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Copyright 2016 Rachel Heeter Smith Copyright 2016 Rachel Heeter Smith “A DISGRACE TO HER COLOURS”: THE MEDITERRANEAN POPULATION PROBLEM & TACTICS OF GOVERNMENTALITY IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY GIBRALTAR BY RACHEL HEETER SMITH DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2016 Urbana, Illinois Doctoral Committee: Associate Professor Dana Rabin, Chair Professor Antoinette Burton Professor Clare Crowston Associate Professor Anthony Pollock ii Abstract This dissertation examines the pervading sense of crisis among Gibraltar’s eighteenth- century British governors, caused by the large-scale geopolitical conflicts of the period and the multiethnic inhabitants of the territory, and the commanders’ attempts to manage that crisis by embracing technologies of governmentality. Captured by Anglo-Dutch forces in 1704, Britain formally acquired this Mediterranean possession in 1713. Shortly after its acquisition, Britons embraced the territory as their own, proclaiming it to be a “bulwark” of Great Britain and “bastion” of Britishness. However, the reality on the ground belied such rhetoric. British Gibraltar was in actuality a Mediterranean meeting ground, bringing together peoples, ideas, and goods from across the region. The vast majority of the town’s population was comprised of foreign migrants who settled in Gibraltar seeking the many opportunities that the British garrison offered. These individuals brought with them a variety of cultural, religious, and political identities that impacted the growth and development of the territory, creating a multi-cultural space that was both produced by and participated in the Mediterranean world. These foreign bodies and their foreign mores also impacted the governance of the territory. As experienced British military men, Gibraltar’s governors desired a British Gibraltar like they had imagined, one with British laws, institutions, and peoples to serve as a British Protestant stronghold in a hostile (non-Protestant) sea. Yet this was not possible with the current composition of the town’s population. As they understood it, the foreign inhabitants posed a threat to their efforts to secure Gibraltar for Britain. Concerned by these individuals and driven by the need to manage this population, Gibraltar’s governors employed techniques of governmentality in order to better “see” any threats and “know” the population. In their minds, practices like surveillance, census taking, quarantine, and the use of documentary regimes were iii necessary for them to grasp Gibraltar’s peoples and take control of the territory. The commanders consolidated this knowledge into an imperial archive, which they believed provided an orderly and rational picture of the territory. I argue that the governors embraced such tactics because they believed this would enable them to solve the population problem in Gibraltar and secure Britain’s hold on the garrison. However, the commanders’ “necessary” technologies were largely driven by their exaggerated fear of the foreign and their unsuccessful desire to create an ideally British Protestant territory. The governors’ tactics suggests a larger trend of population management that developed across the empire, but Gibraltar offers a key promontory of this phenomenon on a local level. iv Acknowledgements During this long journey over the past seven years – or rather most of my life – I have had the opportunity to meet and work with so many wonderful people who have encouraged me along the way. I apologize in advance for the length of these acknowledgements, but I owe a great deal to so many people for the parts they have played in this process. My undergraduate professors in the History Department at Messiah College played a significant role in teaching me what history is and what it means to be a good historian. While I entered college not as a history major, it was the lectures by Professors Norm Wilson and John Fea that sparked my interest in pursuing a career in the field. Under their guidance, along with Professors Bernardo Michael, Jim LaGrand and David Pettigrew, I came into my own as a scholar, falling in love with historical research, writing, and the art of argument. They helped make it possible for me to study abroad at Oxford University, an experience that made me grow as a scholar and prepared me for graduate school like none other. As my senior thesis advisor, Professor Wilson encouraged me to take a stand, make a bold argument, and stick with my research findings regardless of any critiques about my interpretation. I owe a great deal to these individuals and without their guidance, I would not have pursued graduate work in this field. They showed me the excitement of history and the joy of teaching, encouraging me to follow along a similar path. As my mentors, and friends, for my years at Messiah and afterward, I am grateful to have had these professors in my life. My time in Urbana-Champaign truly shaped me to become the scholar I am today. I entered graduate school feeling a bit nervous about the road ahead of me and sensing the steep learning curve that comes with the transition to a graduate program. However, I was quickly embraced by the many inspiring faculty, staff, and fellow graduate students, making this v transition a much easier process. I am thankful for all of my time spent in graduate seminars led by the department’s impressive scholars, including Professors Peter Fritzsche, Clare Crowston, Diane Koenker, Dana Rabin, Jim Brennan, Harry Liebersohn, John Randolph, Antoinette Burton, and Craig Koslofsky. Each of these individuals pushed me to become a better writer and a better thinker, for which I am forever grateful. I am also grateful for my time spent learning outside of the department in the fields of English and Anthropology under the guidance of Professors Tony Pollock and Helaine Silverman. These professors expanded my academic horizons and taught me how to look at my work in new ways, bringing a variety of different approaches and tools into my research. Their enthusiasm about my project was infectious, and their insights helped shape my work significantly. As a teaching assistant, I learned so much from Carol Symes, Clare Crowston, Dana Rabin, and Craig Koslofsky about how to make history fun for non-majors and bring a bit of excitement to the classroom. And as a participant in both the Pre-Modern Reading Group and BKE reading group, I have benefitted from the members’ wisdom and insights into others’ scholarship as well as my own, learning a great deal from these discussions. This project could not have been completed without the help and support of various funding institutions, libraries, and archives. I have to thank department funding and the Graduate College for supporting my early years of scholarship. My pre-dissertation research trip was funded by the Bastion Summer Travel Fellowship, which enabled me to introduce myself to the archives and get a sense of the task I had ahead. My research trip abroad was generously supported by the History Department Research Fellowship and the Graduate College Dissertation Grant, without which I would not have been able to gather the necessary materials that formed the basis of this dissertation. Thanks also to the Bastion Dissertation Writing vi Fellowship for supporting me during my first year of writing and helping me to get over the initial hump! My greatest thanks also to the institutions that facilitated my research process. In particular thanks are owed to the staff of the British National Archives, the British Library, the National Maritime Museum, and the Wellcome Library. In Gibraltar I benefitted from the help of the Gibraltar Museum, in particular Geraldine Finlayson and Darren Fa; the Gibraltar Garrison Library and its staff, in particular Jennifer Ballantine Perara, Lorna Swift, Robert Wheeler, and Roy; as well as the Gibraltar Government archives, in particular Dennis Beiso and Allison Desoisa, as well as Tommy Finlayson, Richard Garcia, Joshua Marrache, and Tito Benady. I could not have found or utilized nearly as many resources, especially in Gibraltar, without their guidance. Matt and I are also thankful for these lovely Gibraltarians for welcoming us and making us feel like a part of their community. I am exceptionally grateful for my dissertation committee members, Clare Crowston, Tony Pollock, and Antoinette Burton for the hours they have spent reading, correcting, and discussing my many drafts. Clare has never failed to push me and challenge me along the way, and I am thankful for how she has helped me grow as a student. Tony has been a great support and encouragement, and I always appreciate his different approach to my research. I have to offer a special thanks to Antoinette who has been with me from the beginning with this project. As I entered my second year at a loss to what I should focus my dissertation research on, it was her seminar that led me to Gibraltar. Her excitement and encouragement surrounding my project made me eager to pursue this field for my dissertation. She has introduced me to new ideas, challenged many of my old ones, and led me to question many things that I had previously taken for granted. I am so thankful for her guidance and her time spent with me and my dissertation – vii from the late night Skype calls after my pre-defense to the many hours of summer reading and editing of my chapter drafts – I am eternally grateful to have her as a mentor. My greatest thanks goes to Professor Dana Rabin, my dissertation advisor and friend for the past eight years. It was Dana’s enthusiasm and warmth that brought me to Illinois in the first place. She has been a source of constant encouragement and guidance through the many challenges of graduate school and life.
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