Fallujah, Anbar

LABOUR MARKET OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES

Fallujah District, Anbar Governorate

IOM Iraq – April 2019

This programme is supported by: Labour Market Opportunities and Challenges

IOM Disclaimer List of Acronyms

The opinions expressed in the report are those of BEP Business Expansion Package the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views BSP Business Support Package of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The designations employed and the presentation of material CoC Chamber of Commerce Throughout the report do not imply the expression of any CoI Chamber of Industries opinion whatsoever on the part of IOM concerning the CIP Community Implementation Plan Legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries. CRC Community Resource Centre ESP Employment Support Package IOM is committed to the principle that humane and FGD Focus Group Discussion orderly migration benefits migrants and society. As an Intergovernmental organization, IOM acts with its partners FT Farming Training in the international community to: assist in meeting the IDP Internally Displaced Person operational challenges of migration; advance understanding ISIL Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant of migration issues; encourage social and economic development through migration; and uphold the human IOM International Organization for Migration dignity and well-being of migrants. JP Job Placement LMA Labour Market Assessment Contact: For more information on the Return and Recovery Unit (RRU) programme and current activities taking place in NFI Non-Food Items Iraq, please contact: [email protected] MoLSA Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs OJT On-the-Job Training Main Office in Baghdad UNAMI Compound DIWAN 2 SME Small and Medium Enterprise International Zone, Baghdad, Iraq. VT Vocational Training Tel: +3908 3105 2600 ext. 5857/5928 E-mail: [email protected]

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Table of Contents

IOM Disclaimer 2 List of Acronyms 2 1. Executive Summary 4 1.1. Introduction 1.2. Study Components 1.3. Fallujah Key Findings 1.3.1 Challenges & Opportunities Facing Youth 1.3.2 Challenges & Opportunities Facing Jobseekers 1.3.3 Challenges & Opportunities Facing Employers 1.3.4 Challenges & Opportunities Facing Consumers 1.4. Overall Recommendations 2. Location and Study Overview 5 2.1. Introduction 2.2. LMA Overview 2.3. Fallujah District Overview 2.3.1 Location and Demographics 2.3.2. Security, Displacement, and Returns 2.3.3. Local Concerns 2.4. LMA Methodology Overview 2.4.1. Key Informant Interviews 2.4.2. Youth Focus Group Discussions 2.4.3. Jobseeker Surveys 2.4.4. Employer Surveys 2.4.5. Consumer Surveys 3. Findings 7 3.1. Key Informant Interviews 3.2. Youth Needs and Priorities 3.3. Jobseeker Needs and Priorities 3.4. Employer Needs and Priorities 3.5. Consumer Needs and Priorities 3.6. Community Implementation Plan (CIP) Recommendations

4. Conclusions 10

3 Labour Market Opportunities and Challenges

1. Executive Summary 1.3.3. Challenges & Opportunities Facing Employers • Carpentry and Construction, in addition to water processing 1.1. Introduction plants, were the industries most likely to self-report demand issues; and With sub-offices across Iraq, jointly managed Community • Businesses that mentioned difficulty finding qualified workers Resource Centres (CRCs), and a presence within Ministry of included many types of food related businesses (a bakery, an Labour and Social Affairs (MoLSA’s) sub-offices, IOM has a field ice cream seller, a sweets maker, a pizza vendor), in addition presence that allows for a community driven approach to recovery to some businesses in the production and distribution of and development. Under its livelihoods programming, IOM works concrete blocks, ceramic tiles, aluminum cabinets, electrical with a system of community engagement that has been refined transformers, water bottles, and PVC goods. through an interactive learning process, and relies on stakeholder consultation throughout the design of sustainable livelihoods Recommendations: activities. In order to design market-led development interventions, On the Job Training (OJT) or Job Placement (JP) for a series of Labour Market Assessments (LMAs) were conducted. In youth in the culinary arts could provide some of the skills Anbar Governorate, the Fallujah district was selected for in-depth needed by employers. study.

1.2. Study Components 1.3.4. Challenges & Opportunities Facing Consumers This LMA is based on 150 individual interviews and three youth • Consumers surveyed in Fallujah were not found to spend Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with roughly 30 total participants, significantly different amounts on food than consumers in conducted over a two-month period between December 2018 other areas of Iraq; and January 2019. Survey tools included a mix of quantitative and • Consumers were found to spend significantly less on rent, qualitative exercises, conducted with key informants, jobseekers, transportation, and electricity than in other areas of Iraq; youth, consumers, and employers. It focused on three communities • The most frequently mentioned good that was hard to find of Fallujah – Albu Akash, Al-Nassaf, and Karma Al-Somod. A included carpentry services, in addition to venues for dining summary of key findings is below, followed by a fuller analysis and and entertainment; and explanation. • 70% of respondents mentioned travelling out of their town to purchase or access goods that were hard to find locally. Recommendations: 1.3. Fallujah Key Findings Cash based grants to transportation providers should be 1.3.1. Challenges & Opportunities Facing Youth discouraged to avoid distortion/further price drops. • Participants felt that Vocational Training (VT) subjects could Advanced trainings in carpentry should be provided, include blacksmithing, carpentry, and haircutting; not just job placement. • Carpentry, metalworking, tailoring, and working either in a bakery or grocery store were mentioned as desirable jobs; • The agricultural identity of the community was remarked on and a request was made to develop the agricultural projects 1.4. Overall Recommendations in the community; and • Some women have skills in tailoring or cosmetology but lack Sectors Food processing, construction manufacturing, access to any kind of support. to target: metalworking, agriculture.

Profile Recommendations: Youth, university graduates and poor households. to target: Offer Business Support Packages (BSPs) to women with careful consideration to local attitudes. • Although many local carpenters report demand issues, youth still report it as a desirable job type, Support the training of youth in blacksmithing, culinary so advanced trainings, not just job placement, skills, and agriculture. should be provided in carpentry; 1.3.2. Challenges & Opportunities Facing Jobseekers • Agriculture was only mentioned by youth in communities outside of Fallujah, but not by key Recommendations: informants or jobseekers. Instead of agriculture Notes: Look for ways to increase presence and continuity for here, perhaps culinary arts or food processing IOM in Fallujah, including possibly a mobile job centre. could be a training subject; and • Women were not mentioned as a group that should be prioritized for livelihood assistance, indicating possibly conservative attitudes and suggesting IOM should not explicitly target women’s empowerment in the area.

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2. Location and Study Overview 2.3. Fallujah District Overview 2.3.1. Location and Demographics 2.1. Introduction Fallujah is a district in the Anbar governorate whose capital, Recognizing that the private sector is an engine for growth, IOM Fallujah city, is located roughly 65 kilometers west of Baghdad on works to create inclusive markets at the individual, community the Euphrates; it is known as the “city of mosques” for the more and institutional level. At the individual level, IOM has prioritized than 200 mosques found in the city and throughout the district. support to micro enterprises. This has included providing business The area was sparsely populated in the mid-20th century but development services (including business advisory and counselling experienced strong population growth after Iraqi independence services) and business support packages (including in-kind and cash in 1947 and the influx of oil wealth into the country. The capital, support), all of which aim to increase income generation at the Fallujah city, grew from a small town to over 300,000 inhabitants household level. prior to the Iraq War, in part due to Fallujah’s location on the main road leaving Baghdad for Iraq’s western border with Jordan and For those individuals who need capacity development support or Saudi Arabia1. The majority of residents are Sunni. who have more specific backgrounds like agriculture, IOM provides specialized skills development and training through Vocational Training (VT), Farming Training (FT) or On-the-Job Training (OJT), 2.3.2. Security and Displacement accompanied by employability assistance inclusive of in-kind items Fallujah district was the seat of a series of important ISIL tailored to enhance individual employability. For beneficiaries who advancements up to and including 2014, though accounts of the already possess relevant education or training and need to gain extent of ISIL control of the area vary – some accounts have hands-on work experience, IOM job placement and job matching suggested that anti-government tribesmen fomented much local initiatives link participants with businesses in growth sectors, and unrest in Fallujah and Anbar, and also took control of various agrees to pay their salaries partially or fully for 3-6 months. areas2. The area then experienced some of the earlier and more At the community level, IOM provides support to slightly larger destructive military combat operations against ISIL as Iraqi armed businesses – small and medium enterprises (SMEs) – to support forces sought to retake ISIL-controlled territory throughout the long term job creation and the expansion of local production country. Significant physical destruction occurred, including the capacities. looting of over 500 metalworking workshops, for example, and many factories were burnt or bombed. IOM also targets the infrastructure needed to support markets, Brutal ISIL rule led to the displacement of thousands of families in linking livelihoods with support for the enabling environment. the district, with thousands more yet displaced during the heavy For example, in agricultural communities IOM may support Iraqi offensive to retake the district and its capital. Over 60,000 irrigation projects. At the institutional level, IOM also provides people were displaced in 2016 alone. One account indicated that capacity building to national and local authorities, including market “every resident who remained under [ISIL] rule” fled once the city assessments that seek to promote institutional change that would and district were retaken.3 support local livelihoods.

2.2. LMA Overview 2.3.3. Local Concerns After 2016, an area that was once considered a crossroads for This and other IOM LMAs are intended to provide actionable goods coming to and from Baghdad is now heavily controlled by recommendations for the individual livelihood assistance that IOM Iraqi Security Forces, who control checkpoints between Fallujah, provides, for multiple districts throughout Iraq. This LMA addresses Baghdad, and rural areas. With economic growth stymied by Fallujah, a district in Anbar governorate west of Baghdad, whose this heavy security presence, youth increasingly look towards the seat is the city of Fallujah. armed forces as a career option, or consider migrating to more urban areas for better work opportunities. IOM Rapid Needs Assessments of the studied communities found that local infrastructure is available but damaged or inadequate. Improvements are required in water treatment, water distribution, electrical grid network, and electrical grid safety. For some time after the Iraqi retaking of Fallujah, health services were largely provided by the Iraqi Red Crescent Society.4 The Fallujah Maternity

1 Basu, Moni. “Falluja: The American and Iraqi ‘graveyard’,” CNN, https://www.cnn.com/2016/06/03/world/iraq-falluja-sad-history/index.html (accessed April 11, 2019). 2 Murphy, Dan. “What’s really going on in Iraq’s Anbar Province?” Christian Science Monitor, https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Security-Watch/Backchannels/2014/0109/ What-s-really-going-on-in-Iraq-s-Anbar-Province (accessed April 11, 2019). 3 Chulov, Martin. “Falluja after Isis: a city of ghosts and graffiti,” The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/09/falluja-isis-shia-iraq, (accessed April 11 2019). 4 Khuzai, Mohammed. “Fallujah displaced reach 17,000, Red Crescent gears up to meet needs,” International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, https://www.ifrc.org/en/news-and-media/news-stories/middle-east-and-north-africa/iraq/fallujah-displaced-reach-17000-red-crescent-gears-up-to-meet-needs-72292/ (accessed April 11, 2019). 5 Labour Market Opportunities and Challenges and Children’s Hospital was rehabilitated by UNDP Iraq and 2.4.2. Youth Focus Group Discussions 5 reopened in 2013, but both it and the Fallujah General Hospital Youth focus group discussions (FGDs) were designed to identify were taken during ISIL occupation and then subject to heavy attacks bottlenecks to youth employment and training preferences. They and shelling during Iraqi efforts to retake Fallujah. These hospitals were conducted by soliciting participation from members of each and other medical facilities remain partially damaged while health of the studied communities. three FGDs were conducted with services are still in high demand. participants aged between 15-25, and sought to include a diverse Most residents have access to food and non-food items (NFIs) via group of youth. a number of shops that have re-opened since the area was retaken 6 by Iraqi forces . However, jobs and purchasing power remain at 2.4.3. Jobseeker Surveys low levels. The jobseeker survey is designed to identify preferences of Consumer Spending Snapshot unemployed and underemployed workers. In Fallujah, 29 jobseekers were identified and surveyed. The survey purpose was outlined for Key Weekly Expenses: each jobseeker survey, and informed consent was obtained from • The typical consumer in Fallujah district reported those surveyed. spending an average of 76.8 USD on food expenses per week. 2.4.4. Employer Surveys Key Monthly Expenses: 85 Employer surveys were also conducted in Fallujah city in order • 83.3% of survey respondents reported having a monthly to provide a representative sample of the local market. Employers transportation expense, averaging 30.4 USD per month; were initially provided an advance copy of the handout materials • 100% of survey respondents reported having a monthly and then later contacted for follow-up interviews. The map below combustibles expense, averaging 27.2 USD per month; shows some of the locations visited during surveying for the • 100% of respondents also reported a monthly water Employer Survey in Fallujah city: expense, averaging 20.1 USD per month; and • Finally, 100% of respondents reported monthly expenses on temptation goods, averaging 34.3 USD per month.

A more thorough breakdown of consumer expenditure based on the collected data is presented in the Findings section below.

2.4. LMA Methodology Overview The LMA process took two months to complete. three communities in Fallujah district were selected for surveying in depth – Albu Akash, Al-Nassaf, and Karma Al-Somod. After a two-day training, surveyors interviewed key informants, jobseekers, average consumers, youth, and local businesses. Where possible, surveys were collected evenly across these three locations. Figure 1. Fallujah Surveyed Employer Locations

Tools No. Conducted 2.4.5. Consumer Surveys Key Informant Interviews 6 Youth Focus Group Discussions 3 The consumer survey was designed to triangulate data related to Jobseeker Surveys 29 demand, income, and vulnerability. In Fallujah, 30 respondents were Private Sector Employer Surveys 85 identified by approaching members of the public in commercial Consumer Surveys 30 or industrial districts and asking to speak with them. There were no restrictions on the demographic profiles of participants, but Table 1. Surveys Conducted in Fallujah for LMA IOM sought diversity of groups within the population to the extent possible. Below is an explanation of the surveys conducted:

2.4.1. Key Informant Interviews Six key informant interviews were conducted with representatives of the Chamber of Commerce, the Ministries of Agriculture and Labour & Social Affairs, as well as representatives of a micro- finance institution, a women’s empowerment centre, and the mayor’s office.

5 Anonymous. “Iraq: Government Attacking Fallujah Hospital,” Human Rights Watch, https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/05/27/iraq-government-attacking-fallujah- hospital (accessed April 11 2019) 6 Arraf, Jane. “Iraqis Remain Displaced 1 Year After Fallujah’s Liberation From ISIS,” National Public Radio, https://www.npr.org/2017/08/08/542286015/iraqis-remain- displaced-1-year-after-fallujahs-liberation-from-isis. (accessed April 11 2019). 6 International Organization for Migration

3. Findings

3.1. Key Informant Interviews Key Informants identified farming, micro businesses, industrial, trade, agriculture and food processing as the largest sources of employment prior to the crisis in 2014. One respondent mentioned that micro businesses such as tailoring, cosmetics and nurseries were a main source of employment for women. Since the occupation and retaking of the area from ISIL, most of the sectors were either destroyed, damaged or looted, and business owners have faced challenges in rehabilitating due to a general depletion of savings, reduced income, and lack of public support. Businesses related to construction, metalworking, food processing, retail, entertainment, and real estate were all mentioned as high potential/high growth businesses, in addition to fast food and the construction of shopping compounds. Grocery stores, mobile phone and electrical appliances, cafes, and restaurants were in turn mentioned as oversaturated markets. Respondents felt that the government is only encouraging investments in the agriculture sector and private education, with private investors choosing to invest in construction, tourism, venues such as wedding reception halls, and shopping. None of the key informants were aware of UN organizations and NGOs programs active in developing the local area.

Mentions: Figure 2. Key Informant Interview Reportedly Oversaturated Sectors 3.2. Youth Needs and Priorities

Three FGDs were conducted in Albu Akash, Al-Nassaf, and Karma unemployment was estimated to be at or around 80%. While not Al-Somod. In these discussions, youth mentioned that employment specific on the type of jobs or trainings that would be desirable, had drastically decreased in their communities since the departure Youth confirmed that many young people in their community of ISIL. Many participants explained that the area used to be located join the military in search of stable income who would not if civil on an important trade route to and from Baghdad, but due to a sector opportunities were more available. Financial services were high incidence of missing persons and the tight control exercised by mentioned as accessible, but problems such as government loans the Iraqi Security Forces, trade and economic opportunities have charging interest which make them forbidden for religious reasons, greatly diminished. and private loans having extensive paperwork for small amounts of capital, were described. Respondents also felt dis-empowered to effect change in the security situation in their communities, since Iraqi Security Forces Al-Nassaf who control the area would likely not be interested in allowing In Al-Nassaf, participants felt that vocational training subjects could youth to participate in security planning or play any role in peace include blacksmithing, carpentry, and haircutting, of which only building. One focus group did pick up on the risk posed to youth blacksmithing aligns with the underdeveloped/high potential sectors by the lack of economic empowerment opportunities, suggesting mentioned by key informants. The agricultural identity of the that it could be a contributing factor to engagement with militias community was remarked on and a request was made to develop or radicalized persons. the agricultural projects in the community. Here, participants said, there was little support, so anything would be beneficial. Albu Akash For example, some women have skills in tailoring or cosmetology In Albu Akash, it was felt that prior to the ISIL occupation, the but lack access to any kind of support. The only financial services overall unemployment rate was 20-30%, but currently is over 60% available locally, participants felt, were loans from immediate or due mostly to military operations to retake Anbar. Among youth, extended family members.

7 Labour Market Opportunities and Challenges

Karma Al-Somod Carpentry and construction, in addition to water processing plants, In Karma Al-Somod, carpentry, metalworking, tailoring, and working were actually the industries most likely to self-report demand either in a bakery or grocery store were mentioned as desirable issues. 70% of construction businesses, for instance, noted poor jobs, in addition to service jobs such as photography, printing, and demand, reflecting a potentially different reality for construction haircutting. No particular training subjects were mentioned, but business owners than perceived by jobseekers and key informants. youth felt that vocational trainings were needed to enhance their Businesses that mentioned difficulty finding qualified workers livelihoods opportunities. included many types of food related businesses (a bakery, an ice cream seller, a sweets maker, a pizza vendor), in addition to some businesses in the production and distribution of concrete blocks, 3.3. Jobseeker Needs and Priorities ceramic tiles, aluminum cabinets, electrical transformers, water bottles, and PVC goods. Business types that had strong demand, Jobseekers in Fallujah reported that unskilled and inexperienced were interested in having apprentices, and had difficulty finding workers were less likely to be employed than other groups skilled labourers are listed below: except for women, who were mentioned just as often as a group less likely to be employed. In response to the question Low demand mentioned? of who should be prioritized for livelihood assistance, however, Sector To t a l women were not mentioned, only skilled persons, followed by No Yes vulnerable and low-income persons. This may indicate a lack Automotive 1 0 1 of prioritization to support the participation of women into Carpentry 6 16 22 the labour force and should be kept in mind from a conflict Construction 8 19 27 sensitivity standpoint when designing community outreach. Food 7 5 12 Metal 5 9 14 Jobseekers showed some confidence in the government of Iraq Plastic 1 0 1 to create jobs, including nine respondents who had contacted a politician before, voted, or attended a political event. The current Textile 3 3 6 biggest sectors reported by jobseekers to be currently hiring tended Water 1 3 4 to include construction, followed by PVC businesses, metalworking Total 32 55 87 shops, small industries, and trading. 69% of jobseekers felt that Table 2. Self-reported demand by sector construction was also the most successful industry in the area, although 55% mentioned that industrial businesses should invest Carpentry and construction, in addition to water processing plants, in their communities, compared to only 27% who mentioned were actually the industries most likely to self-report demand construction as a preferred type of business that should invest issues. 70% of construction businesses, for instance, noted poor in their community, reflecting a preference to work in industrial demand, reflecting a potentially different reality for construction rather than construction jobs. Respondents to this survey did not business owners than perceived by jobseekers and key informants. mention agriculture as a successful or potentially successful sector, although the sampling was distributed between many smaller communities. This may also reflect a lack of interest in engaging Not profitable, with agricultural projects. Secondary jobs noted were typically also Stagnant, barely I’m losing money. construction jobs, with a high number of respondents mentioning enough to sustain my (business contraction) that many people worked as drivers as a second job. own needs 5 % 67 %

3.4. Employer Needs and Priorities

In Fallujah district, not surprisingly given the recent history of the area, the most common challenge reported by employers in dealing with suppliers was the delay in the receipt of goods due to security and checkpoint issues. In turn, the most frequently noted challenge in dealing with clients was the tendency to take debts and delay in their repayment. Meanwhile, operating challenges ranged from the high cost of rent and electricity, to space constraints.

Profitable/ successful, but not enough to grow further 28 %

Figure 3. Business Status Post-Crisis (Self-Reported)

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Businesses that mentioned difficulty finding qualified workers included many types of food related businesses (a bakery, an ice cream seller, a sweets maker, a pizza vendor), in addition to some businesses in the production and distribution of concrete blocks, ceramic tiles, aluminum cabinets, electrical transformers, water bottles, and PVC goods. Business types that had strong demand, were interested in having apprentices, and had difficulty finding skilled labourers are listed below:

PVC Blacksmith Sewing Carpenter Marble sinks factory Food

Table 3. Anbar Business Profiles for JP and OJT

3.5. Consumer Needs and Priorities

The average monthly salary from work for consumers surveyed was 508 USD, with a few participants having the habit to save money. Consumers surveyed in Fallujah were not found to spend significantly different amounts on food that consumers in other areas of Iraq, but they were found to spend significantly less on rent, transportation, electricity, and on major annual expenses than in other areas of Iraq.

Spending patterns are shown in the table below:

# Participants With % Participants With Average Local Average National Period Expense Expense Expense Expense (USD) Expense (USD) Week Food 30 100% 76.8 97.05 Rent 7 33.3% 70 151.02 Combustibles 30 100% 27.2 58.38 Transport services 29 83.3% 30.4 49.43 Temptation goods 28 100% 34.3 64.32 Month Water 0 100% 20.1 20.51 Phone, cable and 26 100% 38.3 37.90 internet Education 30 90% 48.9 372.36 Medical expenses 28 96.7% 55 496.91 Repairs 28 73.3% 51.6 485.92 Household 22 73.3% 42.9 215.83 appliances Year Purchase of vehicle such as car, bike, 12 60% 38 1604.91 motorbike Family events 1 60% 46.1 808.82

Table 4. Consumer Spending Averages- Fallujah District

9 Labour Market Opportunities and Challenges

3.6. Community Implementation Plan (CIP) Recommendations Based on the surveys conducted and data collected, IOM developed an initial list of potential community interventions, or Community Implementation Plans (CIPs) in Fallujah to help address various identified infrastructure and livelihoods issues.

Infrastructure recommendations included activities to repair and expand electrical infrastructure in various areas of the district to bring electricity to more households and stop the trend of electricity theft. Heavy investment in poles, cables, and transformers were recommended. In addition, there were recommendations to rehabilitate area schools and also create recreational community spaces.

Livelihoods recommendations included a number of Business Support Packages (BSPs) and Employment Support Packages (ESPs) for a number of business types including carpentry, metalworking, tailoring, baking, grocery, cosmetic, hairdressing, blacksmithing, and bicycle repair. Recommendations also included On-the-Job Training (OJT) programs to train unskilled individuals for many of these business types.

Community engagement recommendations included activities to beautify public and park areas in some parts of the district, a well as an awareness campaign for better water hygiene.

4. Conclusions In Fallujah, a high presence of Iraqi Security Force personnel limits the accessibility of nearby markets and the potential for labour migration. This also affects the supply of raw materials, which while available, are sometimes delayed in reaching local manufacturers due to security and check point issues. As a side job, many residents enter into driving, creating an oversupply and presumably price drops in the market, as consumers spend significantly less on transportation in Fallujah district.

A high rate of youth unemployment causes youth to look at military career opportunities more than they might otherwise if other opportunities were available, but some indicative confidence in governing institutions is a promising sign that a social contract is taking hold. IOM can capitalize on this by partnering with governing institutions in the rollout and implementation of activities. Women were mentioned frequently as likely to not be employed, but they were also not mentioned as priorities for livelihood assistance. This may possibly reflect conservative views on women’s engagement with the workforce.

Finally, construction was remarked on repeatedly as a high potential, high gain sector by key informants, unemployed persons, and youth. Yet actual business owners in construction commonly had issues with low demand, with food businesses more likely to demonstrate actual demand. Agriculture, while mentioned by youth, was not often mentioned by other respondents, except as an area already receiving some public investment. IOM can play to these strengths by supporting the processed food sectors and other micro-industries, while avoiding grants to transportation, construction, and carpentry industries.

10 IOM-IRAQ MISSION LABOUR MARKET OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES