to be part of the middle andupper tatives together with representatives of the groups, depending on their government rank. Ministries of Labor and of Education ;and This prestige accounts in part for the stability rehabilitation is the responsibility of the Min- of the civil service, and in the view of most istry of Social Affairs, as is also the industrial government employees, more than compensates injuries insurance scheme. The Ministry of for pay rates (see Wages and Supplemental Commerce administers regional development Payments) which civil servants andmany plans. The National Police, a part of the Min- other Danes- allege to be lower than those in istry of Justice, with the assistance of the private industry. Labor Ministry, issues residence and workper- According to the 1965 census, which provides mits for non-Scandinavian workers; the Min- the latest complete data available, publicad- istry of Justice is responsible for the admis- ministration employed 80,354persons, or 3.65 sion of aliens. Statistics on employment, un- percent of the labor force of 2,198,629; 25,151 employment, wages, cost of living, and other labor-related matters are collectedand pub- ment; collaboration with local committees and lished by the Danish Statistical Officeof the institutions which are of importance to the Ministry of Finance. The National Instituteof labor market within the of the of- Social Research performs research onsocial fice; co-ordination of public and private works; conditions (including labor), and social secur- to work out surveys ..." of manpower supply ity, family and youth problems,housing, and and demand, which they forward to the De- health. partment of Statistics, Ministry of Finance; According to the latest issue (1970) ofthe and to supervise the approximately 400 local official handbook "Denmark," the LaborMin- exchange offices. The Directorate of Labor istry is maintains liaison with the 2d, 3d, and 4th Offices. "responsible for general labor questions, includ- The Directorate of Labor Inspection is con- ing legislation pertaining to conciliation inindus- cerned primarily with industrialsafety.It disputes; the Industrial Court; salaried-staff works closely with the 1st and 3d Offices. The legislation; holiday legislation; supplementary re- Directorate comprises a Technical Division ; and tirement scheme;-sharing social funds and foundations; matters concerning ration- a Socio-Legal Division which administers the alization of central government administration; Directorate, the regional (or district) offices, vocational training of nonskilled workers; employ- and the special institutions, and handles prob- ment and training of young persons;refresher lems of interpretation of the "relevant training of skilled workers, etc.; reachooling meas- and provisions on hours of work." (See En- ures; vocational guidance; legislationand admin- istrationofmeasuresregulatingemployment; forcement.) factory legislation; public and private employment The Labor Board (Arbejdznaeonet) exam- exchanges; unemployment insurance; issuance of ines questions of relating to place- labor permits for foreign workers; emigration; ment and unemployment insurance on the statistical and economic matters relating to labor one hand, and matters concerning the posi- relations; government stationery and publications; advertising and publicity." tion of individual workers with regard to placement and to unemployment insurance, on The core of the central administration of the the other. The Board, which has advisory Ministry of Labor consists of four offices, and administrative authority, is made up of without descriptive , all of which report two sections: a placement section (known as to the Minister through the Permanent Under- "Board A"), composed of representatives of secretary of Labor. The 1st Office handles employers' and workers' organizations; and questions concerning labor legislation; the 2d an unemployment insurance section (known as Office, training of skilled and unskilled workers "Board B"), consisting of representatives of and vocational guidance; the 3d Office, indus- unemployment insurancefunds,employers, trial safety and unemployment insurance; and workers, and the Folketing. The Director of the 4th Office, matters in connection with the Labor is head of both sections, and the Labor Public Labor Exchanges and the Scandinavian Directorate provides them with secretarial Liaison Committee. services. Two Directoratesthe Directorate of Labor A broadly based advisory forum to the Min- and the Directorate of Labor Inspectioncon- istry of Labor is the Labor Council, established stitute the operational agencies of the Ministry, in 1949 under Act No. 226. Its duties include: work closely with the appropriate Office, and submission of its views on problems relating supervise regional and local operations. The to occupational safety, health, and welfare, Directorate of Labor, sometimes described as either on its own or at the request "the main segment of the Labor Ministry," of the Labor Minister or the Director of Labor handles the public and private labor exchanges Inspection; submission of requests and pro- and the registration of foreign workers, and posals concerning legislation on the subjects supervises the unemployment funds. Under its named above; and submission of an annual re- aegis are 14 regional labor market boards and port on its work to the Minister of Labor. It 29 regional labor exchange offices. The respon- also provides two of the three members of sibilities of the regional units are: "to keep the Workers' Protection Fund described below. informed about the development of employ- The Labor Council is composed of 21 mem-

24 ,AA bers, who serve 6-year terms. The Crown ap- members, a president, three vice-presidents and points the chairman ; the Minister of Labor a secretary. As long as the Danish Employers' appoints the other 20, as follows : a physician Confederation (DEC) and the Danish Federa- (on the recommendation of the Department tion of Trade Unions (LO)represent the of Public Health) ; a professor (on recommend- majority of employers and workers, these as- ation of the Technical College of Denmark) ; sociations appoint, every 2 years, members and eight employers and eight wage earners, each substitute members as follows: the DECthree group consisting of three representatives of members and six substitutes; Association of industry and transport, two representatives Agricultural Employers (SALA)two substi- of crafts, two of agriculture, and one of com- tutes; and the LOthree members and eight merce; and two salaried employees, one repre- substitutes. The members annually elect the senting technical employees, the other commer- president and vice-presidents, who must have cial employees. The most representative or- the qualifications required for full-time judges ganization in each of the economic sectors sub- in an ordinary court of law, as must also mits three names, for each of the last-men- one of the three members on each side. The tioned 18 seats. Legislation requires that a re- secretary is nominated by the Ministry of Labor ,presentative of the Ministry of Labor, the Di- in accordance with the Court's recommenda- of Labor Inspection, and one of the 13 tion. The Labor Court has jurisdiction over members of the Industrial Injuries Insurance breaches of collective agreements, strikes, and Council or an official of the Directorate of In- lockouts, and is empowered to assess fines for dustrial Injuries Insurance of the Ministry of violations and any resultant damages. Social Affairs attend the meetings of the Coun- cil, without the right to vote. Participation in International Organizations The Workers' Protection Fund ( 60) operates under a three-man committee com- Denmark has long shown great interest in prised of the Director of Labor Inspection, who establishing and maintaining close relations serves as chairman, and two members of the with other democratic countries, and to this Labor Council, one of whom is an employer, end has been active in a variety of international the other a worker. The purpose of the fund is organizations, including several concerned with to carry out and support educational work re- mattersaffectinglabor.Membershipin lating to industrial safety, and to support re- the (UN) organization, of search on new methods of protection. It is which Denmark was one of the founding mem- funded by the accident insurance companies bers, is an integral part of Danish foreign and the sickness insurance funds. It publishes policy, and the Kingdom attaches the utmost posters, pamphlets, and a periodical, "Safety importance to active participation in its work. Services"; produces films; and participates in Denmark was a member of the UN Security the editing of the monthly safety magazine, Council in 1967-69, distributes half of its for- "Look Out." It also administers a paid sub- eign aid contributions through 'UN bodies, scription service providing subscribers (usually and has participated in UN peace-keeping op- enterprises) with all the publications of the erations in various parts of the world, including Labor Inspection Service and the Fund. In addi- , the Congo, and Gaza. By January tion, the Fund makes grants to the Industrial 1971, it had ratified 89 ILO Conventions. (See Safety, Health, and Welfare Exhibition at the Appendix A.) Denmark has been a member Safety Center, which also is supported finan- of the International Labor Organization (ILO), cially by the state, the Copenhagen municipal the UN's labor arm, since its founding in 1919 ; government, and workers' and employers' or- and, together with the other Scandinavian ganizations. countries, has been active in its work. Among the:I, ner important UN organizations with A labor court has been in existence in Den- which denmark is affiliated are the Interna- mark since 1910. It is tri-partite, with mem- tional Bank for Reconstruction and Develop- bers elected every 2 years. Act No 124 of ment (IBRD),' the Economic and Social Coun- April 21, 1964, provides that the Labor Court shall consist of six members, 16 substitute ' The "."

25 cil (ECOSOC), the Food and Agriculture Or- The Nordic Council, formed in 1950, is the ganization (FAO), the Educational, Scientific, primary organ of cooperation among the Nor- and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and dic countries. Its establishment has led to the the World Health Organization (WHO). setting up of a common labor market, a com- Denmark participates in numerous regional mon area, an agreement for equal organizations such as the social benefits for visiting ciitzens of other mem- (CE), the European Association ber countries, and further harmonization of (EFTA); the Organization for Economic Co- legislation in all five countries. Each of these operation and Development (OECD), the In- countries has laws based on Council recom- tergovernmental Committee for European Mi- mendations, which providevirtuallyequal gration (ICEM), and the treatment of their nationals with regard to Organization (NATO), and is an applicant for membership in the European Economic social security and family welfare. The Coun- Community (EEC). cil is also a means for continuous administra- Denmark is a strong of expanded tive cooperation and for exchange of views and cooperation among the (Den- information between official bodies in the mem- mark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland). ber countries.

Chapter VI.Legislation Affecting Labor

Constitutional Guarantees holding other views shall be dissolved by court order. No association shall be dissolved by The current , called governmentmeasure,althoughitsopera- the Constitutional Act, was signed on , tion may be prohibited temporarily provided 1953. It reinforces the traditional fundamental immediate proceedings are undertaken for its to life, , religion, and property, dissolution. The police are entitled to be pres- and guarantees free speech, in the ent at all public meetings. Open-air meetings home, and free and equal access to trade. It may be prohibited when it is feared that they further provides that, in order to advance the may constitute a danger to the public peace. public interest, efforts should be made to en- The 1958 Constitution, and enabling Acts sure work for every able-bodied citizen on and Orders of 1954, 1961, and 1962, provide terms that will secure his existence; and that for and delineate the responsibilities of an Om- any person unable to support himself or his budsman, or Public Affairs Commissioner, to dependents and who has no one responsible safeguard constitutional rights and the observ- for his or their maintenance, shall be entitled ance of laws and regulations by public officials. to receive public assistance, "provided that he The Ombudsman is elected by the Folketing to comply with the obligations imposed by statute superintend, on the Folketing's behalf, not only in such respect." the administrative services of the Central Gov- The right of association and assembly is ernment but also, since 1962, to a certain extent paramount. The Constitution guarantees to all those of the municipal as well. citizens the right to form associations, with- Thus every citizen is enabled to lodge a com- out previous permission, for any lawful reason plaint in the event of arbitrary treatment by and to assemble unarmed. Associations em- Ministers, civil servants, or other persons em- ploying violence or aiming to attain their objec- ployed by the public administration. The Om- tive by violence, by instigation of violence, budsman may thenonce he hasinvesti- or by similar punishable influence on persons gated the caseexpress his disapprovalif there are grounds for criticism, and, if neces- ' The other six members are:, Norway, sary, have the case brought before the courts. Sweden, , Switzerland, and the United King- From 1955 to 1967 inclutiive, 18,528 complaints dom. had been lodged with the Ombudsman ;75

26 percent of these were rejected for various reas- tions regarding factories. Numerous subsequent ons.' Of the 3,506 cases investigated, 716 led to acts have initiated additional protectivere- action by the Ombudsman in the form of cri- quirements, or amended, expanded, and/orre- ticism and/or recommendation. Since April 1, placed earlier legislation on thesame subjects. 1962, about 12 percent of the complaints have Most of the labor force is now covered, in whole been against local government administration. or in part, by the Occupational Safety, Health, and Welfare (General) Act No. 226 of 1954, Summary of Basic Labor Legislation as amended. The broad scope of thisvery lengthy Labor legislation in Denmark, especially in law is apparent from the following majorsec- labor-management relations, is more limited tions into which it is divided: than in many other countries. There is no labor Scope (persons, industries, worksites, etc., covered) code and no discernible effort to create one, Occupational hazards noristhere a statutory . Common provisions Whereas the right to organize for any lawful Special provisions Health and welfare facilities at the work- purpose is guaranteed by the Constitution, place there is no special legislation granting this Prevention of accidents right to workers other than Act No. 261 of General provisions 1948, which states that "salaried employees Special provisions relating to certain sources of danger shall have the right to organize for the pro- t tection of their interests.. ." Nor is there Prevention of health hazards and acci- dents through the use of personal pro- any special law regarding the legal basis of tection equipment collective agreements (as, for example, the 1928 Measures to. meet specialelements of Collective Agreement Act in Sweden), which danger govern most labor-management relations in Hours of work Denmark. Several laws concerning dispute set- Scope of provisions relating to hours of work tlement, however, do presuppose freedom of as- Positioning of hours of work Rest on Sundays and statutory holidays sociation of workers and of employers and the Maternity leave, etc. obligations inherent in collective agreements. Special provisions governing employment of child- This situation reflects the desire of labor and ren and young persons management tolimit government interven-. Minimum age and medieal examinations tion, and the ability of the two parties to Employment of young persons on evening, regulate relations between themselves. night, and Sunday work; number of daily hours On the other hand, Denmark does havecon- Inspection siderable legislation governing working condi- Labor inspection tions and other aspects of work situations, Worker's Protection Fund which is continually being reviewed andre- Labor Council Inspection of machinery and establishments by vised. The legislation may be conveniently di- local authorities vided into four areas: working conditions; The Police labor-management relations; employment and Penalties training; and social insurance. The most important laws dealing with the Extensive protective labor legislation dates settlement of labor-management disputes are back to the latter part of the . two acts establishing, in 1910, the Labor Court The first Factory Act was passed in 1878 (originally the Permanent Arbitration Court) and dealt with child labor in factories and and, in 19i4, the Conciliation Board. The two workshops. In 1889 an act established safety acts have been frequently amended, mostre- regulations within shops. The Factory Act of cently in 1964 and 1958, respectively. 1913 coordinated all previous laws and regula- Although collective agreements adequately cover terms of employment in most cases, the ' They either were receivedafter the 12-month had expired; concerned the work Folketing it necessary to cover by law of the law courts; involved local legislation beyond the certain aspects for several categories of work- jurisdiction of the Ombudsman; or had not been ers, including salaried employees, seamen, ap- brought before a higher administrative authority first. prentices, and those agricultural and domestic

27 of their Young Persons (Employment and Training) workers who receive board as part Act No. 195 of 1960 remuneration. Vocational Training (Unskilled Workers) Act Danish legislation in the fields ofemploy- No. 194 of 1960 ment services, unemployment insurance, voca- Vocational Guidance Act No. .117 of 1961 is well tional training, and social insurance Social Insurance advanced. A law providing for unemployment Accident Insurance Act No. 28 of 1948, as insurance and public employmentexchanges amended in 1949 was first passed in 1982;it was frequently Sickness Insurance Act No. 239 of 1960 amended and finally replaced in 1970 bythe Social Security (Invalidity and National Pen- Employment Service and Unemployment In- sions) Act No. 239 of 1960 National Assistance Act of 1961 surance Act No. 114. Speciallegislation on Labor Market Supplementary Act No. training includes four acts, covering young 46 of 1964 (most recent , 1967) persons, vocational training ofunskilled work- Workmen's Compensation Act No. 187 of 1966 ers, vocational guidance, andrehabilitation of handicapped persons. Denmark's system of so- cial security legislation is designed to help any Enforcement afflicted by, or threatened by, any "socially According to official reports as well as other unbalancing event." The aid may be rendered sources, labor laws generally are enforced. The in cash, by admission to an appropriate institu- practically full application of the legislation re- tion, through training, in the form of advice, flects the broad general respect for law and etc. order, and the favorable attitudes toward The major labor legislation currently in ef- the labor laws among those affected by them. fect includes the following : In fact, the laws are largely codifications of Working Conditions voluntary practices. Furthermore, labor law OccupationalSafety, Health, and Welfare enforcement agencies function efficiently. There (General) Act No. 226 of 1954 (most recent appears to be little if any difference in the amendment, 1968) extent of enforcement among domestic and OccupationalSafety, Health, and Welfare foreign-owned enterprises or according to loca- (Commercial Establishments and Offices) Act No. 227 of 1954 tion. OccupationalSafety,Health, and Welfare The extensive enforcement of protective la- (Agriculture, Forestry, and Horticulture) bor legislation reflects the activities of gov- Act No. 228 of 1954 ernment administrative agencies (primarily Paid Act No. 273 of 1970 the Labor Inspection Service of the Ministry Labor-Management Relations of Labor), as well as the Labor Court (see Labor Court Act No. 81 of 1910 (concerning Administrative Bodies Concerned With Labor), the Permanent Court of Arbitration) (most but also the cooperation of labor and manage- recent amendment, 1964) ment, either voluntary or under the law. In Conciliation in Industrial Disputes Act No. 5 addition to settling disputes arising out of col- of 1934 as amended in 1958 and 1961 Civil Servant Act of June 18, 1969 * lective agreements, the Labor Court also en- Salaried Employees ( of Employment) forces the statutory right of association and the Act No. 261 of 1948 (most recent amend- duty to bargain collectively; it also handles ment, 1964) certain claims for vacation pay. Seamen's Act No. 299 of 1952 The Directorate of Labor Inspection, which Apprenticeship Act No. 261 of 1956 Agricultural and Domestic Workers (Paid as previously stated is concerned primarily Partly in Board) Act No. 156 of 1961 with industrial safety, has a chief physician, seven specialist inspectors covering the entire Employment and Training country, and a laboratory, the State Institute Employment Service and Unemployment In- of Industrial (311H), engaged partly surance Act No. 114 of 1970 Handicapped Persons Rehabilitation Act No. in field work but operating out of their Copen- 170 of 1960 (most recent amendment, 1966) hagen headquarters. The chief physician super- vises 14 part-time industrial medical officers Aot No. not available. distributed throughout the country.

28 The industrial medical officers carry out spe- general inspectors in four districts of Copen- cial investigations of occupational diseases, ec- hagen; and 85 general inspectors in 25 pro- zemas, and poisonings, and assist the local vincial districts. Under the supervision of these authorities in clinical studies at the establish- inspectors are about 1,000 municipal machin- ments. The seven specialist inspectorstwo who ery examiners, who inspect machinery present- handle ventilation, chemistry, dust, and noise; ing little danger, "as well as agricultural hold- two concerned with safety in building and con- ings whose motive power is under 16 HP struction; one responsible for safety in ship (about175,000 farms out of atotal of loadings and unloadings ; and two who in- 180,000)." These examiners are elected by the spect manufacturers. and suppliers (wholesal- local councils; their work is only part time. ers, retailers, and lenders) of machinery (agri- Compliance with the safety laws is aided cultural and industrial)have contact with by the statutory obligation of each employer to organizations, trades, and institutions within work toward prevention of accident and disease their particular occupational field, at the na- in his establishment, and of the workers to co- tional level. The latter two are empowered to operate in every way in this endeavor. take action against the manufacturers and sup- Enforcement of health and safety measures pliers; otherwise the specialist inspectors have is also aided by the responsibilities placed by only consultative status, and assist the districts the laws on persons outside the enterprise and with advice and guidance. The SIIH carries outside the administrative units having prime out tests and analyses of industrial hygiene responsibility in the matter. For example, Act and makes investigations at the worksites, us- 226 provides thatifschool commissioners ually in cooperation with the regions and often and other public authorities become aware of in cooperation with the 14 part-time industrial any conditions in their areas which are con- medical officers. The SIIH "makes both indi- trary to the act, they must report the fact to vidual investigations, for example, inresponse to complaints(noise,dust, and poisonous the Labor Inspection Service. "Besides, under fumes), and systematic testings, such as meas- regulations to be made by the Minister of Labor urements of dust in foundries and testings of after consultation with the competent Minister, welding smoke." It also carries out research. the authorities concerned shall be obliged to Regular inspection of workplaces, however, assist the inspection service in the discharge of is carried out by : 125 district inspectors.,.-5 its functions." The law requires physicians and inspectors of steam boilers, 4 of lists and hoists, hospitals to report all cases of occupational and 1 of bakeries, in Greater Copenhagen; 80 disease which come to their attention. PART III. LABOR AND MANAGEMENT

Chapter VII. Labor and ManagementOrganizations

Labor Organizations out of union circles, that organization bycraft presents difficulties in a modern industrial The Danish labor force is among the most society. Industrial organization therefore, is highly organized in the non-Communist world. "growing steadily, while the number of unions The four labor confederations and six major is declining. As early as 1968 the largest Danish unaffiliated trade unions reported memberships labor confederation established a committee to for early 1970 totaling about 1,161,600 per- look into the archaic structural system. This sons, which constituted about 61.5 percent of committee has made a proposal for restructur- the 1,887,600 wage and salary earners (ex- ing of the system, eventually to result in amal- cluding 38,600 female domestic servants) gamating all unions into nine industrial unions. 92.6 percent (930,313 on December 31, 1969) The most serious obstacle to any restructur- of the 1,004,900 wage earners, but only 26.2 ing of the Danish unions is the difficulty in percent (231,290 on April1, 1970) of the finding an acceptable arrangement for dis- 882,700 salaried employees (April 29, 1970). mantling the large Multi-industry general- In Denmark the term "Labor Movement" is workers union. applied by tradition to the Social Democratic About three-fourths of all trade union mem- Party, the trade unions, and a number of co- bers belong to unions which are affiliated with operative undertakings founded and operated the largest confederation, the Danish Federa- in the interests of the workers. Together and tion of Trade Unions (Landsorganisationen separately, these three branches of the Labor i Denmark LO), consisting primarily of blue- Movement have developed a number of institu- workers. The approximately 896,000 tions and organizations for training, education, members in its 56 affiliates on December 81, and trade and other economic purposes. The 1970, represented an increase of 30,684 over Danish labor movement has followed much the 1968. The Federation of Civil Servants' and same pattern of development as the Swedish Salaried Employees' Organizations (Fae tiers.: and Norwegian, and there is also a remarkable radet for cktnske Tjenestemands- og Funktion- parallel with Danish agricultural organiza- aerorganisationerFTF), had a total member- tions, especially in the development of coopera- ship of 207,000, all white-collar, in 175 affiliates tive establishments and adult education. in 1970over one-third higher than the pre- The great majority of Danish unions are vious year's membership. The Civil Servants' craft unions, requiring several years of oc- Central Organization I(Statstienestmaends- cupational training as a qualification for mem- nes Centralorganisation I) had 44,904 mem- bership. Because of this stiff requirement, bers April 1, 1970, but about 27,000 of these about 23 percent of all union members belong also belonged to the LO. The Danish Super- to one large multicraft union for general and visors' and Technical Employee"Association semiskilled or "special" workers, and another (Faellesrepraesentationen for danake Arbefds- 5 percent are organized into a general union leder-og tekniske Funktionaerforeninger of women workers. Only about 40,000 workers FAF) had about 36,000 members in its seven are presently organized in industrial (or verti- affiliates as of 1970. The six major nonaffiliated cal) unions. For many years, there has been unions, of wage earners, had a total of 85,968 ..." general recognition in Denmark, both in and members in late 1989.

30 4

One sizable "mixed" (employees and self- The Danish union movement is composed of employed) organization, the coordinatingcom- national and local organizations. The basic mittee of university graduates (Akademiker- unit at the place of work is the "union club," nes Samarbejdsudvalg) had 49,000 members which is the direct and immediate link between in its 15 affiliates-28,000 salaried employees the individual member and the movement as a and 21,000 self-employed. whole. At the place of work, each category Largest among the LO affiliates is the Gen- of workers often has its own club to safeguard eral and SpecialWorkers' Union Danske its members' interests in relation to the em- Arbejdsmands- og Specialarbejderforbundet), ployer. If workers of different crafts are em- with 258,890 members on December 31, 1969, ployed at the same place, a joint club is set followed by the Commercial and Clerical Work- up to deal with matters of common interest. ers' Union (- og Kontorfunktionaerer- The union club remains, however, the basic nes Forbund i Denmark), with 136,386, and unit of organization, and through the union the Metal and Machine Workers' Union (Dansk- club each wage earner becomes a member of Smede- og Maskinarbejderforbundet), with the local trade union. 101,231.All but 112,854 of the remaining The local union covers all organized workers- 397,800 members belonged to 14 other major of the same category within a town or locality, unions. (See table 8.) and thus usually has members at several, and The FTF membership is more evenly distri- and sometimes many, places of work. Local buted. The largest unions are those of teachers unions vary in size from only a few to. thou- (31,052 in April 1970), nurses(25,198in sands of members. Members elect full-time 1970), civil servants (20;619 in 1970), and officers, when necessary, to advance their in oank workers (17,856 in 1970). Two affiliates terests. Working methods of local unions vary of the Civil Servants' Central Organization I according to size and category of members. constitute about half the total membership of Often the local union is represented when new thistradeunioncentral-postalworkers collective agreements are to be concluded with (11,669 in 1970) and railway workers (9,743 the employers, and one of its most important in 1970) ; both of these unionsare also LO tasks is to assure that members get the wages affiliates. FAF membership also is highlycon- and conditions provided in the agreement. In centrated in two affiliates-leather workers practically all towns of any size the local trade and iron industry, white-collar workers, each unions form trades councils to deal with mat- having about 11,000 members in 1970. ters of common interest. The local union in turn forms part of a larger TABLE 8.MEMBERSHIP OF THE DANISH FEDERATION OF LABOR, DECEMBER 31, 1969 unit, the national trade union. A national union covers organized workers of a particular trade Change Industry Total Male Female over or industry on a nationwide basis, and its ac- 1988 tivities are of immense importance to the in- Total 894,850 848,752 245,598 +29,034 dividual member. Generally the national union General and special Workers 258,890 258.191 699 +4,372 deals with matters relating to the conclusion Commercial and clerical workers 138,386 63,043 73,848 +9,216 of new national collective agreements and the Metal and machine workers 101,281 101,281 0 +36 amendment of existing agreements. Usually, Women workers 59,520 0 59.520 +930 Municipal workers 88,410 11.814 24,696 +3,392 the national union publishes a journal which is Garment workers 20,694 2,246 18,448 +718 Meat Packers 20,088 18,654 3,482 +489 the connecting link between the union and its Carpenters I 19,737 19,737 0 +769 Textile workers 18,355 5,953 10,402 -14 members. The highest a thority of the national Joiners and cabinet. makers ' 18,057 15,986 72 +466 union is the congreswhich assembles every Woodworkers 15,985 14,801 1,184 +799 Painters 14,824 14,622 202 +386 third to fifth year, varying from one union to Bricklayers 14,797 14,789 8 +285 Domestic workers 13,786 0 13,765 +2,954 another. Electricians 13,099 13,099 0 +158 Officials 11,992 10,104 1,883 -571 A congress is also the highest authority for Postal workers 11,868 11,668 0 +56 Other (remaining 43 a confederation. It meets every 4 years and is affiliates 112,854 79,815 33,039 +4,624 composed of the chief executives of all affiliated ' The carpenters and the joiners and cabinetmakers merged in early 1970. national unions, one representative of each in- SOURCE: U,S. , Copenhagen. dividually affiliated union, and one representa-

31 tive of each trades council. Only the congress fixed by the local group themselves accord- can adopt, cancel, or amend the constitution ing to local conditions and to the degree of of the organization. In the case of the LO, the likelihood that special assistance payments to congress (which in 1971, as in most years members may become necessary. Local con- recently,comprised about 1,100delegates) tributions in 1960 averaged DKr] .48 weekly elects officers and a general council of 400 mem- (US$0.20) ; those for general workers aver- bers and an executive board of 28 members. aged DKr1.75 (US$0.24) weekly compared Between congresses the general council is the with DKr1.38 (US$0.18) for printers. highest decisionmaking authority. It is com- The contribution of the affiliated unions to posed of the executive board and representa- the LO, as determined by its 1971 congress, tives of the affiliated organizations on the basis is DKr40 (US$5.36) a year for each full-pay- of one representative for each 2,000 members ing member. Individual unions reduce the DKr- or part thereof. The general council is con- 40 for their non-full-paying membersunem- vened at least a year. The day-to-day ployed or disabled members, or young members work of the LO is directed by the executive performing their National Serviceby board, whose membership comprises seven full- amounts that vary from union to union. Part time officers and 14 additional members, all of the affiliates' contributions are devoted to elected by the congress, and two officials of the building of labor colleges. The LO can im- the . pose extra contributions on its affiliates to as- Arrangements for closer cooperation among sist a union or unions involved in a dispute related unions began in 1904 when 18 unions which it endorses. When more than 3 percent in the woodworking industry formed a "cartel." of the members of an affiliated union are in- In 1970, there were six cartels of LO affiliates volved in a labor dispute, the union is entitled (some of which had non-LO members), as to financial support from the central organi- follows: zation. In 1961 such support amounted to DKr-

AP Mateo Umbers 10-15 (US$1.84-2.01) weekly for each of its Metal workers IMAM members involved in the dispute. In special Construction workers 10 112.010 cases the LO is entitled to impose extra con- Civil servants 01 31.081 Tool and beverage Masan' tributions on its affiliated organizations to sup- workers 0 MAO port labor disputes in other countries. Graphics workers' 20.210 Woodworkers 53.300 Since 1899, when the September Agreement s Data are for 11114. was concluded, practically all Danish citizens s At lead 4 son -LO. have recognized organized labor as an integral s One non-LO. Three of the nine ars Joined in a subcartd. the Hotel and Restaurants Workers* Cartel. part of the nation's political and economic life. Since that time labor unions have grown in The metalworkers and the construction work- stature in the opinion of the public- and today ers cartels negotiate collective agreements with occupy a highly respected position in Danish the employer organizations of their industry; national life. Much of this achievement can be the others do not. attributed to the high quality of leadership The trade union movement isfinanced which the LO and the Social Democratic Party chiefly by membership dues. Most unions col- have generally maintained during the put 70 lect entrance fees, which are quite low, rarely years. exceeding DKr 5.00 (US $0.67). The mem- bership dues on the other hand very consider- International Ties ably from union to union. In 1960, the average weekly dues of LO- affiliated union members Danish trade unions are active in, and have a were DKr1.65 (US$0.22), with a range of positive influence on, international affairs in from DKr0.65 (US$0.09), for members of the a variety of ways. Labor union support has General and Special Workers' Union, to DKr- strengthened Denmark's role hi the Nordic 1.75 (US$0.24), for printers, whose union pays Council, comprised of the three Scandinavian out many and particularly high benefits to its countries plus Finland and Iceland, and has members compared with other unions. In addi- helped to establish the common labor market tion to these dues, there is a local contribution in Scandinavia. The LO participates in the

32 work of the International Labor Organization the FTF- or FAF-affiliated unionswere also (ILO), and has backed the adoption ofmany affiliated with an ITS.) ILO conventions by the Danish Parliament, The LO, working through Danishgovern- though many of these fall short ofthe labor mental aid organizations, isvery active in conditions already existing in Denmark. assisting developing countries. These efforts Almost all Danish trade unions maintaincon- were centeredin1970 primarily insub- tactwiththeircounterpartsinNorway, , especially , , Sweden, and Finland. Reciprocal agreements and . In 1970 a studygroup of 31 per- have existed for a long time among the Scan- sons in a 2-week study trip explored the need dinavian unions. At first these concerned only for and interest in Danish labor assistance in the exchange of information, union publica- Kenya and Tanzania, and an official of the tions,and reports, but gradually theywere General and Special Workers Union spent 6- extended to include, for example, the granting months in Kenya as a technical advisor in of mutual financial assistance in labor disputes. 1970-71. The financialassistancearrangementhas proved particularly valuable because it enables Management Organizations considerable sums to be raised in support of unions engaged in protracted conflicts with The leading employer organization in Den- employers. mark is the Dansk Arbeldsgiverforening(Dan- The Trade Union of the five ish Employers' ConfederationDEC). On May Nordic countries also maintain organizational 1, 1971, according to official sources, the DEC contact. This cooperation has often foundvery consisted of 199 member organizations, com- practical expression not only in providing fi- prising 24,109 affiliated enterprises, and 209 nancial aid during large-scale labor struggles, individual member firms, for a total of 24,318 but also in an exchange of speakers atbig enterprises, employing about 365,000 wage meetings anddemonstrations,jointstudy earners. Some member organizations have join- courses, sometimes of a lengthy character, and ed together into industrial federations. Cur- study at labor colleges. Joint Scandinavian rently 10 such federations exist. Members are trade union conferences take place twoor three also organized geographically in 68 local or times a year to discussmatters of current regional federations. "Eligible for member- importance and to work outa joint policy. ship are employers' organizations whose ob- Denmark also has a long history of labor- ject is to gather together in one membership union cooperation of broader internationalim- employers from all over the country engaged portance. The Danish Federation took part in in the same trade or industry, local employers' the formation of an international trade union organizations with the same objective, and in- secretariat which in 1913 was transfornied in- dividual firms which, because of their special tothe InternationalFederationof Trade nature, are unable to join either of these two Unions (IFTU) ; though interrupted byWorld types of groups." 11 War I, the IFTU eventually hada member- The aims of the DEC as stated in its Con- ship, in 1921, of 24 million in 21 countries. stitution are to (1) provide a central organiza- The Danish LO cooperated in foundingthe tion to industrial employers' organizations and International Confederation of Free Trade- individualbusinesses, (2)advanceand Unions (ICFTU) in the fall of 1949,and is strengthen professional federations of employ- represented on the Executive Board of the ers throughout the country, (8) contribute to- ICFTU. ward the maintenance of a spirit of zolidarity Most Danish trade unionsare members of and a common approach by employers' organi- the appropriate International TradeSecretar- zations to protect employers' common interests iat (ITS). In 1965 a total of 60LO-affiliated in all quettions concerning wages and working unions were affiliated with 13 ITS,some having conditions, (4) contribute toward the avoid- membership in more than one. Also six major ance as far as possible of disputes between labor organizations not affiliated witha nation- employers and workers or to seek their solu- al center. were affiliated with fourITS. (No "Brick by Brick," the Danish Employers Confed- data are available as to whetheror not any of eration.

33 tion by peaceful means without work stop- Department Function pages, (5) resolve disputes within the con- Statistics Wage and employrnenL statistics,data Processing (IBM), special surveys (e.g., federation itself, (6) take part in Scandinavian of health, accidents, etc.). and international cooperation in the labor Negotiation Technical section handles agreement or work studies and advises members on market, and (7) promote understanding of the wage systems, piece rates, profit shar- employers' tasks and points of view by provid- ing, joint consultation, and improve.. ment in relations with workers; negoti- ing study courses and other information work. ation section (mostly lawyers) handles The formulation and execution of collective new agreements, grievances, disputes. Salaried Employees and bargaining policy constitute the principle func- Social Affairs Special matters relating to salaried em- tions of the DEC; it is also engaged in sub- Woves. social legislation, ILO. Economics and Inter- sidiaryactivitiesrelatingtoindustrial national Affairs Four economists, representing the confed- relations. Its jurisdiction is confined to em- eration. serve as staff members at ILO, IOE (International Employers' Organi- ployer-employee relationships of the affiliated sation). EFTA (u contact men) and members and does not extend to commercial )r EEC (presently only in planning Dan- marketing matters, It provides mechanisms f r ish participation).: Training School and training-school section handles solving disputes among members and for fi- matters relating to retraining, advises lower school graduates regarding trends nancial assistance to members during labor in job opportunities; management-edu- disputes. Itis the spokesman for employer cation section operates one residential interests before government agencies; it selects training center; foremen-training sec- tion operates two centers for training the employer members of the Labor Courts. of foremen; and section for training Overall authority for governing the affairs in handicrafts for small Industrialists operates a residential training center of the confederation is vested in a 600-delegate (in Jutland). General Assembly, which convenes once a year. DEC members are divided into three groups The Constitution of the DEC also provides handicrafts, industry, and commercefor the for two types of DEC arbitration courts for purpose of election of delegates to the General settlement of internal disputes. Disputes be- Assembly. These three groups elect, propor- tween the DEC and a member are settled by the tionally to their respective strength, a "general executive committee or a three-member court council," normally consisting of 54 members. consisting of one arbitrator chosen by the No group can elect more than 27 members to DEC, one by the opposing party, and a chair- this council. Immediately following the general man selected by these two. Disputes between assembly, the general council elects from its DEC members are settled by the executive com- members a president and one or more vice mittee or a five-member court consisting of two presidents (the presidium), an executive com- DEC members appointed by the executive mittee of 15 members, including the presidium, committee, one representative nominated by and a budget committee of three members, who each of the opposing parties, and a chairman "must not also be members of the executive appointed by these four. In both cases, the committee." The executive committee carries chairman must have the qualifications of a out collective agreement negotiations and pas- superior court judge. ses on proposed declarations of lockouts. (See The DEC exercises considerable power over Industrial Relations.) A its members in carrying out its functions. One appointed by the executive committee and di- prime example of this power is in the restric- rectly responsible to the presidium administers tions on members in regard to collective bar- day-to-day operations, based on an organiza- gaining. The Constitution of the DEC forbids tion chart approved by the executive committee. affil;ates from entering into collective agree- In 1970, administration functioned through ments on the following subjects without per- a managing director, a directorate, and a secre- mission of the confederation's executive com- tariat, and seven departments with duties as mittee; Reduction of , general follows: wage increases, new minimum wages, longer Department Function paid or unpaid vacations than stipulated by Administration Overall administration. dues, fiscal man- law, greater accident or sickness compensation agement, etc. Information and Public than legally required, union shop provisions, Relations Information, public relations. apprenticeship restrictions, union hiring halls,

34 or provisions that may interfere with partici- mary purpose is to represent the interests of pation in a lockout declared by the DEC. Con- employers in their relations with labor unions, tract changes covering these points, proposed Danish management is extensively organized either by employers or trade unions, must be in trade associations and of com- submitted to the DEC before bargaining may merce. The largest trade association is the ensue, and the confederation's express approval Federation of Danish Industries (Industrird- must be obtained before they are finally in- aclet), the principal industrial organization in corporated in new agreements. Where disputes economic matters. It has as affiliates 63 in- over new contract terms or over the interpreta- dustrial branch organizations, which cater to tion of existing agreements cannot be resolved the special interests of the individual indus- directly between the parties involved, repre- tries, and embraces 2,800 industrial establish- sentatives of the DEC conduct further negotia- ments. The federation represents manufactur- tions with higher levels on the union side. ing industries in dealings with the public, the The DEC collects from its members annual Folketing, the executive branch of the govern- dues amounting to 0.5 percent of the preceding ment, and the public administration. Through year's wage bill of the enterprise; the mini- the Federation, industryis represented on mum for an individual employer, however, is many commissions, boards, committees, and DKr25.00 (US$3.33) per year. Unless waived organizations concerned with matters of spe- by the executive committee, new members must cial interest to industry. Of special interest is pay to the DEC an entry fee of up to 1 percent its Export- Department, which procures and of the wages paid in the preceding year. Enter- provides information to Danish industrial es- prises also pay dues to the subsidiary organiza- tablishments, and closely cooperates with the tion. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Federation's In addition, the DEC consititution requires activities are managed by a board, consisting that every affiliated organization and individ- of a chairman and two vice-chairmen, and a ual firm accumulate relief funds for use during council of up to 70 members, including the work stoppages (total or partial strikes, lock- board. outs, boycotts, absenteeism, etc.), by requiring Other major industry and trade groups in- annual contributions of 0.25 percent of the clude : preceding year's wage bill. These fundsare The Danish Agricultural Marketing Board" paid into-a common relief fund, maintained by The Agricultural Council (12-member organ;74- a group which organizations and/or individual tion " enterprises have formed, or into the DECre- The Federation of Danish Agricultural Societies " lief fund, unless the DEC General Council has The Federation of Danish Smallholders' Societies ' The Royal Agricultural Society of Denmark granted permission to the individual enterprise The Danish Horticultural Council(12 affiliated or organization to maintain its own fund. organizations) The Association of Agricultural Employers, The National Association of Danish Fruitgrowers (Sammentdutningen of Landbrugets Arbejds- The Fisheries Council (10 affiliated organizations) giverforeningerSALA) is -employ- The Danish Fish Exporters' Associaticn The West Jutland Fisheries Association ers' counterpart of the DEC. It has 18 affili- The Handicrafts Council (435 associations with ated national federations, each of whichre- total membership of 50,000) presents a particular field of agriculture (e.g., The Federation of Danish Cooperative Societies cattleraising, dairying, horticulture, etc.). In- (2t member cooperatives) formation is not available on the numbers of individual members or of their employees,or "The Agricultural Council and the two federations of agricultural and of smallholders' societies, along on the structure and overall activities of this with various agricultural sales organizations, comprise confederation. the membership of the Danish Agricultural Marketing Aside from these organizations whose pri- Board.

85 Chapter VIII.Industrial Relations

Collective Bargaining the same effect as legislation and showed that in general the two organizations were them- The necessity of collective negotiations and selves able to solve their problems. After serv- agreements was recognized earlier in Denmark ing for 61 years as the basis of Danish in- than in most countries. The first agreement to dustrial relations, the September Agreement cover a considerable number of workers, on was replaced by a revised, modernized version wages and disputes settlement for carpenters called the Main Agreement of 1960." The IA) in Copenhagen, was signed in May 1873. To- repudiated the Main Agreement in 1968, pri- ward the end of the century collective agree- marily on the basis of a desire to achieve a ments were in force for almost all trades in greater voice in directing and distributing Copenhagen and the most important pro- work. This action has not interfered, however, vincial towns. The system today covers almost with the renewal of the various collective agree- the whole of the labor market and determines ments. Both the LO and the DEC express con- and regulates practically all details of the re- tinuing faith in most of the precepts of the lationship between workers and employers. Main Agreement and areoptimistic about Almost no industrial strife has occurred dur- its early replacement with a new basic agree- ing the life of the agreements, primarily be- ment embodying most of its . cause the organizations of the two parties con- The latent between em- cerned have borne the responsibility for seeing ployers and workers manifests itself particular- that the conditions which have been agreed ly during the period of negotiations, which to are respected in practice. Approximately usually take place at 2-year intervals, when 4,600 collective agreements are usuallyin the 2,000 or so agreements within the sphere operation ; about 2,000 of them are with mem- of the DEC come up for renewal. Subsidiary bers of the Danish Employers' Confederation organizations and individual firms enter into (DEC). agreements with the workers, but confedera- Most collective agreements are local and have tion approval is required on the more important been concluded with individual firms. Accord- questions, such as reduction of working hours, ing to an ICFTU publication of 1961, "it is common for a district, a branch, or a large "The DEC in its pamphlet, "Brick by Brick" sum- undertaking to be within the organizational marized the provisions of the Main Agreement as sphere of several unions simultaneously; and follows: "By the terms of the Main Agreement%v .. therefore a separate agreement is concluded each party acknowledges the other's right to organize itself within the framework of the central organisa- with each of these unions." Gradually, how- tions. Once an agreement has been entered into, peace ever, the national agreements have absorbed must be preserved between the parties thereto for the many of the provisions of the local and in- period of the agreement. On renewal of an agreement, dividual agreements, so that most employed and in cases during the period of the agree- workers are also included in collectiveagree- ment when a stoppage is legally admissible, a stoppage ments which cover the whole country, or Cop- of work must be approved by at least a three-quarters enhagen, or all places outside the capital. On majority of the competent assembly concerned. At least the other ":and, the number of local and in- 14 days' notice of cessation of work must be given as dividual agreements has been increasing, and a first warning, and at least 7 days as a second, before these still represent the majority. [the stoppage is] . .. put into effect. Employers have Collective bargaining in Denmark is not the right to manage and distribute the work, but must covered by government legislation. The found- do it in such a way as to avoid interference with ation for all collective bargaining workers' rights under agreements. Summary dismissal was estab- of individuals is forbidden, and claims that dismissal is lished in 1899 when the "September Agree- unjustified can be brOught, as a final , before ment" was, concluded between the LO and the the Dismissal Board, which can award compensation DEC, which laid down the to the worker. Foremen and persons in similar super- and obligations of the two parties of the labor visory positions can be denied membership in a workers' market, as equal partners. This agreement had organization."

36 general wage increases, and longer holidays. the LO-DEC agreement of , 1964, pro- (See Management Organizations.) vides: Procedures for negotiations of LO-DEC col- 1. The suborganizations shall after lective agreements are laid down in a set of open negotiations on the special claims. rules agreed upon by the two central organiza- 2. During negotiations on specialquestions, tions. The agreements (central, industrywide, either party may, where direct negotiation has local, and enterprise)generally are for 2 failed, remit outstanding questions for negotiation years and take effect on 1st of odd- with the participation of the central organizations and the Conciliation Board, if required througha numbered years. In those rare cases where subconciliator. agreement on terms has not been reached, the 3. Where agreement is not reached through old agreements remain in effect pending final negotiation or , the Conciliation Board negotiations. The general pattern is: the en- may, after consultation with the parties, decide terprise, local, and industrywide organizations that special questions shall be referred for con- formalize their overall proposals during the sideration by joint committees, consisting ofa representative of each of the central orginizations early fall and exchange these by October 15 and an equal number of representatives of the at the latest; by October 25 the two central parties to the agreement, with an umpire elected organizations agree-on which of these are gen- by the committee as Chairman. Failing agreement eral questions." The central organizations must on the election of Chairman, the latter shall be determine the magnitude of gains and improve- appointed by the Conciliation Board. 4. The special questions shall be decided by ments by 15th. Failing settlement, . the subjects of dissension are presented to the Conciliation Board (see Settlement of Dis- The salient features of both the 1969 and putes), which attempts to bring the two par- 1971 central agreements between the LO and ties together in agreement by December 15th. the DEC were reductions of the hourly work- When this is not successful, the Conciliation week, an extra wage hike to those in the lowest Board must draft a proposed agreement, to pay categories, and a narrowing of the gap be- be presented to the two sides by February tween wages paid to men and women for equal 10th. The two sides must present the Board's work. (Two prominent 1969 labor demands proposal to their affiliates for vote by February formanagement-financedfundswerenot 28th. Should either of the two sides reject achievedone for severance pay andcompen- the proposals, a no-contract situation would sation for layoffs, and one to defray the costs exist, with attendant likelihood of a strike or of training shop stewards.) The 1971agree- lockout. However, the Law on Mediation in ment also provides for increases in annual leave Labor Disputes empowers theConciliation in 1972 and again in 1978. Board to postpone strikes or lockouts for up The collective agreements made by LO-DEC to 2 weeks, or in cases against the public in- affiliates generally make more numerouspro- terest, for up to 1 month. In recent years, an visions than the LO-DEC central agreements additional stage has increasingly become a pos- and add extensive annotations to the provi- sibility in the settlement of serious labor dis- sions. For example, the 1969 agreements in putes. As of , on 19 occasions the the metal-processing industry (covering over Folketing had intervened to preclude a strike: 100,000 workers) comprised 8 chapters (and on some occasions the rejected terms of the 11 supplements) on wages and working condi- state mediator were enacted into law; on tions, as follows: others, various forms of compulsory arbitra- I.The Cooperation tion were legislated. Election of shop steward The stages of negotiations of special claims Tasks of the shop steward (those not handled by the central organiza- Meetings with shop steward Dismissal of a shop steward; elimination of tions) follow a similar pattern. Section 9 of shop steward's position Common shop steward "Those demands which may be expected to affect all Substitute for shop steward the agreements or the greater part of them, and there- Rules for clubs and mutual agreements fore will form part of the central agreement. among the workers

37 Local agreements between the employer and Transfer the workers Pay for loss of holidays Local agreements II.Normal Working Hours Normal working hours IV.Staggered Working Hours Keeping of the working hours Establishment Overtime Notice Holidays Rules for duration Overtime III.Organization and Legitimation Legitimation of skilled workers V.Outside Work Admission by skilled workers to the organi- Definition zations of skilled workers Pay Admission of unskilled workers to the or- Transportation allowance ganizations of skilled workers Cancellation of allowance for outside Relation between foremen and organizations work and for transportation allowances of skilled workers VI.Travel Work (work away from jobsite, re- IV. Wages quiring overnight stay) General rules for time rates Pay for travel work Special rules for time rates Pay for travel time Piece-work rates Pay for traveling, board, and lodging Special piece-work stipulations expenses Waiting time Returning home The twoparties(metal-machineindustry Ship carpenters workers' and employers' federations) also had Painters an agreement, dated 1964 but still in effect in Cost-of-living allowances 1970, covering regulations for treatment of Payment of wages conflicts, which also formed a part of the over- V.Hiring and Discharge of Workers all agreement of the industry. Rules of discharge Discontinuation of employment during piece- Settlement of Disputes work periods Withdrawal of discharges Re-engagement of workers In Denmark, as in Norway and Sweden, re- Employment of unskilled workers lations between labor and- management have Employment of female workers been characterized by cooperation and mutual adjustment. Employers and workers, aware of .VI. dayHoliday pay Pay and Holiday-Falling-on-Week- their stake in the continued expansion of the economy, have been prepared to compromise VII.Arbitration and Work-Shop Rules their differences in order to avert the injurious VIII.Duration of the Agreement effects of industrial strife. Danish labor, as- sisted by a government committed to raising In addition, the Common Workshop Rlues, living standards of the country's population, is which are a separate part of the metal industry exceptionally stable. Organized management agreement, covered : has proved receptive to change; it survived I.Normal Working Hours earlier agitationfor a socialized economy through its pragmatic adjustment to a welfare II.Overtime society, and continues to enjoy a fair measure Rates of payment Notice of overtime of freedom in the conduct of its affairs. As a Making up of overtime result, Denmark has had relative labor peace since World War II, and serious strikes have III.Shift work General rules for working hours been infrequent. Special provisions for working hours In disputes between labor.and management, Payment for shift work an important distinction is made, as in Swe- Compensationforshortenedworking den, between conflicts of interests (economic time in the second and third shifts Allowance for overtime work conflicts) and conflicts of rights (legal con- Interruption of shift work flicts). Conflicts of interest are disputes arising

38 in bargaining before a collective agreement has a draft settlement, after consulting each of the been concluded. This type of conflict is unregu- parties. lated by law, except as provided in the Concilia- The system applying to disputes of interpre- tion in Industrial Disputes Act No. 15. of 1934, tation and to alleged breaches ofagreements as amended in 1961, which established the is well developed. If a disagreementabout in- Conciliation Board. Conflicts of rights are dis- terpretation of a provision arisesbetween the putes arising over the interpretation or the vi- two parties, the matter may be referred toan olation of collective agreements. Labor and industrial arbitration committee,composed of management oppose compulsory settlement of two representatives of each side andan im- conflicts of interest by government action, partial umpire. This committee makesa deci- but accept government of conflicts sion which is bindingupon the parties. of rights. When an agreement has been violated,an The Conciliation Board is a government initial is made to settlethe dispute by body. Act No. 15 requires that the Minister of direct mediation between the partiesconcerned, Labor appoint, on the recommendation of the i.e., the local trade union andthe opposite em- Labor Court, three conciliators (who elect ployers' association. In the event of failureto their own chairman) for the entire country to agree, the matter is referred (1) to thena- assist in settling disputes between employers tional unions and industry associations;(2) and workers, and up to 21 subconciliators to then, if still no agreement, to thecentral con- assist the conciliators. The Board is empowered federations of labor and of management;and to require every employers' organization or es- (3) this failing, to the Labor Court. TheLabor tablishment and every workers' organization Court deals exclusively with matters relating to submit copies of any collective agreement to collective agreements. Itmay award a com- to which it is a party. In addition, every in- pensation or payment of amounts dueor im- dependent employer and every employers' or pose a fine. Its rulings are final, i.e., no appeal workers' organization must submit tothe can be made. Board a copy of all notices issued respecting In recent years, major disputes have involved stoppage of work, unless the case requires a demands for increases inwages; equal wages Labor Court decision(namely,conflictsof for equal work, especially forwomen ; reduc- rights). Although the Government has noau- tions in the work-week; and longervacations. thority to settle conflicts arising in - Other significant sources of conflict have been gaining pr,cess, it assists in solving such con- over "industrial (i.e., joint influence flicts,throughthe Conciliation Board sys- and codetermination between labor andmanage- tem. Under the law, the chief aim of concilia- ment)," which the LO has been pushing quite tion is to assist the parties in reachingan strongly in recent years, especially relatingto agreement on their own terms, generally to job assignments and job security. Profitsharing avoid a work stoppage, and, if this fails, to is another current and livelysource of conflict. assist them in reaching an agreement which Most disputes are negotiated in the atmosphere will end the stoppage. Under this law, concilia- of mutual respect which has developedin many years of responsible dealings between the tors must (1) follow labor developments in LO and the DEC. their regions; (2) assist in the settlement of Although strikes are permissible after the- disputes; and (3) assist the parties to conclude established procedures fora peaceful settle- agreements likely to establish good relations ment have been exhausted andno collective between them and to prevent strikes and lock- agreement is in force, prolonged strikes have outs. The parties are bound by law to attend been infrequent. Only four major strikes have meetings convened by the conciliator, whether occurred in recent years: Those of transport on his own or at the request of one of workers in 1956 and 1961, of metallurgical the parties. The conciliator may require post- workers in 1961, and of brewery workers in ponement of an imminent work stoppage asa 1965. Nearly 220,000 workerswere involved condition for his mediation. Should the concilia- in strikes in 1956 and 1961, which resulted in consider its desirable, he may put forward a loss of about 3.0 million man-days. During

39 1963-69 the annual number of work stoppages many white-collar workers are organized. The ranged from 17 to 48 (in 1969) ; of workers relationship between nonorganized employers involved, from 6,527 to 85,856 (also 1969) ; and and employees is generally one of mutual re- of man-days lost, from 10,000 to 242,000 (in spect. Because of the high degree of organiza- 1965). The end of 1969 witnessed increasing tion of employers and employees, wages and of a slackening of labor discipline; working conditions established by collective strikes began to proliferate, and even bargaining have become the even in un- civil servants were evincing increasing mili- organized establishments. Nonunion members tancy. Nevertheless, Denmark's strike record in enterprises operating under a collective for the whole of 1969 was only about 30 days agreement generally work under the conditions lost per 1,000 wage and salary earners, com- in force for organized employees. Many unor- pared with 626 in the United States and 3,373 ganized employers negotiate collective in , but only 12 per 1,000 in West Germany with the appropriate union, with terms similar and 6 in the . to those of industrywide agreements. Denmark has no legislation on picketing. This Unorganized employees do not share certain form of protest, however, is not customary in advantages which the organized have. In griev- Denmark. . ance cases, all employees must deal with their immediate supervisor as the first step. After Relations in Nonunion Enterprises this initial step, however, the union member Most nonunion labor is among persons en- has the union organization to represent him, gaged in family enterprises and small establish- if necessary, at the Labor Court. The unorgan- ments in service trades, other agricultural ized worker, on the other hand, must press his workers (including those in forestry and fish- own claim with management; he cannot use ing), and other white-collar workers, although the Labor Court, but only an ordinary court.

40 ii

PART IV. CONDITIONSOF EMPLOYMENT

Chapter IX. EmploymentPractices Records and Reports technical equipment, but that (2)such statis- tics shall not be published with Employers in Denmark maintain any mention numerous of the name of the employeror firm. records and make many reports to complywith In addition, Act No. 226 requires that provisions of laws and collectiveagreements. em- Various laws, especially those ployers post, at a suitable place in thework- on working shop (1) an abstract of the act and regulations conditions and social security, require detailed under the act .(which the Director of Labor records and reports on the number ofemployees, Inspection in hours worked, earnings of each employee, consultation with the Labor so- Council is required to prepare), and (2)a no- cial -security withholdings, and/oremployer contributions for holiday allowances, pensions, tice of the and telephone number of the district office which has jurisdictionover health insurance, and workmen'scompensa- tion insurance. the establishment. The Directormay require that the employer post warning notices Employers are required under the con- Occupa- sidered necessary to prevent health and acci- tional Safety, Health, and Welfare(General) dent . Act No. 226 of 1954,as amended, to report to the Labor Inspector any change in For salaried employees, the employer isre- use, alter- quired (Act No. 281 of 1948) to (1) honor the ation, or expansion of the premises..They request of his staff; through their organiza- must also maintain an inspection book inwhich the inspection staff enters observations tion, for negotiations respecting salaries and on their conditions of work, and (2)see that a record inspections and any instructions theysee fit to give the employer. In this book of the negotiations is made, that it is signed the employer by both parties, and thata copy is delivered must enter on special pages all accidentsother than insignificant ones and indicate to each party. Failure to make this record is what pre- punishable by fine, whichaccrues to the state cautions have been taken to preventsuch acci- dents in the future. The employer . must also Posting of notices, information bulletins, and keep, and annex to the book, all officialcom- munications to the enterprise from the labor circulars in easily visible and accessible places, inspection service. The book must in addition to those required by law, iscus- be kept tomary in most establishments. readily accessible. Shop stewardsand safety representatives of the workers must be given an opportunity to see the book. When full, in- Preemployment Inquiries spection books must be kept at the undertaking ...s Reliable information on the education, for 5 years. If an enterprise changesowners, pre- former owners must hand over the inspection vious experience, and personal characteristics books to the new owner. Act No. 226 alsostates of applicants for employment generally is avail- that (1) the Director of Labor Inspectionshall able to Danish employers. Like other European be entitled for statisticalpurposes to require employers, they rely extensively on documents the submission of dataon the number, age, and attesting to an applicant's background. School health of workers, andon the number, type, diplomas, which are given after students pass and size of machines, apparatus,and other final examinations, are reliable indicators of

41 scholastic achievement. Higher educational cer- the enterprise. Apparently there is nolegis- tificates, including those for vocationaltrain- lation placing similar restrictions on employ- ing, also are customarily given. Act No.226 ers of wage earners. of 1954, as amended, requires thatthe em- Since legislation has been passed centraliz- ployer provide young workers under age18 ing public employment-exchange functions, em- with a workbook in which details of the em- ployers probably will utilize the publicservice ployment are entered. Adults with previous job to a much greater extent than formerly, ac- experience usually can present a complete rec- cording to officials of the Danish Employers' ord of their work experience, and jobrefer- Confederation. normally given. The There are no private employment agencies ences from employers are United salaried employee is entitled, according to Act in Denmark of the kind found in the No. 261, to require from his employer a cer- States, except for a very few small ones con- the cerned with temporary employmentof cleri- tificate as to the duration of his service, etc., type of work in which he has mainly engaged, cal workers. such as typists, secretaries, the amount of his salary, and, ifdismissed, for a maximum of 3 months. Act No. 249of the reason therefor if he so requests.Contra- June 13, 1968, covering private placement, pro- vention of this provision is liable to punish- vided that the Director of Labor mightpermit ment by fine, which shall accrue to theNational a private employment agencyalready in op- Exchequer. eration to continue but only if so requested Because of the moderate size of most com- before March 31,1970. "The Minister ofLabor, munities, employers and employment service may, on the recommendation of theDirector of representatives know many applicants person- Labor and after consultation withthe appro- ally or know their reputation for honesty, hard priate employers' and workers' organizations, work, and sobriety. An employer can check an authorize any private person or associationto applicant's police record through the register operate a private placement service within par- ticular occupational or local areas where a par- in each of the country's administrative dis- to tricts. ticularly special need therefor is deemed exist" (Act No. 114 of 1970). Engagementin private placement work without authorization Hiring is punishable by fine or imprisonment.In Most hiiing in Denmark is done directly by general, the , in principle,of pri- employers. In recruiting, the press is utilized, vate employment agencies is beingtightened as are personal contacts and family connec- up. For some time, thetrend in Scandinavia tions. has been away from private employment agen- Act No. 261 of 1948 concerning salaried em- cies; e.g., Swedish law prohibitedcommercial ployees places certain restrictions on employers employment servicesentirely, beginning in and applicants in advertising vacancies or job 1964. availability; contraventions are punishable by The most recent legislation on apublic em- fine. For example, an advertisement may not ployment service is Act No. 114 ofMarch 24, state that (1) an employee not liable to mili- 1970, titled the Act on the PlacementService tary service is sought or preferred, or that the andUnemploymentInsurance.Previously, person seeking employment is not liable to mili- placement services had beenprovided by the tary service, nor that (2) employment is sub- public unemployment insurancefund system ject to contribution of capital or that prefer- operated by the unions and only to alesser ence will be given to an applicant who is able extent by the public employmentservice. An to make such a contribution. An enterprise act passed in May 1968 alreadyhad separated which advertises for employees without giving employmentandinsurance.TheGovern- its name and address must state clearly the ment's service has now takenfull charge of training and other qualifications the applicant placement; and the unions, of insurance. must possess and the minimum salary of the "Placement Serv- job. When a cash deposit is required before Act No. 114 provides for a nationwide system... the employee takes up his duties, the adver- ice,...a neutral, tisement must give the name and address of effecting free placement ...at the disposal

42 of jobseekers and employers of all trades and ing and furnishings, and supplements to cover occupations." Operating under the Director of commuting costs. The public service derives ad- Labor assisted by a "National Labor Board," ditional strength from legislation requiring the service must also follow the trend of the that members of a recognized unemployment labor market, take the initiative for measures insurance fund who become unemployed must relevant to the labor market, and assist central apply immediately in person to the Labor and local authorities in the and analy- Placement Office; only if they cannot be re- of labor market conditions. The service con- ferred to an appropriate job are unemployment sists of a public placement office in each county benefits payable. borough, except that a common office serves Aliens from Scandinavian countries are hired Copenhagen county borough and the communes under the same conditions as Danes, under of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg. A manager, common labor market arrangements between independent of employer or employee interests, the Nordic countries. The arrangement permits heads each placement office; he and his staff entry without and hiring without ace selected by the Director of Labor, who is the work permit required of non-Scandinavian alio empowered to set up and close down branch aliens. Both the Danish Government and the offices operating under the county exchanges. trade union movement have a policy of cur- The manager is assisted by a county labor tailing the importation of non-Scandinavian market board consisting of a chairman,ap- labor, despite occasional shortages.. Because of pointed by the Minister of Labor, the place- recentdifficultiesamong non-Scandinavian ment office manager, and 15 other members aliens, the Government has instituted a three- five nominated by the LO, five by the DEC fold program to eliminate some of the prob- after consultation with the local employers and lems: (1) New workers will be admitted only trade organizations, and five by the county when jobs are awaiting them, (2) employers councils. The board acts as a coordinating must provide adequate living quarters for all body between the exchange and the local and they hire, and (3) the IA has been asked to regional authorities and committees concerned provide recreation facilities so workers can be with labor. occupied in their free time. Most foreign en- The National Labor Board coordinates and terprises operating in Denmark have little dif- promotes the labor market boards. It also states ficulty gaining admittance for their own na- its opinion to the Labor Director before he tionals or those of a third country in which submits to the Labor Minister his recommend- they are operating. ations on structure, scope, and facilities of the Identification documents on job applicants placement service, including placement office generally are available. (See under Preemploy- managers. The National Board is composed of ment Inquiries.) the Director of Labor as chairman and 17 other membersfour nominated by the LO, Notice Periods and Separations four by the DEC, one by SALA, two byrepre- sentatives of the unemployment funds, andone Termination of employment isregulated each by the Joint Council of Danish Associa- by law and by collective agreements. Employ- tions of Civil Servants and Salaried Employ- ees are protected legally against dismissal for ees, and the Joint Committee of Danish Asso- engaging in trade union activity or military ciations of Supervisors and Technical Employ- service, or because of or pregnancy. ees, and one each by the Ministries of Hous- Act No. 261 of , as amended in 1952 ing, Commerce, , and Social Afz and 1954, governs termination of employment fairs. of salaried employees, excluding civil servants. In addition to serving as a clearing house Collective agreements provide the terms for and broker between job offerers and jobseek- other workers. ers the Labor Placement Offices are empowered Act No. 261 defines salaried employees as to offer a variety of economic assistance to shop and office assistants employed in buying jobseekers : travel expense assistance, supple- and selling or in office work or equivalent ments for extra expenses in maintaining two stockroom duties, technical or clinical assist- , transport aid, aid in finding hous- ance personnel, and employees whose work con-

43 sists wholly or mainly of directing or super- Agreement is in abeyance. These provide that vising others. The act requires that an employee the employer's right todismiss individual who wishes to leave must give his employer workers must not be exercised in an "arbitrary notice of 1 month. An employer must give the manner," and set forth machinery to be used employee at least 1 month's notice during the by the worker or his organization challenging first 6 months of employment and 8 months' the dismissal. They call first for a discussion not;.-3if the employee has been employed for between local management and workers ; this over 6 months ; the period is increased 1 month may be followed by negotiations at the na- for every 3 years of service, up to a maximum tional level, and, if the latter are unsuccessful, of 6 months. The notice must be given in writ- by hearings before a special board. Two mem- ing and not later than the last day of the bers of the Supreme Court serve is chairman month preceding the beginning of the notice and umpire of this board. Awards for unjust period, so that all terminations are at the end dismissals may be rg high as 13 weeks' wages. of a month. For trial appointments, which Under the September Agreement, the employ- may not extend beyond 3 months, the employer er's right of dismissal had been unrestricted. must give at least 14 days notice of termina- The collective agreement in the metal-proc- tion. essing industry provides that the number of Act No. 261 provides for severance pay only days' notice given prior to separation of an if the termination is not deemed justified by employee shall be according to the following the conduct of the employee or circumstances schedule: of the enterprise, and then only when the Dave' notice regaling worker is 20 years of age or over and has been By employer //worker employed continuously in the enterprise for After 1 Year 14 7 at least 1 year. For employees age 20-29, com- After3 years ..... 28 7 5 years...... 56 10 pensation need not exceed the employee's sal- Atter ary corresponding to one-half the period of Absence due to illness, child birth, or mili- notice; the law prescribes up to 3 months' tary service are not counted as work interrup- salary for an employee age 30 years and over tions, nor is interruption of work because of who has worked less than 10 years for the machine stoppages or shortages of material. No enterprise, 4 months for those who have 10-14 worker may be discharged during the first 3 years of service, and 6 months for 15 years months of absence due to illness; termination and over. These provisions also apply when notices cannot be given by either party during a salaried employee terminates his employ- holidays; termination of employment during a ment because of a gross breach of contract holiday period requires 7 days' notice before by the employer. Act No. 261 also provides the commencement of the holiday. The - for compensation to the employer for losses tor has to pay to the opposite party a penalty incurred when an employee quits work with- equaling the minimum time rate plus cost- out cause, or if the employer terminates the of-living allowance for each working day the employment because of gross breach of con- party was in violation. The agreement also tract by the employee. A salaried employee contains detailed provisions concerning termin- cannot be dismissed because of absence due to ation of employment for piece-time work. illness, unless he has a written agreement with Data are not available on notice periods and the employer stating that, after 1 month's no- tice, he may be dismissed if he has received separations for civil servants. his salary during absence from sickness for 120 days during any 12 consecutive months. Disciplinary Actions Collective agreements covering workers other Disciplinary actions are covered by both than salaried employees provide for consider- ably less favorable terms than those specified legislation and collective agreements. The lat- in Act No. 261, but are more detailed and ter restate and frequently supplement the laws, broader in some aspects covered. Both sides and contain rules (with penalties for violations) still recognize the provisions of the Main Agree- which are legally enforceable and binding. ment regarding dismissals even though the Friction between employees and supervisors

44 I

arising in the application of work rulesset by (2) employment is terminated because of the collective agreements is reduced, however,by employee's gross breach of contract. Suchcom- discussion of problems with management,es- pensation in the former instance is set at half pecially the works council, before the prob- a month's salary, except under special circum- lems become acute; thui disciplinary actions stances. Absence due to illness is unlawful if are not frequent. the employee contracted the diseaseintention- Some laws have a separate sectionor chapter ally or through during the periodof covering penalties or "inspection, penalties, employment, or deliberately concealed the fact etc.," which usually appears at or toward the that he was suffering from the disease inques- end of the law, and frequently refers backto tion when he first reported for duty. Anem- particular sections and paragraphs. Thissep- ployee may be discharged without noticeif arate penalty coverage may bea general one after illness of more than 14 days he failsto against any person who acts in contravention provide the employer, should heso request, with of the law, or it may have paragraphsrefer- further particulars froma medical specialist ring to the employer or the employee. In other concerning the duration of the illness. legislation,thepenaltyprovisions appear When agricultural and domestic workers who throughout the text of the law. receive part of their pay in board fail to report Penalties against employers in mostcases for work or are dismissed for failure to report are fines," but some laws have penalty clauses at the stipulated time they mustpay the em- calling for "fines or imprisonment," andsome ployer the following amounts: the equivalent carry the statement "subject to fine unlessmore of 1 month's wages if the -contractwas for 1 severe punishment is provided by other legis, month, or of 2 months'wages if the contract lation." li Only in rarecases is the amount of was for more than 1 month (Act No. 156). fine given, usually in terms ofan upper or The employer is also entitled to demand lower limit; and the length ofimprisonment, compensation for any loss involved when if indicated, is ordinarily a an upper limit only. worker over age 18 receives notification ofa Two laws provide for penalties againstwork- date for callup for national civilianor mili- ers who violate rules on reporting for work, tary service and fails to notify the employer termination notices, or illness-connectedab- at once. No information is availableconcern- sence. Act No. 261 concerning salariedem- ing penalties against otherwage earners for ployees entitles the employer tocompensation infractions of rules, other than thoseconcern- for losses incurred when (1)an employee quits, ing health and safetyas described under or fails to start work, without goodcause, or Health and Sanitation.

Chapter X. Hours of Workand Premiums Hours of Work 1971-78 provides for a 40- week for work- A March 1969 agreementbetween the LO ers on second or third shifts. and the DEC, covering allwage and salary Collective agreements between management earners in the private sector, set weeklyhours and labor federations or unions supplement the of work at 41 8/4 for the periodSeptember general agreement. They also make provisions 1, 1970, to , 1971. Thiscontinued the trend toward a shorter workweekwhich had *E.g., in the case of the employer who fails to reduced weekly hours from 48in 1955 to 45 pay the annual leave remuneration, take out and keep by 1965. (The reduction in up the payments on an industrial injuries insurance the weekly hours policy, or report a work accident; or who refuses to to be worked impliesa rise in hourly rates of give a salaried employee a certificate of employment paysee below under Base Pay.) Thedecrease or advertises a job opening for a salaried employee without observing the law thereon. in working hours is being P applied also to the *E.g., Act 226 of 1954 on occupational safety, public sector. The LO/DECagreement for health, and welfare (general). 45 for the timing of daily hours of work. For agricultural and domestic workers paid in part example, the 1969-71 collective agreement for by board (or by board and lodging), the weekly mechanical engineering and metalworking in- and daily hours of work "shall not exceed the dustries provides that the management of each number of hours fixed by generally applicable establishment shall set the normal daily work- agreements covering adult workers, or the num- ing hours, after submitting its proposals to ber usually applying in towns or rural districts, its workers. These hours shall be between 6 as the case may be." If obliged to work addi- a.m. and 5. p.m., and intervals for lunch and tional hours as a result of disruptions caused rest shall total not less than 1/2 hour nor more by accident or natural phenomena, the em- than 2 hours. Five of the weekly workdays ployee shall have corresponding time off as must be of the same length, and no workday soon as circumstances permit. If he is called on may be shorter than 8 hours for a 5-day week to do nightwork he shall have the same number or 7 hours for each of 5 days for a 6-day week. of hours off the following day. The reduction in working hours from 421/2 Provisions relating to hours of work in Act to 418/4 a week may be accomplished by grant- No. 226 do not apply to civil servants. Any ing a sufficient number of Saturdays off dur- general working rules which are not in con- ing the course of the year. Although the weekly formity with those laid down in the Act must average may not exceed 413/4 hours, weekly be approved by the Minister of Labor, who hours may vary, but no workweek may ex-,shall also decide whether and to what extent coed 45 hours. the hours-of-work regulations shall apply to By law (Act No. 226, ch. 5; Act No. 227, public employees of localauthorities. The ch. 5), workers in the private sector must be shortening of the workweek to 413/4 hours allowed a rest period of at least 11 consecutive for nongovernment workers was extended to hours in every period of 24 hours, except in civil servants also. Breaks are discounted only certain stipulated cases. Special regulations ap- when over 30 minutes. With a practice of a ply to the bakery industry; exemptions in other 30-minute lunch hour, the effective workweek industries are provided for accidents, break- became 38 3/4 hours beginning September downs of machinery, and repairs. The rest 1970. No information is available as to limits period may be reduced to 8 hours for workers on the amount of overtime governing civil changing to another shift, in certain areas of the servants. baking industry, and in storerooms; and gen- Closing hours for shops and warehouses are erally to 9 consecutive hours for loading and fixed by law at 5:30 p.m. for Mondays through unloading activities. Act No. 226 provides that Thursdays, at 8 p.m. for Fridays, and at 2 p.m. the Minister of Labor, after consultation with on Saturdays. Exemptions may be granted for certain top government officials, may regulate Saturday closings, however, particularly for rest and driving periods for vehicle drivers in kiosks and stores in railway stations. transport work. Collective agreements usually govern over- Nightwork time work. The 1969-71 metal-processing in- dustry agreement provides that the extent of Nightwork is regulated chiefly by collective overtime "should as a rule be agreed upon bargaining, although some legislation is in ef- between the representative of the employer and fect, e.g., that concerning the closing of shops each individual worker in person." The agree- (Act No. 264 of , 1970) and, to some ment stipulates, however, that overtime shall degree, Acts Nos. 226, 227, and 228 of 1954, as not exceed 6 hours in any one week or 16 amended. These acts that adult work- hours in any' consecutive 4 weeks. Should - ers have a rest period of 11 consecutive hours gent reasons require further overtime, joint permission of the management and the shop in every 24-hour period, but do not specify steward of the establishment is required; such except for bakeries when these shall be taken. overtime is "normally to be counterbalanced by In bakeries "the rest period shall include the compensatory leave within 6 months subse- hours between 8 p.m. and .4 a.m.," but legisla- quent to the performance of the work." tion permits numerous exceptions to this stipu- Under Act No. 156 of 1961, which covers lation. Tne acts also provide that the Labor

46 Inspection Service may permit departure from Adult Adult stales fen s/a the "11-hour" provision. Weekday. Young people under 18 years ofage in most After hours cases must be allowed 12 consecutive hours 1st and 2d hours 3.40 3.00 3d and 4th hours 6.50 4.60 out of each 24 for night rest. Generally, such 6th hour and thereafter 11.00 9.10 young people may not work (1) between6 Before normal hours p.m. and 6 a.m. in manufacturing and handi- Between 6 a.m. and 6 p.m.._... 6.30 6.00 craft, transport, and building and construction Between 6 p.m. and 6 am. 11.00 9.20 industries (except for vocational trainees of Weekday holiday 16-18 years of age in continuous operations Between 6 am. and 5 p.m.. 6.30 6.30 such as ironworks, steelworks, glassworks, Between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. 11.00 9.20 paper mills, and raw factories) ; or (2) Sundays and holidays Beginning of normal day to 13 noon.... 3.00 6.60 between 8 p.m. and 4 a.m. in workships of 12 noon till beginning of normal hours 11.00 9.20 bakeries and confectioneries, and 8p.m. and Sunday morning preceding beginning of normal working hours 5 a.m. in dairies. In several other typesof 11.00 9.20 During meal interval when displaced by enterprises young people may not start work more than 34 hour before 6 a.m., but their evening quitting time 4.60 4.60 varies. Young people aged 16-18may work as Thus, the overtime premiums for male workers, late as midnight in , "public houses," as a percentage of normal base pay (not in- inns, etc, (10 p.m. for those ages 14-16) cluding cost-of-living allowance), amounted to ; those 62.8 percent for the first 2 hours, 101.7 percent under 18 in distribution centers andware- for the second 2 hours, and 203.3 percent (1) houses may work until 10p.m. or "after the for any hours over 4 during normal after- hour in the evening prescribed by the legisla- hours, (2) for work before normal hoursor tion in force for the closing, of such premises during a weekday holiday performed during to the public." the period 5 p.m. to 6 a.m., or (3) on Sundays and holidays after 12 noon or on. a Sunday Overtime Premium morning preceding a normal workday. Com- pared with base pay plus cost-of-living allow- Danish legislation,like that in Sweden, ance, }Ice.* Ter, the overtime premiums are only omits any general regulation of overtimepay, 33.7 perm. it, 54.5 percent, and 109.0 percent, on the principle that this should be settled in respectively. collective bargaining. In the civil service, compensatory time off is According to official sources, overtimepre- usually given for overtime, at the rate of time miums on weekdays are-normally 25 and one-third. However, if compensatory time percent off is not granted within the next following of the regular hourly pay for thefirst hour, 33 percent for the second, 55 percent month or if overtime exceeds 11 hours within for the any one month, overtime payment at one and third, and 100 percent for the fourth,and on one-third normal pay, in lieu of compensatory Sundays and holidays 100 percentalthough time off, must be paid. sometimes only 50 percent is paid for Sunday and holiday hours beforenoon. Nonofficial Paid Leave sources claim, however, that many companies do not grant overtime premiumsto all their Special legislation on annual leave with pay workers. They state that premiumsare given- was introduced in 1938. It has been developed only to workers whoare unionized and that further through subsequent legislation, culmi- middle.. pd upper-level employeesseldom bene- nating in two Acts: Act No. 273 of fit. covers practically all wage and salary earners except civil servants ;and Act No. 156 of Overtime premium rates in the metal-pro- covers those agricultural and domes- cessing industries are higher than thenorm. tic workers who receive part of their re- According to the 1969-71 agreementthey were muneration as board. Under these acts, em- as follows, in Danish kroner per hour: ployees accumulate paid annual leave at the rate

47 of 1 1/2 days per month, for amaximum of 3 to illness, provided he has been employed in weeks a "leave" year (April 1 toMarch 31) . an enterprise for as much as 1 year. Nowaiting Civil servants under age 50 also earn3 weeks' period is required, however, if the leave results annual leave a year; those age 50 and over earn from a job-related injury and he has been em- 4 weeks annually. Collectiveagreements con- ploye& by the employer for 6 consecutive days tain clauses restating the legislation;however, when the injury occurs. A Danish civil ser: the new 1971-73 LO-DEC agreementprovides vant's employment normally will not be termi- that annual leave will be increased by 8 days nated until after 1 year of illness. If he has beginning March 1, 1972, and to 4 weeksbe- worked 3 consecutive years (2 for persons ginning March 1, 1973. The legislation govern- aged 50 and over) during which he has taken ing public sector employees is beingchanged no more than 5 weeks' sick leave,his pay will to conform with this new practice. not be reduced until he has been out on sick The law requires every person entitledto leave for 30 weeks (42 weeks for those age 50 annual leave, with few exceptions, to takethe and over). number of days of leave to which he is en- Civil servants receive normal pay during an- titled. Any agreement waiving the right to nual leave, and an annual leave bonus of 1 1/2 paid leave under Act 278 is null and void, and percent of total annual pay. Other salaried em- the employer entering into such an agreement ployees generally receive their normal pay dur- is liable to a fine.. Also, if an employee works ing vacation or sick leave, and are also en- for remuneration during his annual leave, he titled during the vacation period to a holiday forfeits his right to leave pay for the entire supplement amounting to three-fourths of 1 per- leave period. cent of the total salary on which the leave is Annual leave is taken according to schedules based. The worker whose normal pay does not agreed to between employers and unions or in- continue during the vacation or sick period, dividuals;. however, Act No. 273 sets certain primarily the wage worker paid by the day or restrictions on the timing of the leave. When week or by piece rate, is entitled to 6 1/2 the accrued leave of the nonagricultural worker percent of his total earnings for the previous is of 12 days or less, it must be given, and year (previous month for computationof sick taken, at one time, during the "leave season" leave pay) plus the three-fourths of 1 percent (May 2 to September 80). The days in excess holiday premium during the vacation period. of 12 must also be given at one time except Act No. 273 provides that payment ofthe when rendered unfeasible by production re- vacation pay for nongovernment workers shall quirements. An employer may close his estab- be accomplished by a leave stamp plan ad- lishment and give his entire work force annual ministered by the Post Office, unless equally leave at one time, but he must abide by certain favorable arrangements are otherwise provid- restrictionsto protect the interest of the ed. Concerns, trades, or occupations mayhave workers. Agricultural workers must be given and administer their own plans, coveredin a at least 6 days, at one time, during the "leave collective agreement. Civil service or other gov- season," and at least 6 days of the additional ernment service rules generally cover state leave at one time. The remainder of leave may and local government employees. be given as single days, but three of these must Available information does not indicate that fall between May 1 and . The timing any overall labor laws or collectiveagreements of the leave for agricultural and domestic require employers to grant paid maternity workers paid partly in board (Act No. 156) leave for female workers. Act No. 226 ofJune differs only slightly. Excepted from the regu- 1954, as amended during 1956-68, hintsthat lations requiring that at least part of the leave such legislation has been under consideration, be taken during the "leave season" are the mili- by the statement "until such time as newstatu- tary and persons employed aboard ships. tory provision may be made regarding theright Most workers are legally entitled to paid sick of women workers to maternity leaye ...," leave. of up to 3 months' in any one year. Act but apparently as yet none has beenpassed. No. 273 provides that this leave shall be grant- Female employees covered by Act No.261 on ed to every worker after 3 days' absence due salaried employees, however, are entitledto

48 partially paid maternity leave. The act requires DKr8.00 per hour for males and DKr6.60per that the employer pay awoman salaried em- hour for females for work from the beginning ployee one half of her salary "for up to 5 months of the daily normal working hours until12 as from the commencement of her in-capacity noon, and of DKr11.00 and DKr9.20, respec- for work (but not more than 3 months before tively, from 12 noon until the beginningof the confinement) until 3 months after confinement." normal working hours or for the Sundaymorn- The same obligation pertains if the employer, ing preceding the beginning of the daily work- notwithstanding the fact that the employee is ing hours. (See also Overtime Premiums.) not incapacitated for work, "does not consider it possible for him to employ her." Holiday Premiums For a description of daily allowances re- ceived by employed persons on leave due to Work on statutory holidays by employees in sickness or confinement, see General Social In- industry,crafts, building and construction, surance System. laboratories, and transport, and in storerooms and warehouses is prohibited by Act No. 226 Periodic Rest Day Premium of 1954. The Act stipulates that the holiday must be of 24 hours, within the period from Sunday is the traditional weekly day of rest 10 p.m. on the evening preceding the holiday for Danish employees. Act No. 226the Oc- and 8 a.m. following the holiday. Act 227re- cupational Safety, Health, and Welfare (Gen- quires that the 24-hour period begin before eral) Actprohibits employment of workers the hour the worker normally begins work. between 10 p.m. on Saturday, or on an evening Both Acts prohibit work on preceding a statutory holiday, and 8a.m. on after 12 noon. Numerous exceptions to these Monday, or on the day following the holiday. provisions, however, are contained in both acts. Excepted from these provisionsare those in- The following 13 dates are observed national- dustries or activities which, in the public in- ly as holidays. However, two of these, Christ- terest, cannot be shut down, suchas transpor- and 's Eves, are only half-day tation and communications; public utilities, holidays, beginning at noon, and are granted by custom, not by law. Labor Day also is nota , and health, religious, fire fighting, statutory holiday, and government offices and police, and guard services; hotels and restau- commercial undertakings do not close, but in- rants, bakeries, daieies, and care of animals dustrial establishments and banks generally do. and plants ; and work considered indispensable New Year's Day in order to prevent damage to plant, machinery, Maundy Thursday Variable raw materials, or products. In addition, thb Good Friday Variable , Monday Variable Minister of Labor is empowered, but only inso- Labor Day" ...... --May 1 far as necessary, to grant exemptions from the Prayer Day , - _Variable (May 7 in 1971) prohibition of employmenton Sundays in Ascension Day Variable Whitmenday Variable special cases. The act stipulates that, insofar Constitution Day (1/2 day) June 6 as possible, time off for a correspondingnum- Eve (1/2 day) " December 24 Christmas Day December 26 ber of hours during normal hours of workshall Day after Christmas ...December U be granted to compensate for therest period New Year's Eve (1/4 day) " December $1 a worker may lose through work on Sunday. " Not statutory. Collective agreements implement thelegal Salaried workers, including civil servants, provisions and regulate paymentfor work on who work on an approved holiday usually are Sundays .and other days of rest. Workrules granted compensatory time but no holiday under the 1969-71 mechanical engineeringand bonus. metalworkers agreement providethat work Collective agreements usually contain clauses shall be planned to permit the"best possible restating and frequently extending the statu- Sunday freedom." For workon Sunday and tory provisions regarding holidays; many of holidays, these rules providefor premiums of them also grant a holiday bonus for work on

49 statutory holidays or other holidays covered in Folketing elections. In addition,it provides the agreement. The 1969-71 agreement cover- that for work on holidays, the following bon- ing the metal-processing industry, for example, uses (`allowances ") in kroner per hour work- states that beyond holidays on weekdays "as ed, shall be paid : are at any time prescribed by law, May 1st Adult Adult shall be considered a whole day off," and Con- stades females stitution Day as 1/2 day off beginning at 12 From the beginning of the daily normal hours till 12 noon 8.00 11.30 noon; it also provides for time off to participate From 12 noon till the beginning of the in funerals and to vote in municipal and normal working hours 11.00 9.20

Chapter XI. Wages and Supplemental Payments

Base Pay Collective agreements fix rates as time rates (hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, or annual) or Denmark has no nor as piece rates. Since 1930, the proportion be- any other general legislation regulating the tween hours worked on time rates and on level of wages, although there is special legis- piecework has been fairly constant at 60:40, lation regarding compensation for leave and but certain branch and industry variations can payments in the form of social insurance. (See be found. Accident and Occupational Disease Compensa- Base pay in Denmark generally is related tion and General Social Insurance System.) to the level of responsibility, difficulty, and As in Sweden, determination of wages by nego- hazards of the job, as well as to qualifications, tiation and collective agreement is preferred, education, skill, sex, and age. Length of serv- and such arrangements are highly developed; ice is also a factor, especially in government this principle extends even to civil servants, service. Women in most cases are paid less than although such negotiations eventually culmi- men for similar work. Some narrowing of the nate in a legislative enactment of pay rates for gap between the pay of the two sexes has been this group of workers. Cost-of-living allow- apparent during recent years, and there is con- ances form an important part of total pay; siderable agitation for closing it entirely, as they frequently equal, and in some cases ex- well as for opening up higher ranking jobs for ceed base pay. As a matter of fact, in Denmark women and jobs for which women have tradi- the term "base pay" is generally understood tionally been considered less suitable than men. as a combination of base pay and cost-of-living Two different wage systems are used in Dan- allowances, and carries this meaning in all ish industry: the standard-wage and the mini- official statistics. Throughout this section it mum-wage system. According to the stand- will have that meaning unless otherwise in- -wage system, all workers are paid the wage dicated. The only actual figures available which stipulated in the collective agreement, and only show base pay excluding cost-of-living allow- in special cases can exceptions be made. Col- ance are those in the metal industry agreement. lective agreements utilizing the standard-wage A basic national wage pattern is established system, however, usually provide "for payment by central wage negotiations between the Dan- on special jobs, such as difficult or dirty work, ish Employers' Confederation and the Danish bonuses for work at a certain height and for Federation of Labor (LO), which are held dangerous work, as well as bonuses for work in every 2 years. Within this framework, wages in particularly cold weather, and many other types individual industries are established by nego- of special-job payment." In recent years, job tiation between their constituent organizations. evaluation has been used by some companies Affiliated enterprises then work out agreements (e.g.,in the pharmaceutical and cigarette- with their workers on the basis of the in- manufacturing industries), to fix the job pay- dustry agreement. ment in k 'more systematic manner; payment

50 based on job evaluation forms only a part of summoned to participate in the negotiations. the wage-usually 10-15 percent of the total If agreement stillis not obtained, the rate wage. shall be 15 percent less than the localaverage The minimum-wage system, which is also of the group of workers in the establishment called the flexible wage system, is based upon during the preceding quarter, but not less than the idea that the wage fixed in the collective the general minimum contained in theagree- agreement is only a lower limit whereas the ment. When piecework rates are fixed by time wage for specialized workers is fixed in each studies, these "must be establishedon the individual case as a personal wage, which as basis of a local agreement as directed by a rule is substantially higher than the minimum agreement between the organizations." wage. The metal industry agreement utilizes Average wages of workers in building and the flexible, or minimum, wage system. The construction are higher than those paid in most General Rules for Time Rates of its 1969-71 manufacturing industries. In the third quarter agreement lists the minimums and then pro- of 1969, average hourly earnings for adult vides that the wage of each worker "is ar- building and construction workers (DKr15.76) ranged by individual agreement betwee. the were exceeded only by those in the graphic employer or his representative and the worker industry (DKr16.69). (See table 9.) Bever- without interference from the Trade Union or ages (DKr15.31) and the transport equipment its members"; the Special Rules for Time Rates manufacturing (DKr14.82) were also high- provide for special rates or for negotiations of paying industries. Average earnings wereow- additional wages in many instances-hazard- est in the food (DKr11.97), tobacco (DKr- ous construction work, use of own tools and 11.10), textile (DKr11.87), and footwear and transport, furnace stokers, etc. clothing (DKr11.22) industries. Whereas DKr- The 1969-71 agreement for the metal in- 13.18 (in the food industry) was the lowest dustry, provided for general minimum rates per average for men, wages for females exceeded hour for time workers, divided into several cate- DKr11.00 only in the beverage (DKr13.42), gories; increases were stipulated for March 1, graphics (DKr11.68), and stone, clay, and glass 1970, and , 1970. The September (DKr11.24) industries. Average earnings of 1970 rates of minimum base pay listed, and young people aged 14-18 years were about half, the cost-of-living allowances which became ef- or less than half, those of adults; and were fective September 7, 1969, were as follows, in highest for those employed in the rubber and kroner per hour: chemical industries, and lowest in transport- Minimum Cad -of- living equipment manufacturing. Total base Pay allowance All adult male and adult skilled females 10.09 5.41 4.85 TABLII 9.AWIRAOS SOURLY EARNINGS' FOR ADULT WORK- Unskilled females age IS ERS IN ammo= INDUSTRIES, JULY-811101EMBIER 1969 and over 8.95 417 1.11 Unskilled females under 11 (In Danish kroner') and males age 18-13 .. 1.30 2.07 1.71 Industry a Average Male Males age 14-18 1.56 1.71 Female NOTE: Mr1=U1110.113. Building and construction 15.711 15.711 .. Manufacturing Food 11.97 111.19 10.40 The minimum base pay was set at the same re 1511 10.01 111.12 Tobacco 11.10 11.10 10.17 rate for all adult males regardless of skill. On Textile 11.17 12.79 10.21 Footwear sad clothing 11.22 111.50 10.75 the other hand, adult females received this Wood manufacturing 11.51 11.03 10.11 Furniture 13.13 111.11 10.75 same rate if skilled, but 20 percent less if un- Paper 1117 14.42 11.00 Graphic 10.119 17.52 11.13 skilled. This lower rate was about 5 percent Leather and leather products 1E27 11.15 10.19 Rubber 12.31 11.34 10.10 below the cost-of-living allowance applicable Chandcal 12.71 15.29 10.11 Oil and products ISAR 111.89 10.70 to this group. (For a discussion of cost-of-living Stone, elm, and glass 11.49 15.82 11.21 Metal, and metal products 11.75 14.13 10.40 allowances, see Supplemental Payments.) Trapoequipment 1112 14.85 11.42 With regard to piecework rates, the metal Miscemrtllaneous 12.10 13.55 10.42 Includes cost-of-Ilving allowances and overtime pay.Kxchades industry agreement of 1969-71 states that such vacation allowance and payment for church festival days. rates shall be established between the employer 2 DItrImUSS0.11S. and the worker or workers at the plant. If no 'International Standard Industrial Classifications. SOURCE: Denmark, Danish Statistical()Mee, Statietik Arbog agreement is reached, the shop steward may be 1271 (Satietleal Yearbook 1971), p. 319. 51 TABLE 10.AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGSIN VARIOUS DKr11.37 (for workers in the sugar industry) OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES, 1969 to DKr15.18 (for printing workers) ; and of (In Danish kroner 'I female workers, from DKr9.38 (for laundry Vacation workers) to DKr12.26 (for brewery workers). Base and other Occupation Total pay 2 additional In the ceramics industry, the DKr11.97 for pay' females compares with DKr14.22 for unskilled SKILLED MALE WORMS male workers. Unskilled males in the rubber Bricklayers 20.76 18.78 1.98 Lithographers 0.67 17.39 2.24 and metal industries averaged DKr13.22 and Carpenters 19.04 17.21 2.17 Joiners 18.82 17.02 1.80 DKr12.69 respectively, compared with DKr- Typographers 18.53 16.02 2.61 Plumbers 18.27 16.12 2.11 9.98 and DKr10.32 for females. (See table 10). Bookbinders 18.01 16.14 1.87 Painters 17.65 15.96 1.69 The only up-to-date information availableon Moulders 17.48 15.73 1.75 Upholsterers 17.38 15.72 1.66 salaries of clerical and other office personnel Electricians 17.36 15.53 1.83 Smiths and mechanics 16.84 14.99 1.35 in private industry are those of Ships carpenters 16.46 14.70 1.76 - and silvenmiths 16.09 14.58 1.51 for a major commercial bank. In 1970, salaries Mechanical Joiners .______15.75 14.54 1.51 Cabinetmaker* 15.75 14.23 1.62 of this bank's general officeworkers and clerks, Shoemakers 15.22 13.75 1.47 Morro:lacers 12.74 11.46 1.28 paid according to age, ranged from DKr16,727 UNSKILLED MALE WOSKEILS annually for the unskilled officeworker age Printing workers 17.92 15.13 2.74 Brewery workers 16.61 14.09 2.62 18 years to DKr51,217 for a junior cashier age Earth and concrete worker 16.35 14.69 1.66 Hodmen 16.32 14.77 1.56 Dockworkers 16.15 14.42 1.73 33, as shown in thousands of Danish kroner Workers in ceramic Industry 16.05 14.22 1.33 Rubber industry workers 14.92 13.22 1.30 per year, including cost-of-living allowances: Workers In paper industry .. 14.38 12.32 2.56 Glass workers 14.77 12.00 2.77 workers 14.51 12.81 1.70 Offineworkers Bank deka Metal industry workers 14.31 12.69 1.62 workers 14.05 11.74 2.31 Oil industry workers 14.04 12.22 1.82 Un- Expo- Junior Textile workers 13.66 11.87 1.79 Age skilled rionced Basic Trained cashier Enginemen in wood industry - 13.11 12.10 1.41 Other workers in wood 18 years 16.7 24.8 industry 13.21 11.67 1.64 21 years 24.4 27.5 27.9 Driven 18.05 11.58 1.47 24 years Workers in sugar industry 13.05 11.37 1.68 28.8 81.3 32,1 34.5 40.8 Warehouse workers 12.77 11.38 1.39 27 years 29.4 35.1 36.7 38.5 44.7 30 years 30.3 17.1 39.9 41.2 47.5 FEMALE WORKER/ 33 years 81.7 33.5 42.6 43.9 51.2 Brewery workers 14.18 12.26 2.82 3$ years 33.1 89.9 44.3 47.7 Workers In cersmlc industry - 18.24 11.97 1.27 I') Bookbinders 12.13 11.22 1.31 Paper goods industry workers . 12.19 10.30 1.39 ' Automatic transfer upward. Seamstresses 12.06 10.92 1.14 Cardboard industry workers 11.72 10.47 1.25 NOTE: DICrI=US80.183. Chocolate industry workers 11.67 10.32 1.35 Metal industry workers 11.60 10.62 1.23 Rubber industry workers _ _ 11.15 9.98 1.17 Clgarmakers(unskilled) ...._ . 11.16 10.03 1.12 Textile workers 11.98 9.81 1.27 TJe bank's officials and head clerks are paid Footwear industry workers .... _ . 10.94 6.90 1.04 Cleaning workers 10.63 9.60 1.03 according to seniority in class; in 1970 their Laundry workers 10.36 9.38 .98 salaries were as follows,in thousands of DSO =USS0.133. kroner per year, also including cost-of-living s Base pay and east-of-living allowance combined. Excludes overtime allowances:

SOURCE: Denmark. Danish Statisticel °Met Stetietik Arta. Hood clerks Senior officials 071 (Statistical Yearbook 1971). p. 320. and Junior Year °Odds Clam 11 Clue 1st 57.2 73.4 96.0 122.9 There is a fairly wide spnead (about 60 per- 4th _ 59.7 77.0 99.8 128.4 7th 62.6 30.8 104.0 138.3 cent) in base pay plus cost-14.living allowance 10th 66.1 84.2 107.8 118.8 between the highest anOwest paid occupa- 13th 68.7 87.8 111.6 143.7 tions among skilled workers; the spread among 16th - 91.4 115.6 147.9 unskilled male workers and female workers is NOTE: DKr1=US80.11111. apparently little more than 80 percent. Base pay of male skilled workers, including cost- Table 11 shows that money wages for per- of-living allowances, ranged in 1969 from manent hired workers in agriculture, which DKr11.46 (for cigarmalcers) to DKr18.78 (for are slightly higher during the peak months bricklayers); of unskilled male workers, from of agricultural activity (November-April, in-

52 elusive, for cattlemen, and May-October, in- The latest data available on actual base pay clusive, for regular farmhands), vary according for Danish civil servants are those for 1969, to position and age group. Farm laborers age which show a range from DKr16,400 to DKr- 16 and under receive wages about 30-35 per 100,978 a year, but later data on salaries in- cent less than those age 17-20, who in turn cluding allowances are available. The Govern- average 3-10 percent less than those age 21 ment reached an agreement with the civil and over. servants' organizations in May 1970 to adjust rates upwards in April 1970 and further in TABLE 11.AVERAGE MONEY-WAGES OF AGRICULTURAL October 1970. According to this agreement the EMPLOYEES,1969-70AND1970-71 annual net take-home pay including allowances, (In Danish kroner beginning October 1, 1970, was DKr27,188-

Half-year engagement Wholayear 110,382. entrapment, Category May-OetoberNovember-AprilNovember-October The same pay levels and pay practices are expected from foreign employers operating in '969 19701969-701970-711969-701970-71 Denmark as from Danish employers. The Cattlemen 21 years and over 8.98610.062 9,07911.15618.57622.119 Embassy in Denmark as in other Farm foreman 8.711 (2) (2) (2) 16,755 (2) Farmhands foreign countries bases it pay scales for local (average) ..... 6,399 7.2956.077 7.023 129.,833 14.633 Under 17 years 4.618 6.3674.212 4.903 701 10,399 employees on those prevailing in the Danish 17-20 years - - 6.772 7.6816,530 7,75311,83016,283 21 years and civil service. over 7.413 8.4907,143 8.19014,23216.489

DKr1=US50.133. 2 Not available. Supplemental Payments SOURCE: Denmark. Danish StatisticalOfilce, Math& Arty, 1970 (Statistical Yearbook 1970). p. 315. and Staletik Arbes 1th (Statistical Yearbook 1971). p. 317. Supplemental pay as an addition to base pay consists primarily of cost-of-living allowances The compensation and classification of Dan- but also includes various other smaller pay- ish central government employees is establish- ments. Cost-of-living allowances usually are ed by law, currently Act B No. 18 of June 18, cited separately from base pay in the collective 1969. The act recognizes the bargaining rights agreements but are included as part of base of certain national unions of civil servants, pay in the officialstatistics. In the official and, in principle, civil servants' pay must be statistics, other smaller supplementary pay- negotiated with these unions. However, when ments usually are lumped together as "vaca- the two parties cannot agree, the issue is de- tion and other additional pay, excluding over- cided by the Folketing, which generally will time." adopt the Government's bill. Utilizing as a base, the Bureau. The basic 'schedule for civil servants con- of Labor Statistics computes and publishes the sists of 52 pay rates arranged in 40 brackets; cost-of-living index semiannual (in January automatic "in-grade" promotions are granted and July), as required by Act No. 83 of March every 2 years up to a maximum of six in the 1963. Pay must be adjusted on April 1 and lower grades. A post differential is paid to October 1, by 8 percent for each 8 percent flue- compensate for the higher cost of living in° ,tuation in the index as announced the pre- greater Copenhagen and other urban areas. vious January and July, respectively. Points The differential is graduated according to the in excess of a 3-percent step are transferred level of the basic salary rate; it is not paid to to the next period. The average cost-of-living persons in the upper 10 brackets. The com- allowances provided in the metalworkers agree- bined basic and post differential pay is subject to semiannual adjustment according to the ment of 1969-71 were close to the minimum cost-of-living index which uses 1963 as a base time rates. In 1969-70 (after the July 1969 period. The adjustment rate in effect in 1969 index had reached 184), the allowances for was 38 percent; it rose 8 percent by April most time-rated workers were only about 8-9 1970, and was expected to rise another 6 per- percent below, and for adult unskilled females cent by October 1, 1970. Thus it would raise were about 12 percent higher than the mini- the base pay and the post differentials 42 per- mum wage levels, as shown below in Danish cent above 1968. kroner per hour:

5.8 Allowances, Minimum wage. September left March 1870 the first 12 brackets a post differential of 15 All adult male workers 4.68 5.07 percent in the Copenhagen , Skilled female workers above 18 of 10 percent in the Northeast Zealand area, years 4.63 5.07 Unskilled female workers above 18 . 4.61 4.11 and of 5 percent in selected city areas. These Electrician apprentices...... 05 11) rates decline beginning with bracket 18 and Other apprentices .25 (t) AU other workers under 18. 1.73 _ _ disappear entirely after bracket 39. Differen- Female workers under 18 1.89 tials for Copenhagen and Northeast Zealand Male workers see 16-18 1.89 are maintained throughout at three and two Male workers age 14-16 . 1.64 I Not available. times, respectively, those for the other city areas. By July 1970 the cost-of-living index had reach- Some enterprises provide a variety of other ed 139 and by January 1971 had further in- types of fringe benefits. For example, a major creased to 142. For the past several years, the.commercial bank offers, to both clerical and Government has beenactivelyconsidering advanced personnel, education leave, tuition measures other than the index-tied wage ad- fees and books, study travel, cheap restaurant justments to combat the wage-price spiral. facilities, and holiday camps and cottages. Agreement among government, management, and trade union officials as to a substitute Withholdings and Deductions but equitable means of solving the problem had not been reached as of mid-1971. Customary withholdings anddeductions Supplemental payments include the value from employee earnings include income taxes of lodgings and meals which employers cus- and social security contributions authorized by tomarily provide workers in such occupations law, and other deductions authorized by col- as seafaring and agriculture. Collective agree- lective agreements. Before January 1970 in- ments usually stipulate that supplemental pay come taxes were not withheld from salaries be provided for hardships, commuting dis- and wages, though such had been under con- tances, and use of workers' own tools. For sideration for some years. Beginning January example, the metalworkers' agreement provides 1, 1970, however, a PAYE (Pay as You Earn) that clauses in enterprise agreements should system has been in effect and employers are cover allowances for special cases, such as ex- required, by the Withholding Tax Act, to with- traordinarily dirty work or the tending of hold taxes from the paychecks of their em- several machines; when regular furnacemen ployees. The act applies not only to the Federal serve as melting furnace stokers they shall re- but also to the municipal Income ceive DKr2.70 a day in addition to the regu- tax (which varies according to location and is lar time rate. The agreement also stipulates highest in Copenhagen), the church tax (which a DKr0.15 an hour supplemental allowance to in 1967-68 represented about 4.8 percent of specified categories of employees (e.g., joiners, the municipal tax), and the national pension carpenters,coachmakers,andmillwrights) contribution (8 percent of taxable income). for the use of their own tools. It further ac- Employers also are required to withhold cords employees required to work at places from every paycheck the employee's part (one- other than their regular workplace additional third of the total; employers contribute two- pay for any extra time required and payment thirds) of the workers' supplementary pension for use of their own vehicles in the service of contribution(Labor Market Supplementary the enterprise. (See Travel and Transportation Pension Act of March 7, 1964). The total Expenses.) contribution is turned over to the pension fund Post differentials are granted by firms having quarterly. This pension is commonly referred operations in various parts,of the to as ATP (ArbejclantarketetsTillaegspen- country. These customarily are buried in the sion). (See Other Insurance and Retirement regular base pay schedules negotiated at local Systems.) levels; for example, wages Ail various Indial. Collective agreements covering piecework tries average around 10-25 percent higher in employees usually contain clauses which per- Copenhagen than in the rest of the country. mit employers to withhold and/or delay wages The Danish civil service pays its employees in in cases of discharge. For example, the 1969

54 71 metalworkers' agreement recognized the in this bank receive higher pay as they be- right of employers not to pay a worker dis- come,older, as do many hired workers in agri- charged for cause, whether engaged in "single" culture. (See Base Pay.) or "common" piecework, for the piecework he was engaged in at the time of discharge, and "gravel and Transportation Expenses to delay payment of his part on any other piecework until its completion and the terms Travel and transportation allowances usu- were settled. The right to delay payment also ally are covered by collective agreement; the applies (1) in case of discharge for reasons only group of employees covered by law, and for which the worker cannot be blamed, and then only for travel expenses, are salaried em- (2) to workers who leave the workshop accord- ployees. ing to an agreement with the employers. The Public transportation, through the country metalworker on single piecework who leaves and within the cities, is excellent, so that em- the workshop without the employer's ployers as a rule are not required either by and without an urgent reason, forfeits his re- law or collective agreement to assume costs of maining wages, if any, and his right to pay- employee transportation to and from the regu- ment for all piecework started. However, he lar worksite. Some collective agreements do, retains his right to the part of his wages com- however, provide for transportation allowances prising the cost-of-living allowance. for "outside" work (defined as work outside Optional deductions and withholdings are the workshop or the working place where the fairly rare, and require the written authoriza- worker was engaged, provided his work does tion of the employee. Such withholdings do oc- not necessitate' an overnight stay away from cur, for example, to cover payment of loans his home). For example, the 1969-71 metal- granted by an employer or union, or processing agreement provides for transporta- payment of charges incurred at stores tion allowances of at least 1 hour at the es- and cafeterias. There is no union dues checkoff tablished time rate when the distance between system. the regular worksite and the working place is 1-3 kilometers, 2 hours for 3-5 kilometers, Pay Changes and 3 hours for 5-7 kilometers; minimums are set at DKrS, DKr6, and DKr9, respectively. Pay changes are primarily based on a work- The same time rates apply to workers using er's performance and the degree of responsi- their own motor vehicles in the service of their bility he assumes on the job. Employers en- employer, who receive per-kilometer allow- courage their workers to improve existing ances as follows: DKr0.5 for an automobile, skills to qualify for higher pay. As wages nor- DKr0.4 for motorcycle with sidecar, DKr0.35 mally are renegotiated every 2 years at the for motorcycle, and DKr0.2 for motorbike. If generalcollective-bargainingtime, the em- transportation is provided by the employer, ployer expects to grant a pay raise at that transportation time is remunerated at the nor- time to the worker who has increased his effi- mal rate, including the cost-of-living allowance, ciency or assumed more responsibility. This if performed during regular working hours, but practice holds true for the time-rated and es- excluding the allowance if outside those hours. pecially the piecework-rated wage workeras Travel time and work performed while in well as for some salaried employees. travel status (i.e., on official business trips or For the salaried employee, however, pay in- preparing therefor) usually are remunerated at creases for length of service are more com- the normal rate plus cost-of-living allowance. mon, and pay based on age occurs in both Some collective agreements, for example, the wage-rated and salaried employment. Persons one covering the metal-processing industry, on salary generally receive an automatic pay carry this stipulation, but also provide that increase at specific intervals, usually every 2 (as for employer-provided-transportation time) years. This practice is followed in the civil cost-of-living allowance is not applicable to service. In one of the major banks, however, actual time traveling if performed outside nor- the interval for officials is 3 years. On the mal hours. This collective agreement stipulates other hand, general officeworkers and clerks a DEr3 an hour minimum, however, and for

55 traveling during the period from midnight TABLE 12.AVERAGE WAGES IN MANUFACTURING IN- Saturday to midnight Sunday, a DKr5 an hour DUSTRIES, 1969 minimum. Travel time from the time (In Danish kroner Average Male workers the worker leaves the workshop for necessary Category for all Female preparations for the journey, or if outside nor- workersTotal SkilledUnskilledworkers Average hourly wages' mal working hours the time spent for local (in kroner) 15.42 18.15 17.89 15.03 11.64 Base pay plus cost- transportation plus 2 hours for preparation' of-living allow- ance 13.40 14.00 15.66 12.93 10.30 for travel. Piecework pay 15.37 16.26 17.48 16.27 11.24 Travel costs are usually reimbursable. The Tints pay_ _ . 12.16 12.62 14.27 11.70 9.61 Supplements above-mentioned agreement provides for reim- (total) .69 .65 .58 .70 .25 Overtime. - _ . .34 .39 .36 .41 .08 bursement for board and lodging while in Late shift .17 .18 .10 .22 .15 Vacation allow- travel status, based on the level of expenditure ances and Day- . meats for church at the place visited ; for travel work lasting festival days _ 1.43 1.50 1.66 1.40 1.09 Average number of fewer than 8 days, travel expenses are paid workers ' (in thou- sands) 305.4 216.6 96.0 150.6 68.8 againstreceiptedbills,"unlessotherwise Piecework hours as a percent of total agreed." hours 88.6 37.9 43.2 34.5 42.0 Overtime hours as a Act No. 261 provides that work in the serv- percent of total ice of an employer entailing expenses for travel, 4.7 5.3 4.2 6.1 1.4 I DEA =US$0.133. subsistence away from home, and the like en- Wage data are weighted arithmetic averages. titles the salaried employee to payment of all Insured members of trade union funds. SOURCE: Denmark. Danish Statistical °Mee, Stogie& kW/ necessary expenses. The employer shall be re- 1971 (Statistical Yearbook 1971). p. 318. quired to advance the employee a suitable amount for payment of such expenses. The The Danish Employers' Confederation made foregoing applies even where, under the con- a survey for the year 1961 of indirect personnel tract, such expenses are to be paid out of the expenditure, i.e., the social benefits, both com- agreed salary or commission but the sales ef- pulsory and voluntary, for both workers and fected are insufficient to cover normal expenses. salaried employees in enterprises employing Civil servants in travel status receive their 25 workers and over. The survey covered 1,533 regular pay plus per diem and transportation firms with a total of 230,000 wage earners costs. The per diem for a senior civil servant and 67,000 salaried employees. According to is approximately DKr100 a day; the amount the survey, the costs to employers of social is slightly reduced for middle and lower grade benefits, in percent of net wages, was 14.1 per- employees. cent for wage workers and 22.3 percent for salaried employees. The greater percentage for Total Compensation and Costs salaried employees results primarily from vol- Detailed data on total compensation and la- untary benefits given by employers in the form bor costs are not available. Table 12 shows of pensions and death benefits, as shown in the average hourly earnings for 305,400 male following tabulation, in percent of net wages: skilled and unskilled workers and female work- Wage Salaried ers in the manufacturing industry in 1969, in- earnersemployees cluding cost-of-living allowance, overtime and Total 14.1 22.3 Compulsory benefits: late-shift supplementary pay, and vacation Vacation pay 6.6 6.3 allowances and payment for church festival Allowances for public holidays 2.5 3.2 days. (See Base Pay.) According to these data, Sickness benefits .6 - - Employer's liability 1.3 .4 total hourly wages averaged DKr15.42 for all Voluntary benefits: workers-DKr17.89 for skilled and DKr15.03 Other benefits In case of accidents or for unskilled male workers, and DKr11.64 for sickness .3 .2 female workers. Total compensation, excluding Assistance after retirement and death .8 3.3 C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o training ------.4 .5 overtime, for a larger segment of the labor M e d i c a l assistance and health control .1 .1 force in 1969 ranged from an average of DKr- Holiday contributions .1 .1 Contributions to recreations .1 .3 10.36 per hour for female laundry workers, to Personnel welfare departments. etc. .1 .1 DKr20.76 for skilled male bricklayers. (See Housing. etc. .1 .3 Other social benefits 1.5 LI table 10.) Transfer to funds .2 .4

56 The survey indicated that socialbenefits weekly. Payment may be in cash but is in- vary greatly according to the size of enter- creasingly by check. The Federation of Mech- prise. Although the relative size of the com- anical Engineering and Metalworking Jndus- pulsory benefits was, on the whole, independent tries and the Central Organization of Metal of the size of the enterprise, the costs of vol- Workers have produced a booklet titled "14 untary benefits per employee were four times days of Wages and Modern Payment of Wages," as large in enterprises having more than 1,000 with a supplement, "Change-Over to 14-day employees us in those having 25-30 employees. Salaries." The 1969-71 collective agreement For wage workers, the reason for this differ- between the two organizations, whichcovers ence in costs is due primarily to expenses for the largest single group of wageearners in cafeterias, work clothes, and training; greater Denmark, provides for payment of wages on the retirement and death benefits accounted for first Thursday after each 2-week pay period, greater overall benefits to salaried employees. unless a local agreement calls for a paydayon Costs of social benefits differed among the Friday. Wages shall be defrayed in cashor various industries. The benefits were lowest through wage checks deposited in a bankor for wage workers in the building industry (10 , either into a checking account percent, cf. the 14.1 percent overall average for or to be paid on demand. The agreement urges wage workers) and highest in the power sta- payment in the latter, "modern" method but tions (25 percent). For salaried employees, the states that local agreements shall represent variances were- considerably greater; benefits the wish of the majority of workers of a firm. were 14 percent in the furniture industry, 20 At firms in which the majority of workers are percent in the , and 38 per- covered by a different collective agreement, the cent in the beverage industry. wage period shall be that of the majority. The law covering seamen (Act No. 229, of Pay Period Frequency , 1952) requires that payment of wages can be demanded only when the ship is in port The manner and frequency of wage and sal- and not oftener than once a week in anyone ary payments are regulated not by law (ex- country. Wages must be in cash, unless the cept seamen) but by collective agreement. Sal- seaman asks (1) for a draft on the ship owner, aried employees in private enterprise, and civil servants, usually are paid monthly; the col- (2) that they be in the form of a monthly lective agreement may stipulate, however, more allotment to a specified person in Denmark, or frequent payment for the nongovernment em- (3) that they be paid into a Danish banking ployee. Payment is usually by check, frequently institution. In the latter two cases, however, deposited in a bank into an employee's savings only three concurrent allotments can be re- or checking account. quested. Payments in a foreign country may Wage earners as a rule are paid twicea be requested in the local currency at the present month, although some enterprisesstillpay rate of exchange.

Chapter XII.Health, Safety, and Workmen's. Compensation

Health and Sanitation Safety, Health, and Welfare (Commercial Es- tablishments and Offices) Act, No. 227; and Legal provisions concerning health ofem- the Occupational Safety, Health, and Welfare ployees and sanitation in places of employment (Agriculture, Forestry, and Horticulture) Act, are extensive and comprehensive. They are No. 228. The General Act No. 226 is the found mainly in three acts of June 1954: The principal and most comprehensive of the three OccupationalSafety,Health,and Welfare and has been amended, and strengthened, fre- (General)Act, No. 226; the Occupational quently, most recently in by Act

57 No. 245. The Labor Inspection Service and ards for conditions at a fixed workplace to the inspection services of the local authorities protect the health of the worker : under the guidance of the Minister of Labor Ceiling heights of workrooms must be at least 8.2 supervise compliance with most of the provi- feet, and in some cases 9.84 feet. sions of these Acts and of most other regula- tions concerning health and sanitation. (See Air space for each worker in a workroom generally Enforcement.) must be at least 424 cubic feet; however, effective Under the three main laws, any person, ventilation arrangements may lower this figure to whether employer or worker, who violates the 289 cubic feet. Acts or the regulations, orders, or Floors of workrooms must be tight and heat in- thereunder is liable to a fine "provided the sulated, no more than 3.28 feet below ground offense does not carry a more severe penalty level, and impenetrable to ground moisture. under thegenerallegislation."Employers Roofs, walls, and ceilings of workrooms must be must post, and employees must observe, notices tight and heat insulated; coating on walls and containing warnings or caution requirements ceilings must be properly maintained. Papering if so ordered by the Director of the Labor In- of walls and ceilings, if detrimental to health and spection Service. Where any young person cleanliness, may be prohibited.. under age 18 is employed contrary to the legis- Lighting regulations provide that an adequate lation, the employer and also the parent or amount of natural light shall be accessible to guardian are liable to a fine if the work has workers except when detrimental to production, been carried on with their knowledge and con- in which case artificial light shall be of appropri- sent. ate type and power, without glare or objectionable All three acts provide that the employer, shadow effects. when laying out a workplace and production Cleanliness of the workplace is mandatory. Clean- plant and in arranging the work processes ing must normally be done outside working hours shall ensure (1) that the workers are properly and in such a way as not to raise dust. protected against accidents and influences in- Temperature of workrooms must be kept at a level jurious to health, and, (2) by instruction and appropriate to the workers and the nature of the adequate supervision, that the work is done work. with due regard to accident and health risks. Drinking water must be ample, wholesome, fresh, These Acts also require the employer (1) to and easily accessible, and hygienically dispensed. make certain that workers are informed of Adequate washing facilities shall be provided in any dangers of disease and accident involved places convenient to the workroom and shall be in their work and of the rules to be observed kept clean. A hot water supply to the basins, and to avoid such dangers; and (2) to give special bathrooms with hot water, are required under attention to the training of newly engaged certain conditions. workers,apprentices, and young workers. Clothes-changing rooms shall be provided in enter- The workers themselves are obligated, under prises in which workers must change clothes; these Acts, to cooperate in ensuring that the separate facilities for each sex and appropriate arrangements for storing workers' clothing most measures adopted to protect them have the in- be maintained. tended effect. Act 226 covers employment of any kind, Bicycle (and similar vehicle) parking faoilities must be provided for workers using such transporta- whether public or private, in industry, crafts, tion to reach the workplace. building and construction, laboratories, and transport (including loading and unloading), Special working clothes, where the type of work so demands, must be provided by the employer, and work in storerooms and warehouses. The who must also provide for their cleaning should provisions of this act regarding health and that involve unreasonable costs to the employee. sanitation at the workplace and those in Act The affected workers are obliged to use the 227 covering commercial establishments and special working clothes prescribed. offices, whether public or private, are identical. Resting and mess rooms, with facilities for heating The two acts stipulate the following stand-. food and drink, shall be provided for workers to

68 use during the agreed and prescribed luncheon and other breaks. cause him to be examined medically to estab- lish his suitability for the work, unless he pro- Toilets shall be provided in adequatenumber, duces a medical certificate made out within properly arranged and conveniently situated and the past 6 months relating to the same type with lavatories or wash basins andan adequate of employment. The Minister of Labormay supply of toilet paper. Separate facilities for each sex are required unless fewer than five prescribe that persons under age 18 in parti- persons of either sex is employed. cular groups of trades be examined immedi- ately before beginning work and undergo regu- Ventilation, shall be such as to providean adequate lar medical examinations while they are em- supply of fresh air, if necessary by artificial means. ployed; the employer pays the cost of the medical examinations and the necessary certi- Fumes, smoke, poisonous and explosivegases, etc., ficates. Act 226 provides that, for "thepre- in particular workrooms or sections shallbe vention and combating of occupational dis- removed as far as possible at their placeof eases," and in establishments "where the work development and prevented from penetratinginto in other respects involves great health risks, other workrooms. Where contamination of theair is unavoidable, all possiblemeasures shall be ... the Director of the Labor Inspection Serv- taken to protect the workers' health. ice may direct that, as a condition for a work- er's employment in an establishment, he be Humidity shall be kept at normal levels, andwhere medically examined at regular intervals, in- the working process entails a harmful increase in humidity, all possible measures shall be taken cluding where necessary a medical examination to protect the workers therefrom. prior to his entering upon the employment." The workers are required to submit to the Dust levels shall be kept low. The workingprocesses examinations, the costs of which must be paid shall be kept as free from dustas possible, and were the of dust cannot be prevented, by the employer, "apart from the cost of the medical all possible measures shall be takento protect the examinationofworkers over21 workers against it. years of age that may have to be made before the workers start work." Poisonous and other injurious substances shall be The 1954 legislation on agricultural work- replaced by less dangerous substances where possible, but in establishments in which dan- ers has no specifics regarding health and sani- tation at the workplace. Act No. 156 of May gerous substances must be manufactured,Pro- duced, applied, weighed, or packed, allnecessary 1961 covers those agricultural and domestic measures to protect the workers must be taken. workers who receive board and/or lodging The Minister of Labor may prohibit themanu- facture or use o/ particularly dangerous sub- from their employer as part of their remunera- stances, in whole or in part, or require that all tion, and includes, among other things, stand- containers and packing containing them inpure ards for food and lodging provided. The act or mixed form be clearly marked. requires the employer to- supply good, whole- -of-infection provisions require that where the some, adequate, and well-prepared meals con- working process or the circumstances in which the taining the proper amount of necessary nutri- work is carried on involve particulardanger of tive elements. Minimum standards for lodging infection, suitable measures shall be taken against it.. in an employer's are set regarding size, location, condition, persons per room, Sleeping accommodations, properly arranged and heat, light, room furnishings, fresh sheets and separate for men and women, shall be provided by the employer where the location of the work- towels, bath and toilet facilities, egress, insur- place is so remote or isolated that the workers ance on personal belongings, etc. cannot obtain lodging for the nightas a matter Aside from those employing seamen, and of course. agricultural and domestic workers covered by Acts 226 and 227 contain provisionscon- Act No. 156 of 1961, employers rarely provide cerning medical examinations. Identicalpas- food or lodging. Company housing is limited sages in these Acts require that within 4 weeks to one or two fairly large enterprises recently after a person under 18 has beenengaged for established in rural areas, and is not covered work except as a messenger, theemployer shall by legislation.

59 Seamen are covered by the Seamen's Act of danger. The general provisions for the pre- No. 229, June 1952, and Notification No. 9, vention of accidents are as follows : January 1953, covering crew accommodations. a. Buildings, plant, and equipment (including The former provides that the person directing scaffolding, gangways, etc.) must be safely con- the work shall observe the necessary safety structed and properly used and maintained. Where precautions to prevent diseases and accidents, required by circumstances, the employer shall see that the necessary time for rest and sleep be that examinations, tests, or inspections are carried given, that good and sufficient food be pro- out (if appropriate, by experts)to verify the safeness of the construction. vided, and that the master shall superintend b. When laying out buildings and plants, care the hygiene, accommodation, and cleanliness shall be taken that the workplace is provided with on board. It also prohibits employment aboard passageways, staircases, and exits which duly ship of (1) anyone who has not passed the ensure the safety of the workers if fire or other required medical examination, (2) males under dangerous incidents occur, and that any dangerous 15 and females under 18, and (3) males under pits,recesses,etc.,are fenced in or covered. , galleries, etc., shall be properly constructed 18 as trimmers and under 19 as stokers or and maintained. Floors shall be maintained in such motormen. Notification No. 9 covers ships of condition as to avert the danger of falls and to 20 tons or over whose keel is laid or which is permit materials or finished goods to be trans- imported from abroad after January 29, 1958. ported without risk. Lighting shall be adequate to It gives very detailed requirements regarding avoid accidents. crew spaces, including location and structure, c. No worker shall be assigned to a particularly dangerous job if the employer knows or should lighting,ventilation, heating, , and know that the employee is unfit therefor physically cleaning; sleeping rooms (number of persons or mentally. Similarly, the employer must not as- per room, separate sleeping rooms, dimensions, sign a worker whom he knows to suffer from berths, ventilation, cupboards, storage fainting fits, dizziness, hardness of hearing, severe of goods) ; mess rooms; galleys; washrooms; shortsightedness, or any other defects, to jobs in toilets; and hospital accommodations. which such defects are liable to create a special danger to those around him. Aside from those required on ships, facili- d. Enterprises and workplaces must maintain ties for the care of injured or ill employees are first aid supplies considered necessary by the Labor less extensive in working establishments in Inspection Service, whose Director is empowered to Denmark than in many other countries, be- order the layout of a special casualty ward in large cause medical care and hospital treatment are establishments, and to require that where 20 or more workers are employed at a workplace at available to virtually all persons under the least one of the workers shall have attended a general health insurance system. (See General Service-approved first aid course. Social Insurance System.) Facilities usually consist of the maintenance of o. first aid kit, Special provisions relating to certain sources although some very large establishments do of danger apply to machinery, containers for have well-equipped infirmaries and a few have steam or gases under pressure, other danger- their own medical staff (usually a nurse, but ous containers, transport operations, and other sometimes a doctor also). sources of danger. Machinery must be solidly constructed and so designed and secured as Safety Conditions and Required Precautions to present as litt!e danger as practically pos- sible, and, where necessary, provided with The principal legislation covering workers' proper safety devices, which must not be re- health and sanitationActs Nos. 226, 227, and moved while the machinery is working. Pas- 228also establishes the legal standards for sageways must be of sufficient size and kept prevention of accidents and occupational dis- sufficiently clear to permit safe passage. Spaces between machines must be safely fenced off eases. (See Health and Sanitation.) whenever machines are inoperation. The The legislation contains detailed stipulations mounting of belts, ropes, etc., and mainten- regarding the prevention of accidents, the pre- ance operations, while the machinery is in op- ventionofhealthhazards andaccidents eration, is restricted. Workers in such opera- through the use of personal protection equip- tions must not wear clothing liable to increase ment, and measures to meet special elements the danger involved and persons under 18 years of age must not be employed in such The Minister of Labor is empowered, after work at any time. Repairsnear dangerous consultation with the Director of the Labor machinery may be carried out only when the Inspection Service :-nd the Labor Council, to machinery is stopped and properly secured (1) make regulations governing particularly against starting while the work is underway. dangerous equipment, products, andprocesses; Other safeguards against dangers posed by (2) order that workers involved in activities the starting and stopping of machineryand related thereto have completedaspecified by gear are spelled out in detail. course of training or have passed a , or (3) Regulations covering operations involving prohibit the use of equipmentor of exception- steam or gasesunder pressurerelateto ally dangerous methods of work. strength, design, erection, and surveillanceof In each establishment employing 10 workers the containers and to restrictions governing or more, the workers must elect one or more the workers involved. The tending of suchcon- safety representatives to represent them in tainers is limited to reliablepersons aged 19 matters relating to industrial safety and health, years and over. The person in charge of these except where collective agreements havepro- facilities must hold a certificate issued by the vided for a body (e.g., a joint consultationcom- Director of the Labor Inspection Service;per- mittee) to discharge these duties. The safety sons who unaided tend such facilities must representative"shallendeavor topromote hold an attestation issued bya factory inspec- sound and constructive cooperation between tor as to their possession of the knowledgere- management and workers in matters relating quired for such work. to industrial safety and health... [and] The section on prevention of accidents also ... ensure that workers comply strictly with covers dangero.L. containers and transport op- the regulations that may have been issued for erations where hoisting apparatus,cranes, tip- their protection." He also reports to theem- wagons, trucks, chutes, and barrows are used. ployer on defective machinery, or work proces- This equipment must be of adequate strength ses that "expose the worker to unnecessary and in good repair, and must not be overloaded; danger." The law requires that close contact loads must be attached securely and detached be n aintained between safety representatives or unloaded in a safe manner. Precautionary andfactoryinspectors.Inestablishments measures are required in the event of risk of "where the working conditions involve parti- collapse of buildings, chimneys, bridges,con- cular danger to the safety or health of the tainers, etc., or of falling masses of earth, workers, the Minister of Labor may... order materials, etc. The act also requires the establishment of a safety service, which that allnecessary precautions be taken to shall include persons with the necessary tech- prevent accidents, from suffocation, poisoning, nical expert knowledge and one or more re- or explosion while work is carried on in wells, presentatives of the workers." pits, tunnels, pipelines, boilers, etc., and in the Observance of good safety conditions and case of work with poisonous, explosive, or practices is reportedly at a high level in Den- otherwise dangerous substances. mark, though statistics on work accidents and Legislation provides that, where practicable, injuries and work-related illnesses are not appropriate workingclothes,safetybelts, available. The regulations are quite compre- gloves, and aids to protect the head,eyes, and hensive. Both management and labor have par- respiration (masks, goggles, respirators) be ticipated in the preparation of the statutes, provided and that the employerassume the cost of such special equipment. Workers take part in their development, interpretation, are and revision, and cooperate fully in carrying required, by law, to use the prescribedpro- tective equipment; to act generally "ina pru- them out. In addition, the Labor Inspection dent and orderly manner," to report without Service and the Labor Council, which enforce delay any injury, to their supervisor; and to and improve the legislation, and administer cooperate in following the other protective the promotional research and training services measures cited ;n the Acts, including checking they provide, are adequately staffed and op- of tools, implements, apparatus, and machin- erated. (See Administrative Bodies Concerned ery. with Labor, and Enforcement.)

61 o. Accident and Occupational Disease diseases transmitted by animals or animal pro- Compensation ducts; and chronic infectious diseases con- tracted while working in health institutions The Industrial Injuries Act of 1988, fre- or laboratories or in providing domiciliary care quently amended, provides that every employer for sick persons. The Minister of Social Affairs take out, with an approved private insurance is empowered to revise the list and/or add new company or employers' mutual association, in- occupational diseases, after consultation with insurance against work-connected injury or the Industrial Injuries Board. occupational disease for all his employees, paid The benefits under the Act include medical or unpaidwith the exception of his wife or treatment and benefits for temporary disabil- a domestic servant who works for him only ity, total disability, death, and funerals. Medi- 240 hours a calendar year, or less." Those em- cal treatment is provided oniy when it is not ployers and self-employed persons with low in- available under ordinary sickness insurance. comes (in 1968 DKr9,000 annually or less) (See General Social Insurance System.) The are permitted, under the Act, to take out in- costof medical appliances(e.g.,artificial surance on themselves as well, and also on limbs,spectacles,wheelchairs, and similar their wives if they take "a substantial part aids) must be paid by the insurance fund to in the trade or business." The state provides which the employer contributes. for these "low-income" persons a 40-percent The daily cash injury benefit for temporar- subsidy of any insurance premium for them- ily disabled workers, to be paid 7 days a week, selves, their wives, and their employees. The is 76 percent of the injured person's daily wage, ?Late also refunds to the insurance company up to a maximum benefit of DKr72.22 per the amount of benefit in accidents resulting day. It is payable only after a 3-day waiting from an attempt to save human life, unless period unless the disability lasts 10 days or such forms a natural part of the occupation. more in which case payment is computed from The Ministry of Social Affairs has general the first day. Twelve months after the accident, supervision over the program; its Directorate the Directorate must decide whether the in- of Industrial Injuries Insurance has direct su- jured person has a claim to total disability, pervision. The Industrial Injuries Board helps but it may postpone its decision for an addi- make policy and acts on appeals. (See Ad- tional 2 years, i.e., until 8 years after the ac- ministrative Bodies Concerned With Labor.) cident. The Industrial Injuries Act contains a de- For permanent total disability the injured tailed list of occupational diseases, including worker receives a monthly pension equival- bronchial asthma and severe rhinitis result- ent to two-thirds of his average monthly earn- ing from inhalation of a variety of vegetable, ings during the previous year; if he has not animal, and chemical products; other pulmon- been employed during the whole of the previ- ary and respiratory diseases due to inhalation ous year in the same position or at the same of dust, smoke, fog, fumes, or gases; eye dis- wage, if he has been ill or unemployed, or if eases and poisoning from 21 specified elements, he has been employed in seasonal work, his metals, chemicals, gases, products; etc.; skin earnings "shall be estimated at a reasonable diseases; diseases caused by exposure to radia- amount." Maximum earnings for benefit com- tion or vibration from pneumatic tools, etc.; putations were DKr82,500 a year in 1971. If deafness caused by noisy work; malignant only partially disabled, the injured worker us- neophasms caused by the action of , ually receives a percentage of the full pension , or organic compounds; infectious proportionate to the loss of earning capacity when the disability is 50-99 percent. For 5-49 " Section 7 of the act provides that "the Government shall have power to conclude reciprocal agreements with percent disability, the benefit is commuted for foreign states as to the extent to which the provisions a lump-sum payment following rules laid down of this Act or the corresponding provisions in force in by the Minister of Social Affairs on the recom- the foreign state shall apply to undertakings whose mendation of the Directorate. These rules take business is also carried on in the other state, or to insured persons who are temporarily employed within into account the age of the injured person, the the territory of the other state." length of time elapsed since the accident, and

62 the degree of disablement. The amounts are the first 2 years after death and 80 percent 71/2 times the amount of the benefit for dis- thereafter. An orphan under age 18 receives ablement of 15 percent or less; 8 1/4 times for 10 percent of the earnings ofa deceased parent 18 percent; 8 1/2 for 20 percent; and for more or 20 percent if fully orphaned. Widows' and than 20 percent 8 1/2 times, plus an amount not exceeding that for which a life annuity orphans' pensions are automatically adjusted to equal to the remainder of the benefit can be changes in the price index. purchased in the State Life Assurance Insti- The act also stipulates that if the bereaved tute. Pensions are adjusted automatically for or any other private persons pay for the fun- fluctuations in the price index. eral (cremation) of the deceased, they shall be The act provides that if death results ftom granted an allowance of DKr825. The funeral a work accident, the surviving receives grant is adjusted for changes in the price in- 50 percent of the earnings of the deceased for dex, and in 1971 it was PKr1,175.

Chapter XIII.Social Insurance and Employee Cooperatives

General Social Insurance System market supplementary pension." (See Other In- surance and Retirement Systems.) Denmark has a comprehensive social insur- ance system which provides income to the Disability pensions. Non-work-connected dis- aged, the sick and the disabled, theunem- ability pensions are paid to persons whose ployed, the parents of minors, and dependents capacity to work has been reduced on account of deceased persons. The Ministry of Social of physical or mental disablement. Persons who Affairs provides general supervision of all the have 100 percent disability receive a maximum programs. Family allowances and national old- of twice the amount of the national old-age age, widows', and orphans' pensions are fin- pension, and those who have about two-thirds anced entirely by the Government; disability, disability receive one and one-half times the sickness, and maternity benefits, jointlyby the,old-age pension. The lowest disability pension- insured persons, employers, and the Govern- 75 percent of the basic amount of the national ment. old-age pensionis received by persons whose disability is at least 50 percent. National old-age pensions. All resident citizens, A disabknaent insurance court decides the and aliens covered by reciprocity agreements, extent of disability after examination of the on reaching age 67 in the case of males, 62 person. in the case of females, or 60 incase of failing health or specialcircumstancesreceive a Death and survivorship. A pension correspond- monthly old-age pension, for life, automatically ing to the national old-age pension is paid to adjusted to the cost-of-living index. Retirement (1) widows who have reached age 55, if is not necessary. As of April 1, 1971, the widowhood began after their 45th birthday monthly pension for a married couple was about and the marriage had lasted for at least 5 years; DKr1,102 and for a singleperson DKr781, plus and (2) widows over 45 who at the time of an additional DKr819 and DKr160, respectively, their husband's death have at least 2 children if they have no outside sources of income. Since under age 18 to support. In addition, a "child's April 1, 1970, the amount of the pensionno supplement" amounting to 25 percent of the longer is related to the recipient's formerearn- national old-age pension is granted each sur- ings. The pensions are administered by the viving child under age 15, or age 18 if a student. local governments. The national old-agepen- sion is freiuently supplemented bya "labor- Family allowances. Any resident who has one

6$ or more children receives a family allowance to free medical care (i.e., care by a general for each child under 18 years. In 1971 the practitioner or specialist, maternity care by a regular annual rate per child was DKr1,124 doctor or midwife), while "B" members are (compared with DKr630 in 1967). The rate reimbursed in part for their expenditures for can be increased (to DKr1,664 per child in such care. Transportation costs for medical 1971) under certain conditions, and an extra treatment are reimbursed by the societies. amount (DKr1,228 in 1971) regardless of num- Wage earners who suffer financial loss on ac- ber of children, may be added under special count of illness are entitled to daily cash al- circumstances. Payments are made quarterly. lowances. Since , the allowances The program is adninistered by local social have been DKr67.50 a day for breadwinners service offices. and DKr54.00 per day for others. These bene- Sickness and maternity insurance. All persons fits are financed primarily through workers' age 16 years and over, regardless of health, and employers' contributions. Workers contri- age, or financial position, must be members of bute DKr0.055 and employers DICr0.11, per a health insurance society recognized by the working hour. The state pays the remainder. state. Children under 16 are covered by their Cash maternity benefits are equivalent to parents' insurance. those for sickness as provided by the insurance Every year the Ministry of Social Affairs es- societies; they are payable for up to 14 weeks, tablishes an income figure corresponding to including 8 weeks before confinement. "A" the average earnings of a skilled worker. Per- and "B" members who are not wage earners, sons enrolling as active members 's whose in- mostly the self-employed and housewives, can come is below this figure are admitted as a insure themselves under a voluntary plan, society's "A" group of members; those earning through the payment of an extra contribution, more are admitted as group "B" members. for a daily cash benefit when ill; the insured Persons over 16 years of age who are not "A" chooses the amount of the benefit (and there- or "B" members of a health insurance society fore of the contribution also), subject to cer- (or of a continuation health insurance society, tain minimums and maximums. as described later in this section) must be The continuation health insurance societies inactive members of a health insurance society; (mentioned earlier) admit as members only they pay DKr48 per year, but receive no bene- persons whose income is higher than the figure fits. Active members pay about DKr300-360 established for the division between "A" and per year, according to the fund, for medical "B" group members of the ordinary health in- benefits.Employers make nocontribution surance societies. They may provide only sick- except for those for cash benefits described ness benefits (free hospital admission, and help below. Government subsidies to sickness funds with cost of medical attention and medicine) include DKr5.00 a year per member, and the and burial assistance; they receive no subsidy following percentages of various costs; from the state. Percent Other Insurance and Retirement Systems Cub sickness benefits - 16 Medical. dental, and nursing costs ...... 26 Chronic carecosts 75 The Labor Market Supplementary Pension Hospitalisation costs 96 (Arbejdsmarkedet TillaegspensionATP) Act Costs of vital medicine! (e.g., insulin) 100 Costs of transportation 100 No. 46 of 1964, amended by Act No. 180 of Cash maternity benefits -I 100 1965, provides, as the name implies, for the Contributions of needy members ...... 100 payment of pensions to the working population All "A" and "B" members are entitled to over and above those they receive under the free hospital and nursing care, home nursing, general old-age pension scheme. The act applies and a general grant (of DKr950 in 1970). In to all workers, including government employ- addition, the cost of medicine prescribed by a ees, over age 18 years having at least 15 hours' doct is subsidized. "A" members are entitled weekly employment with the same employer; apprentices under an approved apprenticeship "Also referred to is benefit members, full members, contract are excluded. As of mid-1969, regibf or contributing members. tered members totaled 1.8 million, or approxi-

84 mately 80 percent of the gainfully employed she can receive only the larger ofthe two population. pensions. The 1971-73 LO/DEC agreementpro- The supplemental), pension plan is self-sup- vides for a 66 2/3-percent increasein both porting. Both contributions and pensions are contributions and benefits beginning October1, flat rates. They are not subject to automatic 1972. adjustment for changes in the cost-of-living index, and have in fact remained unchanged Employee Cooperatives since the start of the plan in 1964. The employee pays two-thirds, the employer Denmark has very few employeecooperatives one-third of the full contribution, as shown in as such. However, the cooperative movement, the following tabulation, in kroner : involving individuals, professions,and indus- Total Employee Employer tries, is strong and widespreadand has an im- Weekly Payments for members gild portant effect on disposal income, industrialop- by the week: SO hours with the same erations, banking, and otheraspects of life employer 6.40 3.60 1.80 in Denmark. Cooperativeshandle the greater 15-29 hours with the same part of agricultural production ofexport, es- employer 2.70 1.80 .90 pecially meats, , and cheese. NonthlY parinents for members paid There are also many cooperative by the month: establish- 130 hours monthly with the same ments owned and operated whollyor mainly employer 21.60 11.40 7.20 within the labor movementchiefly 65-129 hours monthly with the retail so- same employer 10.80 7.20 3.60 cieties, cooperative bakeries, fuelsocieties, hous- ing, and a few undertakings suchas a press, In practice, the employer deducts the employ- a bank, a brewery, and a dairy,some of which ee's part from every paycheck and isrespon- are organized as limited liability companies. sible for payment of the total contribution to These are organized in the Union of UrbanCa the ATP fund at quarterly intervals. operateSocieties(Det Kooperative Faelles- ATP pension members on reaching age 67 forbundDKF). receive DKr300-2,400 annually, dependingon A large number of establishments years of contributing membership. Wage and affiliated to the DKF are associated in fourfederations salary earners who enrolled in the plan within which in 1967 had memberships andannual a year after its coming into effect on April 1, turnover in millions of kroner, 1964, receive DKr600 a year if they retired as follows : Number of Turnover (at age 67) after only 1 year of membership. establishments(millions of kroner) Their pension increases by DKr24a year for Associated Cooperative Bakeries 29 115 the 2d through the 6th year, by DKr60a year National Cooperative Association of the Building Trades 68 400 for the 7th through the 20th year, and DKr120 (Building output) for the 21st through 27th years. For lateren- Cooperative Canteens rollees the pension is DKr800 Association 79 65 a year after 5 Joint Council of Workers' Fuel years of contributing membership and an addi- Undertakings 7 13 (1968 tional DKr60 a year thereafter for eachyear figure) of membership, up through the 40thyear. A fifth federation, the Joint Associationof Should a member wait until after 87 to apply, Danish Public Housing Societies,builds an- his annual pension 'is raised 5 percent for each nually about 12,000 apartments,or about 25 6 months' postponement; postponement cannot percent of the national total. be carried past age 70, nor may the maximum Also affiliated to the DKFare a number of pension exceed DKr3,120. The widow ofan consumer cooperatives, one of which, the Ca ATP member, on reaching 82 years ofage, penhagen and District Cooperative Society is eligible for one-half his supplementarypen- the largest consumer cooperative in Denmark sion provided the marriage lasted 10years and in 1967 had a membership of 314,000and a the deceased had 10 years membership in the turnover of DKr1,200 million. Individualen- ATP. However, if the widow on reachingage terprises associated with the Union of Coop- 67 is entitled to an ATP pension of herown, erative Societies include the Workers' National

66 Bank, the sixth largest bank in Denmark ; ens Erhvervarad), which representsthe eco- the Alka life insurance company, which pro- nomic interests of the workers in negotia- vides group coverage to about 400,000 workers ; tions "with other economic organizations and and 28 other establishments, which had a turn- the public administration." It also "keepsthe over in 1967 of about DKr225 million. In 1936, the DKF and the LO founded the Labour Movement informed about economic Labor Economic Council (Arbejderbevaegels- problems and developments."

1

4, Appendix A. ILOConventions Ratified byDenmark as of January 1971

Number Title 2 Unemployment (1919) 5 Minimum Age (Industry)(1919) 6 Night Work of Young Persons(Industry) (1919) 7 Minimum Age (Sea) (1920) At 8 Unemployment Indemnity (Shipwreck)(1920) 9 Placing of Seamen (1920) 11 Right of Association (Agriculture)(1921) 12 Workmen's Compensation(Agriculture) (1921/) 14 Weekly Rai (Industry) (1921) 15 Minimum Age (Trimmersand Stokers) (1921) 16 Medical Examination of YoungPersons (Sea) (1921) 18 Workmen's Compensation(Occupational Diseases) (1925) 19 Equality of Treatment (AccidentCompensation) (1925) 21 Inspection of Emigrants (1926) 27 Marking of Weight (PackagesTransported by Vessels) (1929) 29 Forced Labor (1980) 82 Protection Against Accidents(Dockers) (Revised) (1982) 42 Workmen's Compensation (OccupationalDiseases) (Revised) (1934) 52 Holidays With Pay (1986) 58 Officers' Competency Certificates(1986) 58 Minimum Age (Sea) (Revised)(1986) 63 Statistics of Wages and Hoursof Work (1988) 80 Final Articles Revision (1946) 81 Labor Inspection (1947) 87 andProtection of the Right to Organize(1948) 92 Accommodation of Crews Revised(1949) 94 Labor Clauses (Public Contracts)(1949) 98 Right to Organize and CollectiveBargaining (1949) 100 Equal Remuneration (1951) 102 Social Security (MinimumStandards) (1952) 105 Abolition of Forced Labor (1957) 106 Weekly Rest (Commerce andOffices) (1957) 108 Seafarers' Documents(1958) - 111 Discrimination (Employment andOccupation) (1958) 112 Minimum Age (Fishermen)(1959) 116 Final Articles Revision (1961) 118 Equality of Treatment (SocialSecurity) (1962) 120 Hygiene (Commerce and Offices)(1964) 122 Employment Policy (1964)

SOURCE: International Labor Office,International Labour Conventions, Chartof (Geneva, June 1970).

67 Selected Bibliography

Danish Employers' Confederation. The Act on Conciliation in Industrial Disputes. Copenhagen, 1964. Aims and Activities of the Danish Employers' Confederation. By Svend Heineke, Presi- dent. Copenhagen, 1965 ( ?). .Brick by Brick. Copenhagen, 1962. .The Constitution of the Danish Employers' Confederation. Copenhagen ( ?), May 1966. Wage Systems in Danish Industry. Copenhagen, 1965 ( ?). Danish Employers' Confederation and the Danish Federation of Trade Unions. Conciliation in Industrial Disputes. Copenhagen, 1964 ( ?). Joint Committee of , 1908. StandardRiffe.sfor Handling Labour Disputes. .The Main Agreement. Copenhagen, November 18, 1960. Rules for Negotiation. Copenhagen, June 6, 1964. Danish Federation of Trade Unions (LO). The Danish Trade Union Movement. KObenhavn; Dansk Andels Trykkeri, 1967 ( ?). Danish Industry in F its and Figures. Federation of Danish Industries. Copenhagen, Behrndt bogtryk-offset, 1969. Denmark, Ministry of Economic Affairs, Statistical Department (Danmarks Statistik). Statis- tik Arbog, 1971 (Statistical Yearbook), and earlier issues. Copenhagen, 1971 and earlier. , Statistiske Efterretninger(Statistical Information). Numerous issues (about 60) published annually. Kilbenhavn, 1970 and 1971. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Denmark, an Official Handbook. Copenhagen, Krak Publish- ers, 1970. .Economic Survey of Denmark, 1969. Copenhagen, June 1969. Denmark, Ministries of Labor and Social Affairs. . Danish Social Structure Pamphlet No. 11. Mimeographed report, 1971. .Social Conditions in Denmark. Publications Nos. 1-8. Copenhagen, various dates between 1966 and 1969. Employers and Workers: Development and Organization of the Danish Labour Market. Copen- hagen, Det danske Selskab, 1962. Facts About Denmark. Copenhagen, Politikens Forlag, 1969. Galenson, Walter. The Danish System of Labor Relations, a Study in Industrial Peace. Cam- bridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1952. Information Guide for Doing Business in Denmark. Price Waterhouse and Company, U.S.A., July 1970. International Labour Office. Legislative Series: Denmark. (Translations of laws.) Year Book of Labour Statistics. Issues XXVIII, XXIX, XXX, and XXXI. Geneva, 1968, 1969, 1970, and 1971. Jensen, Orla. Social Welfare in Denmark. Danish Information Handbooks. Copenhagen, Det Dariske Selskab, 1961.

68 Selected BibliographyContinued

JtIrgensen, Er ling. ArbejdsmarkedetsMarginalgrupper: De singes, de aeklresog de gifte kvinders placering pa arbejdsmarkedet(Marginal Groups of the LaborMarket: The Labor Market Situation of the Young, theAged, and Married Women). (Danish of Social Research Publication 39.) National Institute KObenhavn, I Kommission Hos TekniskForlag, 1969. Kirstein, P. Regional Seminar: Active Manpower Policy in Denmark. Organisationfor Economic Co-operation and Development, ,1965( ?). Kocik, Albert. The Danish Trade UnionMovement (ICFTU Monograph No.5). , Inter- national Confederation of Free TradeUnions, 1961. M011er, Iver Hornemann. Tillidsmaetulin Industrivirksom heder (ShopStewards in Manufactur- ing). Danish National Institute of SocialResearch Publication 32. Kdbenhavn, Hos Teknisk Forlag. 1968. I Kommission Noordhoek, Johs. A. Gifte Kvinder i Familie og Erkverv, Bind I, Detalgelse i erhvervslivet(Mar- ried Women, Family and Work, Vol.I, Employment). (Danish NationalInstitute of Social Research Publication 37.) KObenhavn,I Kommission Hos Teknish Forlag,1969. Nordic Cooperation in the Socialand Labour Field. Nordic Committee istry of Social Affairs, 1965. on Social Policy. Oslo, Min- Organization for Economic Co-operationand Developnient. Denmark. EconomicSurveys. Paris, OECD Publications, 1969, 1970, and1971. . Main Economic Indicators. Paris, December 1971. Raffaele, Joseph A. Labor Leadershipin Italy and Denmark. Madison, Press, 1962. University of Wisconsin Social Security in the Nordic Countries. Statistical Reports of theNordic Countries, No. 16. Copenhagen, 1970. U.S. Department of Commerce,Bureau of International Commerce,Basic Data on the . Overseas BusinessReport, OBR68-84. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Social Security ProgramsThroughout the World 1971. Washington, D.C., 1972. Wendt, Frants. The Nordic Counciland Cooperation in Scandinavia. Copenhagen, 1959. Munksgaard,

69 The Division of Foreign LaborConditions has also issued-Labor Law and Practice In:

Report Prise swesbor Title $0.85 857 (1969) .65 (1968) 344 .46 (1967) 328 .40 241 Austria (1963) 1.00 372 Belgium (1970) .30 218 (1962) .40 337 (1968) 45 309 Brasil (1967) .40 264 Burma (1964) .35 227 Ceylon (1962) .70 839 (1968) .35 217 (1962) .80 220 Rica (1962) .50 Dominican (1968) 343 .35 242 Ecuador (1963) .30 280 El Salvador (1964) 40 298 (1966) .70 325 (1968) .25 223 Guatemala (1962) .35 324 (1967) .40 244 (1968) .30 189 Honduras (1961) .60 871 Iceland (1970) .50 303 (1966) .60 836 (1968) AO 276 (1964) .80 221 (1962) .60 315 (1967) .40 820 Jamaica (1967) .65 876 (1970) .45 322 (1967) .50 861 Korea (1969) .60 381 (1970) , .50 304 (1966) .85 297 (1966) .55 274 and (1965) 45 240 (1963) .45 282 (1964) .60 258 New (1964) .60 321 New Zealand (1967) .60 265 Nicaragua (1964) 1.00 $87 Norway (1971) 45 271 (1964) 356 Panama (1970) .65 338 (1968) .75 .50 25$ (1968) .85 269 (1964)

70 &port lumber Title Prior 289 (1965) .50 285 Sweden (1964) .40 268 (1964) .45 267 (1964) .40 819 Trinidad and Tobago (1967) .40 382 Territory of the Pacific Islands (1970) .40 294 (1966) .40 289 (1968) .45 275 United Arab Republic (1965) .50 270 U.S.S.R. (1964) .50 892 (1971) 1.00 386 (1971) .70 327 Viet-Nam, South (1968) .50 250 Yugoslavia (1963) .40

n