Muòìaf Al-Masgid Al-Aqòa’ [The Muòìaf of the Al-Aqòa of Their Makki Or Madani Origin, Pp

0582_BIOR_2007_5-6_01 31-01-2008 13:23 Pagina 645

779 BOEKBESPREKINGEN — ISLAM 780

of the book. However, the epilogue in the book lacks any detail about a supposed exemplar, nor does there seem to exist a historically important copy of the Qurân in the al- AqÒa Mosque. If we accept, however, the connection with Jerusalem at face value, we may believe that an authoritative copy of the Qurân which is kept in the al-AqÒa Mosque, was at the basis of the edition which was produced in Ghazza and which is now being distributed. Apart from the Qurânic text the volume contains several extras. The Qurân is nowadays printed in a great number of countries, and governments of many Islamic countries super- vise the production of a correct and reliable text with a variety of administrative measures. This is also the case with the present Qurân, which adopts Egypt as its country of scholarly reference. The official permission from al-Azhar to distribute the volume directly follows the title-page, and is followed by illuminated calligraphic pages. The divine text gos from pp. 1-604. Then follows the Duäˆ Khatm al-Qurân al- ISLAM Karim (“the prayer to be said at the closure of the recitation of the text”, pp. 605-606), the Fihris bi-Asmaˆ al-Suwar (“the list with names of the sura’s”, together with the indication ‘MuÒÌaf al-Masgid al-AqÒa’ [The MuÒÌaf of the al-AqÒa of their Makki or Madani origin, pp. 607-608), a list with the Mosque in Jerusalem]. Îazat sharaf †ibaätihi ManÒur lil- Älamat al-Waqf wa-MuÒ†alaÌat al-Δab† (“signs used for the ™ibaä wal-Nashr wal-Tawzi¨, Ghazza, Filas†in, Shari¨ al- pronunciation and spelling”, p. 609), the Ta¨rif bi-MuÒÌaf al- WaÌda, P.O. Box 5, 1427 higri/2007 miladi, Al-™abä Masgid al-AqÒa (information on the present copy, the so- al-Ula. ([5] + 638 pp.), 25 cm. Price in Egypt £E 30. styled copy of al-Masgid al-AqÒa, pp. 610-611, from which According to pious Islamic tradition four out of the six most of the information discussed below is extracted), the copies of the Qurân, which were produced after the editor- MukhtaÒar al-Taysir fi Ïlm al-Tagwid (a separate work on ial committee convened by order of the third Caliph Üthman Qurân recitation by the contemporary author Dr. Äbd al- b. Äffan (d. 656) had completed its work, were distributed RaÌman Yusuf al-Gamal which was added to the present vol- among the important towns and settlements of the Muslims ume by the publisher (pp. 612-636), a list with the names of at the time: Mecca, Damascus, al-Kufa and al-BaÒra. One the members of the Idarat al-BuÌuth wal-Taˆlif wal-Targama, copy remained in Medina for public use, and one copy was which is presented by Prof. Dr. AÌmad Ïsa al-Ma¨Òarawi, the kept by the Caliph for private use. That latter copy is, of Raîs Lagnat al-MuÒÌaf wa-Shaykh Ümum al-Maqariˆ al- course, the one which the Caliph was reading from when he MiÒriyya (p. 637), and finally the volume contains the pre- was murdered, and which was splattered with his blood. That liminary permission print the book (p. 638). copy is called al-MuÒÌaf al-Imam, the “leading copy of the The publisher, the Ma†baät ManÒur in Ghazza, Palestine, Qurân”, of which all others are dependent. The blood stains on May 22, 2006, obtained the preliminary permission from establish the genuineness and authenticity of that copy. The al-Idara al-Ämma lil-BuÌuth wal-Taˆlif wal-Targama (“Gen- proliferation of the written Qurânic text in the rest of the eral Department for Research, Writing and Translation”) of rapidly expanding world of Islam took place by copies made the Islamic Research Academy of al-Azhar in Cairo to print from any one of these six canonical copies, of copies thereof, the MuÒÌaf al-Masgid al-AqÒa, which should be in the for- and so on. None of these first six canonical copies has been mat of 17 x 24 cm (width by height), in the riwayat ÎafÒ än preserved however, nor has any copy which belonged to the ÄÒim, and which is makhtum al-Ayat (probably meaning that ∑aÌaba or the Tabiün, the existence of which is documented it is stamped on every page on behalf of the al-Azhar author- by al-Sigistani in his Kitab al-MaÒaÌif. ities), and written in a hand, which is designated here as al- Present-day editions of Islam’s holy book do not depend Kha†† al-Kufi al-MiÒri (“Egyptian Kufi handwriting”). The on a chain of manuscripts, assessed in an academic environ- indication of this script style is somewhat enigmatic since the ment by philologists and/or theologians and then critically text is originally written (indeed, it is not typeset) and printed edited — as is done with the holy books of Jews and Chris- in what we would call a clear naskh hand. Would the term tians —, but rather on information concerning the transmis- “kufi” make it more authentic? After the completion of the sion and recitation of the text which is guaranteed by a sep- production process ten copies must be offered to the “Com- arate branch of religious literature, that of the qiraât, the mittee for the Inspection of Copies of the Qurân” (Lagnat science of the Qurânic readings. It can best be compared Muragaät al-MaÒaÌif) for a final check, and in the mean- with the masora of the Hebrews, which is a corpus of infor- time no copy could be distributed (document reproduced on mation, which exists separately from the holy text, on how p. 638). On December 4, 2006, the publisher received defin- actually the holy text should be handed over to following itive permission to distribute the 40,000 copies which he had generations. The hazardous transmission of the holy text on produced, all within the framework of the relevant Egyptian the basis of manuscripts which have purely accidentally sur- laws and regulations concerning the production and distrib- vived is thereby avoided. This is also the case with the pre- ution of Qurâns and works on Îadith. Forty thousand copies sent edition of the Qurân, which advertises itself as the edi- is a relatively small number, and it means that this al-AqÒa tion of the copy of the Qurân in the al-AqÒa Mosque in MuÒÌaf will be out of print soon. The number seems to be a Jerusalem. The mosque is depicted on either side of the cover common one, however, and it can be seen in many of such 0582_BIOR_2007_5-6_01 31-01-2008 13:23 Pagina 646

781 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXIV N° 5-6, september-december 2007 782

permissions issued by the Azhar which are reproduced in G I, 100). That is probably the work on Qiraât ascribed to Egyptian editions of the Qurân. If the publisher, as the per- Khalil b. AÌmad, whose authorship is doubtful, however. The mission stipulates, would somehow fail to observe the nec- 6236 aya’s containing all 321250 letters of God’s Word were essary punctuality, e.g. by making mistakes in the order of counted according to the Kufi system. For this the work al- the pages and the quires, the permission would be withdrawn Qawl al-Wagiz fi FawaÒil al-Kitab al-Äziz by Ri∂wan b. and the faulty copies will be confiscated. The permission is MuÌammad b. Sulayman al-Mukhallilati (mentioned without valid for the period of five years starting from the date of biographical information in GAL G I, 410; S I, 727) was con- issuing, which is apparently the period during which a pub- sulted, which is a commentary on the prose version of NaÂi- lisher is supposed to have a sell-out. The permission as issued mat al-Zahr fi A¨dad Ayat al-Qurân by al-Sha†ibi (d. to the publisher is accompanied, so it is stated, by one copy 590/1194, GAL G I, 409; S I, 725). For the correct internal of the edition, which carries a seal print from the issuing divisions of the holy text the Kitab al-MaÒaÌif by Ibn Abi authority on each and every page. This definitive permission, Dawud al-Sigistani (d. 316/929, GAS I, 14; 174-175) was which in the present copy has been reproduced in full-colour used, together with al-Mukhallilati’s above-mentioned com- preceding the holy text, is signed by several authorities, and mentary, further the Ghayth al-Naf¨ fi al-Qiraât al-Sab¨ by finally authenticated by the Secretary-General of the Islamic al-∑afaqusi (d. 1081/1671 or 1117/1705, GAL S II, 698), the Research Academy (Magma¨ al-BuÌuth al-Islamiyya), TaÌqiq al-Bayan fi Ädd Ay al-Qurân by MuÌammad al- Ibrahim Ä†aˆ al-Fayyumi. For distribution in Egypt these for- Mutawalli (d. 1313/1895, GAL S II, 744) and the Irshad al- malities are absolutely necessary. For the distribution in other Qurraˆ by al-Mukhallilati. The distinction between Makki Islamic countries the prestige of an al-Azhar-issued permis- and Madani origines of the sura’s was based on information sion is usually sufficient to avoid practical difficulties. It is a in al-MaqÒad by Zakariyyaˆ al-AnÒari (d. 926/1520, GAL G matter of prudence and wisdom that the Ghazza publisher II, 99), on the work by Abu al-Qasim Ümar b. MuÌammad ManÒur has chosen the Egyptian religious authorities to b. Äbd al-Kafi (fl. 400/1009, GAL S I, 330, where his only authenticate his Qurân. It provides him with direct access to known work is generically mentioned as Kitab fi Ädad the Egyptian market for his product. One remark may be Suwar wa-Ay al-Qurân wa-ghairiha), and “the other well- added here. The King Fuâd edition of the Qurân, which for known books” on the subject. The indications of Waqf, many years almost exclusively was the only copy available “pausa”, and of Sagda, “prosternation” were taken by the in Egypt, has now entirely disappeared from the Cairene book editors from the copy on the basis of which the printing was trade. done. In addition to the authorities mentioned above, use was The editors of the present edition, who are not mentioned made of several other works: the Manar al-Huda fil-Waqf by name (only collectively as al-Lagna al-Mushrifa äla wal-Ibtidaˆ by AÌmad b. Äbd al-Karim al-Ushmuni (fl. end ™ibaät hadha al-MuÒÌaf, “the Committee Supervising the 11th/17th cent., GAL S II, 453), again of al-MaqÒad by Printing of this Qurân”), have taken the following measures Zakariyya al-AnÒari, of al-Nashr fil-Qiraât al-Äshr by Ibn to ensure that they would have a publishable text. They have al-Gazari (d. 833/1429, GAL G II, 201) and of a work with taken this al-AqÒa Mosque copy as the starting point of their the general title of al-Kanz (“the Treasure”), which may be work. It contains, they maintain, the text of the Qurân the Kanz al-Maäni by Ibrahim b. Ümar al-Ga¨bari (d. according to the ÎafÒ-ÄÒim transmission of the text, which 732/1331, GAL S I, 725; S II, 134), being one of the many is the most widespread version of the Qurânic text, the commentaries on al-QaÒida al-Sha†ibiyya by al-Sha†ibi. Warsh-Nafi¨, Qalun-Nafi¨ and al-Duri transmissions being Finally, information was gathered orally from accomplished only of regional relevance. The editors have then reviewed scholars in this discipline. the text according to the rules laid down in the extensive cor- The present list of authorities has been extensively repro- pus of classical works on the correct reading of the text. The duced here in order to show how much scholarship should order of the sura’s was given, it is said, according to the one be, and actually was, added to the manuscript text of the contained in the six canonical copies. But again, as these Qurân before it could be transformed from a manuscript copies have not been preserved in manuscripts, it is the into a volume ready for printing. It is striking, but not sur- Islamic masoretic literature which provides the necessary prising, that all authorities referred to are rather late, and details on which such statements can be based. In resuming cannot have any first-hand, or even second-hand, informa- the following references I have slightly expanded some of the tion on the original features of the Qurânic text. It once details in order to bring them on the level with the require- more illustrates the masoretic character of the early Qurânic ments of scholarly bibliography. For the order of the sura’s studies. They are not mentioned here in order to refer a such classical authorities as Abu Ämr Üthman b. Saïd al- reader to further relevant literature, however. The list of Dani (d. 444/1053, GAL G I, 407) and his pupil Abu Dawud these authorities is an inextricable web of references, a Sulayman b. NagaÌ al-Umawi al-Andalusi (d. 496/1102, cf. scholarly complex of interrelated texts, and it gives the GAL S II, 349 are mentioned. For the editors the latter author- impression that serves to authenticate the present edition by ity’s reading prevailed in case of doubt. Several other such authoritative name dropping rather than to establish its authorities are mentioned in the epilogue (pp. 610-611): al- authenticity by facts. Facts that are well-known anyway, as ™iraz äla (or: fi SharÌ) Δab† al-Kharraz, which is a com- they can be gathered from a multitude of other works writ- mentary by al-Imam al-Tanasi (MuÌammad b. Äbdallah al- ten on the Qurânic sciences. Yet, this list of authorities is Tanasi, d. 899/1493, writing his book in 866/1461, GAL S II, the firm base on which this edition stands. And the result of 341 on al-Durar al-Lawami¨ fi AÒl Maqraˆ al-Imam Nafi¨, all this work is (the reader be not surprised!): an impecca- written in 697/1298 by Abu Äbdallah MuÌammad b. ble ÎafÒ-ÄÒim copy of the Qurân — of which there exist MuÌammad al-Umawi al-Kharrazi (fl. 703/1303, GAL S II, already so many millions! 349), who based himself, as the editors maintain, on a work So, why then yet another edition? The distinctive element by the grammarian al-Khalil b. AÌmad (died c. 175/791, GAL is, as we have seen, in the title which this Qurân has been 0582_BIOR_2007_5-6_01 31-01-2008 13:23 Pagina 647

783 BOEKBESPREKINGEN — ISLAM 784

given, the MuÒÌaf al-Masgid al-AqÒa, referring to Old- broader audience than that of specialists in Islamic studies”, Jerusalem, the third most holy place in Islam after Mecca and while at the same time Prof. McAuliffe states that these spe- Medina, which is constantly in danger since it was captured cialists “will undoubtedly find much of interest in these by Israel in the war of 1967. How far popular sentiment and pages” (p. 13). I think it is precisely this ambiguity which religious anxiety go when this mosque is concerned is made me feel uncomfortable from time to time. Some of the demonstrated by the numerous images of it which can be seen information presented is clearly of an introductory nature, like at a great variety of occasions throughout the Islamic world. the article by Daniel Madigan (“Themes and topics”), while Nowhere said in the present copy but silently present and evi- in other cases the papers definitely take basic knowledge of dent by association is the idea that the al-AqÒa Mosque may the Qur’ân for granted. An additional problem is that every be protected by this Qurân which bears its name, and the single article in the book is supposed to be suitable to be read more so by the multiplication in print of this particular independently (p. 13), which in some cases is impossible MuÒÌaf. On a more mundane level one might even assume without a basic knowledge (e.g. on pp. 41-42, where mention that the present edition is not based on a concrete MuÒÌaf in is made of late Meccan and Medinan passages, without any the AqÒa Mosque, but that the names-giving of the book is explanation). These remarks are not meant to challenge the also part of the publisher’s marketing strategy. quality of the individual contributions, which is beyond any The comparison to another Qurân, coming from another shadow of doubt, but bearing the ambiguity of the intended endangered region, comes to mind, the so-called Fa∂il Pasha readership in mind, I found some articles more convincing MuÒÌaf of Sarajevo, Bosnia (see my “‘The Mushaf of Fazil than others. Moreover, one might wonder why a non-spe- Pasha’”, in Bibliotheca Orientalis LXI 5/6 (September- cialist audience should take notice of the very detailed dis- December 2004), pp. 648-651). There, in the middle of the cussions on the origins of the Qur’ân in three papers which war of attrition against the Serbs, the idea was born that a together run to 75 pages, while at the same time the special- reproduction of this authoritative and beautifully made 19th- ist is already aware of the difficulties involved in the textual century Qurân, which had by then already the prestige of a history and transmission of the Qur’ân. national Bosnian Qurân, would be a sensible thing to do. It On the whole, I think most contributions are too difficult would fortify the Muslims and might boost Bosnian morale. or too detailed for the non-specialist and consequently I con- The Fa∂il Pasha MuÒÌaf has in fact been produced, though it sider that the value of this book is restricted to an audience was only completed after the Bosnian war (Istanbul of students in Islamic studies and specialists, who will indeed 1423/2002). The decision to produce this copy of the Qurân find something in this collection which they might like. Per- dedicated or somehow vaguely related to the beleaguered al- sonally, I enjoyed reading the contribution by Sheila Blair AqÒa Mosque in Jerusalem, coming in 2007 from the war rid- and Jonathan Bloom on “Inscriptions in art and architecture”, den town of Ghazza, may have had, in addition to commer- and the one by Asma Barlas, entitled “Women’s readings of cial motives, a similar purpose. the Qur’ân”.

Cairo, April 2007 Jan Just WITKAM Leiden, July 2007 Nico J.G. KAPTEIN

** ** * *

DAMMEN McAULIFFE, J. — The Cambridge Companion WAARDENBURG, J. — Islam, Historical, social and polit- to the Qur'ân. (Cambridge Companions to Religion). ical perspectives, (Religion and reason. Volume 40), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2006. (23 cm, Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co., Berlin, 2002. (23 cm, 348). ISBN 9780521539340 (pbk), 978052183604 (hbk). XVI, 436) ISBN 978-3-11-017178-3 / 92,-. £17.99 (pbk), £45.00 (pbk). The book under review contains a long introduction and In her capacity as the editor-in-chief, from 2001 — 2006 nineteen essays, selected by the author from an obviously Prof. Jane McAuliffe was responsible for the remarkably fast much greater collection, most of them updated or revised and accurate publication of the six volumes of the indis- reprints of studies published between 1980 and 2000 in aca- pensable Encyclopaedia of the Qur’ân (Leiden: Brill). This demic journals, Festschrifts and other collective works and impressive achievement is now followed by an off-shoot in consequently not easily accessible. Two essays are transla- the form of the book under review here, again edited by Pro- tions from German and Italian. Each essay is followed by a fessor McAuliffe, entitled The Cambridge Companion to the lengthy bibliography. The book concludes with a well- Qur'ân. arranged list of additional sources and five indexes. In the The book is a collection of 14 contributions, divided over preface, W (abbreviated from now on in this article instead of five categories: I. The formation of the Qur’ânic text; II. using his full name) apologizes for the fact that the essays in Description and analysis; III. Transmission and dissemination; this book were written before the 11th of September 2001 and IV. Interpretations and intellectual traditions; and V. Con- therefore could not take into consideration the impact of this temporary readings. All contributions are written by estab- major event on contemporary history. The omission, if it lished scholars in the field, most of whom were also involved should be called one, does not diminish the value of the book. in writing articles for the EQ. These fourteen articles are pre- However, in Ch. 16 on ideologization in present-day Islam a ceded by a lengthy introduction written by the editor herself. sharper analysis of Islamic ideologies was called for even In reading the book I often wondered for whom this pub- before the ominous date 9/11(see below). Those who do take lication was actually meant. In the introduction it is men- into account that the Muslim world, and our Western attitude tioned that the contributors had been invited to write for “a towards it, may have changed since that event, will in several 0582_BIOR_2007_5-6_01 31-01-2008 13:23 Pagina 648

785 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXIV N° 5-6, september-december 2007 786

chapters certainly benefit from the insights W’s book offers. For the rest of his life this experience made him very much They provide useful background information on matters which aware of “social and political dimensions” of contemporary are still important today. The essays cover a wide range of Islam. After the completion of his thesis W. moved on (1962- subjects, all dealing with Islam, from different perspectives. 63) to the Institute of Islamic Studies of McGill University The author approaches Islam “from the field of the science of in Montreal, famous at that time through the methodology religion, science des religions, Religionswissenschaft” (vi). and leadership of its founder Wilfred Cantwell Smith, who “This approach”, he adds, is somewhat unconventional.” The wanted half the number of his doctoral students to be Mus- three names for the same discipline are an indication of the lim. From 1964-1968 he stayed for four years as assistant wide scope of W’s scholarship, which does not run the risk professor at the Near Eastern Center of the University of Cal- of being confined to a limited number of languages. The ifornia at Los Angeles, teaching Arabic and the history of the author is one of those Dutch scholars who participate cre- Middle East and Islam. The history of Islam as a religion atively in academic debates all over Europe and North Amer- turned out to be much more than the history of its religious ica. This review follows approximately the order of the chap- literature (102). During that period he visited all the univer- ters of the book. sities in the USA which offer courses on the world of Islam. The Introduction has two parts: (a) a description of the While doing so he came to know the leading scholars in the academic itinerary of the author and (b) a survey of chang- field, G. E. von Grunebaum foremost among them. In the ing trends between 1950 and 2000 in the field of science of meantime he spent long periods in Egypt in preparation of religion, reflected partly in W’s major publications, of which his Les universités dans le monde arabe actuel (2 vols. 1966). a list is added. The first part of the introduction, with its From 1968 until September 1987 he worked at the Univer- mainly autobiographical structure, reflects the fact that in this sity of Utrecht, from 1980 as professor of Islam and phe- volume the author (*1930) is making a summary allowing nomenology of religion. From 1987-1995 he taught ‘science the reader to become acquainted with him, so to say, retro- de religion’ at the University of Lausanne. Since his retire- spectively. In 1948 when he enrolled at the University of ment W has been very active writing and publishing, and also Amsterdam the Dutch East Indies had become the sovereign continued to address international symposia and congresses. state of Indonesia. A Dutch student of Islam in those days The second part of the introduction presents an overview could not fail to be impressed, on encountering the long tra- of new trends in the field of Islamic studies between 1950 dition of Islamic studies in the Netherlands, which had started and 2000. In this context he mentions Henri Laoust (1905- in the late sixteenth century and culminated in the work of 1983), a scholar who stayed too long in the shadow of Mas- such great scholars as Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje (1857- signon. His studies of Ibn Taimiya (1263-1328) and Les 1936) and Arend Jan Wensinck (1882-1939). Their greatness Schismes dans l’Islam deserve international attention because remains, notwithstanding Edward Said’s later comments on of their relevance for the debate on fundamentalism. Ibn the former’s activities as an adviser to the Dutch colonial Taimiya is often referred to in this book. W welcomes the government (Orientalism, 1978, p. 210). At this point I internationalization of research, in which the Institute for the quote: “After my studies of law, theology and science of reli- Study of Islam in the Modern World (better known as ISIM) gion in Amsterdam (1948-54) and of Arabic in Leiden (1954- in Leiden fully participates. In this section he explains his 55) I went to Paris in January 1956. There I prepared my doc- multifaceted methodology which is always more descriptive toral dissertation on the image some Orientalists had formed than argumentative. To obtain a balanced view of a particu- of Islam.” The author, modestly, does not even mention the lar phenomenon simultaneous studies of the historical back- title of this thesis, which, in my view, should be quoted in ground as well as of social, anthropological and political and full, because it suggests from the very start of his career the ideological realities are necessary. W was himself well scope of his learning throughout his academic life. First equipped to accomplish this combined task. He always gra- books are often to some extent programmatic: L’Islam dans ciously acknowledges what he owes to others. le miroir de l’Occident: L’approche compréhensive et la for- At the end of this introductory chapter one would have mation de l’image de la religion islamique chez quelques ori- expected an overview of his major publications, a complete entalistes occidentaux. Une étude à propos de l’oeuvre de I. list of which is long overdue, failing which it seems appro- Goldziher, C. Snouck Hurgronje, C. H. Becker, D. B. Mac- priate to mention some of the most important books he donald, Louis Massignon. The Hague, Mouton, 1961. He wrote or edited. In universities where Dutch is used as defended this thesis on 7th July 1961: It was reprinted in 1963 medium of instruction W is especially known as editor and and 1970. On 6th January 1962 the author presented it to this main author of Islam, Norm, ideaal en werkelijkheid (Islam, reviewer. Without this sourcebook Edward Said’s Oriental- Norm, Ideal and Reality) Houten, Fibula, 1984, 2000 (fifth ism would have lacked depth. He calls W’s survey “a very revised and enlarged edition) 540 pages. When on 7th June valuable and intelligent study of Orientalism” (209), but is 1982 the ‘Ministry of Welfare, Health and Culture’ less positive about the scholars W discussed. With this the- requested him to chair a working party to describe the needs sis W. broke through onto the international scholarly scene. for Religious Provisions for Ethnic Minorities in the Nether- In Paris W benefited from meetings with Louis Massignon, lands, he accomplished this task within six months. In this the only one of his five heroes then still alive. See also W’s way he became involved in the problems of Muslim, Hindu “The Impact of Louis Massignon (1883-1962) on Islamic and Christian immigrants. Others owe much to the report as Studies “ in A. Fodor, ed., Proceedings of the Arabic and source of information. We further mention: Classical Islamic Sections of the 35th International Congress of Asian Approaches to the Study of Religion (2 vols. 1973/74, paper- and North African Studies, Budapest, 1-7 July, 1997, pub- back 1990), Reflections on the Study of Religion (1978), lished by the Eötvös Loränd University, 1999 pp. 215-228. Religionen und Religion (1986), Islamisch-christliche He also witnessed the beginning of the Algerian freedom war Beziehungen: geschichtliche Streifzüge (1992), Perspektiven and the vehement debates this caused at French universities. der Religionswissenschaft (1993), Islam et Occident face à 0582_BIOR_2007_5-6_01 31-01-2008 13:23 Pagina 649

787 BOEKBESPREKINGEN — ISLAM 788

face. Regards de l’ histoire des religions (1998), Islam et modern exegesis of the Qur’an (tafsir). Shi‘ite scholars sciences des religions (1998). Muslims and Others, Rela- claim that some of the texts were basically misunderstood tions in Context (2003). He edited Islam and Christianity by sunnis because they ignore those traditions which ascribe Mutual Perceptions Since the Mid-20th Century (1998); a more prominent role to Ali on the occasions of the reve- Muslim Perceptions of Other Religions: A Historical Sur- lation of several verses. For examples see: Michael Fitzger- vey (1999); Muslim-Christian Perceptions of Dialogue ald, “Shi‘ite Understanding of the Qur’ân” in L. Hagemann, Today Experiences and Expectations (2000). The final line ed., “Ihr all aber seid Brüder” Festschrift für A. Th. in the latter book states: “His main scholarly interests are Khoury, Altenberge, 1990, pp. 153-166. W lists ten features the study of Muslim-Christian relations in the past and the which characterize qur’ânic exegesis. This list should be a present, and questions of method and theory in studying warning to those non-Muslim readers who too lightly seek Islam and religion in general”, p. 353. direct access to the holy texts in order to make far-reaching The author has divided the nineteen chapters into nine conclusions, ignoring fourteen centuries of exegesis by sections starting with the early history of Islam and Qur’anic Muslims themselves. It would have been interesting to know studies. Chapter 1 “ Changes in Belief and the Rise of Reli- W’s, opinion on new theories about the beginnings of Islam gion” describes how religious concepts in ancient Arabia as put forward e.g. by Patricia Crone & Michael Cook, were integrated into a new Allah-centred qur’anic world- Hagarism The Making of the Islamic World (Cambridge view. The procedure reminded me of Toshihiko Izutsu, God 1979). I wonder whether this chapter would not have been and Man in the Koran, Semantics of the Koranic Weltan- better placed in section 1. Section 4 “Muslim Presentations schauung, Tokyo, 1964, which must have escaped his atten- of Islam and of Human Rights” contains two chapters. The tion. Those who oppose reason (Vernunft) and faith will be first is about North African Intellectuals’ Presentations of surprised by chapter 2 “Faith and Reason in the Argumen- Islam. He describes the positions of Hichem Djaït, Ali tation of the Qur’an”. “There is a logic of revelation” Merad, Mohamed Talbi, Abdallah Laroui and Mohammed throughout the prophetic proclamation, a fact which some Arkoun. The second contains an excellent summary of the Muslim apologists have used in defence of the rationality debate concerning human rights and Islam. It should be of Islam. Section 2 deals with Islam as a Religion and a reprinted by Amnesty International! Chapter 9 on Islamic “signification system”. Signs (âyât) are an important cate- Religious Tradition and Social Development is mutatis gory for understanding the Qur’an and Islam. “Fundamen- mutandis just as helpful as the previous one on human tally, it is held that humankind should surrender to the “Sig- rights. A key issue for politicians is the question whether nifier”, revealing right belief and action through his Islam as a religion, in many manifestations and expressions, signs”(63) “These signs are found in revelation, nature and can be seen as a civil religion, that is supportive of politi- history”(62). This section concludes with a quotation which cal institutions and of the state itself. To find an answer to shows how method and conceptual knowledge are linked by this question W explores which institutions in Islamic his- the author: ”Religion, it seems to me, is never something tory have played this part. The subject “Islamic states” and definitely given, a “thing”- although it can be reified. From Islam as a carrier of protest returns in section 9 chapters 17, a scholarly point of view we deal less with religions as 18 and 19. In these chapters W shows himself to be any- given entities, however defined, than with different ways in thing but an ivory tower professor. The subject remains which given data, situations, or problems are viewed and increasingly relevant in the whole Muslim world. Two case experienced and religiously significant. By “religiously” we studies are interesting: The rise of Wahhabism in Arabia mean in terms of notions of religion as current in the cul- and the comparison of colonial policies of Tsarist Russia ture or society concerned. In Islam at least, it seems that and the Dutch East Indies. The first is more relevant than data are religiously significant for people when they expe- the second. Dutch readers will welcome chapter 12 “Saudi rience them as signs and symbols referring to Islam. They Arabia: The King and the Consul”. The king being Abd al- connect them with religious elements of Islam like Qur’anic Aziz (1876?-1953) and the consul Daniel van der Meulen passages, hadiths, or rituals that have a “sign” character (1894-1989). Those who have known him remember, that themselves. People try to appropriate such signs”(81). Does Daniel not only had a prophetic name, but also had the this quotation imply that the author does not conceptualize appearance of a prophetic figure and spoke like one! The just one Islam (with a capital I) but several ‘islams’? Judg- civil servant Daniel van der Meulen was a pupil of Snouck ing from the title of section 3 ”Structures and Interpreta- Hurgronje. He served in the Dutch East Indies and Jeddah. tions of Islam” this conclusion goes too far. Yet chapter 5 He wrote an autobiography and several books on Arabia. “ Official, Popular, and Normative Religion in Islam” He had a good open relationship with the king, who as a shows sharp controversies in the house of Islam dating from staunch Muslim could appreciate that Daniel van der the times of Ibn Taimiya (mentioned above) and revivified Meulen was an equally staunch reformed Christian. W and intensified by “ fundamentalist Hanbali reforms (101). describes how the king was even prepared to allow the W’s “main conclusion is that, until recently, and still today Christian Van der Meulen to visit Mecca. But he withdrew in certain regions, Islam has been an agglomeration of very his invitation when he considered the consequences: other different kinds and sorts of religion” (100). The accusation diplomats, perhaps less sincere Christians, might ask for of takfir hurled by some fundamentalists against their oppo- permission as well (264). Three well researched chapters nents who follow forms of Islam which have in their view (14,15 and 16) deal with a key issue of modern Islam: ide- no divine sanction has caused serious damage not only to ologization. Chapter 14 is about “Puritan Patterns in Islamic the unity of Islam but even to life and property. (see Tak- Movements”. It deals with a puritan way of life, with fir, EINE, Vol. X, p. 122). Chapter 6 “Are there Hermeneu- the day of judgement in mind, and the exclusion of other tic Principles in Islam?” presents an encyclopaedic less dedicated believers (‘holier than thou’ attitude). The overview of classical, sunni, shi‘ite, sufi, sectarian and awareness of being under divine obligation motivates the 0582_BIOR_2007_5-6_01 31-01-2008 13:23 Pagina 650

789 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXIV N° 5-6, september-december 2007 790

ideology of the reformist or activist of certain movements (292). Ideological movements often have a da‘wa character with (Muslim Brotherhood) or without (Tablighi Jama‘at) a political agenda. About the latter see Muhammad Khalid Masud (Ed.), Travellers in Faith, Studies of the Tablighi Jamâ‘at as a Transnational Islamic Movement for Faith Renewal, Leiden, Brill, 2000. Chapter 16 contains an explo- ration of the “Ideologization in Present-Day Islam.” The purpose is a description of ideological currents, their historical and social background, their aims and objectives etc. W does not want to take a stand on them. In this chapter the reader gains many insights about ideological movements which make exclusive absolutist claims (331) and impose a rigid Islamic ideology (321) etc. But W’s general description remains, in this reviewer’s opinion, too friendly and too academic in the sense that he remains at a distance. The question should have been asked whether while studying Islamic ideologies no lessons can be learned from the “Ideologie-kritik” applied in the cases of nazism, fascism, communism, nationalism (including zionism), racism etc. as historical forces. Cf Hans- Joachim Lieber, ed., Ideologie- Wissenschaft Gesellschaft (Darmstadt, 1976). These last mentioned ideologies have made many victims. Therefore in my view, a scholar should make a rather critical stance while describing them. The islamic ideologist par excellence A. A. Mawdudi (1903-1979) refers to these atheist European ideologies, but believes he can remain free from their aber- rations because his Islamic ideology reckons with God. Though not being a radical himself he made the idea of jihâd the main driving force of Islam and has many radical followers, who made the Arabic version of Mein Kampf one of their sources of inspiration. The American theologian Reinhold Niebuhr wrote in The Nature and Destiny of Man that ideologists always have a blind eye for their own short- comings. This makes them both vulnerable and dangerous. W should have been more outspoken in describing dangers of ideologies as in four examples which are absent from his description: (1) ideologists are often forgers of history e.g. by the denial of the holocaust, the denial by Turkish nation- alists of the Armenian genocide, denial by the Jama‘at –e- Islami of war crimes in Bangladesh (1971); some appeal to a glorious past which never existed. Some promote forg- eries. Mawdudi and his movement in Pakistan, but also the Salafiya in Egypt, actively promote the so-called Gospel of Barnabas as more authentic than the four gospels in the NT. etc. (2) several ideologies deny the equality of all human beings, with detrimental effects for women and minorities or members of opposing parties. (3) Most Islamic ideologies promote negative images of their enemies and opponents within and outside the Muslim world. I refer to the phenomenon of demonization. Ibn Taimiya already called his opponents “children of hell” (W 85). After the Iranian rev- olution the USA was called the Great Satan. (4) Several Islam-inspired ideologies promote admiration of great lead- ers as a kind of forerunners of the Mahdi. For instance Has- san al-Banna admired Mussolini. The debate on this issue should be continued. In conclusion, Professor Waardenburg has presented twenty thought-provoking studies in depth, together making a learned and rich source of information, for which many of his friends, colleagues and others will be grateful to him.

Leusden, September 2007 Jan SLOMP