CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Since the latter half of the twentieth century the creation of jazz music in the Nordic countries has evolved from a largely imitative practice, to a now often‐ acknowledged position at the vanguard of artistic innovation.1 A number of the improvisers from the Nordic lands, especially those active in the 1970s and 1980s, are now widely respected for the creation of unique approaches to both the compositional and improvisational elements of jazz music. This uniqueness has been most publicly profiled by the German record label ECM, which, during the 1970s and 1980s, released a number of now seminal recordings of the subject musicians of this thesis, all of whom have been instrumental in developing these distinctive improvisational mannerisms, now often referred to as 'The Nordic Sound'. The musical approaches that many of these artists adopted stood in stark contrast to the majority of improvised music occurring in other parts of the world at that time, and was notably less directly referential to the canon of American jazz music. For many listeners, aesthetic choices such as the notable preference for straight 8th feels over the jazz swing feel heralded a decidedly eurological musical aesthetic, or at least this was widely interpreted as such, and was seen as a breakaway from the dominantly African‐American musical innovations being developed by the majority of the American jazz artists at that time. Jan Garbarek, Edward Vesala, Terje Rypdal, Bobo Stenson, Arild Andersen and Jon Christiansen, to name just a small yet significant handful, are all Nordic musicians who have built international performing careers based upon this interpretation as innovators of a specifically eurological jazz music. 1 In this thesis the term 'Nordic' is employed so as to encompass the nations of Iceland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland and the Faroe Islands. The often‐ misused term 'Scandinavian' will only be used in reference to Norway, Sweden and Denmark whose common ethno‐graphic heritage relates geographically to the Scandinavian Peninsula, which is the domain of present‐day Norway and Sweden. 1 This thesis addresses such Nordic improvised music in both its artistic and its sociological contexts, with a focus on the music of two of the most influential ensembles of this formative period, between the mid 1970s to late 1980s. The music of the Scandinavian quartet led by the American pianist Keith Jarrett, and the various ensembles directed by Finnish drummer and percussionist Edward Vesala form the main focus of this thesis. It is the aim of this work to show how these artists created an aesthetic that was interpretable and significant to both a particular, regional narrative of cultural identity, and, simultaneously, a more universal narrative of jazz as a globalised improvisational practice that can incorporate and reference many styles of music. It will be shown how these artists placed musical universality at the forefront of their music's meaning, even while simultaneously employing expressive devices with a high degree of cultural specificity. Vesala's music is perhaps the most fiercely plural approach out of the two subjects addressed in this thesis. His art is a unique blend of free jazz, composition techniques from Western art music, and a variety of folk music forms originating from a number of different cultures. More than most other jazz musicians at that time, or indeed since, Vesala was particularly successful at achieving a re‐synthesis of these influences, yielding a music which, rather than being a 'fusion' form where these disparate elements were brought together to stand in contrast with each other, told one unified yet multifaceted story of musical identity.2 Above and beyond the focus of any singular work, the totality of Vesala's perspective was one of universalisms. Vesala's art was, simultaneously, a continuance of tradition and an iconoclasm. His music is, possibly, the most successful example in jazz of a unified and balanced conception of musical confluence. Vesala's music is, however, no mere collage of his musical interests. Throughout this thesis I will show the ways in which Vesala's music connected with specific 2 The contrasting nature of 'fusion' and 'confluence' terminologies is discussed in more detail in chapters four and five. 2 narratives of a tangibly Finnish cultural identity, and also narratives existing within jazz music generally during the period in which he was active. While not extremely well known outside Europe, Vesala is generally considered to have been at the vanguard of Finnish musical innovation, and was to become one of the most important role models for many Finnish musicians of the forthcoming generations, as well as many jazz artists who likewise sought a plurality of socio‐ cultural interpretation. Jarrett's band, in contrast, was influential in no small part due to the pianist's high profile as an internationally acclaimed performer, Jarrett having played with Miles Davis, Charles Lloyd and many other important American jazz improvisers preceding the formation of the European Quartet. Keith Jarrett's European Quartet brought Nordic improvisers to a global audience and this success, in turn, inspired further generations of Nordic musicians, who would allow themselves to be influenced; both directly by the musicians involved in this ensemble, and also by the nature and choice of source material that these musicians employed. The success of this ensemble abroad is likely the singular most important event influencing the understanding of jazz and improvised music as a specifically Nordic cultural commodity with the wider understanding of Nordic cultural identity domestically. This is the perspective of this thesis that these two ensembles are to be deemed as the two most influential factors in the establishment of a eurological jazz vernacular. Also addressed, throughout this thesis, are a number of younger jazz artists whose music is highly influenced by the primary subjects of this research. Specifically requiring introduction is, firstly, saxophonist and composer Trygve Seim whose compositional approach is tangibly influenced by Vesala, while his saxophone playing often audibly references Garbarek, albeit with a much darker timbral sense. Seim has released a number of recordings under his own name and in collaboration with others, mostly on Manfred Eicher's ECM label. Seim is also a member of the Norwegian quartet The Source, whose annual Christmas concert in Oslo, entitled The Source of Christmas, features an ever‐expanding plethora of mostly Oslo‐based musicians, many of whom have emigrated from 3 other nations. The Source of Christmas is a celebration of the plurality and diversity of the Norwegian musical environment. Secondly, Norwegian trumpeter Arve Henriksen is mentioned in this research in a number of contexts. Henriksen approaches the trumpet in minimalist way, leaving much space between phrases. He is highly influenced by American trumpeter Jon Hassell, and, like Hassell, is often to be heard working in collaboration with electronic musicians. Henriksen has made a number of records on both the Runegrammofon and ECM record labels. The pianist Christian Wallumrød is another whose work is being released by ECM. Wallumrød presents us with a uniquely confluent form of jazz‐related music, his compositions often adopting structures that are more related to Baroque music than the American traditions of jazz. Wallumrød's various ensembles are composed of musicians who are trained in various disciplines including jazz, Classical music and Norwegian folk music. Finally, Finnish guitarist Raoul Björkenheim is also mentioned and quoted in this research. As a young man, Björkenheim was recruited by Vesala for his Sound and Fury ensemble, and this experience appears to have been a formative one for the guitarist. Currently, Björkenheim is performing regularly with some of the most creative improvising musicians from around the globe, notably his Nordic trio entitled Scorch Trio whose music is at once highly visceral yet undeniably intellectual. Björkenheim's guitar style is highly influence by Rock musicians, as well as the American jazz tradition and also twentieth‐century compositional practices, much as in the case of Vesala himself and, like Vesala, Björkenheim's approach is highly unique and his playing is immediately identifiable. This thesis aims to highlight the functioning of this music within a larger social and aesthetic discussion by way of interviews with currently practising Nordic improvisers—including Vesala's wife and musical collaborator, Iro Haarla, and also a number of artists who have been strongly influenced by him—as well as extensive research into the body of writings that already exists and detailed 4 analysis of certain specific works.3 This thesis is certainly about the music of Edward Vesala, Jan Garbarek, Keith Jarrett, Jon Christensen, Iro Haarla and their collaborators, and considerable space is thus assigned to the discussion and analysis of specific musical works, but, perhaps more importantly, it is about the intersection of culture and how communities negotiate identity formation within a contemporary artistic framework. Most importantly this thesis attempts to view improvised music as a quasi‐didactic form that can abstractly describe, especially for those within the societal group who are the informed listeners, the often‐intangible confluences between multiple cultural traditions. Furthermore this art influences social conditions,