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CL949-1CV CLEARVUE/eav THE MOST COMPLETE SOURCE FOR CURRICULUM-ORIENTED A-V MATERIALS History through Literature Civilization and Writing

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Table of Contents Summary ...... 3 Intended Audience ...... 4 Presenting the Program ...... 4 Learning Objectives ...... 4 History in the Program ...... 5 Literature in the Program ...... 5 Key Words and Concepts ...... 6 Pre-Viewing Suggestions ...... 7 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 7 Discussion: Introducing the Program and Its Key Words and Concepts ...... 7 Post-Viewing Suggestions ...... 8 Content Questions: History ...... 8 H.O.T. Topics: History ...... 8 Content Questions: Literature ...... 9 H.O.T. Topics: Literature ...... 9 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 11 In-Depth Research ...... 12 Extra History Study ...... 12 Extra Literature Study ...... 12 Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study ...... 13 Chronology of History Chart: Ancient Civilizations ...... 14 Chronology of Literature Chart: Ancient Civilizations ...... 15 Cross-Curricular Explorations ...... 16 Transcript ...... 16 Consultants for the Series ...... 23 Credits ...... 23

Intended for students in junior high school and above. This program is closed captioned.

Summary Civilization and Writing is part of a 12-video History ken traditions, including sacred epics such as the through Literature series that examines the Vedas and philosophical traditions such as the Book connections between historical events and the literary of Changes. The program also briefly describes the figures and works of each era. Other titles in the series Olmecs and other early civilizations of the Americas. are listed on the back of this Teacher’s Guide. Then the program examines several “crossroads civi- The opening scene of Civilization and Writing is a lizations” that arose because of long-distance trade tale from oral tradition that was first written down between other highly organized societies. These civi- about 1000 B.C., in the Book of Job. The story, in lizations spread important technologies around the which bad things happen to a good person, raises ancient world. The Minoans of Crete developed an moral and ethical questions that still trouble our early form of the phonetic alphabet. The Hittites of civilization. The long life and universal theme of this eastern Anatolia developed ironworking and intro- story illustrate the power of writing to both express duced horse-drawn chariots. The Assyrians carried and shape civilization. ironworking into Egypt. The Phoenicians developed far-flung trade routes and contributed their letters to The program defines civilization as “highly organized the Aramaic, Greek, and Arabian alphabets. By about society” and describes the gradual evolution of ele- 1000 B.C., phonetic alphabets were being used to ments of order: agriculture, town life, metal mining write down very abstract ideas and complex stories and working, specialization of labor, and, especially, from the spoken tradition, including such religious cities and writing. The program describes how writ- works as the sacred drama, the Book of Job. ing evolved from simple pictographs to hieroglyphs to alphabets. The ancient Greeks were rivals of the Phoenicians and, like them, among the first to develop an alpha- The program then surveys the earliest city-states with bet. The program examines two ancient Greek poets writing, which arose in Mesopotamia. Ancient litera- who continue to influence literature today: Homer ture from Mesopotamia, including the Epic of and Hesiod. From extended similes in Homer, the Gilgamesh and an early version of the Job story, are program notes details of everyday Greek life. From examined, showing their roots in oral literature. Hesiod, we get not only the Greek myths but also Using the Mesopotamian city-states as examples, the two long-lasting literary themes. One is that of the program also notes a general pattern of history: set- “golden age,” or “ancient paradise,” a simpler, purer tled peoples are invaded by nomads, who then settle age in the distant past. Another idea from Hesiod, down and fuse their culture and traditions with those who commented on the use of iron weapons, was of the peoples they have conquered. “the price of technology.”

Geography assured greater stability to another great The program ends with a summary of the literary civilization, that of ancient Egypt. The program uses forms used by ancient poets—epics, lyrical poems, literature to provide glimpses behind the great monu- and sacred dramas—and with philosophical ques- ments into everyday Egyptian life. The program also tions from the drama of Job. The ancient ideas surveys two other ancient “river valley” cultures— expressed by Homer, Hesiod, and the unknown writ- those of India and China. In both regions, town life, ers of Job would continue to haunt writers for many trade, and writing developed. As in Mesopotamia civilizations to come. and Egypt, writing was used to set down ancient spo-

3 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—CIVILIZATION AND WRITING

Intended Audience This program is designed for students in junior high school and above.

Learning Objectives After watching this program and taking part in the suggested discussions and activities, students will be able to: • List some of the important events that happened philosophical tradition, cities, and writing—and in world history at the time of the first describe how they gradually evolved; civilizations, between about 4000 and 600 B.C. •Identify cities and writing as two of the most (see History in the Program); important elements of ancient civilizations; •Identify major literary forms used in ancient •Identify some of the distinguishing elements of an times, including epics, stories, songs, lyric poems, empire and name some of the empires that arose legends, and dramas (see Literature in the in the ancient world; Program); •Describe how manuscripts were produced in •Identify major literary figures, when known, and ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia and the type of literary works from ancient times (see Literature people who wrote and read them; in the Program); •Describe some of the religious beliefs and sacred •Identify four locations where ancient river valley texts of ancient peoples and identify the regions civilizations arose: in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, where different forms of faith prevailed; and China; •Describe the evolution of writing from •Identify characteristics of the Olmec civilization pictographs to alphabets; in Mexico; •Describe the advantages of phonetic alphabets in •Identify elements of civilization—including literary expression and trading transactions; and agriculture, domestication of animals, division of •Give examples of ancient literary themes that are labor, formation of classes in society, religious or still relevant today.

4 TEACHER’S GUIDE

History in the Program The following events and trends from world history are specifically mentioned in the program. They are listed below in roughly the order that they occurred in history. More events are outlined in the Chronology of History Chart: Ancient Civilizations (page 14). First appearance of biologically modern humans Rise of monotheism among Hebrews Beginnings of agriculture Aryan invasion of India Corn cultivated in Mexico Development of Sanskrit language Cotton grown in Peru Rise of Shang dynasty in China Division of labor and division of society into classes Development of Chinese writing Earliest towns, villages, and cooperative projects Rise of Olmec civilization Beginnings of copperworking, tinworking, and (Mexico and central America) bronzeworking Rise and destruction of Minoan civilization (Crete) Use of clay seals and stamps Introduction of ironworking Building and priestly rule of temple complexes and horse-drawn chariots Rise of Mesopotamian city-states Rise of Assyrian Empire Rise of first empires Rise of Phoenicia as a trading power Nomadic invasions Development of Phoenician and Greek alphabets Rise of Kingdom of Egypt Greek invasions of Asia Minor, including the Trojan War Rise of pictographic and hieroglyphic writing Rise of Maya civilization Recording of first law codes (Mexico and central America) Rise of Indus River Valley civilization in India Spread of Greek trading influence Beginnings of civilization in China

Literature in the Program The following authors and works of literature are specifically mentioned in the program. The works are listed in roughly the order in which they are cited. More authors and works are listed in the Chronology of Literature Chart: Ancient Civilizations (page 15). The Book of Job, from the Old Testament Hieroglyphic and hieratic writing (Egypt) Development of spoken literary traditions Epic of Gilgamesh (ancient Sumeria) “On Mining,” from the Book of Job Egyptian Book of the Dead Use of seals and stamps in commerce Papyrus in use Cuneiform used in Sumer “The Shipwrecked Sailor,” First written law codes anonymous Egyptian story Code of Hammurabi “Crocodile,” anonymous Egyptian love poem Beginnings of written literature The Vedas (India) Pictographic writing “Song to Indra,” from the Rigveda

5 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—CIVILIZATION AND WRITING

Development of Sanskrit writing Development of Minoan, Phoenician, Hebrew, and Greek scripts Use of oracle bone writing Homer, Iliad, Odyssey Development of Chinese writing Hesiod, Theogony, Works and Days Chinese love poems, poems to dead, philosophy Development of Hebrew writings I Ching [Book of Changes] (China) now in Old Testament “God’s Answer,” from the Book of Job

Key Words and Concepts Most of these vocabulary words are in the Transcript, where they appear in bold type the first time they are used. agricultural epic papyrus alphabet ethical philosophy anonymous hero pictographs archaeologist hieratic writing priest artisan hieroglyphs pyramid bronze Hinduism sacred bureaucracy historian scribe calendar hymn scroll caste immortality seal chariot invasion secular chronicle inventories simile city-state iron smelted civilization irrigation specialization colonies Judaism stamping copper labor technology crossroads legend temple culture linguist text cuneiform literature theme drama lyrical trade route embalming monotheism traditions empire mystic urban engineering nomads worship

6 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Pre-Viewing Suggestions DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES suggest that students look for elements of If you are showing this program in chronological civilization that appeared with agriculture and order with the other programs in the History through town life. Literature series, lead this review and discussion. 4. Ask students to review or guess the dates at 1. Inform students that this program, Civilization which the first written languages appeared and and Writing, is the first in the 12-part History to watch the program to see if their knowledge through Literature series. The series explores was correct. [by about 2500 B.C.] Then ask how literature and history have affected each students when they think the first literature other over thousands of years. This program appeared. As they make their educated guesses, will show how writing helped make human ask them to distinguish between writing and civilization possible. literature. Suggest that they think about forms 2. Ask students to think about the written words of literature that are not written down and look on which our society depends. In other words, and listen for such literature in the program. what do we use writing for? Elicit these 5. Inform students that this first program will answers: for making and recording laws, for introduce several definitions and literary entertainment, to pass along religious themes that will be repeated in future teachings, to teach science and other subjects, programs. Ask them to ask the question, to record history, to keep track of business “What does literature teach us about history?” transactions, etc. Suggest that students look for as they watch the program. similar uses of writing among the people who first learned to write. DISCUSSION: INTRODUCING THE PROGRAM 3. From their general knowledge of world history, AND ITS KEY WORDS AND CONCEPTS ask students to recall how the earliest human 1. Introduce the title Civilization and Writing and beings supported themselves. [by hunting and have students speculate on the meaning of its gathering] Discuss the tools and objects early terms. Have students define civilization by listing some of the elements of a civilized peoples learned to make for hunting, society. Suggest that they look for these gathering, and storing food. [arrowheads and elements in the oldest societies for which there spearheads, bows and arrows, nets, baskets] is a written record. Ask students to suggest advantages and 2. Introduce the Key Words and Concepts and disadvantages of this mode of existence and to ask students to define the words they know, name the advance toward civilization that looking up unfamiliar words in a dictionary. made a more secure food supply possible. Have students listen for the terms as they [agriculture] As they watch the program, watch the program.

7 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—CIVILIZATION AND WRITING

Post-Viewing Suggestions CONTENT QUESTIONS: HISTORY H.O.T. TOPICS: HISTORY 1. When did civilizations begin to develop? The following Higher Order Thinking questions [about 10,000 years ago] should be presented in order to achieve maximum 2. What technological advance increased the food effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide supply and encouraged people to settle in one supporting details for general discussion, distribute place for long periods of time? [agriculture] copies of the Chronology of History Chart: Ancient 3. What were the two important indicators of Civilizations (page 14). civilization discussed in the program? [cities 1. Elements of Civilization. Review the dates given and writing] in the program for the rise of civilization. 4. Between which two rivers did the world’s most When did the elements of civilization begin to ancient civilization arise? [Tigris and Euphrates appear? [about 10,000 years ago] What were rivers] What are other names, both ancient and some of the early signs of civilization? modern, for the area? [Mesopotamia, Fertile [agriculture, town life, communal defense and Crescent, part of the Assyrian Empire and later irrigation, specialization of labor] What were Alexander’s Empire, Iraq/Syria] two very important elements of early 5. What river was the lifeblood of the ancient civilizations? [cities and writing] Ask students Egyptian civilization? [Nile River] to remember the maps seen in the program 6. In what river valley were the cities of Harappa and to name four locations in the Old World and Mohenjo-daro located? [the Indus River where the earliest civilizations grew up. Valley] After the Harappan civilization [Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, China] Then ask disappeared, what invaders formed a students to identify what all these places had in civilization in the same place? [Aryans] common geographically. [All were located along 7. In what river valleys did farming develop in great river valleys.] From a clue in the program China? [Yangtze and Huang He, or Yellow [irrigation], ask students to think of the reason River] Which dynasty formed a civilization on river valleys encouraged farming civilizations. the Huang He? [Shang] [The great rivers assured a regular water 8. What was the earliest known civilization in the supply.] Ask students to recall the location Americas? [the Olmecs] Name some of their footage from Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and achievements. [calendar, trade networks, large China that were shown in the program. From earth platforms, huge carved stone heads] these pictures, students should reason that 9. Name three important technological advances many elements of these ancient civilizations are that took place between around 2000 and still around today. 1000 B.C. [development of ironworking, 2. Specialization of Labor. Ask students to introduction of horse-drawn chariots, remember some of the occupations they saw in improved ships, development of alphabetical the program [herders, farmers, construction writing] workers, priests, scribes, rulers, etc.] From the 10. Name at least two ancient “crossroads Transcript, reread Job’s description of mining. civilizations” that grew because of seafaring Then ask students to identify the various and trade. [the Minoans, Phoenicians, and processes that would have been involved in an Greeks] ancient mining operation. [Students should mention mining itself, refining and smelting the ore, taking the ore to an artisan, trading the ore, etc.] Discuss the term “specialization of labor,” perhaps with the aid of a chalkboard list. The list should show how some labor divisions created others. For example, soldiers who used bronze weapons would require artisans to create them,

8 TEACHER’S GUIDE

who would in turn need traders and miners. that such temporary nomads would also have From clues in the program, ask students to been created as a result of ancient warfare. reason what kinds of laborers might cluster around an ancient temple complex, causing it to CONTENT QUESTIONS: LITERATURE expand into a city. [Students should reason that 1. Of what sacred book is the Book of Job a part? priests would require robes, incense, music, other [the Old Testament in the Bible] elements of ceremony, which would in turn 2. What was the earliest known use for writing? create markets for textiles, dyes, musical [keeping track of trade and inventories] instruments, etc. The program presents priests as 3. What preceded writing as a method to keep keepers of inventories and controllers of writing, track of ownership and trade? [seals and stamps] so students should reason that priests would 4. What kind of writing did the ancient require writing implements, storage jars and Sumerians use and what did they write on? chests, locks and keys, and guards for the [cuneiform script; on clay tablets] storehouses.] Have interested students research 5. What kind of writing did the ancient Egyptians and report on everyday life and occupations in use and what did they write on? [hieroglyphics ancient civilizations. and hieratic script; on papyrus scrolls] 3. Patterns in History. Review details from the 6. What Sumerian work is one of the earliest program about the evolution of empires in known epics? [Epic of Gilgamesh] What is an Mesopotamia. What were some of the signs epic? [a long poem or tale about a legendary or that a city-state, originally built around a traditional hero] temple complex, had evolved into an empire? 7. What ancient Egyptian work is a guide for the [massive fortifications, professional armies, legal soul in the afterlife? [Book of the Dead] systems] What new occupations or classes did 8. What ancient sacred books of hymns these require? Elicit from students the idea that appeared in India after the Aryan invasion, empires separated the functions of priests and and in what language were they later written? rulers. Which ancient river valley civilization [the Vedas; Sanskrit] seems to have had the largest secular 9. Name at least three of the first peoples to bureaucracy? [China] develop alphabets in which the letters stood for ¶ Ask students to recall how empires extended sounds. [Phoenicians, Greeks, Hebrews, Arabs] their power [through trade routes and 10. Who were two early Greek writers who still professional armies] and what factors caused influence world literature? [Homer and Hesiod] empires to fall. [natural disasters, overextension and weakening of frontiers, nomadic invasions] H.O.T. TOPICS: LITERATURE Remind students that another noticeable pattern The following Higher Order Thinking questions in history was formed by waves of invasions of should be presented in order to achieve maximum settled societies. Who were the invaders? effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide [nomadic tribes] What usually happened after supporting details for general discussion, distribute they invaded? [The invaders settled down, fused copies of the Chronology of Literature Chart: their culture with that of the conquered peoples, Ancient Civilizations (page 15). and formed a new civilization.] 1. Communications Technology. How were ¶ Ask students to discuss whether the same writings reproduced during ancient times? patterns still apply today. For example, is it [They were copied by hand.] Who did most of possible today for a nation such as ours to the copying? [scribes] Who trained the scribes? weaken itself by overextension? Have students [priests] What interest did priests have in use examples from recent history to back up keeping records of trade? [Priests controlled the their points of view. From events in current community food supplies as well as supplies headlines, ask students to describe how warfare for the temple.] Discuss some of the uses of can turn settled peoples into nomads. [by writing in establishing and spreading an creating refugees] Students should conclude empire. [Students should recall that writing

9 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—CIVILIZATION AND WRITING

was used to make laws and establish religious Phoenician, Greek, Aramaic, and Arabian and cultural traditions, and reason that all of cultures would fuse their literary traditions. these would help to unify a civilization or ¶ What evidence did the program present for the empire by reinforcing central authorities.] age of the Job story? [The program said the Discuss why ancient civilizations usually kept story had come out of oral tradition and was literacy in the hands of priests and rulers. [The first written down 3,000 years ago in the written word was a symbol of authority.] Middle East.] What other story, also told in Remind students that China and other ancient the Bible, appears in the ancient Sumerian Epic empires did develop secular bureaucracies. of Gilgamesh? [the story of a great flood that Students should conclude from that fact that covered the earth] How much time elapsed China would have been more likely to develop between the ancient Sumerians and the time secular literature as well. Refer interested when the Book of Job was first written down? students to further research into the writing of [over a thousand years] What were some of the ancient China, especially the history of the roots of Aramaic, the alphabet used to write Han by historians Sima Qian (Szu-ma Ch’ien) down the Book of Job? [Phoenician, Assyrian] and Ban Zhao (Pan Chao), China’s first Where was Assyria? [in Mesopotamia] From woman historian and scholar. this discussion students should reason that Job, 2. Literary Forms. Which came first—writing or Noah’s flood, and other Bible stories have their literature? After viewing the program, students sources in spoken literature that came from a should identify literature as far older than fusion, over a long period of time, of many writing. They should remember that the different cultures. spoken traditions of literature lasted long after 4. The Rise of European Literature. With Homer writing was invented. Ask students to identify and Hesiod, we get the first written record of some forms of spoken literature—epics, European literary traditions. Ask students to legends, myths, hymns, songs, sacred recall the names of Homer’s two great epics. dramas—and to give examples of similar forms [Iliad and Odyssey] How long after the Trojan of literature today. For example, War were Homer’s epics written? [about 400 improvisational comedy is a descendant of years] Remind students that a similar time has spoken literature, as are plays, hymns, and even gone by since the European settlement of the childhood rhyming games. Poetry readings, Americas. Discuss how, after this passage of which are showing a resurgence in popularity, time, both invaders and native peoples might are another example. become heroes of the epic. Ask students to 3. Literary Fusion and a Fresh Look at the Hook. remember the names of some of Homer’s Ask students to recall the name of the first heroes. [Achilles, Odysseus of Greece; Hector European civilization [the Minoans] and their of Troy] Discuss why an epic writer might contribution to literature. [one of the first want to make the enemy more heroic. [to alphabets with letters based on sounds] Review make his defeat a greater accomplishment] the names of other alphabets with possible Ask students to identify similar heroes on Minoan roots. [Phoenician, Greek, Aramaic both colonial and native sides in early (the language of the Hebrews), Arabian] American history. Students should reason that since all these ¶ Ask students to identify the myths first ancient peoples traded with each other, and written down by Hesiod. [the myths about the since their alphabets shared common roots, ancient Greek gods] Have students cite similar letters in their alphabets would stand examples from popular movies or television for similar sounds. From the same facts, programs of the ancient Greek myths being students should also reason that the acted out or retold today.

10 TEACHER’S GUIDE

DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES plains. [nomadic herders] Locate key mountain If you are showing this program in chronological passes. Based on the insights gained from this order with the other programs in the History through map study, ask students to predict where Literature series, use this review and discussion to decisive battles would be fought by future prepare students for the next program. civilizations. 1. Using a chalkboard timeline or the chronology ¶ Also note the crossroads civilizations growing on page 14, review the overall pattern of up around the Mediterranean. How would history during the centuries between 4000 and geography affect battles of the future in this 600 B.C. Lead students to recognize this area? [Many would be fought on the sea and pattern: settled societies are invaded by would require skilled navies and well-built nomads, who settle down, intermarry, and fuse ships.] their culture with that of the civilization that 4. Remind students, however, that geography isn’t they have conquered. In time this new everything. Sometimes it’s a question of how civilization is itself invaded by nomads. In you are able to spend your time and resources. other words, Eurasian civilizations have For instance, by the thirteenth century B.C., received repeated fresh infusions from nomadic the powerful empires of the Middle East, such cultures. Based on their general knowledge of as Egypt, were in periods of decline and not a history, as well as on clues from the program threat. This gave some of these smaller cultures and the Chronology of History (page 14), ask the opportunity to put their energies into students to name some of the civilizations and growing and prospering. Which ones were empires that would rise and fall during the they? [Greeks, Phoenicians, Hebrews in next few centuries. Palestine] Sometimes relative isolation is all it 2. Ask students to recall the name of the nomadic takes. Which ancient civilizations prospered people who invaded India around 1600 B.C. because the large empires were quite distant [the Aryans] How did their invasion change from them? [Minoans on Crete, Greece] What Indian society? [It developed a rigid caste would probably happen to these civilizations system.] Ask students to reason why a caste when mobility improved? [They would be system might grow up in a society ruled by challenged by larger powers.] Tell students that invaders. [A caste system would serve to this is what happens in the next program, separate the new rulers from their conquered which is about the world in Greek times. subjects, who included the previous rulers.] 5. Review the technological advances of ancient 3. Using a map or globe, review the patterns of times, especially the progression from copper history in terms of geography. Locate again the to bronze to iron tools. Students should reason great river valleys and the mountains that that, as a given society acquired each harder protected them. Show students the great plains metal, an “arms race” would ensue with its and grasslands that generally lie on the other rival societies. Students should be able to give side of the mountains and ask students to examples of this trend from various periods in reason what kinds of people lived on these history, including our own.

11 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—CIVILIZATION AND WRITING

In-Depth Research The following topics for further study will help students make connections between history and literature, between western and eastern history, and between the past and present. To provide key words for computer and library searches, distribute copies of the chronologies on pages 14 and 15. EXTRA HISTORY STUDY EXTRA LITERATURE STUDY 1. The Archaeological Record. Assign individual 1. Old Testament Literature. Assign individuals or students or teams to research and report on teams to read the Book of Job, the Psalms, the archaeological excavations in the four great Proverbs, and the Book of Ecclesiastes from the river valley civilizations [Mesopotamia, Egypt, literary point of view. Students should discover India, China] as well as among Olmec ruins in and read to the class not only passages of Mexico and pre-Inca ruins in Peru. Other team literary merit but also parts that reveal telling members can research the Minoan, Hittite, details about everyday life in Old Testament and early Palestinian “crossroads” cultures. times. Other team members can research and Students’ reports should include names of report on similar literary forms in ancient archaeologists, types and dates of important Mesopotamia and Egypt. discoveries, and mysteries about the ancient 2. Great Ancient Epics. Assign students or teams to peoples that are still unsolved. read and report on the great epics mentioned in 2. Transportation during Ancient Times. Assign the program: the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Vedas, teams to research and report on the forms of the Iliad, and the Odyssey. Students should transportation mentioned or shown in the choose passages of literary merit to read to the program, including wheeled vehicles, horse- class. They should also note some of the phrases drawn chariots, and early ships. Assign used to describe the hero, as well as actions and individual students or teams to study different attributes, such as semidivinity, that make the ancient vehicles. Reports to the class should hero larger than life. include models and pictures as well as 3. The Community of Learning. Suggest that information about the speed of travel. students research the connections between 3. Bible History. Beginning with the Aramaic writers mentioned in this program and (a) alphabet, around 1000 B.C., events of the other writers and thinkers of their own times, ancient Middle East were recorded in the Old (b) writers in the generations before them, Testament and other documents. Ask students and (c) writers in later generations. Students or teams to investigate empires, kingdoms, and may already have noted such connections in historical events mentioned in the Bible, the program. For example, the program notes compare those accounts with other the ancient origins of the Book of Job, the contemporary records, and prepare story of the flood, the tales of shipwrecked chronologies of Bible history. Students will sailors, and heroic epics. Students’ reports discover that multiple records of events [the should note the roles of temples, priests, and same events recorded by different cultures] scribes in recording and passing on the first become historically reliable only around the written literature. time of the Assyrians [around 600 B.C.], around the time of the Babylonian captivity of the Jews. Earlier Biblical events, such as Noah’s flood and the captivity of the Jews in Egypt, are much more difficult to date accurately.

12 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study The chronologies of history and literature located on the following pages are designed both to summarize the era covered by the program and to motivate students to learn more about the era. Copy and distribute the chronologies to individual students or study groups. Use the pages for both in-class discussion and extra study assignments. CHRONOLOGY OF HISTORY: CHRONOLOGY OF LITERATURE: ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. Encourage students to restate key ideas and draw Encourage students to restate key ideas and conclusions from details on the chart. The draw conclusions from details on the chart. The following are some conclusions they can draw. following are some conclusions they can draw. •By 4000 B.C., agriculture had developed in •Writing first developed in ancient both the Old World and the Americas. Mesopotamia and Egypt. • Civilization developed earlier in the river • Literature began with spoken traditions; valleys of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and India the first literary works were not written than it did in China, Europe, or the Americas. down until hundreds of years after they • While the Old World developed copper, were first composed. bronze, and iron tools, the Americas •In ancient times writing was used for developed metal only for ornamentation. trading records, laws, epics, poems, •Technology grew gradually more complex hymns, and works of philosophy. during ancient times. • Among the earliest writers whose names •We know the names of some of the rulers of we know are the Hebrew prophets and the ancient empires. Greek poets Homer and Hesiod. •Temple complexes were built in Europe, 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask Asia, and Africa before they were built in students to research and report on writers and the Americas. literary works listed on the chart. You might • Copperworking, bronzeworking, and want to assign one literary category to each ironworking all spread west from the study group and have members choose from Middle East to Europe. writers and works in their column. You might •Several different kingdoms and empires rose also assign each group a time period and have and fell in Mesopotamia during ancient times. members file reports about developments in • The ancient empire of Egypt went through different categories of literature. periods of contraction and expansion. •Egyptians traded with and influenced the peoples who lived in Africa’s interior. • The Phoenicians traded and settled on three continents: Europe, Africa, and Asia. •At the time the Minoan civilization flourished in Crete, the earliest known villages were being built in the Americas. • The Olmec civilization was spreading through Mexico at about the same time as the Greeks were fighting the Trojan War. 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask students to research and report on events listed on the chart. You might want to assign one continent to each study group and have members choose from events in their column. You might also assign each group a time period and have members file reports from different continents. 13 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—CIVILIZATION AND WRITING

Chronology of History Chart: Ancient Civilizations

DATES EUROPE ASIA AFRICA AND OCEANIA AMERICAS

skiing & sledding known copper, bronze tools, cereals, & farming towns flourish & lunar cal- before corn grown in Mexico; beans & (Scandinavia); agriculture spreads to cattle used in Middle East; endar, weaving, & pottery known 4000 potatoes grown in Andes region B.C. Baltic; Indo-Europeans reach Danube rice cultivated in India (Egypt)

copper & bronze used in eastern wheat & barley cultivated from Egypt copperworking reaches Egypt; 4000– fish hooks, harpoons, & burials Mediterranean; neolithic farming to India; horses domesticated Berber tribes live along north 3501 known along Pacific coast B.C. culture in rest of continent (Turkestan); cities appear (Sumeria) coast; town life known (Ethiopia)

wheel, plow, & sail in use from Egypt is unified (3100–2660); 3500– Bronze Age spreads into central grinding stones, baskets, maize, Palestine to Persia; Sumerian cities Egyptians invent sails; nomadic 3001 Europe & Bohemia squash, & chilies used in Mexico B.C. begin; rice grown in eastern Asia herders open Sahel corridor

Indo-Europeans spread through pit houses built (Mexico); pottery 3000– Sumerians invent sickle Egypt’s Old Kingdom (2660) builds central Europe; Danubian & Celto- made & cotton grown (Andes region); 2501 & harness oxen pyramids & Sphinx B.C. Ligurian “beaker cultures” flourish Laurentian culture in northeast

2500– wine, olives, & cheese traded in Indus River (Harappan) civilization Giza pyramid completed; Sahara dogs domesticated (Mexico); 2001 Mediterranean; Balts, Slavs, & develops; Sargon I founds Akkadian region starts drying; 100-yr. chaos spear-throwers, bow and arrows B.C. Thracians settle in central Europe Empire; Ur III Empire rises ends as Middle Kingdom begins (2080) spread through North America

Dolmens built in west & north; Empire of Babylon flourishes; Egypt conquers Nubia & trades 2000– gold, silver, & copper used copper tools made in Britain; Hittites invade Anatolia; with Mesopotamia, Niger, & Lake 1801 in ornaments (Mexico & Peru); B.C. Greek bronze age begins Amorites expand west Chad regions

Minoan civilization flourishes Harappan culture declines (India); Hyksos invade, rule, & bring pottery used & shell mounds built 1800– (Crete); Stonehenge & other mega- horse-drawn chariots appear; bronze tools & chariots to Egypt (southeast region); villages built 1601 liths built; Teutons settle in (1640–1570); famine drives B.C. Scandinavia; copper reaches Baltic Iranians expand into central Asia Hebrews from Palestine to Egypt (Mexico & Peru) 1600– bronze made in Scandinavia, Hittite Empire expands; Iron Age Egypt’s New Kingdom (1570) larger trading towns developed Britain, & Baltic region; Minoan civ- begins; Aryans begin invasion of (Mexico & Andes); Olmec culture 1401 India; Palestine ruled by Egypt; builds wealthy empire with wide- B.C. ilization ends abruptly (1450) Shang dynasty begins (China) spread slavery & imperialism appears in central Mexico

Greeks resettle Crete & settle on Greeks invade Asia Minor; Moses Akhenaton weakens Egypt; kings 1400– Pyramid of Sun & temples built Cyprus; Baltic-to-Italy trade in leads Hebrews from Egypt; Jews con- Tut & Ramses II rule & expand 1201 (Teotihuacán, Mexico) B.C. wine, oil, amber, furs, & textiles quer Canaan; Mesopotamians use iron trade; farming towns in Niger region

1200– Dorians invade Greece from north; Greeks fight Trojan War; Zhou invaders with iron weapons attack Olmec civilization spreads Greeks end monarchy, elect first dynasty begins (China); Saul & (Mexico); maize, squash, & beans 1001 David unite & rule Hebrews, who & rule Egypt; upper & lower Egypt B.C. archon, & surge east again prosper (Palestine) separate & chaos begins grown (southwest region) 1000– Phoenicians found colonies from Ionians from Greece begin cities Nubia becomes independent king- agriculture & burial complexes 901 Cyprus to Spain; iron used in Greece; (Asia Minor); David founds Jerusalem dom; Phoenicians found colony in multiply (northeast & Great B.C. silver, copper, & tin mined in Spain & Solomon builds temple (Palestine) Morocco Lakes regions)

Phoenicians trade from Spain to Phoenicia enjoys “golden age”; Kingdom of Kush begins; 900– Olmec-inspired temple complexes India; Greeks control both Aegean mounted warriors replacing battle Phoenicians found Carthage 801 & tombs built (Mexico) B.C. coasts; iron used in Italy & s. France chariots; Indian cotton trade grows colony (813)

Celts move into England; Greek Assyrians control Babylonia, Palestine, 800– Kushite kings conquer & rule Egypt earliest temple centers built colonies founded (Spain); first Olympics Syria, Anatolia, Israel, Judah, & Egypt; 701 & lead revival of power (Chavín, Peru) B.C. (776); Rome founded in (753) feudal age begins (China)

Babylonia wins independence; 700– Egyptians build canal Maya temple complex built Estruscans control central Italy Assyrian Empire divided among 601 from Nile to sea (Uaxactún) B.C. Medes, Persians, & Scythians

Phoenicians settle in Corsica; Solon Assyrians conquer Palestine; Assyrians invade Egypt, destroy 600– codifies Athenian laws; Romans expel Olmec-inspired cultures flourish Babylonian captivity of Jews Thebes & Memphis, & reintroduce 501 Etruscans & declare a republic; (La Venta, Monte Albán, Mexico) B.C. prophets keep Hebrew faith in Babylon begins; Mongols invade Japan iron to Africa (587)

Rome builds influence; Egypt rules Ionians revolt against Persia; after Maya culture flourishes Cyprus; Pericles comes to power Greeks fight Persian Wars; Egypt joins Persian & Greek wars 500 (Central America) B.C. (Athens) Era of the Warring States (China)

14 © CLEARVUE/eav TEACHER’S GUIDE

Chronology of Literature Chart: Ancient Civilizations SCIENCE, MEDICINE, NONFICTION: GOVERNMENT, FICTION: POETRY, RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY DATES LITERACY HISTORY, ECONOMICS DRAMA, STORIES before seals and stamps used lunar calendar known (Egypt) 4000 from Mesopotamia to India B.C.

4000– 2,000 pictographs in use 3501 (Mesopotamia); traditional start of B.C. Jewish calendar (3760)

3500– cuneiform writing begins 3001 (Mesopotamia); traditional start of B.C. Maya calendar (3372)

3000– hymns to god Tammuz composed astronomy observations recorded Epic of Gilgamesh composed Pepi, Instructions to a Son 2501 (Sumeria) (Egypt, Babylonia, India, & China) (Sumeria) B.C.

2500– snake & bull cults known on Crete; earliest medical texts (Egypt); writ- first libraries of papyrus scrolls Ennuma Elish, creation epic, com- 2001 cults of Isis & Osisris known ing, mathematics, & geometry (Egypt); first code of laws posed (Sumeria); early version of B.C. (Egypt) known from India to Egypt (Ur; 2100) Job story composed

2000– Egyptians, Semites, & Minoans 1801 develop early alphabets; Minoans Story of Sinuhe (Egypt) B.C. use decimal system

1800– 1601 Hammurabi’s Code (1792) Epic of Gilgamesh written down B.C.

1600– Hymn to Aton & Book of the Dead Olmec calendar system developed Olmec writing developed— 1401 (Egypt); oracle bones used (China) (Mexico); papyrus used (Egypt) still undeciphered (Mexico) B.C.

1400– Ten Commandments compiled; 1201 Upanishads, Rigveda, & other B.C. Vedas composed (India)

Hittites set up multiple-language 1200– I Ching (Book of Changes) written libraries; Laws of Zhou composed love poems (Egypt) 1001 down (China; approx. 1100) B.C. (China)

Greek paganism develops; bull & sun Phoenician, Greek, & Aramaic 1000– story of Job written down; cults throughout eastern Mediterranean; alphabets developed; musical nota- Lycurgus forms Spartan law 901 Song of Songs composed B.C. Apollo worshiped at Delphi tion used (Sumeria) prophet Elijah preaches against 900– Baal worship; Greeks develop planets observed Homer, Iliad & Odyssey (Greece) 801 sacred choral dramas; more Vedas (Babylon & China) B.C. composed (India)

prophets Amos, Hosea, & 1st Isaiah 800– Hesiod, Works and Days & Shield Hesiod, Theogony (Greece); live (Palestine); Torah, first five books 701 of Heracles (Greece) Book of Songs (China) B.C. of Old Testament, written down

Upanishads composed (India); Sumerian & Semitic texts translat- 700– Draco, Laws of Athens; Archilochus, fables; Kallinos, Talmud written down; Zoroaster ed (Ninevah); Egyptians develop 601 Greek graffiti appears in Nubia Alceus, Arion, & Sappho, poems B.C. lives (Persia) demotic script Buddha lives (India); 600– Lao-Tzu & Confucius live (China); Aesop, Fables; oldest known Latin writing Solon, Laws of Athens 501 Seven Wise Men live (Greece); 2nd Thespis, dramas & hymns B.C. Isaiah lives (Babylon)

Aeschylus, Sophocles, & Euripides, after Buddhism & Greek philosophy expand; Sanskrit writing standardized Herodotus on history dramas; 500 Ramayana & Vedas transcribed (India) B.C. Pindar, Odes

Cross-Curricular Explorations These projects are designed to relate the ideas in the program to other areas of study; assign them to individuals and study groups according to students’ interests and strengths. 1. Personal Stamps and Seals. Rubber stamps are a instruments that are still manufactured today. modern version of ancient clay stamps and Research ancient musical forms. Then perform seals. Using rubber stamps, or clay stamps of or record a concert demonstrating what you your own design, try to develop an early think ancient music sounded like. “pictionary” of trading symbols. 4. Ancient Civilizations on the Internet. Assign 2. World’s Oldest Fashion Show. Using picture interested students to conduct computer books showing ancient art as well as histories of searches for modern remnants of the ancient textiles and fashions, reconstruct some of the civilizations. Start by contacting tourist clothing worn in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, bureaus of nations in regions mentioned in the India, China, or Mexico. You might want to program. In addition, many universities have work with a team to create a display of their own Web pages, some of which include international fashions from 1000 B.C. photos of archaeological digs, museum 3. Ancient Music. Find pictures of murals, acquisitions, and other ancient treasures. carvings, painted vases, and other ancient Archaeology and history magazines can also be works of art that portray musicians and their accessed electronically. instruments. Then look for similar folk

Transcript There lived in the land of Uz a man of blameless Job asks God many more difficult questions— and upright life named Job, who feared God and questions about the meaning of human existence, set his face against wrongdoing. including the most difficult one of all: —Job 1:1 If a man dies, can he live again? So begins the Book of Job, one of the oldest stories —Job 14:12 in literature. In at least one sense, we know the answer to that We don’t know the name of the scribe who first question—because we are still reading the Book of wrote the story down, about 3,000 years ago, or the Job, giving life again and again to the storytellers, names of the previous poets and storytellers who and recalling their ancient civilizations and woes. passed it along by memory, but we do know that each person’s experience of personal suffering A civilization is, by definition, a very complex enriched the story’s timeless theme. society. In historical terms, it is a very new idea. Scientists believe that humans biologically like The righteous Job is happy, prosperous. Then, ourselves appeared about 100,000 years ago, but not suddenly his world collapses. His oxen and camels until people learned to grow their own food could are robbed, his sheep are consumed by fire, and his civilization begin to develop. This process first started family is destroyed. Job despairs... around 12,000 years ago in the Near East.

Why did I not die when I came out of my A more reliable food supply enabled people to settle mother’s womb? Why is life given to men who for longer periods in one place. Because fewer find it so bitter? workers could now produce more food, others were —Job 3:11 free to work as artisans or priests.

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By 7000 B.C., people began fashioning ornaments Early cities were home not just to the priests of the from copper and gradually added small tools to their temples, but also to multitudes of scribes, repertoire. By 4000 B.C. smiths were adding other administrators, artisans, tradesmen, and farmers. Urban elements like arsenic to make an alloy—bronze— life enhanced the division of society into classes. that is harder than pure copper. Tin later became the standard additive to make true bronze. Most archaeologists and historians think that priests were the earliest ruling class. Priests were the Ancient peoples regarded the metalworking process guardians of spoken literature—legends, poems, with awe. dramas, and hymns handed down by mouth and memorized. The Book of Job is an example. The There are mines for silver and places where men spoken form dominated literature for thousands of refine gold; where iron is won from the earth and years—long after writing was developed. copper smelted from the ore; Man sets his hand to the granite rock and lays bare the roots of the Writing probably had its beginnings in economic mountain. accounting, not in literature. Seals for stamping —Job 28:1 clay dockets appeared in the Near East as early as 5500 B.C. Two important organizing elements of civilization— cities and writing—appeared at somewhat different Priests and scribes, who were in charge of the times in the world’s great river valley civilizations: community’s food supplies, used the seals to keep around 3500 B.C. in Mesopotamia and Egypt, 2500 track of their temples’ inventories. Seals were the B.C. in India, and 1700 B.C. in China. forerunners of the first written languages, which were made of simple pictographs. The pictures stood for The first cities often developed around temples, objects, such as “bird,” or ideas, such as “to see.” which served as the focus of community loyalty and the symbol of social unity. Hieroglyphics evolved next. In these more complex pictographs, some pictures stood for objects and CHRISTOPHER MEDWIN EDENS ideas, while others represented sounds or syllables. The question is why did this process happen? What was the attraction to temples as such? From pictures that represented sounds, scribes One of the attractions, I think obviously, is gradually created more abstract symbols—letters, the that they were places to worship gods and to basis of our modern alphabets. try to maintain a connection with the cosmos. Another important thing though is on the The first advanced civilizations—with both writing social side of what temples were about in and cities—appeared about 3500 B.C. in Mesopotamia. Temples were not just the place Mesopotamia, “the land between the rivers”—what to go and worship gods; they were also places we know today as Iraq. of enormous economic activity. The temples themselves controlled plots of land and were The waters of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers—and a farming it and were producing a surplus for complex system of irrigation—turned the region into themselves, and also a surplus they could the most advanced portion of what historians call the trade off or give to people in those cities. Fertile Crescent, “the cradle of civilization.” They maintained craftsmen who made things both for the gods and for trade with the other The Mesopotamian city-states had massive people, and they acted as almost like a fortifications to protect them from invaders; cushion against natural disasters or famines professional armies; codes of law; calendars; a where the food that they had stored in the knowledge of basic mathematics; and one of the temples could be passed out to people in earliest known writing systems. times of famine.

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Scholars call this writing found in Sumer cuneiform, Early civilizations were vulnerable, not only to or wedge-shaped, writing. The shapes were formed natural disasters like floods and droughts, but to by pressing a sharp reed into wet clay. human invasions. Civilizations that developed in river valleys could use the surrounding mountains as The first known law code was written down in the natural defenses against the tribes of nomads who city-state of Ur around 2100 B.C. About 600 years roamed the world’s great plains. later came the famous code of Hammurabi the Great, ruler of the city-state Babylon. However, periodically, the nomadic tribes would sweep down on the cities and overwhelm their The first written literature also appeared in defenses. Usually, the invaders settled down and Mesopotamia, introducing themes and forms still fused their tribal traditions with the more advanced used by writers today. Ancient writers celebrated societies they had come to dominate, forming new their cities’ gods or praised the great deeds of their versions of the traditional cultures—which lasted rulers. Here, an unknown Sumerian poet gives voice until more waves of invaders arrived to repeat the to Enki, the god of wisdom, as he recites his pattern, a familiar one in history. impressive credentials: While city-states were facing these challenges in My father, the king of heaven and earth... Mesopotamia, a highly stable civilization was My ancestor, the king of all the lands, developing along the Nile River in north Africa. Gathered together all the divine laws, and placed Nourished by the Nile, protected by mountains them in my hand. and formidable deserts, and located in the hub of —anonymous Sumerian (2300 B.C.) the world’s oldest trade routes, Egypt had a 3,000- year history as one of the great powers of the Sumeria also produced one of the earliest known ancient world. epics, or long hero poems, the Epic of Gilgamesh, which historians believe was first written down Religious ideas that promoted hard work in this around 1800 B.C. Like other epics, it is a collection world and immortality in the next, served Egypt’s of ancient stories of a hero-king. Gilgamesh faces economy well and stimulated the science of many life-and-death challenges, including a great embalming and the construction of pyramids. These flood like the biblical flood. giant tombs immortalized Egypt’s rulers, or pharaohs, who were worshiped like gods. ROBERT PINSKY Before the technology of the digital computer, Their strong work ethic helped the ancient Egyptians before the technology of video, the technology accomplish astounding feats of engineering, of audio, before the technology of books requiring thousands of workers over long periods of printed, before the technology of writing, even time. They also learned to use the annual flooding of before the technology of making scratches in the Nile to irrigate the desert and support a vast the dirt or on rock, human beings made a system of farms. technology out of their own body, a technology of the sounds of words, of music, of They ventured forth onto the neighboring seas, in rhythmic chanting. It was a technology like search of trading partners, and made significant others used to preserve information and to advances in astronomy and writing. In addition to transmit the information horizontally to hieroglyphics, Egyptian scribes developed hieratic people that were helping us and that we writing—an easier, less formal script that was used helped, and also vertically to get information for business. from those who lived before us, and to pass information on to our young and to those not Egyptians even made the first writing paper—out of yet born. Poetry is a very ancient technology. papyrus, a plant that grew along the Nile—and developed a large collection of scrolls 4,000 years ago.

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Indus Valley at around 2500 B.C. where we’ve Because priests controlled learning and trained the got very large cities frequently divided into two scribes, most ancient Egyptian literature was sections, walls around each section. One religious. The Egyptian Book of the Dead, or Bar- section is public architecture, perhaps temples, Thodol, is just one surviving example. It is a palaces, and so forth built up on platforms— guidebook for the soul in the afterlife. very, very visible and prominent. The other section being residential where you’ve got Fortunately for us, Egyptian writers also took regular grids of streets, you’ve got regular delight in describing their own world. One story, layouts of houses, often following only a found on papyrus scrolls in a pyramid, tells of a couple of different patterns of floor plans. shipwrecked sailor. It may be the earliest prototype for tales about characters like Sinbad, Odysseus, For unknown reasons, Harappan civilization began and Robinson Crusoe. to decline around 2000 B.C., and was virtually gone when nomadic Indo-European tribes, called Aryans, A storm burst while we were yet at sea.... We flew invaded the Indus Valley. When the Aryans finally before the wind which made waves eight cubits established peace with the native Dravidians, a high. Then the ship perished and of them that different kind of society developed in the Indus were in it not one survived. I was cast onto an Valley, one marked by a rigid caste system. island by a wave of the sea. —anonymous Egyptian (2000 B.C.) Unlike the Harappans, the Aryans had no written language. Their traditions, called Vedas, or Songs of Ancient Egyptian literature also included lyrical Spiritual Knowledge, are mystic hymns primarily in poems, often about love. praise of the Aryan gods. They are the earliest sacred texts of Hinduism, one of the world’s oldest religions. ROBERT PINSKY An anonymous Egyptian poet used poetry—the Heaven and Earth bow before him, the rhythms and the images—to treat the subject with mountains are in fear for his might; who is sexual attraction. known as the soma-drinker, with thunderbolt on his arm, with thunderbolt in his hand—he, O The love of my beloved leaps on the bank of the men, is Indra. stream. “Song to Indra” from the Rigveda A crocodile lies in the shadows, Yet I go down into the water, and breast the wave. For hundreds of years the Vedas were transmitted by My courage is high on the stream, word of mouth. Finally, a written form of the Aryan And the water is like land to my feet. language, Sanskrit, was developed by 300 B.C., and It is her love that makes me strong. the Vedas were transcribed. She is a book of spells to me. —anonymous Egyptian (c. 1320–1070 B.C.) In ancient China, two great river valleys became home to farmers, but true civilization did not arrive Egypt traded with Mesopotamia, and Mesopotamia until the Shang dynasty organized its great traded with another ancient farming civilization, civilization along the Huang He—or Yellow River— found in the Indus River Valley. about the same time the Aryans invaded India.

The Harappan civilization was notable for its CHRISTOPHER MEDWIN EDENS impressively engineered and well-planned cities, We know that the Shang civilization was especially Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. highly structured by kinship, that is people were connected by descent, and that their CHRISTOPHER MEDWIN EDENS politics and their religion and political With the Harappans, we’re talking about the authority tended to flow along those lines,

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which actually is important for understanding from as much as 50 miles away and perhaps the origins of their writing system because one carved to represent the faces of individual of the things the Shang king did—and also people as opposed to some standard ideal. priests or shamans did—was to ask the advice of ancestors to guide them in present-day Like other ancient peoples of South America, the problems. And what they would do is take the Olmecs did not use bronze. They used copper, scapula, or shoulder bone, of a cow or the shell gold, silver, and other metals for decoration, not of a turtle and heat it and that produced cracks, for tools and weapons. Still, they developed temple which they could then interpret as being the cities, trade networks, and a complex society ruled answers from ancestors. And once they had the by priest-kings. answers, they started to write the answers, the interpretation of these cracks onto the scapula The Olmecs also developed a calendar system, which, or to the tortoise shell, which is what like their religion, spread throughout central America. archaeologists now call oracle bones. The great Maya civilization inherited many elements Using this complex system of notation, revered from the Olmecs. The Maya improved the Olmec Chinese writers kept government records and created calendar and developed hieroglyphic writing. Their a literature that included lyrical love poems, poems civilization flourished for over a thousand years. memorializing the dead, and serious works of philosophy. The Maya and other central American civilizations were connected by trading networks to the silver Perhaps the most ancient of Chinese writings still in and turquoise mines of New Mexico, the rich use today is the I Ching, or Book of Changes, a work fishing grounds of the Caribbean, and the gold of philosophic and mystical speculations used, like mines of Colombia. the oracle bones, to divine the future. At its core is the idea that two opposite but complementary Organized societies in Africa, Europe, and Asia were forces—called yin and yang—interact and bring also connected by trade. Several crossroads harmony to the constantly changing universe. civilizations rose to power through trade as well as conquest. Among the most advanced of these was Agricultural civilizations also flourished in the the Minoan civilization, a seafaring culture on the Americas in ancient times. Corn was cultivated in island of Crete. Scholars consider it the first Mexico as early as 5000 B.C., and cotton in Peru by European civilization. 3000 B.C. Minoan rulers built elaborate palaces, whose walls CHRISTOPHER MEDWIN EDENS were decorated with brightly colored frescoes. The The Olmec are a people who lived near the most famous ones show acrobatic young Minoan Gulf of Mexico in eastern Mexico, starting men and women trying to leap and tumble over the around 1500 B.C. and continuing on to about back of a charging bull! 500 B.C., who are probably the first in this area of the New World to have created, in The Minoans also developed an early script. essence, a complex society or perhaps even an incipient state. We know this because they CHRISTOPHER MEDWIN EDENS were building large platforms, one of them The importance of this idea is that you’ve got being a quarter of a mile wide and half a mile one sound, one syllable. Instead of having 70 long. It is a truly immense thing that must or 90 symbols to remember you’ve got maybe have involved the labor of lots of people being 30 or 25, and therefore more people can learn organized by some authority. They were also it, and more people can use it. creating an art style, which is best expressed in immense heads made of stone being brought

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The Minoan civilization ended quickly and Homer is known for his striking similes—or mysteriously around 1450 B.C., perhaps from outside extended comparisons. In this passage from the Iliad, attack or maybe civil revolt, leaving the great palaces. he uses a simile to describe a fight between the Greek hero Achilles and Hector, hero of the Trojans. Meanwhile, Middle Eastern peoples, such as the Phoenicians and the Hebrews, were also As when a hawk in the mountains who moves developing scripts. lightest of all things that fly makes his effortless swoop for a trembling dove...so Achilles went The Phoenicians built the most advanced ships of straight for Hector in a fury. the ancient world. They traded and built colonies The Iliad throughout the Mediterranean Sea and even down —Homer the west coast of Africa. To shock the listener into remembering his images, For business and other purposes they developed an Homer often compared quiet, everyday scenes to alphabet that had 30 letters, all consonants. The warlike ones. So his similes give us hundreds of letters represented individual sounds. This made glimpses into ordinary Greek life. writing far more flexible, expressive, and easy to learn. ROBERT PINSKY With alphabets, more people in these early societies Seizing the olive pole, they drove its sharpened could learn to write and read, and they too could end into the Cyclope’s eye while I used my weight finally express the same abstract ideas they could speak. from above to twist it home like a man boring a ship’s timber with a drill, which his mates below Around 900 B.C. the Phoenicians began to establish him twirl with the strap they hold at either end colonies in many parts of the Mediterranean, in so that it spins continuously. In much the same order to promote their trading interests. The way, we handled our pole with its red-hot point colonists took with them their newly devised system and twisted it in his eye till the blood boiled up of alphabetic writing. ’round the burning wood. Odyssey The Greek cities soon followed suit, and by 700 B.C. —Homer had established a network of colonies and trade that rivaled the Phoenician effort. Linguists believe the The second important early Greek poet was Hesiod. Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet, and added His Theogony was the first written record of the new symbols to represent vowels. Greek myths. In his poem Works and Days, Hesiod recounted the Greek idea of the ages of human With this new script, the Greeks began—around 850 history. His poem starts by telling of a long ago B.C.—to write down their spoken traditions. Two of happy golden age; but it continues all the way to the the early Greek writers, Homer and Hesiod, remain Age of Iron, a much more brutal time. among the most influential writers in world literature. The Spirit of Envy, with grim face and screaming Homer, who according to tradition was blind, is voice, who delights credited with writing two of the world’s greatest in evil, will be the constant companion of epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. wretched humanity. Works and Days The Iliad tells of an incident in the Trojan War, —Hesiod which had taken place centuries earlier, when Greeks expanded across the Aegean. The Odyssey chronicles Alphabets made it easier to spread the most sacred the adventures of one of the Greek heroes, Odysseus, ideas of the world’s religions. as he returns home from that war.

21 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—CIVILIZATION AND WRITING

The Hebrews used their alphabet to develop and poems, legends, and dramas. Job’s drama ends with preserve monotheism, the belief in one god, whom God’s humbling answers to Job’s questions. they called Yahweh, and to record the history and spoken traditions of their faith, Judaism. I will ask questions, and you shall answer. Where were you when I laid the earth’s The story of Job belonged to Judaism’s spoken foundations? tradition. This moving example of ancient Hebrew poetry is now part of the Old Testament. Who watched over the birth of the sea, when it burst in flood from the womb? Like Job, great philosophers and religious teachers around the world would ponder humanity’s most In all your life have you ever called up the dawn profound and eternal questions in the next centuries. or shown the morning its place?

From the Middle East to India and from Persia to Have the gates of death been revealed to you? China, they would write down their insights, thus —Job 38:3, 8, 12, 17 forming the moral and ethical codes that are the foundations of our civilization. Questions like these would continue to perplex and inspire writers for many civilizations to come. They and other writers would also perfect the forms that are still the basis of our literature: epics, lyrical

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Consultants for the Series Susan Balée, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Robert Pinsky, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Professor, author, commentator, editor, lecturer Poet, professor, lecturer, reviewer, editor •Primary fields of study: nineteenth-century British •Author of: History of My Heart (1984); Poetry and the literature and popular culture; literature of the American World (1988); The Inferno of Dante (1995); The Figured south; American literature Wheel: New and Collected Poems 1966-1996 (1995); •Published in: The Hudson Review; The Philadelphia many other titles Inquirer; PMLA Forum; The Georgia Review; •Published in: Antaeus; The New Yorker; The Paris Review; Victorian Studies The Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry; The Atlantic; •Notable achievements: founding editor, Northeast Corridor The New York Times Book Review •Notable achievements: Poet Laureate of the United States; Christopher Medwin Edens, B.A., Ph.D. poetry editor, Slate (an Internet magazine); poetry editor, Archaeologist, professor, researcher The New Republic; Pulitzer Prize in Poetry nominee; Lenore •Primary fields of study: evolution of complex societies; Marshall Award winner; Ambassador Book Award winner; political economy of pre-modern states; center-periphery William Carlos Williams Award winner; Woodrow Wilson, relations; archaeology of western Asia; lithic technologies Fulbright, N.E.H., N.E.A., and Guggenheim Fellowships •Recent research: Tell Billa excavation in northern Iraq; lithic analysis for the Hacinebi Tepe (Turkey) project; Rosalind Remer, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. investigation of Bronze Age in highland Yemen Professor, reviewer, lecturer, educational consultant •Published in: Journal of World Prehistory; Anatolica; •Primary fields of study: eighteenth-century American Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy; Archaeological News; economic and business history/history of the book; American Anthropologist social, cultural, and economic history of colonial and •Notable achievements: Robert H. Dyson Post-Doctoral revolutionary America and the early republic Fellow in Near Eastern Archaeology; American Research •Author of: Printers and Men of Capital: The Philadelphia Institute in Turkey/National Endowment for the Book Trade in the New Republic (1996) Humanities grant recipient; consultant to new Saudi •Published in: Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Arabian National Museum project in Riyadh Biography; Journal of the Early Republic; Business and Economic History; William and Mary Quarterly Edward Peters, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. •Notable achievements: director of programs and Professor, author, editor, reviewer planning, National Constitution Center; many awards •Primary fields of study: early European history; church and fellowships, including an Andrew W. Mellon history; legal history; intellectual and political history; Foundation research fellowship cultural history •Author of: Torture (1985, rev. 1996); Inquisition (1989); Irene Bald Romano, B.A., Ph.D. numerous books and articles Archaeologist, museum and educational consultant, •Notable achievements: general editor, The Middle Ages professor, lecturer series (University of Pennsylvania Press); ACLS Fellow; •Primary field of study: classical archaeology Guggenheim Fellow; fellow, Royal Historical Society; •Archaeological excavations: Gordion (Turkey), Corinth fellow, Medieval Society of America; curator, Henry C. (Greece), Pollentia (Alcudia, Mallorca), Deya (Mallorca) Lea Library • Co-author of: Catalogue of the Classical Collections of the Glencairn Museum (1998) •Published in: Expedition; Hesperia; The Coroplast’s Art: Greek Terracottas of the Hellenistic World •Awards and grants: University of Pennsylvania Research Foundation Award; American Philosophical Society grant; National Endowment for the Humanities grant

Credits PROGRAM WRITERS PROGRAM PRODUCERS TEACHER’S GUIDE Judith Conaway, lead writer Rhonda Fabian Judith Conaway, writer Bob Burleigh Jerry Baber Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Josh Orth Jack Phelan Teresa Koltzenburg 23 Civilization and Writing (CL949-1CV) Philosophy and Government: The World in Greek Times (CL949-2CV) Empires of Heaven and Earth: The World in Roman Times (CL949-3CV) Faith and Feudalism: The Early Middle Ages (CL949-4CV) Chivalry and Commerce: The Late Middle Ages (CL949-5CV) Renaissance and Reformation (CL949-6CV) New Worlds and New Ideas (CL949-7CV) Industry and Enlightenment (CL949-8CV) Romanticism and Revolution (CL949-9CV) Imperialism and Progress: The Victorian Era (CL949-10CV) World Wars and the Quest for Order: The Early 20th Century (CL949-11CV) Liberation and Change: The Late 20th Century (CL949-12CV)

This Teacher’s Guide may be reproduced in whole or in part for use by students.

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Table of Contents Summary ...... 3 Intended Audience ...... 4 Presenting the Program ...... 4 Learning Objectives ...... 4 History in the Program ...... 5 Literature in the Program ...... 5 Key Words and Concepts ...... 6 Pre-Viewing Suggestions ...... 6 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 6 Discussion: Introducing the Program and Its Key Words and Concepts ...... 7 Post-Viewing Suggestions ...... 7 Content Questions: History ...... 7 H.O.T. Topics: History ...... 8 Content Questions: Literature ...... 9 H.O.T. Topics: Literature ...... 9 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 11 In-Depth Research ...... 11 Extra History Study ...... 11 Extra Literature Study ...... 12 Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study ...... 13 Chronology of History Chart: The World in Greek Times ...... 14 Chronology of Literature Chart: The World in Greek Times ...... 15 Cross-Curricular Explorations ...... 16 Transcript ...... 16 Notes ...... 22 Consultants for the Series ...... 23 Credits ...... 23

Intended for students in junior high school and above. This program is closed captioned.

Summary Philosophy and Government: The World in Greek Times by the tiny, independent city-states of Greece. At the is part of a 12-video History through Literature series same time, Greeks in southern Italy defeated the that examines the connections between historical great western Mediterranean power, Carthage. These events and the literary figures and works of each era. almost miraculous victories marked the beginning of Other titles in this series are listed on the back of this Greece’s “Golden Age.” Teacher’s Guide. The opening scene of Philosophy and Government: The program presents some of the magnificent The World in Greek Times takes place in 399 B.C. achievements of this age in art, architecture, govern- The philosopher Socrates, having been accused of ment, and literature. Democracy was the age’s great- not recognizing the city’s god and of corrupting the est political achievement. The program briefly alludes youth of Athens, is forced to kill himself by drinking to the limitations of Greek democracy and describes poison. The events of his trial, imprisonment, and the antidemocratic factions in Greek society and lit- death are recorded by his pupil, Plato. Plato and his erature. Important conservative writers included the student, Aristotle, formulated the ideas of great dramatists Aeschylus, Sophocles, and humanism and government that are the foundations Aristophanes. The program explains the role of liter- of western civilization. ary conservatives, whose livelihoods depended on the Greek festivals of sacred drama, in accusing and con- Greek humanism was concerned with people, rather demning Socrates, who doubted the physical exis- than the fates or the gods, and with human freedom tence of the ancient Greek gods, and his friend and personal responsibility. The Greek humanists Euripides, whose plays criticized the state and even believed that the senses were the most reliable dared to challenge the basic Greek institutions of source of human knowledge and that government slavery and warfare. existed not to honor a ruler or even a god, but to benefit its citizens. Another group of philosophers, materialists—which later included Aristotle—also threatened the conserv- The program shows how these ideas and other great ative oligarchy. Their emphasis on objective knowl- philosophical ideas worldwide emerged with the edge obtained through the senses was the foundation development of alphabets. Alphabets were used not of both science and historical scholarship. The pro- only to write down the myths and traditions of gram then returns to Plato and Aristotle, contrasting Hinduism, Judaism, and other ancient faiths, but, their world views. eventually, to make those belief systems more personal by emphasizing human ethics. The program then The career and conquests of Alexander the Great, a surveys the lives and works of some of the great ethi- pupil of Aristotle, expanded Greek power to its great- cal masters who rose during the seventh and sixth est height. The program describes not only those centuries B.C. Among these were Lao-Tzu and conquests but also the far-flung Hellenistic, or Confucius in China, Siddhartha Gautama—the Greek-influenced, cultures that resulted. One new Buddha—in India, the Old Testament prophets in Greek city, Alexandria, Egypt, became the scholarly Jewish Babylonia, Zoroaster in Persia, and Thales, center of the world in late Greek times. Aesop, and Pythagoras in Greece. The program ends with a look forward to the Roman The empire of the Medes and Persians, who con- conquest of Greece in 192 B.C., when, as Horace quered Babylon in 536, soon extended from Egypt to put it, “conquered Greece took captive her barbarous India. The program relates how this great empire, conqueror.” Greek would continue to be the lan- one of the mightiest in world history, was defeated guage of scholarship throughout the Roman period.

3 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—PHILOSOPHY AND GOVERNMENT: THE WORLD IN GREEK TIMES

Intended Audience This program is designed for students in junior high school and above.

Learning Objectives After watching this program and taking part in the suggested discussions and activities, students will be able to: • List some important events that happened in world • Locate the ancient trade routes along which ideas history during the time of the ancient Greeks, and goods traveled; between 800 and 200 B.C. (see History in the •Describe the market economy of the ancient Program); Greek world; • List some authors who lived and wrote between •Describe the purpose and conventions of 800 and 200 B.C. (see Literature in the Program); Greek drama; •Define humanism and contrast it with more •Describe the expansion of Persia and Carthage ancient beliefs in the gods or fates; and the role of Greece in checking those •Describe how humanism led to new views of expansions; science and government; •Identify major literary forms used in Greek times, •Identify two great Chinese masters of the sixth including epics, dialogues, lyric poems, tragedies, century B.C., Lao-Tzu and Confucius, and comedies, and historical, scientific, and political compare their world views; prose; and •Identify an Indian master, Siddhartha Gautama— •Describe Alexander the Great’s conquests and the Buddha—and describe his world view; their effects in dispersing Greek culture. •Identify Zoroaster, a Persian sage, and describe some of his beliefs;

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5 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—PHILOSOPHY AND GOVERNMENT: THE WORLD IN GREEK TIMES

Key Words and Concepts Most of these vocabulary words are in the Transcript, where they appear in bold type the first time they are used. Brahman democracy Hinduism meditate sage Buddhism disciple historian moral secular bureaucracies dramatist humanism nomadic slaves caste empire ideal oligarchy Socratic method chariot epic invasion Olympic thought chorus ethics Judaism philosopher trade route city-state executive judicial physics tragedy civilization fable last judgment Platonism university colony festival legislative priest virtue comedy feudal lyrical prophet Zoroastrianism culture geometry master reason Daoism heroes materialism sacred

Pre-Viewing Suggestions DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES 3. Using a map or globe, review the patterns of If you are showing this program in chronological history in terms of geography. Locate the great order with the other programs in the History through river valleys and the mountains that protected Literature series, or if you want to provide them. Show students the great plains and background for students who may have missed the grasslands that generally lie on the other side of previous program, lead this review and discussion. mountains and ask students to reason what 1. Inform students that this program, Philosophy kinds of people lived on these plains. [nomadic and Government: The World in Greek Times, is herders] Locate key mountain passes. Based on the second in a 12-part series on history the insights gained from this map study, ask through literature. The series explores how students to predict where decisive battles literature and history have affected each other would be fought by future civilizations. over thousands of years. Remind students that 4. Review the technological advances of ancient they have already seen the program Civilization times, especially the progression from copper and Writing, which showed how writing helped to bronze to iron tools. Inform students that, make human civilization possible. once iron came into use, a basic economy 2. Ask students to remember the relationship developed that lasted until the late Middle between settled and nomadic societies in Ages. Have students pay attention to the maps ancient times. They should recall the pattern: and visuals in the program for evidence of settled societies were invaded by nomads, who how this economy evolved during the settled down, intermarried, and fused their centuries that followed. culture with that of the civilization that they 5. Ask students to identify the characteristics of an conquered. In time, this new civilization was empire [strong central government, royal itself invaded by nomads. In other words, bureaucracies, professional armies] and to name Eurasian civilizations have received repeated some of the empires of ancient Mesopotamia. fresh infusions from nomadic cultures. Ask [Sumeria, Assyria, Babylon] From the pattern students to watch for examples of this pattern of history discussed above, ask students to repeating itself in the program they are about predict what would happen to the Babylonian to watch. Empire. [Students should predict that it would be destroyed by a nomadic invasion.]

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6. Ask students to recall two rival seafaring DISCUSSION: INTRODUCING THE PROGRAM “crossroads cultures” who helped develop not AND ITS KEY WORDS AND CONCEPTS only the Mediterranean trade routes, but also 1. Introduce the title Philosophy and Government alphabets. [Phoenicians and Greeks] Review the and have students speculate on the meaning of names of two ancient Greek poets and their its terms. Have students try to define achievements. [Homer wrote the Odyssey and philosophy and list as many different Iliad, two great epics about the Trojan War and philosophies as they can. Help them by starting its aftermath; Hesiod wrote down Theogony, with various religions. Be sure they identify which included the myths of the Greek gods.] humanism as a school of philosophy. Then have Inform students that the program they are students identify various forms of government, about to watch will focus on the Greeks and the especially democracy, and discuss which philosophical outlook might best support each writers who followed Hesiod and Homer. But type of government. Ask them to look for these ask students also to watch for what happened links in the societies shown in the program. to the Phoenicians in the next few centuries. 2. Introduce the Key Words and Concepts and Students should also note the variety of ask students to define the words they know, philosophical developments in China and India looking up unfamiliar words in a dictionary. and the conditions that encouraged them. Have students listen for the terms as they watch the program.

Post-Viewing Suggestions CONTENT QUESTIONS: HISTORY 4. Name at least three empires or civilizations that 1. In what year did the trial and execution of were conquered by the Persians by 500 B.C. Socrates take place? [399 B.C.] Why was he [Babylonian Empire, Jewish and Phoenician condemned to death? [for questioning the states in Palestine, Egyptian Empire] existence of Athen’s gods and corrupting the 5. What African port city-state became the city’s youth] His trial and death really center of Phoenician power after the fall of represented a power struggle between what two Tyre? [Carthage] factions in ancient Greece? [free-thinking 6. What events took place between 490 and 480 humanists, who could be characterized as B.C. that assured Greece’s place in history? [the liberals, and religious conservatives or defeat of the Persians at Marathon, oligarchs, who sought to maintain their power Thermopylae, Salamis, and Platea and the in the status quo] defeat of the Carthaginians at Syracuse] 2. What general type of local government 7. What is the most important political legacy of prevailed in China during the Zhou dynasty? the Greek Golden Age? [democracy] [feudalism] What philosophies emerged at this 8. Name some major cities of ancient Greece. time? [Confucianism, Daoism] [Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes] Why did 3. How was India ruled during the period Greek warring cease every four years? [to honor between 1000 and 500 B.C.? [by a number of Zeus and other gods at the Olympic games] small kingdoms, some with tribal government 9. What were the two major political factions in and some ruled by monarchs] When one ancient Greece and what classes did they kingdom overcame another, a great deal of represent? [The oligarchs included the old violence was used. What religion that landed nobility and the priests; the demos recommended practicing compassion and prevailed among the merchants and other nonviolence while limiting desires developed freemen.] in India about 550 B.C? [Buddhism]

7 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—PHILOSOPHY AND GOVERNMENT: THE WORLD IN GREEK TIMES

10. Who is known at the father of history? What commodities came from North Africa? [Herodotus] What did he chronicle? [the Persian [wheat, wool] from the interior of Africa? [gold, Wars and the history of Athens and Sparta] salt] What kinds of goods came from the 11. What semi-legendary young ruler extended Middle East? [luxury goods] Ask students to Greek rule and influence from Egypt to India? name two hubs of Middle Eastern trade [Egypt, [Alexander the Great] What famous city did he Mesopotamia] and to analyze why the Middle found and endow with a library and East became the supplier of luxury goods. university? [Alexandria, Egypt] [Students should recognize that the Middle 12. Who conquered the Greeks in 192 B.C.? Eastern civilizations were older, more advanced, [the Romans] and in touch by trade with China and India, where the luxury goods were produced.] Ask H.O.T. TOPICS: HISTORY students to recall how geography benefited The following Higher Order Thinking questions Greece in this economy. [Geography forced the should be presented in order to achieve maximum Greeks to become skilled seamen. Their position effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide in and control over the eastern Mediterranean supporting details for general discussion, distribute placed the Greeks in the enviable position as copies of the Chronology of History Chart: The middlemen between the raw materials and the World in Greek Times (page 14). luxury goods.] Refer interested students to In- 1. The Geography of Greece. From the program’s Depth Research: Extra History Study, Question footage as well as its narration—and with the 2 for creative research on the everyday life of help of a map if necessary—ask students to Greek merchants and other workers. remember how geography helped keep the 3. Greek Democracy. What are some political Greeks from uniting. [Rugged mountains institutions today that are the legacy of Greek separated most of the city-states.] Using details democracy? [the same laws for all classes; recalled from the program, ask students to separation of government into legislative, speculate on how Greece took advantage of this political, and judicial branches; voting to elect same geography during its wars with Persia. political leaders; political parties] What were [Tell students that in order to invade Greece, the some of the limitations of Greek democracy? Persians had to use their navy and cross the [Only citizens—who, by definition, were both Hellespont on a bridge of boats. In addition, the free and male—could vote. Women, Persian advance could be halted by a much foreigners, and slaves had few rights.] Review smaller army at one of Greece’s many mountain the two major political factions during Greek passes. Greece’s deep bays, including the one at times [wealthy landowners and the rest of the Salamis, enabled the Greeks to trap the invading citizens] and ask students to determine which Persian fleet.] What defensive disadvantages did party would have been most likely to support Greece’s geography create? [Students should (a) state sponsorship of the sacred rituals reason that the rugged mountains made it [oligarchs]; (b) extension of the vote to larger difficult to send soldiers overland and made it numbers of freemen [“the people”]; (c) necessary to maintain fighting navies.] Ask promotion by merit rather than birth [“the students to make an educated guess as to how people”]; (d) public relief in times of crises the Greeks sent important military and other [“the people”]; and (e) stricter laws protecting messages from city to city. If necessary, tell them property. [Either group— wealthy landowners they will find a hint in the name of a famous would naturally support such laws; however, battle. [Marathon] merchants owned property too!] Use these 2. The Economy of the Classical World. Remind questions to compare Greek political factions students that the basic economy that was with the major political parties today in both consolidated during Greek times lasted 2,000 the United States and other nations. Have years—until the end of the Middle Ages. What interested students research Greek politics. did Spain provide to this economy? [metals]

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CONTENT QUESTIONS: LITERATURE H.O.T. TOPICS: LITERATURE 1. When were the spoken traditions of Judaism, The following Higher Order Thinking questions Hinduism, and other ancient religions first should be presented in order to achieve maximum written down? [between 1000 and 500 B.C.] effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide 2. Who wrote down the spoken teachings of the supporting details for general discussion, distribute philosopher Socrates? [his pupil Plato] copies of the Chronology of Literature Chart: The 3. What two great masters lived in China during World in Greek Times (page 15). the sixth century B.C.? [Lao-Tzu and 1. Literary Fusion. Tell students the story of the Confucius] What were their respective Babylonian captivity of the Jews, explaining philosophies called [Daoism and that many parts of the Bible’s Old Testament, Confucianism] especially the books of the prophets, resulted 4. What great master lived and taught in India from this captivity. What cultures would have during the sixth century B.C.? [Siddhartha had literary influences on these books? Gautama, or the Buddha] [Mesopotamian and Indian cultures, because 5. Name at least three important Greek of Babylon’s location as a hub of trade] What philosophers. [Thales, Pythagoras, Socrates, religion was established by the invading Medes Plato, Aristotle] and Persians? [Zoroastrianism] What were 6. What form of Greek literature was written and some of the beliefs of this religion? [heaven and performed at festivals for the gods? [dramas] hell, angels, the last judgment] Remind Describe the form of a Greek play and the students that, according to the program, these layout of the theater. [Most plays—both beliefs entered Judaism and, later, Christianity. tragedies and comedies—were written in verse Next, ask students to recall the dates of Lao- for two or three male actors and a 12- to 15- Tzu, Confucius, and the Buddha and the member chorus, which was often accompanied ancient trade routes over which their followers by a flute; the theater was a large outdoor spread their ideas. From these facts, students semicircular amphitheater with stone steps and should conclude that (a) Hinduism would have an altar behind the performance area.] been more likely than Confucianism or 7. Name at least two Greek writers who wrote Buddhism to influence the Jews at Babylon; about historical events. [Students should (b) the teachings of Daoism, Confucianism, mention Herodotus and Thucydides; however, and Buddhism could have spread to they may also mention Plato, who wrote about Mesopotamia during Persian times and fused the trial of Socrates, and Aeschylus, who wrote with the ideas of Zoroastrianism and older about the Persian invasion.] Mesopotamian religions; and (c) Socrates 8. What pupil of Socrates founded the world’s could have been influenced, though probably first university? [Plato] indirectly, by the teachings of Confucius and 9. Name at least two Greek mathematicians or the Buddha. Remind students how Alexandria scientists. [Pythagoras, Euclid, Archimedes] became a center of scholarship during later 10. What language was used by scholars and other Greek times. What religion acquired Greek intellectuals during Roman times? [Greek] influences at Alexandria? [Judaism] From these facts, students should conclude that at Alexandria, Greek ideas also entered Egyptian, Carthaginian, and other cultures and religions. Because two more centuries had passed, the school at Alexandria would have been more likely to have absorbed Buddhist ideas than, say, Plato’s university. Ask students what conclusions they might draw about today’s religious literature, philosophy, and tradition.

9 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—PHILOSOPHY AND GOVERNMENT: THE WORLD IN GREEK TIMES

2. Greek Education. Discuss how manuscripts and brought these accusations against him, and books were reproduced in Greek times. [by what was their interest in the matter? [Poets, hand] What form did books use? [scrolls] artisans, and rhetoricians, whose livelihoods Review evidence in the program that showed depended on sacred dramas, were Socrates’ that the spoken literary tradition still prevailed. chief accusers.] Using these insights, lead a What works by Socrates still exist? [None. His general discussion on why humanism was a teaching was by word of mouth.] What do we threat to the established order in Greek times mean by “the Socratic method”? [teaching by and why humanist ideas still threaten many asking students questions and getting them to people today. think for themselves] Ask students to recall 5. Idealism versus Materialism. Tell students that, some of the master–pupil pairs mentioned in according to Plato, truth, beauty, and other the program. [Socrates–Plato, Socrates–Crito, abstract ideas actually exist on the ideal plane Plato–Aristotle, Aristotle–Alexander] By and that the soul is capable of reaching that recalling these details, students should be able level. The highest good of man is to reach the to reason that the spoken tradition flourished ideal. (Students can see this illustrated in in the universities along with works on scrolls. Raphael’s The Academy, a painting in which 3. Greek Drama. Review details about Greek Plato is pointing heavenward.) Remind drama presented in the program. What was the students that Plato was a member of the original purpose of Greek drama? [It was part of oligarchic class. Lead a general discussion of sacred festivals in honor of the gods.] What why the Platonic ideal might appeal to the served as the collective voice of conscience and religious conservatives of ancient Greece. authority in Greek plays? [the chorus] In Greek [Students should be able to reason that, under literary terms, what was a tragedy, and how and this philosophy, whatever group could define why did it end? [A tragedy was a play in which the ideal could create an unprovable, the hero fails because of the gods or fates or unmeasurable higher authority that people because of his own character faults.] Discuss would innately follow.] Contrast this Platonic why the latter type of tragedy was more idealism with the materialist (later Aristotelian) “humanist.” [Students should recall that human point of view. According to both freedom to choose and responsibility were at the materialists—and to general humanists—what heart of humanist philosophy.] Discuss how the was the main source of human knowledge? newer emphasis on humanism would naturally [the human senses] (In Raphael’s painting, lead to more secular drama. [Students should Aristotle is pointing to the earth.) Discuss why note that once human choice directed the materialism might seem threatening to the action, the gods were no longer necessary to the established religion. [Abstractions such as the structure of the play.] Who would have ancient gods could not be directly reached by supported this trend? [people who believed in the senses.] Tell students that Platonic ideas human freedom and choice for all people] Who influenced both Judaism and Christianity and would have been offended, or even threatened, that materialist ideas were the foundation of by it? [those who wrote the sacred dramas; also modern science. Discuss how these opposing conservatives who had a stake in keeping their points of view continue to be argued in our position of power by not giving people choices society today. Have students research Plato’s or by making them fear the gods] reaction to Socrates’ trial and death. Clearly, he 4. Another Look at the Hook. Rethink the opening was conflicted over the actions of the work of literature in the light of the previous conservative ruling party. Have other students discussion. Of what religious crime was research how this conflict plays out in The Socrates accused? [denying the physical Republic, as Plato tries to describe the perfect existence of Athen’s gods] What groups government.

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DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES and authority.] Help students understand that If you are showing this program in chronological the roots of Greek drama were of very ancient order with the other programs in the History through origin. Literature series, use this review and discussion to 3. Remind students that, in Greece as well as prepare students for the next program. Mesopotamia, early literature focused on the 1. Compare the opening story in the previous doings of the fates or the gods. Explain that a program, the trial of Job, with the trial of worldwide major philosophical change took Socrates. Who put Job on trial? [God and fate; place during Greek times: the shift to more bad things just happened to him.] Who put humanist thinking—that is, to personal belief Socrates on trial? [his human enemies] Remind and ethics and a belief that, in some ways, students that, like the story of Job, the story of people could control their destinies. Discuss Socrates is available to us only through how this new emphasis might strengthen as literature. Why do we think of Job as a literary well as weaken traditional and official religions. character and Socrates as a historical figure? 4. After the triumph of Rome, according to the [because Socrates’ story was written down by Roman writer Horace, “conquered Greece an eyewitness, while Job’s story was passed on took captive her barbarous conquerors.” by memory for many generations before it Discuss Horace’s meaning—that Greek ideas could be written down] continued to predominate—and ask students 2. In what ancient literary form was Job’s story to predict if his statement was also politically told? [the sacred drama] What similar works and economically true. [Certainly not. From of literature flourished among the ancient the program’s description of Greece’s key Greeks? [sacred dramas performed at festivals economic location, students should reason in honor of the gods] If some of your students that Rome became much more wealthy and read and reported on the Book of Job, ask powerful by conquering Greece, especially them to compare the “hymn” sections of Job since Greeks had spread their influence so far with the function of the chorus in the Greek into Egypt and Asia.] drama. [Both provide the voices of conscience

In-Depth Research The following topics for further study will help students make connections between history and literature, between western and eastern history, and between the past and present. To provide key words for computer and library searches, distribute copies of the chronologies on pages 14 and 15. EXTRA HISTORY STUDY transportation mentioned or shown in the 1. The Archeological Record. Assign individual program, including wheeled vehicles, horse- students or teams to research and report on drawn chariots, and fighting ships. Assign archeological excavations in the Persian Empire individual students or teams to study different and in the Greek city-states. In their reports to ancient vehicles. Reports to the class should the class, students should present examples of include models and pictures, as well as Greek art and architecture. information about the speed of travel. 2. Everyday Life. Have students research and 4. Bible History. Many events mentioned in this report on the everyday life of everyday people program were recorded in the Bible’s Old in ancient Greece, such as merchants, seamen, Testament and other documents. Have schoolchildren, shopkeepers, shipbuilders, and students or teams investigate empires, soldiers. kingdoms, and historical events and sites 3. Transportation during Greek Times. Assign mentioned in the Bible, compare those teams to research and report on the forms of accounts with other contemporary records, and

11 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—PHILOSOPHY AND GOVERNMENT: THE WORLD IN GREEK TIMES

prepare chronologies of Bible history in the Aeschylus; (c) Persian historians; and (d) today’s centuries between 800 and 200 B.C. Note: historians. In their reports to the class, students some events of this time are recorded in the should read out loud their favorite passages Apocrypha, the traditional Christian books based on narrative merit. Students should also that are part of the Roman Catholic and be prepared to identify sections that show Orthodox—but not Protestant—bibles. obvious bias on the part of the historian. Recent archaeological digs should provide 3. Greek Drama. Assign individuals or students to much information. Encourage use of the read the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Internet as an up-to-date resource for Aristophanes, and other Greek dramatists and information about such digs and their finds. report on them to the class. In their reports, students should select passages that they feel EXTRA LITERATURE STUDY have particular literary merit for reading or 1. Old Testament Literature. Assign individuals or acting out loud to the class. They should also teams to read the books of the major and (for tragedies) identify the “tragic flaw” upon minor Hebrew prophets from a literary point which the plot turns. of view. Students should discover and read to 4. The Community of Learning. Suggest that the class not only passages of literary merit, but students research the connections between also parts that reveal telling details about the writers mentioned in this program and (a) Babylonian captivity and return to Jerusalem. other writers and thinkers of their own times; In their reports to the class, students should (b) writers in the generations before them; and note passages that seem to reflect the influence (c) writers in later generations. Students may of Mesopotamian thought. already have noted such connections in the 2. Greek History as Literature. Assign students or program. For example, the program notes teams to read and report on the Persian Wars many teacher–pupil relationships. through the eyes of (a) Herodotus; (b)

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Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study The chronologies of history and literature located on the following pages are designed both to summarize the era covered by the program and to motivate students to learn more about the era. Copy and distribute the chronologies to individual students or study groups. Use the pages for both in-class discussion and extra study assignments. CHRONOLOGY OF HISTORY: CHRONOLOGY OF LITERATURE: THE LATE MIDDLE AGES THE LATE MIDDLE AGES 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. Encourage students to restate key ideas and Encourage students to restate key ideas and draw conclusions from details on the chart. The draw conclusions from details on the chart. The following are some conclusions they can draw. following are some conclusions they can draw. •During Greek times, Asia had stronger, • Both spoken and written literary traditions more centralized governments than did flourished during Greek times. Greece and the rest of Europe. •In Greek times, writing was used for • The Mayan civilization arose in central business records, laws, epics, poems, America at about the same time as the hymns, and works of philosophy. Greek civilization. • Among the earliest writers whose names •Technology grew gradually more complex we know are the Hebrew prophets and the during Greek times. Greek poets Homer and Hesiod. • The Persian Empire conquered parts of •During Greek times the literate areas of Asia, Africa, India, and Europe. the world were the Mediterranean, the • Through Carthage, a Phoenician city- Middle East, Egypt, India, and China. state, Greeks traded with people who lived •Persian and Chinese literature also in west Africa. flourished during the Golden Age of • The Great Wall of China was built during Greece. Greek times. 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask students to research and report on writers students to research and report on events listed and literary works listed on the chart. You on the chart. You might want to assign one might want to assign one literary category to continent to each study group and have group each study group and have group members members choose from events in their column. choose from writers and works in their You might also assign each group a time period column. You might also assign each group a and have group members file reports from time period and have group members file different continents. reports about developments in different categories of literature.

13 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—PHILOSOPHY AND GOVERNMENT: THE WORLD IN GREEK TIMES

Chronology of History Chart: The World in Greek Times

DATES EUROPE ASIA AFRICA AND OCEANIA AMERICAS Dorians move into Greece; iron- 22nd dynasty begins (Egypt); Olmec-inspired temple before Greek Ionians settle on 850 working known (Greece, Balkans, kingdom of Kush established; complexes & tombs built Aegean coast (Asia Minor) B.C. & Italy); Baltic amber trade begun Phoenicians reach Morocco (Mexico) Dorians conquer Corinth; Assyrians build city of Nimrud; 850– Phoenicians found Carthage; temple centers built 801 Greeks settle in Thrace & reliable Chinese chronology Theban kings rule Egypt (Chavín, Peru) B.C. Spain begins

800– first Olympic games held; Greeks Greeks build Ephesus; 751 elect first 10-year archons; Etruscans Armenia [Urartu] has Golden Theban kings rule Egypt B.C. move into Italy; Rome founded Age; Feudal Age begins (China) Assyrians conquer Syria & Memphite & Ethiopian kings 750– Greeks found colonies Maya temple complex built 701 Palestine; Lydians mint first coins; rule Egypt & build canal in southern Italy (Uaxactuún) B.C. nomadic Scythians raid Middle East from Nile to sea

700– Greeks build with Doric & Ionic Greeks found Byzantium; Persians Assyrians occupy Egypt Olmec-inspired cultures flourish 651 columns & begin Acropolis (Athens); conquer Elam; Lydia rules & bring iron; (La Venta & Monte Albán, B.C. iron used in Danube region Anatolia; Mongols enter Japan Taharka leads Egyptian revival Mexico)

650– first state coins (Greece); Babylonians conquer Assyrian Jews & Greek merchants 601 Draco makes harsh laws Empire & build Hanging settle in Egypt; B.C. (Athens) Gardens Babylonians invade Egypt

600– Solon reforms laws (Athens); Nebuchadnezzar conquers Amasis II expands Egypt’s 551 Phoenicians colonize Corsica; Jerusalem & takes Jews to trade with Greece; iron industry B.C. iron reaches Spain & France Babylon; Croesus is king in Lydia flourishes in Kush Rome declared a republic; Medes and Persians take Persians conquer Egypt; 550– Chupícuaro culture flourishes 501 Cleisthenes brings more democracy Babylon & end Jewish captivity; Phoenicians shift center to (western Mexico) B.C. to Athens; Greeks trade on Danube Darius I founds Persian Empire Carthage & sail around Africa Greeks defeat Persia & Carthage, Greek Ionians revolt against Egypt revolts against Persia & 500– hieroglyphic writing developed 451 begin Golden Age; Rome orga- Persia; Xerxes I & Artaxerxes rule fights with Persia against Greece; (Monte Albán, Mexico) B.C. nizes anti-Etruscan Latin League Persia; Iron Age begins (China) Carthage rules north Africa coast

450– Pericles in power (Athens); Athens Darius II rules Persia; Jerusalem 401 & Sparta fight Peloponnesian walls rebuilt; Age of Contending ironworking known (Ethiopia) B.C. Wars; Celts invade British Isles States begins (China)

400– wars between Greek city-states Artaxerxes II & Darius III rule Persia; 30th dynasty begins rule 351 continue; Gauls sack Rome; Chinese build northern defensive (Egypt); kingdom of Axum rises B.C. first town built at London walls against nomadic attack (Ethiopia) Philip of Macedon rules Greece; Alexander conquers Palestine Greeks conquer Egypt; Ptolemy 350– Mayans expand temple center 301 Alexander comes to throne; & Persia & invades India; Soter I begins Greek dynasty; (Monte Albán, Mexico) B.C. Rome fights Samite War Maurya dynasty founded (India) Alexandria founded patricians & plebes achieve kingdom of Parthia founded; Hopewell culture established 300– Carthage fights First Punic War 251 legal equality (Rome); Rome Ashoka makes Buddhism offi- (upper Mississippi against Rome B.C. conquers Italy & fights cial faith (India) & Ohio valleys) Shi Huangdi unifies China & Rome wins Second Punic War; 250– farming known among 201 Carthage connects defenses to make kingdoms of Mauritania, Numidia, Hohokam people (Arizona) B.C. Great Wall; Han dynasty begins & Nok begin iron culture Greek internal wars continue; Maccabees revolt in Israel; Rome destroys Carthage after 200– Izapá temple center built 151 Hannibal of Carthage invades Huns threaten northern China; Third Punic War; upper Egypt (Chiapas) B.C. Spain & crosses Alps civil service begins (China) revolts against Greek rulers reform emperor Han Wu Ti Romans conquer north Africa & after Romans defeat Hannibal & 150 reigns (China); Romans con- fight Numidia; West African Classic Age of Maya begins conquer Spain & Greece B.C. quer Asia Minor & Palestine tribes colonize Congo region

14 © CLEARVUE/eav TEACHER’S GUIDE

Chronology of Literature Chart: The World in Greek Times SCIENCE, MEDICINE, NONFICTION: GOVERNMENT, FICTION: POETRY, RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY DATES LITERACY, EDUCATION HISTORY, ECONOMICS DRAMA, STORIES earliest Bible sections written before planets observed and noted down; Apollo worshiped at 850 (Babylon & China) B.C. Delphi; sacred dramas begun

850– 801 prophecies of Elijah Homer, Iliad, Odyssey B.C. prophecies of Amos & Hosea; 800– first Olympic dramatic scholars start to write down Lycrugus, laws of Sparta 751 competitions B.C. Vedas & Upanishads (India)

750– prophecies of “First Isaiah”; Egyptians develop simpler Hesiod, Works and Days Book of Songs (China) 701 Hesiod, Theogony demotic script B.C.

700– teachings of Zarathustra earliest Latin writing Archilocus, poems & fables 651 [date approx.] B.C.

Jews begin writing down Mimnermus, Semonides of 650– Thales of Miletus on Pentateuch; Thales of Miletus Draco, laws of Athens Amorgos, Stesichorus, 601 astronomy & geometry B.C. on self-knowledge Terpander, & Tyrtaeus, poems

600– prophecies of Jeremiah & Ezekiel; Aesop, Fables; Sappho & 551 Animexander of Miletus on philos- first public libraries (Athens) Solon, laws of Athens Alceus of Lesbos, poems; B.C. ophy; Jupiter temple built (Rome) Phrynichus, dramatic poems

550– prophecies of “Second Isaiah”; Pythagoras on geometry Pythagoras in favor of oligarchic Theognis of Megara, Hipponax of 501 teachings of Mahavira, Buddha, & music; Acron & Democedes rule; Cimon & Cleisthones of Ephesus, & Anacreon of Teos, B.C. & Lao-Tzu; first Puranas (India) on medicine Athens on democracy poems; Thespis of Athens, drama

500– Zend-Avesta & Ramayana written Hecataeus of Miletus on Hecataeus & Dionysius of Pindar, odes & music; Aeschylus, 451 down; Confucius’ teachings; Emped- geography; Miletus on history; Antiphon & Euripides, & Sophocles, plays; B.C. ocles & Protageras on philosophy Heraclitus on materialism Pericles, orations Epicharmus, poems

450– Parthenon consecrated; Philolaus of Thebes & Twelve Tables (Rome); Euripides, Sophocles, Crates, & 401 Socrates, Aristippus, Mo Ti, & Oenopides of Chios on astron- Herodotus, Thucydides, & Aristophanes, plays; Bacchylides B.C. Yang Chu on philosophy omy; Menon on medical history Xanthus on history & Ch’u P’ing, poems

400– Socrates killed; pupils Democritus on materialism; Plato, Crito, Phaedo, Laws, & first theaters, Rome; Diagoros 351 Eucleides, Aristippus, & Plato Hippocrates of Cos on medi- Republic; Xenophon, Memorabilia; of Melos, Ion of Chios, & B.C. found schools; Plato, Apology cine; Eudoxus on astronomy Isocrates, Panegyricus Philoxenus, poems Aristotle opens Lyceum; Xenocrites Aristotle on animals & cate- Aristotle, Constitution of Athens; 350– Antiphanes & Menander, come- & Diogenes on philosophy; Indian gories; Heraclides on solar sys- Demosthenes, orations; 301 dies; Ch’u P’ing, poems B.C. epic Mahabharata written tem; library founded (Alexandria) Berosus on Persian history Epicurus on materialism; Euclid, Timaeus on history; Edicts of Theocritus & Callimachus, 300– Zeno on Stoicism (Greece); Elements; Archimedes on Ashoka (India); slave Andronicus poems; Philemon, comedies; 251 Mencius on philosophy (China) B.C. physics; Herophilus on anatomy brings Greek literature to Rome Naevius, Roman satiric comedies Aristo of Chios, Cleanthes, & Manetho on Egyptian history; Plautus, Terence, & Livius 250– Medical college flourishes Chrysippus on Stoicism; Jews tran- Quintius Flavius Pictor on Roman Andronicus, Latin plays; Appolonius 201 scribe Psalms & Proverbs; Qin (Alexandria) B.C. dynasty burns Confucian books history; Han Fei, essays of Rhodes & Aristodama, poems 200– books of Daniel & Ecclesiasticus Library founded (Pergamum); Polybius on history & 151 composed; Polybius & Panaetius Hipparcus of Niceaea on biographies; Cato the Elder, Quintus Ennius, poems & plays B.C. take Greek philosophy to Rome astronomy orations & Latin prose Aesclepidis of Bithynia opens after Boethius of Sidon Scipio, letters & orations; Varro, medical center; Lucretius on 150 on philosophy essays & history B.C. materialism © CLEARVUE/eav 15 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—PHILOSOPHY AND GOVERNMENT: THE WORLD IN GREEK TIMES

Cross-Curricular Explorations These projects are designed to relate the ideas in the program to other areas of study; assign them to individuals and study groups according to students’ interests and strengths. 1. Greek Drama. Research, rehearse, and perform a manufactured today. Research Greek musical Greek play in a manner as authentically ancient forms, and then perform or record a concert, as possible. For example, you will want to have perhaps in conjunction with the previously the chorus sing their lines in unison. Actors mentioned drama. might wear large masks that can be seen from 3. Ancient Greece on the Internet. Assign interested distant seats and use speaking tubes to amplify students to conduct computer searches and their voices. Many books on Greek theater give discover what remains of the Greek city-states. fascinating production details to follow. The Start by contacting Greek consulates and travel plays of Euripides, such as The Trojan Women, agencies that specialize in tours to Greece. In are especially relevant to modern audiences. addition, many universities have their own Web 2. Greek Music. Find pictures of murals, carvings, pages, some of which include photos of painted vases, and other works of art that archaeological digs, museum acquisitions, and portray musicians and their instruments. Next, other ancient treasures. Archaeology and history look for similar folk instruments that are still magazines can also be accessed electronically.

Transcript The year was 399 B.C. In a prison cell in Athens, Socrates, we know about him because Plato Greece, the philosopher Socrates and his disciples wrote prolifically and wrote a great deal about waited for the sun to set. When that hour came, Socrates and, particularly in his dialogues, he Socrates would die. A court had condemned him to uses Socrates as one of the characters that he death by hemlock poisoning, for crimes of not has conversations with. And in this way we recognizing the city’s gods and corrupting the learn about philosophical ideas of Socrates. city’s youth. In Plato’s Apology, he tells how Socrates defended Socrates denied these charges. But he freely himself at his trial. Socrates refused to give up admitted that his habit of questioning everything philosophical questioning, stating: made him a pest. The unexamined life is not worth living. ROBERT PINSKY Socrates in Apology I...am a sort of gadfly, given to the state by the —Plato gods, and the state is like a great and noble steed who is tardy in his motions owing to his very size, Plato’s philosophical dialogue Crito portrays a and requires to be stung into life. conversation between Socrates and one of his pupils, Socrates in Apology who urges him to escape from jail to avoid the death —Plato penalty. Socrates refuses, on grounds of allegiance to higher moral laws. Socrates would become the symbol of the freethinking individual. He would also go down in We ought not to retaliate, or render evil for evil history as the founder of Western philosophy. to anyone, whatever evil we may have suffered from him. IRENE BALD ROMANO Socrates in Crito While we have no writings as far as we know —Plato that came down directly from the pen of

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In Phaedo, Plato recounts the noble way in which In China, the ancient Zhou dynasty was crumbling. Socrates drank the poison and met his death. Political power lay with large local landowners, who Such was the end...of our friend, whom I may formed the noble and warrior classes of a feudal truly call the wisest, and justest, and best of all the system. These warlords constantly fought each other, men whom I have ever known. while the peasant farmers—the vast majority of the Phaedo people—struggled to survive under conditions of —Plato heavy taxation and frequent violence. Perhaps in response to this chaos, two great Chinese masters But Socrates’ influence lived on through Plato and emerged—Lao-Tzu and Confucius. Both were through Plato’s pupil, Aristotle. Together, Socrates, concerned with how people should conduct Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers themselves and how states should be governed. formulated ideas of humanism and government that are the intellectual foundations of Western Lao-Tzu, the founder of Daoism, advised his follow- civilization today. ers to reject the world’s instability by turning away from it. For Lao-Tzu, the ideal life is one of simplici- Greek humanism was a philosophy concerned with ty and quiet, lived in harmony with nature. The ideal human beings, rather than with the gods or the fates. government would interfere in people’s lives as little Human freedom—and personal responsibility—were as possible. at the core of humanist thinking. Governing a large country is like frying a small Humanism also stressed that the human senses were fish: You spoil it with too much poking. the only reliable source for what we know. As one Tao Te Ching Greek philosopher put it, —Lao-Tzu

Man is the measure of all things. Confucius suggested a different path. He advised active, but scrupulously moral and humane, From Greek humanism came a new vision of how to involvement in worldly matters govern society. Governments existed, argued the humanists, not to honor a ruler or even a god, but to The ancients who wished to illustrate the highest provide justice, security, and happiness for their virtue first ordered well their own states. Wishing to citizens, individuals who could make rational order well their states, they first regulated their decisions themselves. families. Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their own selves. Wishing to cultivate Greek humanism and rationalism developed at the their own selves, they first rectified their hearts. end of a period of great intellectual and societal The Great Learning change in nations around the world. Six hundred —Confucius years before Socrates, around 1000 B.C., lettered alphabets began to replace picture-based writing, Between 1000 and 500 B.C., India was the home of which allowed abstract ideas, not just names and many kingdoms, some ruled by tribal councils and actions, to be recorded. others by monarchs.

Between 1000 and 500 B.C., the spoken traditions The prevailing religion was Hinduism, but Indian of early Hinduism, Judaism, and other religions were culture was far from unified. Along with a general written down for the first time. belief in the Hindu gods, Indians followed thousands of sects and philosophies. Soon, great masters around the world were subtly altering these ancient texts with philosophical ideas Two ruling castes competed for power: the feudal concerned with personal behavior and ethics. warriors and the priests, or Brahmans.

17 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—PHILOSOPHY AND GOVERNMENT: THE WORLD IN GREEK TIMES

Into this atmosphere emerged one of history’s heaven rather than hell. His ideas influenced greatest teachers, Siddhartha Gautama, a prince of Judaism, and, later, both Christianity and Islam. the warrior caste. Moved by the suffering of ordinary people, he abandoned his family to search for a While empire-building, the Persians drove the deeper and better way of life. After years of Phoenicians out of their home city of Tyre. These wandering, he achieved enlightenment while ancient sea merchants then made Carthage, a north meditating under a fig tree. Now known as the African colony, their main port. From Carthage and Buddha—the Enlightened One—he continued to other cities, the Phoenicians controlled the western preach, traveling from town to town, followed by as Mediterranean. many as 1,000 disciples. Their ships carried metals from Spanish mines, wheat The Buddha taught that the remedy for suffering was grown along the north African coast, dates and wool to cease to desire anything. Desires cause from the nomadic herdsmen who controlled the expectations that, when they are not fulfilled, result interior of northern Africa, and even gold and salt in pain. The Buddha also stressed the need for ethical from the Niger River region. behavior, and compassion toward others. The Greeks, also a seafaring people, added olive oil, Now this, O monks...is the noble Eightfold Way: wine, wool, dyes, and pottery to the thriving namely, right views, right intention, right speech, Mediterranean trade. right action, right living, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration. Greek merchants prospered by carrying the raw —The Buddha materials of the west and the luxury goods of the Middle East to their colonies, which stretched from From its birthplace in central India, Buddhism Massilia in France to Cyrene in Libya. spread, along ancient trade routes, throughout India, and both east and west into Tibet, Persia, and Partly because of its rugged geography, ancient Greece Mesopotamia. was rarely unified. Instead, Greece was composed of a number of small, independent city-states, including In Mesopotamia, the trading center of the world, a Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes. series of great empires, with strong central governments, royal bureaucracies, and professional Rivalry between the city-states was intense and often armies, rose and fell. led to war. The most warlike Greek city was Sparta, whose youths left their families at age 12 and trained The empire of Babylon rose to power in this region to be soldiers. Sparta was ruled by a small group of about 600 B.C. powerful military leaders called an oligarchy.

By about 500 B.C. Persian rule extended from Egypt Athens, Sparta’s chief rival, was more inclined to all the way to India, under the great emperor Darius I. philosophy and worldly pleasures, although Athenians were able warriors too. Darius I made the teachings of an ancient Median prophet, Zarathustra, the official religion of the The Greeks were culturally united, however, by Persian Empire. Sayings attributed to Zarathustra are language and religion. And every four years, all collected in the Zend-Avesta, or Book of Knowledge warring ceased and the city-states competed in the and Wisdom. Olympic games to honor Zeus, his consort Hera, and a pantheon of other gods. Zarathustra taught that people must believe in one god and work to overcome evil with good. This Other festivals honored Athena, patron of Athens would prepare them for the last judgment and and goddess of wisdom, and Dionysus, mystic god of wine, revelry, poetry, and drama.

18 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Poetry, music, and dramas performed at the festivals The first Persian invasion of the Greek mainland was told stories of the gods. These myths, which had halted by a small Greek force at the battle of been part of the spoken tradition for centuries, were Marathon, in 490 B.C. In other crucial battles at first written down in the eighth and seventh Thermopylae, Salamis, and Platea, the united Greek centuries B.C. in the Iliad and the Odyssey by Homer armies were victorious. and in Theogony by Hesiod. And to the west, the Greeks of Syracuse defeated IRENE BALD ROMANO Carthage, checking its eastward expansion. They come down in history to us as two of the great works of Greek literature, and among the The triumph over powerful Persia and Carthage by very first that tell the story of the Greek gods tiny, independent Greece marked the start of the and the Greek heroes; and they were popular Greek Golden Age, a time of magnificent throughout the Greek period and the Roman achievement in art, architecture, drama, philosophy, period. They, of course, influenced Virgil and and democratic government. Dante and right down through Western civilization. Greek democracy, however, was limited to freeborn men. Women, and the growing numbers of Gradually, the Greeks developed a variety of foreigners and slaves, had few rights. literature: philosophy... Still, under enlightened leaders such as Pericles, the Know thyself. Greeks established many Western democratic —Thales of Miletus institutions, such as secular government; separation of executive, judicial, and legislative branches; and ...animal fables... political parties.

A shepherd’s boy...had gotten a roguish trick of Golden Age playwrights produced masterpieces that crying, “A wolf! A wolf!” probe such universal questions and provide such —Aesop insight into the human condition that many are still performed today. ...works on numbers, geometry, and music... Aeschylus, the father of Greek tragic drama, wrote c2 = a2 + b2 more than 70 plays. a theorem —Pythagoras Let good prevail! So be it! Yet, what is good? And who ...and lyrical love poems. Is God? How name him, and speak true? Agamemnon When I look upon you a moment, —Aeschylus My tongue falls silent, And at once a delicate flame courses beneath my skin. Sophocles, the second of the three great Greek —Sappho tragedians, wrote over 120 plays during his long lifetime, including Oedipus Rex. Historical prose also became popular thanks to Herodotus, known as the “father of history.” Turing ROBERT PINSKY away from myth and legend, Herodotus relied on In Sophocles’ tragedy, Oedipus the King, written records to chronicle the rise of the Persian Oedipus says: Empire and the history of Sparta and Athens. Herodotus recorded the remarkable battles between Yes, it’s no secret. Lachesis once foretold that I tiny Greece and mighty Persia. should mate with my own mother and shed with

19 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—PHILOSOPHY AND GOVERNMENT: THE WORLD IN GREEK TIMES

my own hands the blood of my own father. Despite Euripides’ warning, in 431 B.C. war erupted Because of that, Corinth was for many years a between Athens and Sparta, whose allies feared recent very distant home for me. I wandered abroad, but Athenian aggression. These destructive Peloponnesian I still missed the sweet sight of my parents’ face. Wars dragged on for 28 years. We know about them Oedipus Rex from the accounts of Thucydides, the earliest known —Sophocles “eyewitness historian.”

Greek tragedies were written in verse, usually for two My account...rests partly on what I saw myself, or three male actors and a 12- to 15-member chorus, and partly on what others saw for me, the which spoke, sang, or danced accompanied by a accuracy of the report being always tried by the flute. Since most plays were written for the festival of most severe and detailed tests possible. a god, they were performed in front of an altar in a The Peloponnesian Wars large semicircular outdoor theater. Athen’s Theater of —Thucydides Dionysus seated 27,000. Political unrest plagued Greece into the 300s, but Tragedies examined the depths of heroic suffering— in Athens philosophical debates managed to how well and nobly a person could endure the continue among lawmakers and philosophers from twists of fate, the whims of the gods, and their own all over Greece. flawed wills. The center for this debate was the famous school By the Golden Age, another dramatic form—the founded by Plato, Socrates’ pupil. Plato’s Academy comedy—was also flourishing. became the world’s first university and endured for over 900 years. Plato was also the founder of a school The great comic playwright of the period was of thought, Platonism. Aristophanes, whose clever satires pricked the conscience of some of Athen’s most powerful leaders. In Plato reasoned that since humans can imagine perfect one play, The Clouds, he caricatured Socrates and truth, justice, beauty, and divinity, these qualities called his school the “Think Shop.” must exist on an ideal plane. The soul was the part of human consciousness that could reach this level, and Many alarmed conservatives believed Aristophanes’ the highest human good was to strive for the ideal. portrayal of Socrates as a troublemaker and threat. Socrates credited their overreaction for his trial Plato’s pupil Aristotle took up the more practical and death. threads of Socrates’ teaching. Aristotle believed, as he states in his Ethics, that A friend of Socrates—the third great tragedian, Euripides—offended the same literary and political ...happiness appears [to be] the end or aim of all factions with his criticism of traditional values and human actions. emphasis on human will rather than the gods. Ethics —Aristotle In his play The Trojan Women, Euripides dared to challenge Greek glorification of war by expressing the The best way to achieve happiness, he continued, pain of Hector’s wife, whose young son is about to be was to employ faculties unique to humans, namely killed by the victorious Greeks. thought and reason.

O darling child, prized at too great a worth to live! Aristotle gained fame for making ethics a branch of You die, at enemy hands, and leave me desolate. politics and based his beliefs about it on what could Your noble father’s greatness, which to other men be systematically observed and analyzed. In time this Brought hope and life and victory, will cost you method of thinking extended to all science. your death. For you his courage proved a fatal heritage. Aristotle’s most famous pupil was Alexander, the Andromache in The Trojan Women son of Philip of Macedon, who conquered Greece —Euripides in 338 B.C. 20 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Alexander, later known as Alexander the Great, was of Alexandria that many of these works were only 20 when he took the throne in 336 B.C. Over disseminated to libraries beyond Alexandria and the next 12 years, using Macedonian cavalry, Persian- hence to us. style chariots, Greek infantrymen, and his own military genius, Alexander conquered Asia Minor, One great Alexandrian scholar was Euclid, whose Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, and part of book The Elements presented the most advanced western India in the name of Greece. He stopped ideas of Greek and Egyptian geometry. only when his battered and exhausted soldiers refused to advance any farther. Also in Alexandria, the great scientist Archimedes made his discoveries about simple machines and After his death at age 32, Alexander the Great basic physics. entered both Eastern and Western literature as a legendary hero-king. By the time of Archimedes, two western empires, Carthage and Rome, were fighting for control of the His empire soon broke apart into smaller kingdoms, western Mediterranean. Roman armies finally ruled by generals who had fought with him. Because defeated Carthage in 201 B.C. Less than a decade of this new Greek ruling class, and the immigrants later, in 192, Rome conquered Greece. who followed them to the eastern colonies, Greek culture and ideas—called Hellenism—spread Greek culture continued to flourish among the throughout the Middle East, central Asia, and Romans. northern Africa. But it did not end there—and neither did Daoism, Scholars from around Africa, Asia, and Greece Confucianism, Buddhism, and other schools of flocked to Alexandria, the Egyptian city Alexander thought that developed during this remarkable founded and endowed with a university, a museum, period in history. Evidence of their influence can still and the largest library in the world. be seen and felt throughout the world today.

All the known Greek works of history and literature were compiled there, and it was through the library

21 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—PHILOSOPHY AND GOVERNMENT: THE WORLD IN GREEK TIMES

Notes

22 TEACHER’S GUIDE

This Teacher’s Guide may be reproduced in whole or in part for use by students.

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in conjunction with CLEARVUE/eav 6465 N. Avondale Ave. Chicago, IL 60631-1996 1-800-CLEARVU (1-800-253-2788) www.clearvue.com Empires of Heaven and Earth: The World in Roman Times

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Table of Contents Summary ...... 3 Intended Audience ...... 4 Presenting the Program ...... 4 Learning Objectives ...... 5 History in the Program ...... 5 Literature in the Program ...... 6 Key Words and Concepts ...... 6 Pre-Viewing Suggestions ...... 7 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 7 Discussion: Introducing the Program and Its Key Words and Concepts ...... 7 Post-Viewing Suggestions ...... 8 Content Questions: History ...... 8 H.O.T. Topics: History ...... 8 Content Questions: Literature ...... 10 H.O.T. Topics: Literature ...... 10 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 12 In-Depth Research ...... 13 Extra History Study ...... 13 Extra Literature Study ...... 13 Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study ...... 15 Chronology of History Chart: The World in Roman Times ...... 16 Chronology of Literature Chart: The World in Roman Times ...... 17 Cross-Curricular Explorations ...... 18 Transcript ...... 18 Notes ...... 24 Consultants for the Series ...... 25 Credits ...... 25

Intended for students in junior high school and above. This program is closed captioned.

Summary Empires of Heaven and Earth: The World in Roman While the rise and fall of both the Mauryan and Han Times is part of a 12-video History through Literature dynasties was similar to that of Rome, Rome’s history series that examines the connections between lasted much longer. Rome expanded from a small historical events and the literary figures and works of Etruscan-controlled village to a larger republic, which each era. Other titles in this series are listed on the conquered its main rival, Carthage, in a series of back of this Teacher’s Guide. Punic Wars and then went on to conquer north Africa and the western Mediterranean region, includ- The opening scene of Empires of Heaven and Earth: ing Greece, from whom Rome borrowed a great deal The World in Roman Times takes place around 19 of religion, philosophy, and literature. This act of B.C. as Rome’s greatest epic poet, Virgil, lay dying. borrowing the best of a conquered people’s culture is He asks that his friends to destroy his unfinished noted as a practice that, along with its laws and orga- poem, the Aeneid, which he was writing for the nizational prowess, helped make Rome strong. Emperor Augustus. Lucky for all of us that his friends ignored his request, for in the Aeneid we find The program notes how life in the Roman republic not only a great adventure story, but the inspiration was influenced by Rome’s expanding military power. for Rome’s longevity based on its glorious—though Violence abounded throughout the empire and even fabricated—past. in Rome’s favorite spectator sport; this was in contrast to some of the idyllic poetry and other literature The program then goes on to examine the special written during this time of chaos. Writers such as combination of legend, law, religion, and military Plautus, Terence, and Lucretius began using Latin, might that upheld Rome for nearly 800 years and the not Greek, for comedies, essays, histories, poetry— special relationship that literature played in Rome’s even works of philosophy. Soon, however life became long history—and the period that followed Rome’s very unstable. fall, which kept the Greco-Roman culture alive for us to enjoy today. A popular military leader and literary figure, Julius Caesar brought some order to the chaos of the later But before delving into Rome’s history, the program republican period and opened Rome’s imperial peri- examines two other great empires: the Mauryan od as dictator for life. After Julius Caesar’s assassina- dynasty of India, headed so wisely by Buddhist con- tion—by jealous rivals—and a civil war, Julius vert Ashoka, and the harsh but unifying Qin dynasty Caesar’s adopted nephew Octavian took power and and the long-lived Han dynasty in China. became the first Roman emperor, ruling as Caesar Augustus. Through pictures of Roman art, architec- In India under Ashoka’s enlightened rule, peace ture, and engineering, as well as through literary ref- reigned for many years and philosophy and religion erences, the program describes the achievements of flourished, even though not much was written down the “Pax Romana” he established. until much later. In China, the ancient philosophies were at first suppressed in an effort to diminish any This period of early empire, when Rome was at the thinking that would threaten the state, but under the height of its wealth and power, was also its “golden Han both Confucianism, which emphasized duty age” in literature, producing poets like Virgil, and moral behavior, and Daoism, which encouraged Horace, Ovid, Juvenal, and Martial, as well as histo- detachment and harmony with nature, were them- rians such as Josephus, Plutarch, and Tacitus. selves reformed to serve the needs of the government. The Han also resurrected the ancient doctrine of the Roman religion incorporated elements from around mandate of heaven to legitimize Han rule and con- the empire, although the populace as a whole was trol the people. noted for its superstition, not its faith. The ancient Greek gods, renamed by the Romans, were now the official gods of the state, and, as in Han China,

3 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—EMPIRES OF HEAVEN AND EARTH: THE WORLD IN ROMAN TIMES actual emperor worship was encouraged. People of finally, the conversion of Constantine and his decla- the Buddhist, Jewish, and new Christian faiths ration of Christianity as the official religion of the resisted the idea of imperial divinity and were eastern empire. This empire was destined to survive persecuted accordingly. the western part of the empire by 1,000 years.

The program presents one of the New Testament The program concludes with a general overview of accounts of the birth and ministry of Jesus and the why the Roman Empire fell, noting that Rome’s fall formation of the Christian church, as recorded in was part of a pattern that began with the fall of the Luke. It notes the contribution of Paul of Tarsus, Han dynasty far to the east. In a look ahead, the pro- who led the faction that declared Christianity a uni- gram notes that in both China and Rome, religious versal, not merely Jewish, religion. The deaths of Paul writers and monks preserved some of classical cul- and Peter are described, as are the general persecu- ture. In the long term, the “empires of heaven,” sus- tions against Christians and Jews. tained by literate Christian and Buddhist believers, outlived and preserved for future generations the The program describes the spread of Christianity, the greatest empires the world had yet known. recording of the New Testament by scholars, and,

Intended Audience This program is designed for students in junior high school and above.

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Learning Objectives After watching this program and taking part in the suggested discussions and activities, students will be able to: • List some important events that happened in world •Name the first Roman emperor and his successors history during the time of the ancient Romans, between during the 150 years of the “Pax Romana,” or 300 B.C. and A.D. 476 (see History in the Program); Roman peace; • List some literary works and authors from the time •Identify positive and negative effects of the Roman of the Roman Empire (see Literature in the conquest on people in the conquered territories; Program); •Identify major literary forms used in Roman times, •Define “empire” and identify the empires that ruled including epics, lyric poems, satires, comedies, Eurasia at the time of the Romans—the Greek letters, and historical, scientific, and political essays; empires of the Middle East, the Mauryan dynasty of •Describe the origins of Christianity and identify India, and the Han dynasty of China; some of the writers whose work make up the New •Describe and locate the trade routes of the Roman Testament; and Han world; •Describe the process by which Christianity became •Describe the Roman republic in political, economic, the official faith of the Roman Empire; and military terms; • List some of the causes for the decline and fall of the •Name some of the writers who created Latin Roman Empire; literature during the time of the Roman republic; •Identify the part of the Roman Empire that survived •Identify Julius Caesar, the strong military leader the nomadic invasions; and whose career helped turn the republic into an empire; •Describe how Buddhism in China and India and Christianity in Europe helped preserve classical culture.

History in the Program The following events and trends from world history are specifically mentioned in the program’s narration. They are listed below in roughly the order that they occurred in history. More events are outlined in the Chronology of History Chart: The World in Roman Times (page 16). Mythological founding of Rome Founding of Roman Empire by Augustus Founding of Roman republic Legal reforms of Augustus Conquests of Alexander the Great Pax Romana Establishment of Greek empires Birth of Jesus of Nazareth in India, the Middle East, and Egypt Spread of Buddhism into China Founding of Alexandria Roman engineering achievements Defeat of Greeks by Chandragupta I; founding of Merits and demerits of Rome’s emperors including Nero Mauryan dynasty Work of Christian apostles Conversion of Mauryan emperor Ashoka Nero’s persecution of Jews & Christians to Buddhism Martyrdom of St. Paul and St. Peter under Nero Conquest of China by Shi Huangdi Jewish and Christian objections to emperor worship Shi Huangdi’s standardization of China’s writing, Official Roman persecutions of Christians measuring, and money systems Writing and assembly of the New Testament Construction of Great Wall of China Conversion of Constantine Shi Huangdi’s burning of ancient philosophy books Establishment of eastern imperial capital Founding of the Han dynasty in China at Byzantium, now Constantinople Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage, including Division of the Roman Empire Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps Fall of Han and Roman empires Roman defeat of Carthage and Greece to nomadic invasion and civil strife Enslavement Preservation of Han and Roman culture Expansion of Roman conquests by Buddhist and Christian scholars Conquests, dictatorship, and murder of Julius Caesar 5 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—EMPIRES OF HEAVEN AND EARTH: THE WORLD IN ROMAN TIMES

Literature in the Program The following authors and works of literature are specifically mentioned in the program’s narration. The works are listed in roughly the order in which they are cited. More authors and works are listed in the Chronology of Literature Chart: The World in Roman Times (page 17). Virgil, The Aeneid Lucretius, De rerum natura Emperor Ashoka of India, Rock Edicts [On the Nature of Things] Confucius Julius Caesar, The Gallic War Lao-Tzu, Tao Te Ching Plutarch, “Death of Julius Caesar” in Lives Burning of the ancient philosophical books under Horace, Epistulae Shi Huangdi in China Poets, historians, and other writers of Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps, the “Golden Age” of Latin literature from Histories, by Polybius Luke 2: 1–7, The Birth of Jesus Plautus, Aulularia Luke, Acts of the Apostles Terence, Eunuchus St. Paul, Epistle to the Galatians Tacitus, Annals Key Words and Concepts Most of these vocabulary words are in the Transcript, where they appear in bold type the first time they are used. amphitheater dynasty missionary aqueduct empire New Testament assassinate engineering PaxRomana atom epic persecution biblical Epistle philosophy Buddhism equestrian priest citizen feudal sacrifice citizenship frontiers satire city-state fusion senate civilization gladiators Silk Road comedy hero slave converted historian superstitious culture ideal trade route deities invasion warfare dictatorship Jews disciple legacy

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Pre-Viewing Suggestions DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES students to predict what would happen to the If you are showing this program in chronological territories conquered by Alexander, as well as order with the other programs in the History through the empires of Carthage and Rome, and to Literature series, or if you want to provide check their predictions as they watch the background for students who may have missed the program. Remind students that Carthage was previous program, lead this review and discussion. founded by the Phoenicians, so it shared the 1. Inform students that this program, Empires of ancient cosmopolitan culture of Egypt, Heaven and Earth: The World in Roman Times, Palestine, and Asia Minor. is third in the 12-part History through 4. Review the market economy and basic trade Literature series. The series explores how routes of Greek times and suggest that students literature and history have affected each other think about how the economy probably over thousands of years. Remind students that developed during the centuries covered by this they have already seen the programs program. Have students look for both positive Civilization and Writing, which showed how and negative forces that modified the market writing helped make human civilization economy. possible, and Philosophy and Government, 5. Ask students to identify the characteristics of which described the philosophical and an empire [strong central government, royal governmental developments in the world of bureaucracies, professional armies] and to look the ancient Greeks, Indians, and Chinese. for these characteristics as they watch this 2. Ask students to remember the relationship program. According to the pattern of history between settled and nomadic societies in discussed above, what would probably happen ancient times. They should recall the pattern: to the great empires that will be discussed in settled societies were invaded by nomads, who the program? [Students should predict that settled down, intermarried, and fused their they would fall to nomadic invasion.] culture with that of the civilization that they conquered. In time this new civilization was DISCUSSION: INTRODUCING THE PROGRAM itself invaded by nomads. In other words, AND ITS KEY WORDS AND CONCEPTS Eurasian civilizations have received repeated 1. Introduce the title Empires of Heaven and fresh infusions from nomadic cultures. Ask Earth and have students speculate on the students to watch for examples of this pattern meaning of its terms. Remind them of the repeating itself in the program they are about definition of “empire” and ask what part of to watch. human experience might create an “empire of 3. Ask students to recall the name of the leader heaven.” [religion] Discuss the difference whose conquests spread Greek culture to the between an empire and a dynasty. east. [Alexander the Great] Have students 2. Introduce the Key Words and Concepts and recall the ending of the last program and use ask students to define the words they know, their general knowledge of geography to looking up unfamiliar words in a dictionary. identify two western powers that began to Have students listen for the terms as they expand as the Greeks under Alexander turned watch the program. their attention east. [Carthage, Rome] Ask

7 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—EMPIRES OF HEAVEN AND EARTH: THE WORLD IN ROMAN TIMES

Post-Viewing Suggestions CONTENT QUESTIONS: HISTORY H.O.T. TOPICS: HISTORY 1. What happened to the conquests of The following Higher Order Thinking questions Alexander the Great after his death? [They should be presented in order to achieve maximum were divided by four generals and became effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide Greek-ruled empires.] supporting details for general discussion, distribute 2. What leader drove the Greeks out of India and copies of the Chronology of History Chart: The what was the name of the dynasty he founded? World in Roman Times (page 16). [Chandragupta I, Mauryan dynasty] 1. Geography and History. From the program’s 3. What Mauryan emperor made Buddhism the maps as well as its narration, and with the help official faith of India? [Ashoka] Ashoka placed of a map if necessary, ask students to his edicts on rock pillars at crossroads and near remember the geography of China. What large trees under which travelers would rest so region lay to the north of China? [the central that all people would see them. What Asian grasslands] Who lived in those regions? Buddhist-influenced message did they bring? [nomadic tribes] Note that there are [the need for compassion, religious and other mountainous areas between the Chinese river tolerance, and harmony among all people] valleys and the plains. How did the Chinese 4. Who was the strong military ruler who strengthen these natural defenses? [by building unified China under the Qin dynasty? [Shi the Great Wall] Now turn the students’ Huangdi] What things did Shi Huangdi attention to India. What natural “Great Wall” standardize throughout China to promote kept out invaders from the north? [more unity and the ability to trade, collect taxes, mountains] From the elevation of India’s etc.? [writing, coinage, weights and measures] mountain barriers, students should be able to 5. Under what dynasty did China expand into an understand why Indians could easily drive and empire? [the Han dynasty] What philosophies, keep out their Greek conquerors. suppressed by Shi Huangdi, were revised and ¶Next, use maps to discuss how geography promoted by the Han? [Confucianism and helped the Romans rule the Mediterranean Daoism (Taoism)] world. [Students should note Rome’s control of 6. What were the Punic Wars and who won Italy and the peninsula’s central location, them? [a series of wars between Rome and jutting out into Mediterranean and dividing Carthage; won by Rome] the sea into eastern and western portions.] Also 7. What form of government did the Romans note how the islands of Sardinia, Corsica, and have between 509 B.C. and the time of Julius Sicily protected central Italy, where the capital Caesar? [a republic] was. Ask students to identify the places where 8. What form of government did the Romans Italy almost touches another continent, Africa. have from Caesar’s time to the fall of Rome What other part of Europe is even closer to more than 400 years later? [an empire, under Africa? [Spain] What natural barrier protected absolute imperial rule] the north of Italy? [the Alps] Have students 9. Name the Roman emperor who began the Pax retrace the route of Hannibal’s invasion of Romana, or Roman peace. [Caesar Augustus] Rome. Trace the rivers that emptied into the 10. What new religion, founded during the reign Mediterranean in or near Italy. From this look of Caesar Augustus, became the official at the map, students should be able to reason imperial religion under Constantine 300 years that the Roman armies probably expanded and later? [Christianity] built their roads along these river routes and would take the greatest care to guard these natural invasion routes against their enemies. Refer interested students to In-Depth Research: Extra History Study for further research.

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2. The Economy of the Roman World. Remind factions in the government that voted more students that the basic economy that was money for the army; (c) the more dependent consolidated during Greek times lasted into the emperors became on expanding conquests Roman times. What did Spain provide to this and empire, and therefore on the army, the economy? [metals] What commodities came more politically powerful the equestrian class from North Africa? [wheat, wool] from the became. interior of Africa? [gold, salt] What kinds of 4. Troublesome Results from Land Policies. Explain goods came from the Middle East? [luxury to students that farmers were lured into the goods] Remind students that the Romans army on the promise of being paid with land. conquered Greece and took over Greek trading What might be the consequence of this policy? routes. Students should reason that the Students should reason some of the following: Romans, like the Greeks, profited by being (a) Rome needed constantly to conquer or middlemen between the luxury goods of the seize and redistribute new land for these east and the raw materials of the west and payoffs; (b) larger farms—plantations—meant north Africa. that some farmers had to give up farming ¶Tell students about the enslaved working class (many, in fact, moved to Rome where they had that expanded during Roman times and about no work and became a heavy burden on the the plantations on which these slaves worked. dole and an irritation to the government); (c) How were both the land and the workers for larger farms meant that more unskilled labor— these plantations acquired? [by force, through especially slaves from conquered territories— warfare] Discuss the weaknesses that would be were needed; (d) many war veterans probably inherent in such a plantation slave system, had trouble collecting their pay (in land or including the continual fear of slave revolts. otherwise) and became unhappy urban (Refer interested students to the story or movie dwellers on the dole; (e) food to feed out-of- of Spartacus.) From their general knowledge of work farmers and veterans and their families American history, have students compare had to be shipped in from “bread basket” areas, Roman plantation slavery with that of the such as Egypt, which meant that armies American South before the Civil War. Ask needed to be kept there to control production them what kept Rome’s slaves from revolting, and order; (f) there were many idle, unhappy reminding them of frequent visual clues in the people in Rome; and (g) how to solve this program. [Roman military force] grave economic situation became a major 3. Roman Government and Politics: The Republic. political dispute among Rome’s leaders. One What class made up the Roman Senate? [the solution was to send veterans to frontier noble, upper-class landowners] Later, a new outposts and employ them in Rome’s massive class was created, called the equestrians, or engineering projects—but it all cost money. equites. The equestrians usually acquired their Civil war and economic collapse were major land as a reward for military service. From causes of Rome’s fall, all due to her land policy. clues in the program, have students discuss 5. Romans, Pro and Con. With the aid of a what were probably the differing attitudes of chalkboard, have the class list some of the the old aristocracy and the equestrians toward positive and negative features of Roman such events as slave revolts. Students should be civilization and compare them with the positive able to reason that (a) as the equestrian class and negative features of life today. After a grew, and as generations went by, its leading general discussion of such topics as the families would intermarry with Senatorial importance of the army, the nature of economic families; (b) the equestrian class, with its empires, the expansion of slavery, and violence foundations in the army, would lead the in public entertainment, refer interested students to further research and debate.

9 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—EMPIRES OF HEAVEN AND EARTH: THE WORLD IN ROMAN TIMES

CONTENT QUESTIONS: LITERATURE H.O.T. TOPICS: LITERATURE 1. What legend did Virgil create regarding The following Higher Order Thinking questions Rome’s founding? [the Aeneid, the splendid should be presented in order to achieve maximum adventure tale of the wanderings of Aeneas, a effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide Trojan hero and of his love of Dido, supporting details for general discussion, distribute considered the national epic because it tells the copies of the Chronology of Literature Chart: The legend of the founding of the city Rome] World in Roman Times (page 17). 2. In what African center of learning did Jews, 1. Literary and Religious Fusions. Ask students to Greeks, Egyptians, and Christians meet? recall from previous programs (or inform [Alexandria, Egypt] students who haven’t seen the previous 3. How did the emperor Ashoka of India publish programs) that Buddha of India and his famous laws? [He had them carved on rock Confucius and Lao-Tzu of China lived pillars and placed at crossroads throughout his between 600 and 500 B.C. When did empire.] Buddhism become the official religion of 4. What language was used by scholars and other India? [during the reign of Ashoka, around intellectuals during Roman times? [Greek] 250 B.C.] Note the timespan of around 300 5. How did the Han dynasty preserve ancient years from the time of Buddha himself. Chinese literature? [revived and repurposed the ¶ When did Shi Huangdi unify China and begin writings of Confucius and Lao-Tzu to support to build the Great Wall? [the 220s B.C.] How their government and build a common belief did he affect Chinese literature? [by burning system for all of China] ancient books, including the works of 6. Who were some of the writers of Rome’s Confucius and Lao-Tzu] What was the attitude republican period and what language did they of the Han dynasty toward the same writers? begin to use? [Writers of Latin included comedy [To promote national unity, they restored dramatists Plautus and Terence, historians Julius ancient literature, fusing Confucianism with Caesar and Polybius, the poet Lucretius] the ideal of loyalty to the state and Daoism 7. Who were some of the writers of the Roman (Taoism) with the idea of detachment and imperial period? [historians Plutarch and harmony with nature, which in effect relieved Tacitus; poets Virgil and Horace; letter writer the government from doing much for its St. Paul] people.] Was ancient literature really “restored”? 8. What purpose did Virgil’s Aeneid serve? [While some texts were memorized and saved [promoted national unity by giving Rome a by monks, students should reason that much of proud past and encouraging its leaders to it was not, because some literature would have pursue a noble future] disappeared altogether and because the Han 9. Who was Paul of Tarsus and what was his dynasty would naturally have rewritten the contribution to literature? [one of the founders literature in a manner favorable to itself.] of the Christian faith and the writer of the ¶ Compare the literary world of Han China with most influential letters in history] that of the Roman Empire. Did Rome destroy 10. What do we call the letters of Saint Paul and of the religion of the Greeks? [No, Rome adopted what book are they a part? [the epistles, the and adapted it.] What were some of the other New Testament] sources of Roman religion? [They borrowed 11. In religious terms, how did the Christians, from all the cultures they conquered.] One Jews, and Buddhists regard the Romans? [as example of this borrowing, the renaming of the ignorant and superstitious] Greek gods, is covered in the program. From 12. What religious groups preserved the writings these facts, students should reason that the of the classical world during the chaotic times Romans probably also adopted the gods of after the fall of Rome, Han China, and the Egypt, Mesopotamia, and other conquered Mauryan dynasty? [Buddhist and Christian regions. Have interested students confirm or scholars] reject their theories with research.

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¶ Compare the timetables of Christianity in ¶Despite this control, by the end of the first the Roman Empire and Buddhism in India. century A.D., some authors were questioning In both cases, the religions became official Rome’s national values. Among the most about 300 years after the lifetime of the interesting and amusing are Juvenal and founder. Remind students that Christianity Martial. Quotes from either are worth student spread slowly and that the New Testament examination to see how authors can raise a took some time to write down. Lead students country’s consciousness. Juvenal’s biting satiric to reason that a process of literary fusion verse and the witty epigrams of his friend would have been going on as the New Martial helped expose the vices, abuses, and Testament was written. follies of Roman life. Here are a couple of ¶Remind students how Alexandria became a quotes to start with. Have students discuss center of scholarship during later Greek their many layers of meaning, including what times. What religions acquired Greek these quotes meant in Roman times and what influences at Alexandria? [Judaism and they might mean today. Christianity] From these facts, students Two things only the people anxiously desire— should conclude that Greek ideas acquired at bread and circuses. Alexandria probably entered the New Satire X, Line 80 Testament. Refer interested students to the —Juvenal Chronology of Literature Chart (page 17) and In-Depth Research: Extra Literature Study for There is no glory in outstripping donkeys. further study on this topic. Epigrams, Book XII, 36 2. Roman Historians, for Glory or Conscience. —Martial Inform and remind students that Latin writers 3. Roman Laws, Government, and Citizenship. advanced the forms of biography and history Recall details about Roman rule from the with the same enthusiasm that Greek writers program. When were Roman laws formed? had pursued philosophy and drama. Why did [during the republic] Discuss how the laws the Romans give such relative importance to changed, both positively and negatively, during nonfiction prose? From visual and narrative the imperial period. What emperor expanded clues in the program, students should reason Roman citizenship and Roman laws that the Romans identified with strong public throughout the empire? [Caesar Augustus] personalities and that, since a sizable portion of From a clue in the story of the birth of Jesus, the upper classes were associated with the what else did the Caesar extend throughout the military, they would naturally be interested in empire? [taxation] Who were some of the military conquests. Students might also recall groups who objected to Roman rule? [slaves, that at least one writer, Virgil, was patronized Jews, all the conquered peoples] Ask students by an emperor. Tell them that at least one to recall examples of the emperors’ arbitrary philosopher, Seneca, was executed by an and absolute rule over their subjects. [the emperor. Still another biographer, Tacitus, felt existence of plantation and other slavery, the that he had to put criticisms of Rome into the persecution of Jews and Christians] From these mouths of Rome’s enemies. For example, in his facts, students should reason that many of the biography of Agricola, the Roman governor of famous laws of Rome existed only in name and Britain, Tacitus has a Scottish leader, Calgacus, that “empire” was a convenient label for say of the Romans, “They rob, butcher, corrupt dictatorship. plunder, and call it ‘empire’; and where they 4. The Influential Life and Work of Paul of Tarsus. make a desolation, they call it ‘peace.’” (from Read Acts 17:22–28 from an overhead Life of Agricola) From these facts, students transparency, if possible. Where did Paul make should reason that Romans exercised imperial this famous speech, called by some as “To the censorship over writers and had life-or-death Unknown God”? [At Athens on Areopagus, a control over their citizens. hill where people gathered to hear new 11 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—EMPIRES OF HEAVEN AND EARTH: THE WORLD IN ROMAN TIMES

speakers and discuss their ideas] Who ruled ¶How would these and other messages be an Athens at that time? [the Romans] Note that advantage for Rome? [Since there are no right Paul held the status of citizen of Rome, or wrong answers to this and the following perhaps because he and his father supplied the questions, no answers have been suggested.] Roman military with tents. What would have Why are national values important, especially been the Greek attitude toward Paul as a when a nation is at war? What national values Roman citizen? [They would have assumed do we share today? How do they help the that because he was a Roman citizen, he was a nation? Were values different when the United person of importance in his own land.] What States was at war? What happened when values signs did Paul give that he was an educated were not widespread and shared, such as man? [He spoke in Greek and quoted the during the Vietnam War? What authors today Greek poets.] Ask students to speculate, using serve this need to form and promote certain clues from the program, on where Paul learned values? Are they successful? Why or why not? Greek. [From the clue that Jewish and Greek scholars fused their teachings at Alexandria, DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES students should reason that Paul would have If you are showing this program in chronological been just as likely to learn Greek from Jewish order with the other programs in the History through as from Roman teachers.] Literature series, use this review and discussion to ¶From the program script printed below, reread prepare students for the next program. the quote from Galatians to the class. In light 1. Compare the life and writings of St. Paul with of what students have learned about the the career of Socrates, related in the previous Roman Empire, discuss the appeal of a religion program. Ask students to remember how and that promised equality—no distinctions why each man died. They should note that among people—“neither Jew nor Greek, slave both actually died for the same cause— nor free, male or female.” From their general freedom of religion. More acute students knowledge of Church history or from this should note that the passage quoted by St. Paul discussion, students should conclude that at the Areopagus (see Post-Viewing Christianity gained many early converts among Suggestions—Hot Topics: Literature, Question the slaves, women, and peoples who had been 4) expressed the idea for which Socrates had conquered by Rome. been put on trial—that “the gods did not dwell ¶Read Ephesians 6:13–17 and discuss how the in temples made with hands” but that God was military imagery was particularly suited to his an abstract, grander, less superstitious concept. audience. Also note its irony in the context of 2. After the triumph of Rome, according to the the message. Note that in using these Roman writer Horace, “conquered Greece took metaphors, Paul was echoing Homer’s captive her barbarous conquerors.” Discuss examples and style. Have interested students Horace’s meaning—that Greek ideas continued read other selections, analyzing them for their to predominate—and ask students to predict if literary style and historic settings. his statement was also politically and 5. A Final Look at the Hook. Have students read economically true. [Certainly not. From the selections from the Aeneid with the idea of program’s description of Greece’s key economic looking beyond the adventure and romance to location, students should reason that Rome the subliminal messages it brought to Rome’s became much more wealthy and powerful by school children, citizens, and leaders. Some conquering Greece.] Ask students to remember conclusions might include: (a) Romans should a clue about Roman education that proved the be brave, clever, and daring; (b) Romans can diminished status of the Greeks. [The Greek triumph over even the most clever creatures teachers who educated the Romans were and daunting situations; (c) Romans must be mostly slaves.] Ask students to recall examples loyal to their homeland; and (d) Romans from the program of direct Roman adaptation should be able warriors. of Greek culture. [Plautus’ and Terence’s

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adaptation of Greek dramas; Roman 3. Next, remind students of the fall of the western adaptation of the Greek gods] Did these plays Roman Empire, briefly described at the end of and ideas mean the same to the Romans as to the program. What group preserved the Latin the conquered Greeks? [Obviously not. The language and many Roman laws after the empire Romans would naturally give Greek literature fell? What can you predict would happen to characteristics of Roman civilization, while the those Roman and Greek ideas in Christian Greeks would regard their ancient literature as hands? From the above discussion, students a symbol of their independent past.] Lead a should predict that the Christian writers to come general discussion of how the same literary would alter Roman culture in the course of themes became altered as they were fused into preserving it and fuse Roman culture with the new ruling cultures. cultures of the nomadic invaders.

In-Depth Research The following topics for further study will help students make connections between history and literature, between western and eastern history, and between the past and present. To provide key words for computer and library searches, distribute copies of the chronologies on pages 16 and 17. EXTRA HISTORY STUDY Use the chronologies on pages 16 and 17 as 1. Roman Conquests: The Military History. Assign starting points. One approach would be to teams to research and report on Roman divide the cities and places mentioned in Acts military expansions. Individual team members among team members, having each team can research great Roman generals, Roman member research that location and describe military tactics and weapons, daily life among what it was like during Paul’s time. Other team the troops on the Roman frontiers, Roman members can map the journeys of St. Paul and fortifications and supply systems, and the others mentioned in the Acts account. effects of Roman military occupation upon the conquered territories. In their reports to the EXTRA LITERATURE STUDY class, students should include maps, pictures of 1. Roman Counterculture History. Assign students Roman armies and soldiers, and descriptions or teams to do further reading and research on from Roman historians. Tacitus, Josephus, and other writers who 2. Transportation during Roman Times. Assign reported negative elements of Roman history. teams to research and report on the systems of Teams might want to compile alternate transportation established during the Han, histories, with quotes from the conquered Mauryan, and Roman empires. Both land and peoples’ points of view. Individual team sea routes should be described and mapped. members should research Roman accounts of Challenge students to uncover the meaning of the Spartacus-led slave revolt, the death of the old phrase “All roads lead to Rome.” Have a Seneca, and the persecutions of Jews and team member research and illustrate their road- Christians for clues about how Romans building techniques. Some members of the team behaved toward their enemies. should compare Roman roads with today’s 2. New Testament Literature. Assign individuals or European, north African, and Asian highways teams to read the epistles of St. Paul from the and identify Roman roads that are still in use. literary point of view. Perhaps in conjunction Roman roads were amazingly durable. with the history teams above, have them 3. Bible History. Many events mentioned in this identify examples of how Paul tailored each program were recorded in the New Testament epistle to fit his audience. For example, in his and other Christian documents. Ask students epistle to the Romans, he makes many points or teams to read the Book of Acts and to find about the law and its relationship to human as many outside references as possible to the morality. Students should be prepared to events mentioned and described in that book. identify passages in Paul’s epistles, such as 13 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—EMPIRES OF HEAVEN AND EARTH: THE WORLD IN ROMAN TIMES

those quoted in the program, that show the that were held to celebrate Roman military influence of Greek philosophers. victories. 3. Roman Entertainment. Have students read, 4. The Community of Learning. Suggest that research, or perform passages from the students research the connections between comedies of Plautus and Terence or satiric writers mentioned in this program and (a) passages from Martial or Juvenal. As they other writers and thinkers of their own times, research, ask them to discover details of staging (b) writers in the generations before them, and and acting, descriptions of the audiences, and (c) writers in later generations. Students may other clues to everyday life. Some team already have noted such connections in the members should research and report on the program. For example, students know they great spectacles held in the amphitheaters and should look for examples of Roman writers the giant triumphs, part pageant, part parade, who were taught by Greek slaves.

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Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study The chronologies of history and literature located on the following pages are designed both to summarize the era covered by the program and to motivate students to learn more about the era. Copy and distribute the chronologies to individual students or study groups. Use the pages for both in-class discussion and extra study assignments. CHRONOLOGY OF HISTORY: CHRONOLOGY OF LITERATURE: THE WORLD IN ROMAN TIMES THE WORLD IN ROMAN TIMES 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. Encourage students to restate key ideas and Encourage students to restate key ideas and draw conclusions from details on the chart. The draw conclusions from details on the chart. The following are some conclusions they can draw. following are some conclusions they can draw. • The empire of Alexander covered parts of • Literature written in Greek continued to Europe, Asia, and Africa. flourish during Roman times. • The Mauryan dynasty of India was older •Roman literature made important than the Han dynasty of China. contributions to nonfiction, especially in • The Roman Empire controlled the private letters and in the areas of history, Mediterranean at about the same time as biography, and law. the Han dynasty controlled China. • Scientific writing and religious writing • The Maya civilization still controlled were still largely done in Greek during the Central America during Roman times. Roman period. • After destroying Carthage, the Romans •Jesus of Nazareth and other religious conquered other sections of North Africa. leaders relied largely on spoken teachings. •Roman advances in north Africa helped •It took several generations for the New trigger a great migration from west to Testament to be compiled and for the central Africa. dogmas of the Christian church to be • The Great Wall of China was being decided and written down. completed at about the same time as • Chinese and Sanskrit literature flourished Rome was conquering Carthage and at the same time as the Golden Age of Greece. Latin literature. • The Mauryan Empire of India was 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask followed by Shunga’s Empire and then by students to research and report on writers the Gupta Empire. and literary works listed on the chart. You • The Han dynasty of China fell to nomadic might want to assign one literary category to invaders before the Roman Empire did. each study group and have group members 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask choose from writers and works in their students to research and report on events listed column. You might also assign each group a on the chart. You might want to assign one time period and have group members file continent to each study group and have group reports about developments in different members choose from events in their column. categories of literature. You might also assign each group a time period and have group members file reports from different continents.

15 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—EMPIRES OF HEAVEN AND EARTH: THE WORLD IN ROMAN TIMES

Chronology of History Chart: The World in Roman Times

DATES EUROPE ASIA AFRICA AND OCEANIA AMERICAS

before Philip of Macedon rules Greece; Alexander conquers Palestine & Greeks conquer Egypt & Ptolemy Mayans expand temple center at 300 Alexander comes to throne; Persia & invades India; Soter begins Greek dynasty; Monte Albán (Mexico); gold, cop- B.C. Rome fights Samite War Maurya dynasty founded (India) Alexandria founded per, & woven cloth used (Peru)

patricians & plebes achieve legal kingdom of Parthia founded 300– Carthage fights First Punic War Hopewell culture established equality (Rome); Rome conquers (Persia); Ashoka makes Buddhism 251 against Rome (upper Mississippi & Ohio valleys) B.C. Italy & fights Carthage official faith (India)

Greek internal wars continue; Shi Huangdi (Qin dynasty) unifies Rome wins Second Punic War; 250– farming known among Hohokam Hannibal of Carthage invades China & connects defenses to make iron culture emerges in kingdoms 201 people (Arizona) B.C. Spain & crosses Alps Great Wall; Han dynasty begins of Mauritania, Numidia, & Nok

200– Romans defeat Hannibal & con- Syria takes Palestine; Shunga rule Rome wins Third Punic War; Upper Izapá temple center built 151 quer Spain, Sicily, south France, begins (India); China builds canal Egypt revolts; Rome defeats (Chiapas); first urban temple com- B.C. & Macedon system & expands west Numidia & gains n. Africa plexes constructed (Peru)

Romans invade & occupy southern Romans conquer Asia Minor; Romans conquer north Africa & 150– Classic Age of Maya begins; Greece; Cimbri & Teutons invade Maccabees free Judea from Seleucids; fight Numidia; trade between Nubia 101 sun pyramid built (Teotihuacán) B.C. Italy & are defeated by Marius reformer Han Wu Ti reigns (China) & Nok flourishes

100– slaves & gladiators revolt (Italy); Romans annex Syria & Palestine; Cleopatra assumes throne of Tihuanaco, Nazca, Huari, & Moche 51 Suevi invade Gaul; Romans Armenia & Parthia fight; Egypt; Romans bring camels to cultures flourish (Peru); B.C. conquer Gaul & invade Germany Chinese ships reach India Sahara region major irrigation systems built

J. Caesar defeats Pompey, Cleopatra kills Pompey & then herself; 50– becomes dictator, & is killed; Romans annex Judaea & Galilee; Egypt becomes Roman province; iron- 1 Augustus becomes first Roman Buddhism established in China B.C. emperor & Pax Romana begins working Bantus of w. Africa move east

A.D. Augustus & Tiberius Caligula rule Greek, Arab, & Chinese ships trav- west African invasion spreads 0– empire; Romans lose to Germanic el to India; Hsin rebel & Han down Great Rift Valley; ironworking 49 tribes & invade Britain dynasty restored (China) reaches Zimbabwe

A.D. Nero, Vespasian, & Domitian rule Kushan Empire arises (west cen- Christianity established in Egypt, farming & pottery known among 50– empire; Christians persecuted; tral Asia); Hun confederacy formed Ethiopia, & north Africa; Bantu lan- Anasazi people as well as south- 99 Danube legions revolt (east central Asia) guages & iron reach South Africa western & Alaskan tribes

Rome annexes Armenia & fights plague sweeps north Africa; A.D. Roman Empire reaches greatest Parthia; Kushan Empire controls n. Mandingo & Berber tribes move 100– extent; Hadrian’s wall built (Britain) 149 India; Silk Road opens to China into Niger region

A.D. Rome repels barbarian attack & Asian Roman legions revolt; Roman city of Carthage flourishes; 150– takes over Dacia; Satavhanas expand (India); caravan trade across Sahara 199 plague depopulates empire Yellow Turbans revolt (China) expands

A.D. Goths begin invading Roman Han dynasty ends; Maya build temple center at 200– Empire; army takes over imperial China divides into three states; north Africans revolt against Rome Palenque; 249 government Japan sends fleet to Korea Teotihuacán ruled by theocracy

A.D. Diocletian persecutes Christians Sassanid dynasty begins, Axum (Ethiopia) controls Red Sea farming & pottery adapted by 250– & reorganizes Roman Empire; Manicheanism religion founded trade; Bantu people move south & Hohokam culture; lmec culture per- 299 legions retreat to Danube & Rhine (Persia); Huns emerge (northern Asia) east from Niger delta vades Mexico & Central America

A.D. Constantine makes Christianity Roman capital shifted to kingdom of Akwar emerges; Axum 300– official faith; anthrax plague kills Constantinople; Huns invade China; defeats Meroe; Samoans settle Golden Age begins (Teotihuacàn) 349 thousands across empire Gupta dynasty begins (India) Marquesas

Huns cross Volga River; barbarians Huns invade Persia & northern Coptic Christian monks preach A.D. pottery & farming appear in invade & conquer western Roman India; Persians & Byzantines clash; (Axum); Faras, Dongolo, & south & 350– Mogollon & Anasazi regions 399 Empire China adopts Buddhist faith east Soba kingdoms arise (Sudan)

Huns sack Rome; Romans leave university founded in Axum adopts Christian faith; Teotihuacán culture spreads to after Britain & Anglo-Saxons invade; Constantinople; plague checks Hun Vandals conquer north Africa Monte Albán & Guatemala 400 Patrick preaches to Irish advance on Byzantines

16 © CLEARVUE/eav TEACHER’S GUIDE

Chronology of Literature Chart: The World in Roman Times SCIENCE, MEDICINE, NONFICTION: GOVERNMENT, FICTION: POETRY, RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY DATES LITERACY, EDUCATION HISTORY, ECONOMICS DRAMA, STORIES before Aristotle opens Lyceum; Xenocrites Aristotle on animals & categories; Aristotle, Constitution of Athens; Antiphanes & Menander, 300 & Diogenes on philosophy; Indian Heraclides on solar system; library Demosthenes, orations; comedies; B.C. epic Mahabharata composed founded (Alexandria) Berosus on Persian history Ch’u P’ing, poems

Epicurus on materialism; Euclid, Timaeus on history; Rock Edicts of Theocritus & Callimachus, poems; 300– Zeno on Stoicism; Elements; Archimedes on physics; Ashoka (India); slave Andronicus Philemon, comedies; 251 Mencius on philosophy (China) B.C. Herophilus on anatomy brings Greek literature to Rome Naevius, Roman satiric comedies

250– Aristo of Chios, Cleanthes, & new Qin dynasty burns ancient Manetho on Egyptian history; Plautus & Livius Andronicus, 201 Chrysippus on Stoicism; Jews write Confucian books; medical college Quintius Flavius Pictor on Roman Latin plays; Appolonius of Rhodes B.C. down Psalms & Proverbs flourishes (Alexandria) history; Han Fei, essays & Aristodama, poems

books of Daniel & Ecclesiasticus library founded, Pergamum; Polybius on history & biographies; 200– Plautus & Terence, plays; composed; Polybius & Panaetius Hipparcus of Niceaea on astrono- Cato the Elder, orations 151 Quintus Ennius, poems & plays B.C. take Greek philosophy to Rome my & trigonometry & Latin prose

Scipio, letters & orations; Varro, 150– Boethius of Sidon on philosophy; Aesclepidis of Bithynia on medi- history; Lucilius, satires; Szu-ma 101 Panaetius on Stoicism cine; Cato the Elder on farming B.C. Ch’ien on history (China)

Lucretius, De rerum natura; Sulla, laws of Rome; Hortensius & 100– Catullus & Meleager of Syria, Vitruvius, De architectura; Cicero, letters & orations; 51 poems B.C. Poseidonius on the ocean Caesar on Gallic wars

Cicero, orations & essays; Horace, Virgil, Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid; 50– Celsus (encylopedist) on science; Epistles & Satires; Livy & Sallust Ovid, love poems; 1 Strabo on geography B.C. on history Horace, Odes

Jesus of Nazareth, spoken teachings; Ovid, Metamorphoses; A.D. Livy on history; Seneca on Stoicism; Philo Judaeus Seneca, Quaestiones naturales Tibullus & Livy, poems; Petronius, 0– library at Alexandria burned 49 on Greek & Jewish philosophy Satyricon; Seneca, tragedies

A.D. Priscus on Stoicism; St. Paul, epis- Pliney, Historia naturalis; Quintilian, Institutio oratoria; 50– tles; Matthew & John, Gospels; Celsus, De medicina; Josephus on Jewish history; Martial, Statius, & Lucan, poems 99 Simon Magnus on occultism Columella, De re rustica Dio Chrysostom, orations

Tacitus, Historiae & Annals; A.D. Ptolemy on geography; Apuleis, Golden Ass; Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars; 100– Charaka on medicine (India) Juvenal, satiric poems 149 Plutarch, Parallel Lives & Moralia

Galen on medicine; A.D. Justin, Apology for Christianity; Diophantus of Alexandria Lucian, satirical dialogues 150– Marcus Aurelius, Meditationes 199 on algebra

A.D. Prophet Mani teaches (Persia); 200– Ter tullian, Liber Apologeticus; first recorded Christian plays 249 Origen, Contra Celsus

Rabbi Yehuda, Mishna;Tertullian & Diophantus on algebra; A.D. Papinion on Roman law; Heliodorus of Emesa, Aethiopica Cyprian, sermons & writings; Pappus of Alexandria on 250– Herodian, Historia (early romantic novel) 299 Plotinus on neoplatonism simple machines

A.D. Nicene Creed adopted; Hillel II Lactantius, 300– fixes Jewish calendar; Puranas & De mortibus persecutorum; Ausonius, poems 349 Vedantas codified (India) Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica

Chrysostom, sermons; Augustine, Vetetius, Epitoma rei militaris; Ambrose of Milan, hymns; A.D. Oribasius, medical encyclopedia; Kalidasa, Shakuntala & other Confessions; Jerome, Latin Macrobius, Saturnalia; 350– Marcellus, De medicamentis Sanskrit dramas & poems (India); 399 Vulgate; Ambrose, De officiis Ammianus, Rerum festarum libri T’ao Ch’ien, poems (China)

Augustine, De civitate Dei; Hypatia, Orosius, Hisotria adversus Claudianus, poems; Vegetius on veterinary medicine; after lectures; Mahabharata & Vedas paganos; Codex Theodosianus Paulinus, Peri stephanon; Fa-Hieu on travels to India 400 written down (India) (summary of Roman law) T’ao Ch’ien, poems

Cross-Curricular Explorations These projects are designed to relate the ideas in the program to other areas of study; assign them to individuals and study groups according to students’ interests and strengths. 1. Roman Imperial Fashions. Research the history reference guides, find and watch as many as of Roman costume and, by following costume possible of these films. Compile a Roman book directions, create togas and other items of imperial filmography, and arrange film Roman clothing. Plan and perform a fashion showings for your class as you report on Rome show that features modern, Roman-inspired through Hollywood’s eyes. Pay attention to fashions, hairstyles, shoes, and jewelry. The how the “Roman” costumes and speeches show might also include fashions from the reflect the times in which the films were made. Druids, the north Africans, the 3. Ancient Rome on the Internet. Assign interested Mesopotamians, and other peoples conquered students to conduct computer searches and by Rome. Note: The works of Julius Caesar discover what remains of the Roman Empire. and other historians include many descriptions Start by contacting Italian consulates and travel of foreign peoples’ clothing and appearance. agencies that specialize in tours to Italy and Descriptions of “triumphs” are also good other places once ruled by Rome. In addition, sources, since these events included processions many universities have their own Web pages, of conquered prisoners dressed in their native some of which include photos of archaeological costumes. digs, museum acquisitions, and other ancient 2. Ancient Rome in Hollywood. The Roman treasures. Archaeology and history magazines Empire has been a favorite subject of movie can also be accessed electronically. makers since films were invented. Using film

Transcript In 19 B.C., Rome’s greatest epic poet, Virgil, lay thou, Roman, be mindful to rule the peoples with dying. He is said to have asked his friends to destroy imperial sway; his unfinished poem, the Aeneid. They ignored his These shall be thy arts: to impose the way of peace, wish and in so doing gave Rome and the world an To spare the conquered, and put down the proud. extraordinary gift—an epic of beauty, sensitivity, and Aeneid, Book VI perfection...a splendid adventure tale of the —Virgil wanderings of Aeneas, a Trojan hero. Rome was not the only powerful empire during this IRENE BALD ROMANO time. The Han dynasty in China and the Mauryan Beyond its importance as a compelling story of Empire in India flourished as well. Like Rome’s, their the wanderings of Aeneas and of his love of longevity and stability were not built on military Dido, it is the national epic the founding legend might alone, but on their ability to use law, legend, of the city of Rome that is told in that story. and religion to organize and control the people.

This epic unified and focused Rome’s aim to stabilize In northern India, the Greeks, who ruled after and enlarge its already expansive empire, one that Alexander the Great’s death in 332 B.C., were driven had been growing since before 500 B.C. out by Chandragupta I. As Rome built its Republic, Chandragupta united the kingdoms of northern In the poem, Virgil also urges Caesar Augustus, the India and became the founder of the Mauryan Roman emperor for whom he wrote the poem, to dynasty, which by 322 B.C. embraced almost the rule nobly, in a manner befitting Rome’s glorious entire subcontinent. heritage and destiny.

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The answer to the Mauryan success story lies in its Using forced labor, he connected older fortifications most famous ruler, Chandragupta’s grandson, to construct the Great Wall, protecting China against Ashoka. Ashoka assumed rule in about 269 B.C. nomadic invasion. after a family power struggle. Some years later, he began to regret the brutality with which he At the same time, in an attempt to destroy feudal conquered people. He looked for deeper meaning in China, he ordered the destruction of the books and his life. Not surprisingly, for religion and records of earlier periods, including the writings of spirituality come from the ancient roots of India, he Lao-Tzu—the founder of Daoism (Taoism)—and found it in Buddhism and made it the official faith of Confucius. of his empire. Wisely, China’s sages hid some texts and Ashoka established laws promoting ancient Hindu memorized others. and Buddhist ideals: nonviolence, morality, religious tolerance, and compassion. He had these laws carved Shi Huangdi’s rule was followed closely by the 400- on rocks and pillars and placed at crossroads year Han dynasty, under which China grew into a throughout India. mighty empire.

His Sacred and Gracious Majesty the King does The Han emperors legitimized their rule to by tying reverence to men of all sects...His Sacred Majesty, it to divine approval, which they called the Mandate however, cares not so much for gifts or external of Heaven. They adopted the title “Son of Heaven” reverence, as that there should be a growth of the and encouraged emperor worship. essence of the matter in all sects.... The root of it is restraint of speech. They also resurrected and revised traditional Chinese Rock Edict XII philosophies favorable to the state. Confucianism —Ashoka promoted duty, while Daoism (Taoism) encouraged detachment and harmony with nature. For the next eight decades, Ashoka’s empire was guided by these beliefs. During this period, Buddhist missionaries traveled from India into China along the Silk Road. Eventually, After the fall of the Mauryan dynasty in 185 B.C., Buddhist ideas merged with Daoism (Taoism) and during waves of invasion by outsiders, India’s became a great stabilizing force in China. culture—and thus its unifying social and economic structure—was not greatly disrupted, principally The Silk Road—and other trade routes—also because it was based on spirituality and religious brought China riches, but protecting northern belief, not the personality of a ruler. borders from invaders was very costly. Power struggles among the noble families were also Looking even farther east—to China—we find that expensive. Eventually, the heavily taxed peasants while Rome was building its Republic and India its revolted, and by A.D. 220, civil war ended the Han’s Mauryan dynasty, China was not yet an empire. Its mandate of heaven. small, constantly warring feudal states were not united until the 220s B.C. by Shi Huangdi. As the empires of India and China rose and fell, Rome’s empire had a similar, but longer, history. Although his Qin dynasty endured only 15 years, his harsh dictatorship forged many lasting changes that In the eighth century B.C., the hilltop Latin farming would unify China for centuries to come. village of Rome was ruled by the Etruscans, a highly literate people who dominated central Italy and Shi Huangdi centralized government and traded throughout the Mediterranean. standardized weights, measures, coinage, and writing.

19 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—EMPIRES OF HEAVEN AND EARTH: THE WORLD IN ROMAN TIMES

IRENE BALD ROMANO defeats. In spite of Hannibal’s considerable skill, Their legacy to Rome was great. They were the Rome finally—and savagely—defeated Carthage. first kings of Rome. They were the people that Not long after, Rome also conquered Greece, a turned Rome into the first urban center that it culture they much admired. was, they paved the Roman forum, they fortified the city, they built the first temple to The Romans adopted most of the Greek gods, Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, they gave to though with changed names. For example, Zeus Rome their alphabet—Roman numerals, as we became Jupiter, Aphrodite became Venus, and call them, are in fact Etruscan numerals—they Poseidon became Neptune. gave the Romans the toga—the quintessential costume of the Romans. So they left much to As Roman armies advanced into Asia Minor, North the Roman people and to Roman culture. Africa, Europe, and beyond, they customarily absorbed—or Romanized—the best of a conquered In 509 B.C., the Romans expelled the Etruscan people’s culture, an act, echoed in Virgil’s advice, that king and established the Roman Republic, which would help unify and stabilize the empire for centuries. was ruled by a senate composed of land-owning nobles, their appointed administrators called Rome’s legions returned home with the booty of war, tribunes, and later also by an assembly of making Rome wealthier and more urban—a world commoners called plebeians. leader. Special prizes included Greek poems, plays, vases, sculpture, and art. This Republican Period of Rome lasted nearly 500 years and was followed by another period, almost as As the famed poet Horace, a friend of Virgil’s, much long, known as the “Imperial Period.” later characterized it:

Throughout its history, war was a constant feature of Captive Greece captured her rough conqueror and Roman life. Early on, Rome’s citizen army introduced the arts into rustic Latium. conquered and built alliances with its neighbors on —Horace the Italian peninsula. Many cultured Greeks were enslaved and brought to In 264 B.C. Rome began the Punic Wars, against its Rome to add their expertise to the education of the greatest rival, Carthage. This brutal sequence of three upper classes. wars lasted 23 years. IRENE BALD ROMANO A Greek historian named Polybius, who wrote There was a interest in all things Greek. The unbiased and accurate accounts of Rome’s affairs, Romans experience this period of described the dangerous path through the Alps philhellenism, that is, anything Greek was of taken by the brave troops of Hannibal, Carthage’s interest to them and loved by them. So we have famous general: a long-lasting influence of Greek culture on Romans through their arts. The path was very narrow and steep, and as both men and beasts could not tell on what they were But Roman art of the Republican period was not a treading owing to the snow, all that stepped wide copy of the Greek ideal. Rather, it reflected Rome’s of the path or stumbled were dashed down the earthy roots. Faces on busts were strong and real. precipice.... Histories Similarly, Rome’s abundant literature was full of —Polybius energy, approachable, and sometimes bawdy. During this period, writers began to use Latin, Rome’s Hannibal is remembered for having used African language, rather than the more scholarly Greek. elephants to help deal the Romans several major

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The playwright Plautus is one whose farcical literary hero Julius Caesar was named dictator for comedies—adaptations of Greek plays—entertained life. This was the beginning of the Imperial Period of rowdy Latin-speaking crowds that attended the Rome’s history, a period of great expansion which Roman festivals. lasted until A.D. 476.

In the one hand he is carrying a stone, while he A sophisticated, educated man, Caesar described his shows the bread in the other. conquest of Gaul and invasion of Britain in his Aulularia, Act II, Sc. 2, Line 18 pioneering manuscript The Gallic War, which begins —Plautus with these famous words:

Terence, a freed slave probably of African origin, also All Gaul is divided into three parts. adapted Greek comedies—often those about young De Bello Gallico men’s love entanglements. —Julius Caesar

I know the disposition of women: when you will, Caesar’s victories in Gaul made him a popular hero. they won’t; when you won’t, they set their hearts His accounts, and other histories like it, built pride upon you of their own inclination. and a common identity among Rome’s citizens. Eunuchus, Act IV, Sc. 7, Line 42 —Terence But stability under Julius Caesar was fragile. In 44 B.C., Julius Caesar was assassinated by political Lucretius, the greatest poet of early Roman literature, rivals, including his friend Brutus. It is a tale of composed his long poem, De Rerum Natura—On the intrigue that has been told many times, but perhaps Nature of Things—in Latin. best by Caesar’s contemporary, Plutarch, a widely traveled Greek biographer. In it, he argues that, since the soul is made up of atoms and atoms are eternal, men and women can face ROBERT PINSKY human problems, even death, without worry or fear. He knew how to tell a story. Here’s just a brief snatch from his “Death of Julius Caesar.” From all this it follows that death Is nothing to us and no concern of ours, Driven hither and thither like a wild beast he Since our tenure of the mind is mortal. was entangled in the hands of all. Some say that On the Nature of Things he fought and resisted all the rest...but when he —Lucretius saw that Brutus had drawn his dagger, he pulled his toga down over his head and sank.... While this poem—like much Roman literature—is Lives, “Julius Caesar” philosophical, death and violence were an everyday —Plutarch part of Roman life. The civil war that followed Caesar’s death led to the In fact, when not at war, many watched war games rule of his adopted nephew, Gaius Octavius. at the amphitheater where gladiators—often slaves Octavius took the name Augustus and in 29 B.C. from conquered lands—fought each other or wild became the first of a long line of Roman emperors. beasts to the death. Compared to many of the emperors that followed, Augustus was a humane and enlightened ruler. As the Republic expanded, power struggles and other difficulties, including slave revolts and problems with IRENE BALD ROMANO unpaid war veterans, destabilized the government. And it was in the Augustan age that Augustus tried to put some sense into all this and some In 45 B.C., after a long and bloody civil war, the structure to it, and he created books of Republic was replaced by one-man rule. Military and religious laws to govern every aspect of

21 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—EMPIRES OF HEAVEN AND EARTH: THE WORLD IN ROMAN TIMES

religious life. He created colleges or expanded introduced emperor worship to inspire loyalty. Some the colleges of priests who would regulate these of his subjects, notably the Jews, viewed the Romans cults and he created a calendar of festivals and as superstitious pagans. events so that every Roman knew when they should be celebrating the particular cults of a Into this tension, Christianity was born. This new particular god. faith would at first disrupt the Roman Empire, but eventually it would be a great unifying force. During his reign, which lasted until A.D. 14, Augustus promoted stability and unity by Christianity began in Roman-held Judea. encouraging the arts, fortifying the frontiers, and establishing a permanent standing army. He There went out a decree from Caesar Augustus, extended the privileges of Roman citizenship to the that all the world should be taxed.... And Joseph ruling classes of conquered lands and reformed also went up from Galilee...to be taxed with Roman laws, which he then applied throughout the Mary his espoused wife, being great with child.... empire. This act, in many historians’ views, is And she brought forth her first-born son...and his Rome’s greatest legacy. name was called Jesus.... Luke 2:1-7, 21 Augustus also founded colonies and populated them with soldiers and veterans, many of whom worked Little is known about Jesus outside the biblical on Rome’s great engineering projects, including accounts in the New Testament. One book, the Acts hundreds of aqueducts and over 50,000 miles of of the Apostles—probably the only contemporary roads. In so doing Augustus spread Roman culture, account detailing how Christianity spread—tells us built unity, improved the quality of life, and gave that Jesus’ disciples believed he had worked miracles people—even those on the farthest frontiers—a stake and had risen from the dead. in Rome’s stability. This 150-year period of peace begun by Augustus is called the Pax Romana. Some followers of Jesus—including Paul of Tarsus, a town in Syria—began to believe that Jesus’ teachings Peace also produced Rome’s “Golden Age” of were meant for all people, not just Jews. literature. Like Roman roads and Roman laws, literature, such as Virgil’s Aeneid and the beautiful There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither but sensible, good-humored, and often patriotic bond nor free, there is neither male nor female: poems of Horace, served to unify the empire and for ye are all one in Christ Jesus. promote common national values. —Paul’s Letter to the Galatians 6:28

ROBERT PINSKY IRENE BALD ROMANO The Roman poet Horace wrote poems he Next to Jesus of Nazareth, the most compelling called the “Epistulae,” or letters—sort of figure in the history, the early history of wandering poems addressed to friends. This is Christianity, Paul was from Syria—from the the ending of the 16th Epistle in his first book site of Tarsus—he was a tentmaker by trade, a of these Epistles, or letter poems. Jew by birth, and he converted to Christianity after an epiphany—an awakening moment— ...Then God himself, the moment that I choose, when he found that the writings of teachings will set me free. and the works of Jesus Christ were what he was I think that what this means is I will die. Death interested in. He went on a mission to the Near is the chalk line toward which all things race. East and to Greece, and he spread the word and the teachings of Jesus Christ, and if it were By the Pax Romana, Roman religion had become a not for him and his widespread teachings, it is hodgepodge of borrowings from Greece, the possible that Christianity may have remained Etruscans, and other cultures. To this Augustus also a rather local cult in the area of Jerusalem.

22 TEACHER’S GUIDE

As the Roman Empire developed more and more Perhaps he was hoping that Christianity, once problems, Christians became the scapegoats. Many thought of as a threat to Roman culture, would save were persecuted; others met violent deaths. Some his crumbling empire. scholars believe Paul and Peter—the Church’s founding father in Rome—were both martyred by After the Pax Romana, the empire suffered internal the emperor Nero. and external troubles, including a series of ruthless emperors, attacks from invaders on the frontiers, and In A.D. 64, a great fire burned much of Rome. near bankruptcy from fighting too many wars—both Rumors soon flew that the hated emperor had started internal and external. The Roman Empire officially the fire himself. collapsed in A.D. 476.

Consequently, to scotch the rumor, Nero fastened Ironically, over the next 1,000 years, the once- the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures persecuted Christians played a major role in upon a group hated for their abominations, preserving Roman and Greek culture and literature whom the populace called Christians. while Europe fell into decay. Annals —Tacitus Similarly, following the fall of the Mauryan and Han dynasties in India and China and the subsequent Despite persecutions, Christianity continued to years of invasion and political chaos, religious and spread. Writers produced fascinating stories of Jesus philosophical leaders kept those advanced and his disciples. Some of these writings, along with civilizations from complete decay. Paul’s letters, or epistles, now form a major portion of the New Testament. So, while it seemed that these empires of Earth were dead, heavenly guardians made it possible to resurrect By the early 300s, Christianity had several million their amazing philosophy, literature, art, and believers. Even Emperor Constantine the Great culture—in new forms—in the centuries to come. converted and began actively encouraging the Christianization of his empire.

23 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—EMPIRES OF HEAVEN AND EARTH: THE WORLD IN ROMAN TIMES

Notes

24 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Credits PROGRAM WRITERS PROGRAM PRODUCERS TEACHER’S GUIDE Judith Conaway, lead writer Rhonda Fabian Judith Conaway, writer Bob Burleigh Jerry Baber Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Josh Orth Jack Phelan Teresa Koltzenburg 25 Civilization and Writing (CL949-1CV) Philosophy and Government: The World in Greek Times (CL949-2CV) Empires of Heaven and Earth: The World in Roman Times (CL949-3CV) Faith and Feudalism: The Early Middle Ages (CL949-4CV) Chivalry and Commerce: The Late Middle Ages (CL949-5CV) Renaissance and Reformation (CL949-6CV) New Worlds and New Ideas (CL949-7CV) Industry and Enlightenment (CL949-8CV) Romanticism and Revolution (CL949-9CV) Imperialism and Progress: The Victorian Era (CL949-10CV) World Wars and the Quest for Order: The Early 20th Century (CL949-11CV) Liberation and Change: The Late 20th Century (CL949-12CV)

This Teacher’s Guide may be reproduced in whole or in part for use by students.

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in conjunction with CLEARVUE/eav 6465 N. Avondale Ave. Chicago, IL 60631-1996 1-800-CLEARVU (1-800-253-2788) www.clearvue.com Faith and Feudalism: The Early Middle Ages

CL949-4CV CLEARVUE/eav THE MOST COMPLETE SOURCE FOR CURRICULUM-ORIENTED A-V MATERIALS History through Literature Faith and Feudalism: The Early Middle Ages

Program #CL949-4CV Running Time—23:47

Table of Contents Summary ...... 3 Intended Audience ...... 3 Presenting the Program ...... 4 Learning Objectives ...... 4 History in the Program ...... 4 Literature in the Program ...... 5 Key Words and Concepts ...... 5 Pre-Viewing Suggestions ...... 5 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 5 Discussion: Introducing the Program and Its Key Words and Concepts ...... 6 Post-Viewing Suggestions ...... 6 Content Questions: History ...... 6 H.O.T. Topics: History ...... 7 Content Questions: Literature ...... 8 H.O.T. Topics: Literature ...... 9 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 10 In-Depth Research ...... 10 Extra History Study ...... 10 Extra Literature Study ...... 11 Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study ...... 12 Chronology of History Chart: The Early Middle Ages ...... 13 Chronology of Literature Chart: The Early Middle Ages ...... 14 Cross-Curricular Explorations ...... 15 Transcript ...... 15 Consultants for the Series ...... 21 Credits ...... 21

Intended for students in junior high school and above. This program is closed captioned.

Summary Faith and Feudalism: The Early Middle Ages is part of a local histories and created alphabets for local lan- 12-video History through Literature series that examines guages, monks such as the Venerable Bede also laid the connections between historical events and the liter- the foundations for modern European culture. ary figures and works of each era. Other titles in this series are listed on the back of this Teacher’s Guide. In China, Buddhism, imported earlier from India, helped protect the civilization that was threatened by The opening scene of Faith and Feudalism: The Early the barbarian invasions. Buddhist monks preserved Middle Ages takes place in A.D. 410, when the literacy and maintained and expanded on the texts of Visigoths sacked and burned Rome. Eyewitness the ancient scholars. historian Ammianus Marcellinus described the massacre, which foretold the collapse of the great While other religions were spreading, Islam was born Roman Empire in A.D. 476, the start of the Middle and grew quickly in Arabia. Muhammad’s message of Ages in Europe. monotheism found in the Qur’an created the religious fervor that allowed unified Muslim armies to The program discusses Rome’s internal problems, triumph throughout the Middle East and push into including its overextended economy and civil unrest, Europe and Asia. The intellectual energy generated and its three external enemies—the Persians, the by these powerful Muslims not only expanded their Germanic peoples, and the Huns—who forced the own culture’s legends and learning, but also preserved fall of Rome. Next, it describes the rise of the classical philosophy, literature, math, and science Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire and, with texts of Greece and Rome, which allowed them to be the Edict of Milan in A.D. 313, its adoption of reintroduced into Europe later. Christianity as its official religion. Christianity’s role in preserving the civilization of the once-mighty In Europe, meanwhile, a new political/economic empire is then chronicled. The similar role that other force—feudalism—motivated Europeans to turn great religions, such as Buddhism and Islam, took in back the Muslim advance. Feudalism, which resulted various parts of the world is also examined. from the fusion of Roman and barbarian patterns of leadership, military service, and land ownership, Christianity was still a relatively young religion at the slowly evolved into various classes of society: those time of the fall of Rome. Pagans blamed the frighten- who worked, those who fought, and those who ing invasions on the Christians’ coming to power. prayed, thus setting the stage for the growth of Christians, like Augustine of Hippo, saw the inva- chivalry, hero-kings such as Charlemagne, powerful sions as God’s cleansing of paganism. To replace clas- popes and other church figures, and the Crusades in sical culture, Augustine, Jerome, and other Christian later years. scholars offered a vision of the “city of God”—a new, Christian society, which the program calls The program ends with a brief look at the “Christendom.” Inspired by Augustine’s vision, mis- Christianized Vikings and their role in, among other sionary monks founded monasteries throughout things, the transformation of England under William Europe, Asia, and Africa and gradually converted the Conqueror, the fighting of the Crusades, and most of the barbarians. By fusing local and barbarian ultimately their ruling sections of Italy and the Holy legends and Christian teachings, the monks created Lands. With their help, Rome again became an the traditions of the Church. Because they also tran- important power, this time as the center of scribed the legends—such as Beowulf—and wrote Christendom.

Intended Audience This program is designed for students in junior high school and above.

3 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—FAITH AND FEUDALISM: THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

Presenting the Program To prepare a lesson plan to accompany the presentation of this program, review the suggestions outlined below. You will find all of the sections mentioned in the Table of Contents of this Teacher’s Guide. 1. Familiarize yourself with the video and the 4. Check for understanding by discussing and sections of this Teacher’s Guide. reviewing the information, vocabulary words, 2. Introduce students to the video, using one or and concepts presented in the video by using more of the Pre-Viewing Suggestions to relate the the History and/or Literature Post-Viewing upcoming information to what they already Suggestions, including the H.O.T. Topics know. As a final activity, it may be helpful to (Higher Order Thinking), which delve into introduce new names and vocabulary words— many related subjects and concepts. especially those with difficult spelling and 5. If time permits, have students watch the pronunciation—by using the chalkboard or program a second time, pausing at points of overhead projector. interest for discussion. 3. Have the students watch the video in its entirety 6. As guided independent practice, choose and and without interruption. assign some of the In-Depth Research suggestions. Learning Objectives After watching this program and completing the activities, students will be able to: • List some of the important events that happened •Name some of the major world religions that in world history before and during the early were expanding during the early Middle Ages, Middle Ages, between A.D. 300 and 1000 (see and tell where each faith was expanding; History in the Program); •Define feudalism and describe the development • List some of the authors who lived and wrote of feudal classes and society; during the early Middle Ages (see Literature in •Give examples of the power of the Church over the Program); everyday life in Europe; and •Name the groups who helped preserve learning in • Compare the civilizations of medieval Europe Europe and Asia; with those of India, China, and Islamic nations. •Describe how the era’s events were interpreted by writers and how writers affected historical events; History in the Program The following events and trends from world history are specifically mentioned in the program’s narration. They are listed below in roughly the order that they occurred in history. More events are outlined in the Chronology of History Chart: The Early Middle Ages (page 13). Invasion of northern China by the Flourishing of oral literary traditions Development of Greek Hsiung-Nu (Huns) among northern Europeans Orthodox faith and culture, Edict of Milan provides for adoption Growth of aestheticism in monasteries Byzantine Empire of Christianity as official religion of Roles of monastic scholars in Turning back of Muslim invaders the Roman Empire preserving local history and legends, by Charles Martel’s troops in Invasion of eastern Europe by creating alphabets southern France nomadic Huns Fusion of feudalism from Roman, Founding of the city of Baghdad Founding of monasteries by St. barbarian institutions Development of feudal values Augustine of Hippo Hegira of Muhammad from Mecca and society Invasion of Roman Empire by Kingdoms form in Europe Zenith of Carolingian Empire under Germanic and Celtic peoples (e.g., Life and times of the Venerable Bede Charlemagne Vandals, Franks, Alemanni, Goths, Revitalization and/or spread of Taoism Establishment of Norman kingdoms, Angles, Saxons) and Buddhism in China France, Italy Sacking of city of Rome by barbarians Hinduism becomes more standardized Rome becomes center for Christianity Invasion of British Isles by Jutes, in India as sacred books are Pope calls for the First Crusade Angles, Saxons transcribed in Sanskrit 4 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Key Words and Concepts Most of these vocabulary words are in the Transcript, where they appear in bold type the first time they are used. barbarian dynasty Qur’an oral literature bards epic literacy pilgrimage bishop episcopal manuscript pope Buddhism feudalism missionary romance Catholicism fusion monasteries Saracens classical hegira monastic serfdom Confucianism Hinduism monk squire converting Islamic Moors Taoism Dark Ages knight nomads vassal disciple

Pre-Viewing Suggestions DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS IN THE SERIES the program and describe the routes of trade If you are showing this program in chronological over land [across plateaus just north of order with the other programs in the History through mountain barriers] and sea. [from Literature series, or if you want to provide Mediterranean through Red Sea to Indian background for students who may have missed the Ocean, China Sea] previous program, lead this review and discussion. 3. Ask students to list some of the diverse people 1. The previous program, Empires of Heaven and who lived under Roman rule [Jews, Spaniards, Earth: The World in Roman Times, described Britons, Greeks, north Africans, Egyptians, how two great empires unified the classical etc.] and to list some of the languages they world with trade networks that reached from spoke. [Egyptian, Persian, Aramaic, Greek, the Roman Empire to China and from etc.] Identify the two main languages of the northern Europe to Africa. Identify the two Roman Empire and what they were used for. great empires and the centers of their power. [Roman was used for legal proclamations and [Roman Empire in western Asia, north Africa, government documents; Greek was used for Mediterranean, Europe; Han dynasty, China] literature and philosophy.] Suggest that as they 2. Ask students to recall some of the civilizations watch this program, students pay attention to with which the two great powers traded. how language evolved in various locations. [Students should mention civilizations of 4. With the aid of a chalkboard list, ask students northern Europe, India, southeast Asia, to recall some of the writers who flourished Africa.] Have students recall the maps seen in during Roman times and the kinds of literature

5 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—FAITH AND FEUDALISM: THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

they wrote. [St. Paul, letters; Cicero, orations; 7. Recall the details of the adoption of Christianity Lucretius, philosophy; Plautus and Terrance, as the official religion of the Roman Empire. plays; Herodotus and Julius Caesar, history, Ask students to predict what would happen etc.] Then ask students to name some of the after the Christian faith had been official for earlier Greek writers whose work the Romans several centuries, and to watch the program to preserved. [Aristotle, Plato, Euripides, etc.] As see whether their predictions were fulfilled. the chalkboard list grows, remind students of the great libraries collected by the Romans and DISCUSSION: INTRODUCING THE PROGRAM ask students to identify some centers of AND ITS KEY WORDS AND CONCEPTS learning during Roman times. [Athens, 1. Introduce the title Faith and Feudalism and Alexandria] Have students watch for what speculate on the meaning of its terms.Have happened to this great body of learning during students define a “faith” as religion and as the next few centuries. personal belief and hope. Suggest that students 5. Discuss how Romans adopted the culture of note the many different faiths that are Greece after conquering it—a common pattern mentioned in the program as well as the in world history. Suggest that students watch as histories of the various religions. Also ask them this pattern is repeated in the centuries to note how the personal beliefs of important between 300 and 1000. writers shaped history. 6. Ask students to identify the major world 2. Turn students’ attention to the word religion that arose at the height of the Roman “feudalism.” Most students who know the Empire [Christianity] and to name the writer term will associate it with political ideas such whose letters shaped the Christian faith. [St. as nobility, serfdom, and vassalage. Suggest Paul] Review the early history of Christianity that they note the religious side of feudalism as and discuss why it was a threat to Roman they watch the program. rulers. Name an older religion [Judaism] that 3. Introduce the Key Words and Concepts and represented a similar threat. Compare and ask students to define the words they know, contrast Judaism and Christianity with the looking up unfamiliar words in a dictionary. religions of Greece and Rome. [Students should Have students listen for the terms as they mention polytheism versus monotheism.] watch the program.

Post-Viewing Suggestions CONTENT QUESTIONS: HISTORY 6. What political system evolved in western 1. What internal and external pressures brought Europe during the early Middle Ages? on the collapse of the classical world? [civil [feudalism] wars, weak economy, pressure from the 7. What three job descriptions divided people in Persians, Germanic tribes, and nomads (Huns)] the feudal system? [those who fight, those who 2. What part of the Roman Empire survived the pray, and those who work] barbarian invasions? [the eastern Roman, or 8. What European ruler was crowned Holy Byzantine, Empire] Roman Emperor by the pope in 800? 3. What was the official religion of the Roman [Charlemagne] Who was his grandfather and Empire at the time of the barbarian invasions? what was his role in defeating the Muslims at [Christianity] Tours? [Charles Martel; led the reorganized 4. What institutions and people helped the Frankish army] Christian Church convert and civilize the 9. What new Islamic city was the largest in the barbarians? [monasteries, monks, and nuns] world in 800? [Baghdad] 5. What religion was founded by the prophet Muhammad? [Islam] What new idea about God did Muhammad bring to the Arab community? [monotheism] 6 TEACHER’S GUIDE

H.O.T. TOPICS: HISTORY belonging to a monastery under such The following Higher Order Thinking questions circumstances. [common defense, sharing of should be presented in order to achieve maximum labor, common purpose] What functions did effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide the monasteries serve? [They provided church supporting details for general discussion, distribute services, collected and distributed aid to the copies of the Chronology of History Chart: The Early poor, cared for the sick, educated young Middle Ages (page 13). people, grew food, raised animals, made 1. Cultural Fusion. Tell students that after the Huns handicrafts for local markets, copied books, invaded China, they intermarried with Chinese and provided safe shelter during times of people and adapted Chinese ways. Review how warfare.] In order to deepen students’ feudalism fused the Roman custom of awarding understanding of the phrase “an age of faith,” land in return for military service with the have students identify the people or barbarian custom of swearing fealty to strong institutions that perform the same functions in chieftains. Use clues from the program to help our far more secular society. students understand that feudalism developed 3. Christianity and Cultural Fusion. Remind over many centuries. For example, the Germanic students of the isolation monasteries tribes invaded Britain starting around 450. experienced due to the political and economic Beowulf, a poem about old Anglo-Saxon heroes, instability of the times, not to mention the lack was written down around 700 by Roman of repair to roads. Review examples of how Catholic monks. Students should conclude that, Christian monks deliberately fused pagan and 250 years after the invasion, the fusion of Christian culture. [tales of local gods were retold barbarian and Roman cultures was still taking as lives of the saints, old rituals were recast in a place. The feudal system did not mature until Christian setting] Ask students to speculate on the late 700s, with the Carolingian dynasty, “the what effect this fact would have on Christian first great feudal royal family.” [Charles Martel, customs and ritual. [expect great variety and Charlemagne, etc.] Compare the time spans some conflict] Name a few prominent examples, with similar time spans in United States history. such as Roman Catholicism, Greek Orthodoxy, Do the religious and legal institutions of Coptic Christianity, Arianism, and other European immigrants 250 years ago still affect us heresies. Since there were multiple branches of today? [Of course they do!] Ask students to the faith in far-flung locations, and since long- speculate about parallels between the European distance travel and trade had largely been cut off colonizers and the Germanic invaders of Britain. by the barbarian invasions, students should Students should note that in both cases there conclude that the supposedly uniform and were native peoples who were displaced, whose universal Christian faith actually evolved into cultures were destroyed or fused with those of widely differing traditions. Direct students to the invaders. In-Depth Research: Extra History Study for 2. Monasteries and Missionaries. Ask students to more work on this topic. recall the name of the book by Augustine of 4. Feudalism and the Church. Ask students to Hippo that has been called “one of the most recall details about the relationship between influential books in history.” [The City of God] the Christian Church in western Europe and Help students imagine how this idea became the feudal system. Have students speculate on historical reality. What were the “power how the Church supported the system. centers” of the “city of God”? [the monasteries] [Church leaders officiated at ceremonies of What devastating events were happening just swearing fealty and kept most records of as the monastic movement was beginning? [the inheritance. The Church taught that God had barbarian invasions] Lead students to reason ordained the different ranks of society.] How that, in many cases, Christian missionaries did the Church participate in and profit from were founding monasteries in devastated the system? [the Church was the single largest regions. Ask them to describe the advantages of landowner] On the chalkboard, make a two-

7 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—FAITH AND FEUDALISM: THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

column list comparing a feudal noble family Which two cultures were fused in Baghdad? [the with a monastery that owned the same amount nomadic Arabian culture and the older, more of land. Show how both the family’s lands and civilized Persian culture] When the Arabs the monastery’s lands would be diminished as conquered Spain, which cultures were fused? vassals were rewarded with land. However, the [nomadic Arabs, Germanic barbarian, north family’s lands would have to be divided among African, and Roman] Students should conclude heirs with each succeeding generation, while that Islam, like Christianity, developed many the monastery’s lands did not. Ask students to local variations, and that Islamic culture in suggest why a noble might profit from Spain or north Africa would differ from Islamic founding a monastery. [to keep lands in the culture in eastern Persia. Direct students to In- family] Students should reason from these facts Depth Research: Extra History Study for more that the abbots and abbesses who headed the work on this topic. monasteries were usually members of noble 7. Rethinking the Lead Story. Help students recall families. In light of this discussion, ask the sacking of Rome in 410 by rereading the students to speculate on conflicts that might quote from Ammianus Marcellinus’ account in arise between the Church and feudal lords. For the Transcript (see page 15). Have students example, if a knight whose sister was the analyze the quote for Roman values that he felt abbess of a monastery shifted his allegiance to a were being violated by the invaders. [Rome as different overlord, the allegiance of the protector of its people, Rome as upholder of monastery might shift as well. Lead students to law, Rome as the safe home of women and conclude that within the Church itself there children, Rome as the center of civil behavior] would also have been conflicts between the Was his view of Rome accurate? What pope in Rome and local landed interests. conclusions about writers and historians can be Direct students to In-Depth Research: Extra drawn from this account? [Even as History Study for more work on this topic. eyewitnesses, each historian’s accounts are 5. Fusion in Other World Religions. Help students prejudiced with their values and beliefs and discover the name and location of other their need to tell a compelling story; however, religions that were spreading at the same time each history gives its readers clues about the that monks were carrying Christianity through society in which the historian lives.] Europe. [The Maya religion was spreading north into southern North America, Buddhism CONTENT QUESTIONS: LITERATURE was spreading through Asia, and elements from 1. What was the subject of many accounts by many religions were entering Persia.] Review historians during the Middle Ages? [invasions some of the languages that were used to by barbarians] Who were some of the propagate these religions. [Chinese, Sanskrit, historians? [Marcellinus, Gildas, the Greek, Latin, Arabic] Lead students to reason Venerable Bede] that as they spread, these other religions would 2. What document made Christianity the official have undergone similar cultural fusion and religion of the Roman Empire in 313? [Edict developed local variations. Direct students to of Milan] In-Depth Research: Extra History Study for 3. Besides the Bible, what book by St. Augustine more work on this topic. of Hippo was one of the most influential 6. Islam and Cultural Fusion. Ask students to Christian books of the early Middle Ages? [The rethink the effect of Muhammad’s life and work City of God] and the rise of Islam in light of the preceding 4. What sacred book consists of Arabic poetry discussion. At the time of Muhammad, how did composed by Muhammad? [the Qur’an] the tribes of Arabia and north Africa compare to 5. What collection of Persian stories was the Huns and other invaders? [Both groups were translated in Arabic during the Abbasid nomadic and largely illiterate.] In 750, the caliphate in Persia? [A Thousand and Abbasid dynasty founded the city of Baghdad. One Nights]

8 TEACHER’S GUIDE

6. How did Anwari celebrate the city of 2. The “City of God” and the “Dark Ages.” Tell Baghdad? [with a poem] Cite other cities, old students that Augustine of Hippo referred to and new, that have been commemorated in the Roman theaters as “the walls within which poetry or song. [Rome, San Francisco, the demons hold their court.” How did Chicago, New York] Augustine view the fall of Rome? [as a chance 7. What was Beowulf? [a barbarian epic about to build a new, Christian society] Lead how a loyal and brave knight killed two students to conclude that the personal beliefs monsters while he served two kings] What is of Augustine and other Church fathers, not its significance? [It was transcribed from the just barbarian destruction, were responsible for oral traditions brought into the Roman Empire the gradual disappearance of classical learning. by barbarian peoples.] Describe to students how Boethius (The 8. What did the Song of Roland suggest was the Consolations of Philosophy) and other Byzantine correct behavior for a knight? [He should be scholars deliberately tried to harmonize Greek willing to endure any hardship for his lord.] philosophy with Church teachings. Introduce 9. Who does the title suggest was the hero of the the word “syncretize.” Lead students to Song of Roland, one of the earliest romances, or conclude that this deliberate fusion, combined heroic poems, in European literature? [Roland, with the tendency of Christian scribes to edit nephew of Charlemagne] “errors,” would result in corruption of the 10. Why were only limited amounts of literature original Greek texts. produced in medieval Europe? [Few people 3. Official and Vernacular Languages. Ask students could read or write after the fall of Rome. Books to recall who controlled writing and education were also very expensive.] What were the most in Europe during the Middle Ages. [the popular literary subjects? [religion, history] Christian Church] What scholarly and sacred languages did the Church use? [Latin in the H.O.T. TOPICS: LITERATURE west, Greek in the east] Who learned Latin and The following Higher Order Thinking questions Greek and where did they learn it? [members should be presented in order to achieve maximum of the clergy and monks; at monasteries] What effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide forms of literature were written in Latin and supporting details for general discussion, distribute Greek? [religious commentaries, hymns, copies of the Chronology of Literature Chart: The histories, public records, laws] Since most Early Middle Ages (page 14). people couldn’t read, what kinds of literature 1. Communications Technology. How were books did they enjoy? [oral literature, such as epic reproduced during the early Middle Ages? poems and romances] In what languages were [They were copied by hand.] Who did most such literary works composed? [local of the copying? [monks] Why was this job languages, such as Celtic, Gaelic, and Anglo- given to monks? [They were almost the only Saxon] How did monks fuse Latin and Greek literate people of the time.] Discuss the with local languages? [Monks used Roman and relationship between the scribes and the Greek alphabets to create alphabets that material they were copying. For example, represented the sounds of local languages.] suppose a Christian monk was asked to copy From these facts, students should be able to an ancient Roman manuscript and found predict that local languages in western Europe passages in it that contradicted the Christian would acquire many Latin words, while local faith. Wouldn’t it be natural for the monk to languages in eastern Europe would acquire “correct” the text? Lead students to recognize many Greek words. Direct students to In- that since reproduction consisted of making Depth Research: Extra Literature Study for copies of copies, errors were very easily passed more work on this topic. on. Have students experiment with copying 4. Latin versus Arabic Literature. What great other students’ writings to prove how easily empire of western Asia did the Arabs conquer errors occur. within 20 years after Muhammad’s hegira?

9 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—FAITH AND FEUDALISM: THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

[Persia] What religions were practiced in conquered. In time this new civilization is itself Persia? [Buddhism, Taoism, Hinduism, invaded by nomads. In other words, Eurasian Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Arian and Nestorian civilizations repeatedly received fresh infusions Christianity] Who enriched Persian culture from nomadic cultures. What nomadic groups with Greek and Roman learning? [classical invaded Eurasia during the 800s and 900s? scholars in exile from Christian lands] Ask [Turks, Magyars, Vikings] Ask students to students to surmise what languages besides describe how European civilization probably Persian were known in Persia. [Hebrew, changed as a result of these invasions. [European Aramaic, Chinese, Sanskrit, Greek, Latin] society acquired elements of the Turkish, From these facts, students should reason that, Magyar, and Viking cultures, while those groups after the Arabs conquered Persia, the Arabic settled down and adapted elements of European language and Arabic literature were enriched civilization.] Inform students that this pattern of from many different languages and written invasion and fusion would continue through the literary traditions. Ask students to compare next several centuries. this situation with that of western Europe, 2. Ask students to recall the institutions that which had only one fully developed written developed as a result of Augustine’s vision of a language and drew largely on local oral “city of God” [networks of monasteries, traditions. Students should conclude that schools, and churches], and remind them that Arabic literature was far more varied than that this Christian civilization expanded of Europe. Direct students to the Chronology throughout Europe as Roman civilization of Literature Chart: The Early Middle Ages declined. Tell students that all western (page 14) for more work on this topic. Christians followed the leadership of the pope at Rome. Ask them to predict what would DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES probably happen to the papacy during the If you are showing this program in chronological following centuries. [The pope would become order with the other programs in this History through more politically powerful.] Literature series, use this review and discussion to 3. Note for students that two places that had prepare students for the next program. representative governments during the 900s 1. Using a chalkboard time line or the chronology were Iceland and Venice. In what economic on page 13, review the overall pattern of activity did both places engage? [seafaring] Eurasian history during the centuries between Have students predict the alliances they 300 and 1000. Lead students to recognize this formed during the centuries to come. [Norse pattern: settled societies are invaded by nomads (Norman) military power was placed at the who settle down, intermarry, and fuse their service of Venetian bankers.] culture with that of the civilization they

In-Depth Research The following topics for further study will help students make connections between history and literature, between western and eastern history, and between the past and present. EXTRA HISTORY STUDY Anthony of Egypt; the monastery at Lérins; 1. Monastic Traditions. Many monasteries’ the Vivarium founded in Italy by Cassiodorus; isolated locations helped them foster rich and St. Patrick of Ireland; St. Columba at the Irish diverse traditions, and many of these island of Iona; St. Gregory of Tours; St. monasteries can rightfully claim that they Benedict and his rules; and Benedict’s twin helped keep Western civilization alive after the sister, St. Scholastica. fall of Rome. Have various students research 2. Transportation during the “Dark Ages.” the variety of medieval monasteries and the Pilgrimage was the most common reason for contributions of the monks and nuns who long-distance travel during the early Middle lived in them. Suggested topics include: St. Ages. Have students research and report on the 10 TEACHER’S GUIDE

travel routes that pilgrims took to reach the 20 years after its composition, resulting in a holy cities of Rome, Jerusalem, and Mecca. standard text that is still in use. By contrast, You might also suggest that students trace Jerome’s Latin Bible, the Vulgate, was compiled Buddhist pilgrimage routes from China to more than three centuries after the original Tibet and India. Students’ reports should material’s composition. include maps. 2. Oral Literature. Assign individuals or teams to 3 Feudalism and the Church. Assign teams to research the history of oral literature, research and report on the histories of different concentrating not only on what was mentioned regions of Europe, focusing on details about in the program, but also on the oral literature the relationship between the Church and civil of other nonliterate peoples who flourished government. Have teams compare the during the early Middle Ages. Students’ reports kingdoms of Charlemagne, Alfred the Great of should include descriptions of the themes and England, and Otto the Great of Germany, stories in this literature as well as information concentrating on instances of conflict and about who first wrote it down—in other words, cooperation between Church and state. how do we know about such literature today? 4. The Rise of Islam and Arabic Civilization. 3. Development of Vernacular Languages. Ask Assign individuals or teams to research further individuals or teams to research the history of the history of Islam, especially during the western European languages during the centuries between 600 and 1000. Individuals centuries between 300 and 1000, focusing on might report on Islamic architecture, arts and the roles of monks in creating those languages. crafts, education, government, and theological When investigating each language, students traditions, especially the Sunni and Shi’ite should find and list words from ancient local branches of Islam. tongues, such as Anglo-Saxon, Gaelic, and 5. Other World Religious Traditions. Assign Celtic, as well as words from Latin that were individuals or teams to research other world probably added by monks. Ask very advanced religions at the time that Christianity and students or native speakers of eastern European Islam were spreading. Team members can languages to do similar research into Slavic research the Maya civilization of Central languages and Cyrillic alphabets. America and the northward spread of its 4. Early Medieval Historians. Assign students or religious practices, the spread of Buddhism in teams to read and report on early medieval Asia, Jewish thought and life in Persia, histories written by monks. Readily available Palestine, Africa, and Europe, Zoroastrianism examples include Historiae Francorum [History in Persia, and Hindu thought and life in India. of the Franks] by Gregory of Tours; Historia Have students focus on the development of ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum [History of the sacred languages and texts within these English Church and People] by the Venerable traditions, as well as on the evolution of Bede; Vita Karoli Magnus [Life of Charlemagne] localized branches of each faith. by Einhard; and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. 5. The Community of Learning. Have students EXTRA LITERATURE STUDY research the connections between writers 1. The Qur’an. Suggest that students read the mentioned in this program and (a) other writers Qur’an, comparing it to the Bible and other and thinkers of their own times; (b) writers in sacred books. If you have Muslim students, ask the generations before them; and (c) writers in them to recite material from the Qur’an in later generations. For example, Pope Gregory Arabic. [ The Qur’an is still learned and passed the Great was inspired by St. Augustine and on largely by memory.] Other students can King Alfred of England translated both research the history of the Qur’an. Researchers Augustine and Boethius. Students will discover will discover that the Qur’an differs from most other connections in their research. sacred books because it was composed by a single, known author and transcribed less than

11 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—FAITH AND FEUDALISM: THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study The chronologies of history and literature located on the following pages are designed both to summarize the era covered by the program and to motivate students to learn more about the era. Copy and distribute the chronologies to individual students or study groups. Use the pages for both in-class discussion and extra study assignments. CHRONOLOGY OF HISTORY: CHRONOLOGY OF LITERATURE: THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. Encourage students to restate key ideas and Encourage students to restate key ideas and draw conclusions from details on the chart. The draw conclusions from details on the chart. The following are some conclusions they can draw. following are some conclusions they can draw. •Roman imperial power had shifted to the • Scholars from many different religions east even before the barbarians invaded. were writing down their sacred books •Barbarian invasions came in waves; there during the early Middle Ages. were invasions throughout the early •During the Middle Ages, most European Middle Ages on all the continents. scientists and religious scholars still wrote • Christianity was expanding into Africa at in Latin. the same time it expanded into Europe. •Much of the literature of the early Middle • Both the Islamic and Christian worlds Ages was still passed down orally. were divided by theological differences • Classical learning was preserved by during the early Middle Ages. Greek-speaking Byzantine scholars and •Islam and Christianity both expanded into Jews as well as Arabs. Africa during the Middle Ages. •Medicine, science, and mathematics were • The general trend of migration in Eurasia more advanced among Indians, Arabs, and was from east to west, while in the Jews than western Europeans. Americas it was from north to south. •Some western scholars studied Hebrew • The Maya Empire of central America, and Arabic as well as Latin. the Abbasid Empire of Persia, and the 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask Tang dynasty of China all flourished students to research and report on writers during the 700s. and literary works listed on the chart. You 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask might want to assign one literary category to students to research and report on events listed each study group and have group members on the chart. You might want to assign one choose from writers and works in their continent to each study group and have group column. You might also assign each group a members choose from events in their column. time period and have group members file You might also assign each group a time period reports about developments in different and have group members file reports from categories of literature. different continents.

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Chronology of History Chart: The Early Middle Ages

DATES EUROPE ASIA AFRICA AND OCEANIA AMERICAS Diocletian persecutes Christians Sasanian dynasty begins & Axum (Ethiopia) controls Red farming & pottery adapted by before & reorganizes Roman Empire; Manichaeian religion founded (Persia); Sea trade; Bantu people move Hohokam culture; Olmec culture 300 legions retreat to Danube & Rhine Huns emerge (northern Asia) south & east from Niger delta pervades Mexico & Central America Constantine makes Christianity Roman capital shifted to Kingdom of Akwar emerges; classical period of 300– official faith; anthrax plague kills Constantinople; Huns invade China; Axum defeats Meroe; Samoans 349 Mesoamerican culture begins thousands across empire Gupta dynasty begins (India) settle Marquesas Ulfilas preaches to Goths; Huns Huns invade Persia & northern Coptic Christian monks preach pottery & farming appear in 350– cross Volga River; Olympic India; Persians & Byzantines (Axum); Faras, Dongolo, & 399 Mogollon & Anasazi regions games end (Greece) clash; China adopts Buddhist faith Soba kingdoms arise (Sudan) Huns sack Rome; Romans University founded Axum adopts Christian faith; Teotihuacán culture spreads to 400– leave Britain & Anglo-Saxons (Constantinople); plague checks 449 Vandals conquer north Africa Monte Albán (Guatemala) invade; Patrick preaches to Irish advance of Huns on Byzantines Attila the Hun sweeps Europe; west- Famine strikes Persia; White Huns Nubian kingdoms accept Coptic Mayans found city of Chichen 450– ern Roman Empire ends; Visigoths sack Persia & India; Buddhist cave Christianity; Polynesians colo- Itzá & develop hieroglyphs & 499 & Franks take Spain & Gaul temples flourish (China) nize Madagascar & Hawaii calendar Gothic wars rage (Italy); Franks Byzantines expand; Khosru I pottery made in Florida & Georgia; Byzantines reconquer north 500– eject Visigoths from Gaul; Slavs reigns (Persia); Guptas defeat- Adena culture flourishes (Ohio); 549 Africa from Vandals move into eastern Europe ed (India); Wu-Ti reigns (China) city-states established (Andes) Columba founds monastery at Buddhist monks reach Japan; Toltecs overrun Yucatán Bantu people settle in Lake 550– Iona (Ireland); Lombards rule Italy; Sui dynasty begins (China); peninsula & begin threatening 599 Victoria & Congo River regions Venice founded; Gregory I is pope Turks move west from N. Asia other states Augustine preaches to Angles Muhammad founds Islam; Muslim Persians conquer Egypt, then Maya culture reaches zenith; 600– & Saxons; Jews expelled by Arabs conquer Middle East (Persia); lose it to Arabs; Bantus reach Tihuanaco & Huari cultures 649 Visigoths; Slavs enter Balkans Tang dynasty begins (China) Zambezi & Orange rivers flourish (Peru) First doge elected (Venice); Ummyad caliphate founded Arabs & Byzantines struggle for Zapotec, El Tajín, & Huastecan 650– Muslims take Armenia & (Damascus); wars between Shi’ites Tunis; Akwar evolves into 699 cultures flourish (Mexico) Rhodes; Slavs invade Greece & Sunnis rock Arab Empire Kingdom of Ghana Arabs invade Spain & are Abbasid caliphate begins; Islam spreads to Saharan Temple mounds & sacred ball 700– turned back at Tours; Boniface Nestorian Christianity spreads Berbers, along coast of Abyssinia; courts enter southeast & south- 749 preaches to German tribes from Persia to China Arab traders reach Spice Islands west; first pueblos built Ummayad dynasty revived Arabs defeat China at Talas; Shi’ite Idrisid dynasty rules Teotihuacán abandoned; Mayas 750– (Spain); Danes raid England; Baghdad founded; (Morocco); Berbers found Dia hold scientific 799 Carolingian dynasty founded Harun-al-Rashid reigns dynasty, Niger River congress (Copán) Charlemagne crowned Holy Baghdad & Byzantium clash at Fez becomes Moroccan capital; Ozark bluff-dweller culture 800– Roman Emperor; Vikings raid borders; empire of Tibet collaps- Polynesians colonize Easter 849 flourishes northern France; Picts, Scots unite es; Cambodia has golden age Island Cyril & Methodius preach to Samanid, Saffavids, & Saffarid Tulunid dynasty rules (Egypt); farming & pottery reach Upper 850– Slavs; Alfred the Great reigns 899 dynasties arise (Persia); Arabs Marquesas people settle New Mississippi valley; Vikings reach (England); Rurik rules Kiev invent astrolabe Zealand Iceland Magyars & Vikings raid; Abbey of Chola kingdom rises (India); Zenith of empire of Ghana; Maya civilization collapses; 900– Cluny founded; first allthing held 949 Tang dynasty ends (China); Kingdom of Kanem flourishes Mayans flee to Yucatán; Vikings (Iceland); Normans settle in France Seljuk Turks conquer Baghdad (Lake Chad) reach Greenland Otto I of Germany reigns as Russia crushes Khazars; Toltecs expand under Fatimids conquer north Africa & 950– Holy Roman Emperor; Russia Ghaznavid dynasty begins (India); Quetzalcoatl; Vikings settle 999 Egypt converts to Orthodox Christianity Sung dynasty begins (China) Greenland & Newfoundland Seljuk Turks control Abbasid Scandinavians convert to Almoravids from Morocco Hopewell culture flourishes after caliphate, then Palestine, 1000 Christianity invade Ghana (Ohio & Illinois) Armenia, & eastern Byzantium

Chronology of Literature Chart: The Early Middle Ages RELIGION, SCIENCE, GEOGRAPHY, NONFICTION: ECONOMICS, FICTION: POETRY, DATES PHILOSOPHY EDUCATION GOVERNMENT, HISTORY DRAMA, FABLES, NOVELS Rabbi Yehuda, Mishna; Diaphantus on algebra; Heliodorus of Emesa, Papinion on Roman law; before Tertullian & Cyprian, sermons & Pappus of Alexandria on Aethiopica (early romantic 300 Herodian, Historia writings simple machines novel) Nicene Creed adopted; Hillel II Lactantius, De mortibus perse- 300– fixes Jewish calendar; Puranas cutorum; Eusebius, Historia Ausonius, poems 349 & Vedantas codified (India) ecclesiastica Chrysostom’s sermons; Vetetius, Epitoma rei militaris; Oribasius, medical encyclopedia; 350– Augustine, Confessions; Jerome, Macrobius, Saturnalia; Ambrose of Milan, hymns 399 Marcellus, De medicamentis Latin Vulgate; Ambrose, De officiis Ammianus, Rerum festarum libri Augustine, De civitate Dei; Orosius, Historia adversus Claudianus, poems; Vegetius on veterinary medicine; 400– Hypatia, lectures; Mahabharata paganos & Codex Paulinus, Peri stephanon; 449 Fa-Hieu on travels to India & Vedas written down (India) Theodosianus T’ao Ch’ien, poems Patrick, Confession; Emperor Stobaios, anthology of Greek Aryabhata on mathematics & Sidonius, letters & essays; 450– Zeno, Henoticon; Codex Bezae; literature; Draconius of 499 astronomy Boethius on music notation New Testament in Greek & Latin Carthage, De laudibus Dei Boethius, De consolatione Justinian, Codex Vetus;Priscian, Taliesen & Aneirin, poems; Indicopleustus, 500– philosophiae; Benedict, Regula Greek grammar; Gildas, De Panchatantra (book of Indian 549 Topographia Christiana monachorum excidio et conquesta Britanniae fables) written down Babylonian Talmud completed; Procopius, De belli & Anecdota; Fargaill & Columbanus, poems; Alexander of Tralles, 550– Pope Gregory the Great, Magna Gregory of Tours, Historiae Grammaticus, Hero and 599 De re medica moralia & Regulis pastoralis Francorum Leander;Venantius, poems Hsuan T’ang on travels to India; Johannes of Jerusalem, Vaghbata, Sanskrit medical text; 600– Muhammad dictates Koran Bara, biography of emperor Barlaam and Josephat;Pisiides, 649 Brahmagupta on astronomy Harsha Hexameron;Wang Chi, poems Yuan Chwang takes Buddhist Yuab Chwang on travels in Adamnan, biography of Caedmon, poems; Beowulf; 650– sacred texts from India to China; India; Cosmographia published Columba; Bhartrihari, proverbs; 699 Bana, Kadambari Shan-tao on Amida Buddhism at Ravenna Amarasimka, dictionary Lindisfarne Gospels illuminat- Bede, Historia ecclesiastica 700– ed; Ta-jih Ching tr. from gentis Anglorum; Nihanshoki 749 Dandin, Ten Princes Sanskrit to Chinese published (Japan) Siddhantas (Indian texts on Abu Nirwas, poems; Tu Fu & Li Muhammed ibn Ishaq, 750– Malik ibn Anas on Islamic law astronomy) translated to Arabic; Po, poems; Hitomro & Akahito, 799 biography of Muhammad Willibald on travels to Holy Land poems Shankara on Upanishads; al-Khwarizmi on Hindu Manyoshu anthology appears; Einhard, Vita Karoli Magnus; 800– Kukai on Buddhism; Han Wen- numerals & algebra; Abu al-Atahiya, Zuhdiyat;Abu 849 Ibn Durayd, Arabic dictionary kung on Confucianism Dicuil, De mensura orbis terrae Tammas, Hamasah Hunain ibn-Ishaq & others tr. Bertin, Fuldas & Annales; Ariwara Narihari, 850– Greek & Latin philosophers to Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; 899 Ise Monogatari Arabic; first printed book (China) al-Bukhari on Islamic history al-Razi on medicine; Saadia, Hebrew-Arabic al-Ashari on Muslim theology; Kokinshu (poetry collection) 900– al-Farabi on science; dictionary; Cyril, Methodius 949 Isaac Israel on Aristotle published al-Muqaddosi on geography & Slavonic alphabet Hroswitha, plays; Ibn Babwayh on Chinese scholars complete al-Faraj al-Isbahan, 950– ben Saruq, poems; 999 Shi’ite theology encyclopedia Kitab all-aghani Li Yu, poems

after 1000 Ibn-Gabirol, Mekor Hayim al-Biruni on science Lady Murasaki, Tale of Genji

14 © CLEARVUE/eav TEACHER’S GUIDE

Cross-Curricular Explorations These projects are designed to relate the ideas in the program to other areas of study; assign them to individuals and study groups according to students’ interests and strengths. 1. The Art of Books. Research and report on the can perform their works, with musical art of book illumination and illustration accompaniment if possible. during the early Middle Ages, not only in 3. The Electronic Dark Ages. Since the 1970s, the Europe but in Persia, China, and Japan. Have era of Conan the Barbarian and Dungeons and students share examples of particularly Dragons, the early Middle Ages have enjoyed a beautiful pages and compare the relationships resurgence in popular mythology. Have between words and pictures with modern students watch popular movies, read comic illustrated books, especially comics. Student books, or play computer games set in so-called artists might also produce their own “barbarian” times, comparing the stories and illuminated, hand-bound books. settings with what they have learned about early 2. Book Production. Have students research the medieval history. Students should judge different materials used to make books whether the electronic media accurately portray throughout history, including cloth, papyrus, the everyday life and spirit of the times. vellum, and parchment. Have them explain the 4. The “Dark Ages” on the ’Net. Assign interested likely reasons for using each of those materials. students to conduct computer searches for Also have them address the reason for changing modern remnants of the early Middle Ages. from using scrolls to codices (paged books) Start by contacting tourist bureaus of nations in during the monastic movement. Pictures of regions mentioned in the program. In addition, various types—or simulated versions of each many monastic orders have their own Web type—will help illustrate the report. pages, some of which include photos of 3. Creative Writing: Epic Entertainment. Suggest manuscripts and other monastic treasures. that students write and perform their own epic Searches for the Venerable Bede, Beowulf, the poems about local events, especially dramatic, Vulgate Bible, and the Qur’an will demonstrate historic events such as the settlement of a the immense interest that scholars still maintain town, the arrival of the railroad, or a major fire about this fascinating period of history. or flood. Convene a gathering so student bards

Transcript In the year A.D. 410, Visigoths sacked and burned these tumultuous years from A.D. 500 to 1100, a much of the city of Rome. The great Roman histori- time we now call the early Middle Ages. an Ammianus Marcellinus described the scene: For centuries, the Roman Empire—the most extensive ...women driven along by cracking whips, and civilization of antiquity—extended across western stupefied with fear, still heavy with their unborn Eurasia and North Africa, protecting and pacifying the children, which, before coming into the world worlds of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The endured many horrors. Romans were able to maintain this powerful presence —Ammianus Marcellinus by relying largely on local government and creating a small-scale, but successful, military organization. Later attacks, in the fifth century by the Vandals and in the sixth century during the Gothic wars, would In A.D. 200, both the western section of the empire’s leave Rome’s once-magnificent temples and colise- northern frontier along the Rhine and Danube rivers ums little more than quarries whose stones were used and the eastern frontier along the Euphrates were to patch fallen houses. Historians, storytellers, poets, newly fortified against the Iron Age peoples of north- and religious philosophers would chronicle and shape ern Europe and the mighty and aggressive Persian 15 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—FAITH AND FEUDALISM: THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

Empire to the east. At the same time, civil wars descended into what historians once called the inside the empire and a declining economy made the “Dark Ages,” a period of political and social anar- empire less able to protect itself and its citizens. chy when organized society nearly ceased to exist, or began to exist in new and surprising forms. It is EDWARD M. PETERS in this period that the seeds of modern Europe Rome had three kinds of enemies. The first was were planted. the organized, powerful, resourceful Persian Empire to the east. This meant constant The eastern part of the Roman Empire, centered on warfare, constant financing of warfare, and a the great city of Constantinople and commonly much more deliberate drawing of Rome’s called the Byzantine Empire, was able to withstand resources to the east and the Persian frontier. the invasions and migrations that had nearly The second group of enemies were the destroyed the west. barbarian Germanic and Celtic peoples who lived on the northwest part of Europe. These EDWARD M. PETERS were people who settled in the Roman Empire, Constantinople was founded by the Emperor moved out of the Roman Empire, came back Constantine; the name means Constantine in; they were much more familiar to the City. He needed a capital in the eastern part of Romans. But when they organized and the the empire because his wars with Persia and the empire weakened, the west had fewer resources eastern frontier were occupying more and more to deal with. The third kind, and all empires in of his time. He chose the city of Byzantium— Eurasia had this kind of enemy, were the and so Constantinople really has two names— nomads—great warrior confederacies that partly because of its location. It’s on a body of sprang up in central Asia, sometimes struck water between the Black Sea and the Aegean, China, sometimes Persia, sometimes Rome. it’s easily defended, and it ultimately was They were very different kinds of enemies and surrounded by great triple walls that were not they called for very different kinds of responses. defeated until 1453. Constantinople thus became an imperial capital; in a sense it As the invasions and migrations continued, each absorbed all of the cities of the eastern part of advance displaced people who, in turn, invaded other the Roman Empire into itself and became the territories. Northern Gaul was taken by the Franks, city—which, in fact, it was called: “The City.” Spain fell to the Visigoths, and the Vandals invaded It also became a focus for trade routes simply and occupied Roman North Africa. because of the power of the empire, and as long as the empire lasted, Constantinople was the Other Germanic peoples—the Angles, Saxons, and greatest city in the Christian or Islamic world. Jutes—invaded and nearly destroyed Roman Britain. A Welsh monk, Gildas, described the disaster: Although the Byzantine Empire was Greek in language and culture, it called itself “Roman,” ruled Horrible it was to see the foundation stones of itself with Roman orderliness and laws, and eventual- towers and high walls thrown down.... There was ly embraced the religion of Rome: Christianity. With no burial save in the ruins of the houses, or the the Edict of Milan in 313, Emperor Constantine bellies of the beasts and birds. legalized Christianity. On the Destruction of Britain —Gildas We judged it a salutary measure, and one highly consonant to right reason, that no man should be Soon after a barbarian general removed the last denied leave of attaching himself to the rites of the shadow-emperor of the west in 476, the western Christians, or to whatever other religion his mind Roman Empire seemed to truly collapse. Its beauti- directed him.... ful cities, local governments, courts of law, military Edict of Milan fortresses, rich libraries, schools, and culture slowly —Constantine

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By the end of the fourth century, Christianity had which knows its destiny is in heaven and its time on become the state religion of the empire and took on earth only a period of pilgrimage. new forms. Many Christian clergy, for example, chose to seek salvation in asceticism—withdrawal The heavenly city...so far as it can, without from the comforts of the world. injuring faith and godliness...desires and maintains a common agreement regarding the Across the entire Eurasian continent, other forms of acquisition of the necessaries of life, and makes religion also appeared. At the eastern end of Eurasia, this earthly peace bear upon the peace of heaven. in China, the old imperial moral philosophy, The City of God Confucianism, declined in power after more barbar- —St. Augustine ian invasions. But two other religions also began to make their presence felt: Taoism and Buddhism. The religious fervor that marked the Latin and Greek Like the Christians, Buddhist monks were zealous worlds, as well as those of China and India, also missionaries who built monasteries throughout Asia. moved through the Middle East, from the Arabian Eventually, the great pilgrimage roads connecting peninsula out across western North Africa and east- their monasteries became primary routes for trade ward to Persia, India, and the borders of the across much of Asia. Byzantine Empire.

In India, Hinduism became more standardized when Islam rivaled the strength and influence of the Hindu sacred epic poems—the Mahabharata, Christianity. It began with the teachings of the Ramayana, and Bhagavad-Gita—were written down in prophet Muhammad in the cities of Mecca and Sanskrit for the first time. The Hindu epics spell out Medina shortly after A.D. 600, and it spread with the goals of life and use stories about and conversations extraordinary speed. with the gods to show how to deal with life’s problems. While in his mid-forties, Muhammad had experi- In the west, the Christian Church filled much of the enced a series of divine revelations. His followers void left by the crumbling imperial government, pro- recorded these in the form of short verses—suras— viding economic, social, and military assistance to which were later gathered to form the Qur’an, the the population of western Europe. sacred book of Islam and one of the first great works of Arabic literature. The Qur’an’s great message was The Latin Christian Church touched the lives of all that of monotheism, the belief in one god: Europeans, resembling both a present-day government and the basis of an entire culture. Clergy and Allah is the light of heaven and earth. It is lit kings worked together in order to create their idea of from a blessed olive tree, neither eastern nor the right kind of order throughout European society. western. Its oil would almost shine forth if no fire touched it. Light upon light; Allah guideth to His As Christianity spread throughout the former light whom He will. empire—and, after the fifth century, well beyond its —The Qur’an old northern and western limits—literacy was generally restricted to the clergy. Monasteries and church EDWARD M. PETERS government, or episcopal, centers became the impor- Muhammad is persecuted in Mecca initially by tant hubs of thought and learning. those who have interest in other kinds of religious observances. And so he goes to the Out of the episcopal tradition came the influential city of Medina, where he’s hired as a kind of scholar St. Augustine. For Augustine, earthly society town marshal to settle feuds, because he’s an was the result of the fall of Adam and Eve and the outsider and has no vested interest. It’s in fallen condition of human nature. Better for humans Medina that he and his followers begin to to be members of the “city of God,” not an earthly campaign to return to Mecca and to establish kingdom, but a great society of the living and dead Islam as the sole religion among the Arabs of

17 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—FAITH AND FEUDALISM: THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

Medina and Mecca, and Muhammad succeeds as well as historians and keepers of the knowledge of in doing this. the laws—continued to preserve the oral traditions of early Europe, from Iceland to the Black Sea. Even before his death in 632, Muhammad’s armies had carried the message and power of Islam beyond With the rapid spread of Islam, Arabic soon became the confines of the Arabian peninsula. an international language and the vehicle of great literature. The Muslims’ Arabic culture and language In western Europe, the Germanic peoples had begun continued to spread and fused with those of Africa, to create larger and more stable kingdoms: the Palestine, Syria, and Persia to form what is consid- Visigoths in Spain, the Ostrogoths and later the ered the greatest civilization of the Middle Ages. Lombards in Italy, and the Franks in Gaul. Although earlier Latin Christianity had shown little interest in From Baghdad in Persia came the literary legacy of converting barbarians beyond the Roman frontiers, The Arabian Nights, a collection of ancient tales— the new European Christianity took seriously the including the stories of “Aladdin and His Lamp,” “Ali great commission, “Go ye into all the world and Baba and the Forty Thieves,” and “Sinbad the Sailor.” preach the gospel.” ROBERT PINSKY As part of the missionary process, monks transcribed A passage from “Sinbad” of The Arabian Nights. much of the rich oral literature of European peoples. One such story, Beowulf, is considered one of the ear- The giants, seeing their prey escaping them, seized liest pieces of literature in the English language. In up huge pieces of rock, and wading into the water this epic poem about conflict between order and hurled them after us with such good aim that all chaos, Beowulf is a strong knight who serves two the rafts, except the one I was upon, were kings loyally and heroically. He fights and slays two swamped. And their luckless crews drowned terrible monsters who threaten Denmark: without our being able to do anything to help them. Indeed, I and my two companions had all ROBERT PINSKY we could do to keep our own raft beyond the reach They don’t come through in translation the of the giants. But, by dint of hard rowing, we at way they are in the old Germanic language— last gained the open sea. Old English. Here’s a scene where the monster “Sinbad the Sailor” Grendel comes in among some sleeping A Thousand and One Nights knights, grabs one of them, and eats him bone and all, drinks his blood, before the guy can Located on the crossroads of trade, Baghdad, capital even wake up. of the Islamic world, would become the world’s largest city within 50 years, and Arabic poets would [Excerpt read in Old English] sing its praises. Well, in English: Blessed be the site of Baghdad, seat of learning But he seized quickly, the first time, a sleeping and art; warrior, tore greedily, bit the bone locker (that’s None can point in the world to a city her equal.... “butt”—bone lochen), drank blood in streams Her stones in their brightness rival diamonds and (blood adrum drunk), swallowed huge morsels. rubies.... Immediately he had the unliving one all eaten up, And thousands of gondolas on the water feet and hands. Dance and sparkle like sunbeams in the air. Beowulf —Anwari

Even though literacy was becoming widespread, stories like Beowulf were more often sung than read. In nonliterate societies, bards—specialized poet-singers

18 TEACHER’S GUIDE

The meteoric rise of Islam had swept through North Since all wealth in early Europe consisted in the con- Africa as far west as Morocco, and had turned north trol of land, donations of land connected lesser men into Spain. Soon, the Christians to the north began to greater men, and greater men to the kings, in a to fall under the devastating attacks of the Muslims. system called feudalism. All those who controlled land, whether churchmen or lay lords, also controlled Referred to as Moors, or Saracens by the Europeans, the labor and mobility of the peasantry, whom they the Arab invaders set their sights on the Christian tied to the land in the legal condition known as serf- kingdoms of Gaul, now present-day France. dom. The relationship between lord and man became the focus of much of aristocratic society—“those who In the year of our Lord 729, two comets appeared fight” as opposed to “those who work” and “those around the sun...seeming to portend an awful who pray,” as the threefold division of society came calamity.... At this time, a swarm of Saracens to be designated. It was the subject of both legal the- ravaged Gaul with horrible slaughter; but after a ory and poetic idealization: brief interval in the country they paid the penalty of their wickedness. Man for his lord should suffer great discomfort, Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum Most bitter cold endure, and burning heat, —The Venerable Bede His hair and skin should offer up at need. Now must we each lay on most hardily, Venerable Bede, a great English monastic scholar, So evil songs never sung of us shall be. was describing one of the turning points in western Song of Roland European history. The Frankish rulers of Gaul had halted Islam’s advance into northern Europe and dri- Next, a new wave of invasions swept into Europe ven the Arabs back into Spain. in the late ninth and tenth centuries. Vikings came from the north and caused churchmen to lament, The warriors who defeated the Muslim raiders in “From the fury of the Northmen, Oh Lord, deliver southern Gaul in 733 were part of a reorganized us!” Magyars from the east, and once again Arabs Frankish army under the command of an ambitious from the south, required European society to leader, Charles Martel, the grandfather of remilitarize itself. Charlemagne. Charlemagne was a powerful ruler who conquered a good portion of Europe and was Out of this process came the independent holders crowned emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III on of castles and the territorial princes who built up Christmas Day in the year 800. lands for themselves and called themselves counts and dukes, often operating independently of the Military success increased any ruler’s prestige and kings who claimed authority over them. The age of power and attracted larger followings. The Beowulf castle and principality succeeded the age of empire poet had recognized this in the case of Beowulf’s and kingdoms after the disappearance of patron, Hrothgar: Charlemagne and his sons and grandsons. Only slowly did the kings of what later became France, Then to Hrothgar was granted glory in battle, England, and Germany assert their supremacy over mastery of the field; so friends and kinsmen their independent lords. gladly obeyed him and his band increased to a great company. The fighting men and churchmen of the ninth and Beowulf tenth century regarded the invasions as attacks on their religion as well as on their land. The invaders In return for the military service and support of their wanted loot, and churches and monasteries were followers, kings and other lords could give land and wealthy and unprotected. its income. A number of clergy claimed that men who died while fighting the infidel invaders would go straight to

19 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—FAITH AND FEUDALISM: THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES heaven, thus giving to warfare under certain condi- Ironically, the dread Vikings became major partici- tions the veneer of Christian legitimacy. The fighting pants in the crusades. By the 900s they had settled in man of whatever social rank had started on his way England, Ireland, and northern France. They slowly to becoming the knight. became Christianized and helped to convey Christianity back into Scandinavia, and even to The city of Rome now emerged once again as the Iceland, by the year 1000. head of Christian Europe. Its holy places attracted pilgrims in large numbers, and one of them wrote A descendant of the Viking rulers of Normandy in the great pilgrim’s song: northern France, William, conquered the Anglo- Saxon kingdom of England in 1066 and inaugurated O noble Rome, queen of all the world, of all the a new age of European history. cities most excellent!... We give thee praise through all years, we bless thee through all generations, hail! By 1100 Latin Christendom had launched itself on Pilgrim’s Hymn the way to becoming Europe. The ancient world had come to an end, and the new world of Latin By the end of the eleventh century, the bishop of and Greek Christendom—and Islam—had firmly Rome proclaimed a new kind of pilgrimage: an taken its place. armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem, later called the First Crusade. This crusade would be paid for by the increasing prosperity of western European society.

EDWARD M. PETERS As warfare became more expensive, the financing of crusades became a major component of the organization of the kingdom and the state. Ultimately, one can say that the first income tax was levied on clergy and lay people in order to fund these expeditionary movements to Jerusalem.

20 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Credits PROGRAM WRITERS PROGRAM PRODUCERS TEACHER’S GUIDE Judith Conaway, lead writer Rhonda Fabian Judith Conaway, writer Bob Burleigh Jerry Baber Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Josh Orth Jack Phelan Teresa Koltzenburg 21 Civilization and Writing (CL949-1CV) Philosophy and Government: The World in Greek Times (CL949-2CV) Empires of Heaven and Earth: The World in Roman Times (CL949-3CV) Faith and Feudalism: The Early Middle Ages (CL949-4CV) Chivalry and Commerce: The Late Middle Ages (CL949-5CV) Renaissance and Reformation (CL949-6CV) New Worlds and New Ideas (CL949-7CV) Industry and Enlightenment (CL949-8CV) Romanticism and Revolution (CL949-9CV) Imperialism and Progress: The Victorian Era (CL949-10CV) World Wars and the Quest for Order: The Early 20th Century (CL949-11CV) Liberation and Change: The Late 20th Century (CL949-12CV)

This Teacher’s Guide may be reproduced in whole or in part for use by students.

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in conjunction with CLEARVUE/eav 6465 N. Avondale Ave. Chicago, IL 60631-1996 1-800-CLEARVU (1-800-253-2788) www.clearvue.com Chivalry and Commerce: The Late Middle Ages

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Table of Contents Summary ...... 3 Intended Audience ...... 4 Presenting the Program ...... 4 Learning Objectives ...... 4 History in the Program ...... 5 Literature in the Program ...... 5 Key Words and Concepts ...... 5 Pre-Viewing Suggestions ...... 6 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 6 Discussion: Introducing the Program and Its Key Words and Concepts ...... 7 Post-Viewing Suggestions ...... 7 Content Questions: History ...... 7 H.O.T. Topics: History ...... 7 Content Questions: Literature ...... 8 H.O.T. Topics: Literature ...... 9 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 10 In-Depth Research ...... 11 Extra History Study ...... 11 Extra Literature Study ...... 11 Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study ...... 12 Chronology of History Chart: The Late Middle Ages ...... 13 Chronology of Literature Chart: The Late Middle Ages ...... 14 Cross-Curricular Explorations ...... 15 Transcript ...... 16 Consultants for the Series ...... 21 Credits ...... 21

Intended for students in junior high school and above. This program is closed captioned.

Summary Chivalry and Commerce: The Late Middle Ages is part triple alliance that controlled the northern of a 12-video History through Literature series that Mediterranean, the Byzantine Empire, and European examines the connections between historical events trade with Asia. and the literary figures and works of each era. Other titles in this series are listed on the back of this The impact of these brutal wars and economic Teacher’s Guide. encounters had a lasting effect on Europe. Christian feudal society began to realize how backward they The opening scene of Chivalry and Commerce: The were compared with the wealthy, educated, urbanized Late Middle Ages takes place in the late 1300s, when societies of China and the Arabic world. Having had English poet Geoffrey Chaucer, who was also a court their horizons expanded, their desire for exotic Asian and customs official, published his Canterbury Tales, goods—especially woven silk, porcelain, and paper— amusing stories told by pilgrims on their way to visit grew, and Venetian and Norman merchants who saw the shrine of Thomas à Becket. The stories give a profitable opportunity set off along ancient land readers thoughtful insight into the concerns of late and new water routes to supply the need. medieval society in Europe. Venetian merchants Nicolo and Maffeo Polo traveled The knight in Chaucer’s tales is a symbol of the old- the Silk Road with their son and nephew Marco to the style feudal fighting man, while his chivalrous son, the court of the Genghis Khan in 1275. Marco became a squire, represents the new ideal, handy with both stan- trusted translator and advisor of the Great Khan, and dard weapons and more refined “weapons,” including Marco Polo’s Travels, hand-copied and published on his poetry, jousting, song, and fashion. Other pilgrims, return 18 years later, provided eager Europeans with an including clergy and merchants, tell us how important eyewitness account of Mongol life in China. By the late the Church and commerce had become since the mil- 1300s, when Chaucer mentioned the Great Khan in lennium. Europe was, indeed, on the rise. his Canterbury Tales, demand for luxury goods from This period was the height of state-building, castles, Asia was still expanding. battles, and loyalties tied to rank and the land. A The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were the good example of this was the takeover of England— zenith of medieval Catholic civilization. The building some 300 years earlier, in 1066—by William the of great cathedrals, the growth of monasticism, the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy. A literary example rise of universities, and the scholarship of Thomas of the early knightly ideal is provided by the Poem of Aquinas and other scholastics all attest to the the Cid. This European ideal is compared with simi- Church’s power. The program demonstrates that these lar ideals found in Japanese (Tale of Genji) and same elements were also signs of an increasingly secu- Indian (Annals of Rajasthan) literature of the times. lar society. Quoting one of the literary giants of the As owner of vast amounts of land, and as the keeper late Middle Ages—Dante—the program describes of knowledge, the medieval Church also wielded increasing discontent with the Church and its power. great power. It gained even greater power by legit- Through Boccaccio’s Decameron, viewers experience imizing the value of the fighting professions and the tumultuous world of the late 1300s, when offering the promise of remission of sins to knights Europe was being devastated by the Black Death and who died in holy pursuits, such as the Crusades. the first national armies were forming, armed with a These holy battles began in 1195 at the call of Pope new invention from the East—gunpowder. With the Urban II and lasted until 1291, when the last fall of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of the Christian domain in the Holy Land fell. Ottoman Turks, new routes had to be found to get The Crusades, though fought in the name of Asia’s goods to European markets. Church, were also wars of feudal conquest, creating The program ends by looking forward to the search fiefs for the Normans in the Holy Land. Because the for such a route by one well-known explorer, who Crusades were promoted by the pope and financed would bring Europe into a new age and a new world: by Venetian merchants, the wars created a powerful Christopher Columbus. 3 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—CHIVALRY AND COMMERCE: THE LATE MIDDLE AGES

Intended Audience This program is designed for students in junior high school and above.

Learning Objectives After watching this program and taking part in the suggested discussions and activities, students will be able to: • List some important events that happened in world •Identify the people who promoted, fought, and history during the late Middle Ages, between 1000 financed the Crusades and explain who benefited and 1450 (see History in the Program); from the Crusades; • List some authors who lived and wrote during the •Describe how the Crusades affected the desire for late Middle Ages (see Literature in the Program); exotic goods in Europe; •Give examples of how the events of the era were •Describe how the Crusades affected the interpreted by writers and how writers affected architecture, scholarship, and literature of Europe, historical events; especially how they transformed the chivalric ideal; • Compare the civilizations of Europe with those of •Give examples of the power of the Church over the Arabic empires and China; everyday life in Europe; and •Define chivalry, identify its origins in the military •Give examples of how European society was practices of feudalism, and describe the ideal gradually becoming more secular and commercial. feudal knight;

4 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Literature in the Program The following authors and works of literature are specifically mentioned in the program’s narration. The works are listed in roughly the order in which they are cited. Note that this program begins and ends with Chaucer. More authors and works are listed in the Chronology of Literature Chart: The Late Middle Ages (page 14). Geoffrey Chaucer, Canterbury Tales Marco Polo, Travels Pope Urban II, Call to First Crusade (also known as A Description of the World) Raymond of Agiles, account of conquering Murasaki Shikibu, Tale of Genji Jerusalem Annals of Rajasthan (India) Anonymous, Poem of the Cid Dante Alighieri, Divina Commedia (The Divine Saint Francis of Assisi Comedy) Saint Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica Boccaccio, Decameron

Key Words and Concepts Most of these vocabulary words are in the Transcript, where they appear in bold type the first time they are used. allegorical domain laity Orthodox romance Catholic dynasty literacy papal scholars chivalry epidemic monastery peasant serf Christendom feudalism monopoly penances squire classical guildsmen motley pilgrims troubadours clerics Islamic nomads plague universities clergy knight Norman reform vassals crusade Qur’an oral literature remission

5 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—CHIVALRY AND COMMERCE: THE LATE MIDDLE AGES

Pre-Viewing Suggestions DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES ¶ What did ordinary people read, write, and If you are showing this program in chronological speak? [Most people could not read and order with the other programs in the History through write. They spoke local languages, such as Literature series, or if you want to provide Anglo-Saxon.] Recall the name of the first background for students who may have missed the known Anglo-Saxon poem [Beowulf] and previous program, lead this review and discussion. remind students of its origin in oral 1. The previous program, Faith and Feudalism: literature. Who probably wrote down The Early Middle Ages, described how the Beowulf? [a now-anonymous monk] Who unity of the classical world, with trade and what enabled local tales like Beowulf to networks that reached from the Roman be written down? [Christian monks Empire to China, was broken. Identify the developed local alphabets, using Latin and events that brought about the fall of the Greek characters to represent local sounds.] classical world. [invasions of barbarians, Have students look and listen for further pressured by the westward-moving Huns, and developments in the evolution of modern an economy in collapse] languages as they watch this program. 2. Identify the religion that became the official 5. Define feudalism and ask students to recall imperial faith just before the barbarians how it fused elements of Roman law [lands for invaded. [Christianity] Recall when the military service, inheritance of estates] with Roman Empire adopted Christianity [early barbarian customs. [vassalage as reward for 300s] and remind students that it was still a military bravery] Have students recall some of minority religion. Ask students to recall other the problems built into feudalism [limits on faiths that Europeans followed around 300. land, involvement of the Church] and watch [Mithraism, Judaism, and worship of Greek, how these problems would develop or be Roman, Egyptian, and barbarian gods] resolved during the ensuing centuries. Suggest Inform students that in this program they will that students also watch for similar cultural see how Christianity gradually overcame these fusions between nomadic and settled peoples. other faiths. 6. What were the main reasons why people 3. Ask students to recall the new religion that was traveled during the early Middle Ages? founded during the 600s [Islam] and the name [religious pilgrimage, military invasions, of its founder. [Muhammad] Identify the parts missionary work, to attend Church councils of the Byzantine Empire taken by the Arabs [Palestine, eastern Turkey, north Africa] and and royal courts] Discuss how both Buddhist the part of western Europe that was occupied and Christian monks created networks that by the Arabs. [Spain] Have students follow the eventually opened up trade. Have students fortunes of the former western Roman Empire follow what would happen to world trade (the Byzantine Empire), and the Arabic during the next few centuries. empires during the next centuries. 7. Tell students that there were two European 4. Identify the sacred book Muhammad wrote democracies in 900: Viking Iceland and [the Qur’an] and the language in which it Venice. Inform students that, in the later was written. [Arabic] Identify the sacred texts Middle Ages, the Norsemen (later known as and sacred languages used by western Normans) and Venetians would join forces Christianity [the Vulgate Bible, Latin] and with the Catholic church. Ask students to eastern Christianity. [Greek] Ask students watch the program for the results. who spoke, wrote, and used these sacred languages. [monks, clerics, and others in the religious establishment] 6 TEACHER’S GUIDE

DISCUSSION: INTRODUCING THE PROGRAM changed opportunities in commerce that AND ITS KEY WORDS AND CONCEPTS appeared during the late Middle Ages. Who 1. Introduce the title Chivalry and Commerce: The best took advantage of these opportunities? Late Middle Ages and speculate on the meaning 2. Introduce the Key Words and Concepts and of its terms. Suggest that students note how ask students to define the words they know, the ideal of chivalry both reflected and looking up unfamiliar words in a dictionary. idealized reality, and how the ideal of chivalry Have students listen for the terms as they changed during the centuries covered by the watch the program. program. Also have students take note of the

Post-Viewing Suggestions CONTENT QUESTIONS: HISTORY from Asians—Chinese, Indians, etc.—with 1. What can the pilgrims in Chaucer’s Canterbury whom the Muslims traded] Tales tell us about life in late medieval Europe? 9. Who was Marco Polo and where did he come [social classes and occupations, clothing, from? [a trader from Venice] interests, battles fought, religious interests, 10. What Asian ruler did Marco Polo work for and food, customs, etc.] what empire did he rule? [Kublai Khan of the 2. What religion and system of government Mongol Empire] prevailed in western Europe in 1000? [Roman 11. What new military technologies entered Catholicism, feudalism] Europe from the Mongol and Ottoman 3. Who came from France and conquered empires? [large, lightly armored cavalries, England in 1066? [William the Conqueror, gunpowder] Duke of Normandy] 12. What great natural disaster made the fourteenth 4. What actual war is commemorated in the Poem century disastrous for Europe? [epidemics of the of El Cid? [the struggle to recapture Spain and bubonic plague, or Black Death] overthrow the Muslims] 13. Why was Christopher Columbus searching for 5. Who called for the holy wars known as the a new route to Asia? [The Ottoman Turks Crusades, who fought in them, and against captured the Byzantine Empire and closed the what enemy did they fight? [the pope; land routes to the East.] various kings, knights, and other people from throughout Europe, especially the H.O.T. TOPICS: HISTORY Norman knights; the Islamic forces of the The following Higher Order Thinking questions Seljuk Turks] should be presented in order to achieve maximum 6. What holy city were the Crusaders trying to effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide liberate? [Jerusalem] Describe the battle. supporting details for general discussion, distribute [bloody, enormous loss of life] copies of the Chronology of History Chart: The Late 7. What were some of the signs of the Church’s Middle Ages (page 13). power during and after the Crusades? 1. Communications Technology. How were Marco [cathedrals, universities, monasteries, the Polo’s and other people’s books reproduced Church’s extensive feudal holdings] during the Middle Ages? [They were copied by 8. Some of the technological advances that hand.] Tell students that at least 100 of Marco entered Europe as a result of the Crusades Polo’s original books survive. Lead students to included better-fortified castles, cathedrals, reason that for 100 copies to survive for 600- improved agricultural science, windmills, silk- –700 years, many hundreds of copies must weaving, porcelain-making, and have been made. From these facts, lead papermaking. From whom did these skills students to conclude that there was a high come? [mostly from Muslims, who invented demand for Marco Polo’s story. Ask students to many of the new techniques; some skills came speculate on reasons why.

7 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—CHIVALRY AND COMMERCE: THE LATE MIDDLE AGES

2. The Feudal System and the Crusades. Where did not based on land; such wealth contributed to the wealth of the feudal system come from? the growth of cities and the resulting erosion of [the land] Who owned the largest parcels of feudal power and values. Students should also land? [kings, queens, nobles, and church reason that the influx of commercial wealth leaders] How could a knight acquire land of would lead gradually to a cash rather than a his own? [by being granted the land in return barter economy.] for services in battle; by marrying into a 4. Marco Polo: In the Right Place at the Right Time. landowning family] Remind students that the Ask students to rethink the journey of Marco pope and other church leaders were also feudal Polo to China in light of what they learned lords whose lands had to be defended. On about the Crusades. Have students research which group of feudal knights did eleventh- how the Fourth Crusade, in 1204, differed century popes most depend? [the Normans] from the first three. [Instead of recapturing Ask students to reason how the Church Jerusalem, the Normans and Venetians sacked rewarded its knights. [by grants from papal Constantinople.] What empire did the lands] Help students to arrive at reasons why it Crusaders control after capturing was in the interest of the papacy to motivate Constantinople? [the Byzantine Empire] Where the Normans to fight in the Holy Land. [The did Byzantine trade networks lead? [to Russia Normans could be rewarded from conquered and Persia] Review the dates of the Mongol Islamic lands rather than from papal territory.] conquest [1206 to 1279] and Marco Polo’s Ask students to identify wars of today that are journey. [1272 to 1295] With the aid of a map, ostensibly being fought for religious reasons, if necessary, lead students to recognize why the and encourage them to look beyond the Polos were able to make the trip at that time in religious rhetoric to discover economic and history. [The Normans controlled the eastern other secular reasons for the conflicts. Mediterranean and the southern coast of the 3. The Crusades and European Trade. Ask students Black Sea; the Mongols controlled the northern what supplies the Crusaders might have coast of the Black Sea and all the lands to needed. [food, weapons, clothing, China. Although they passed through many transportation] Where might these items have kingdoms, the Polos had to deal with only one been obtained? [traders, booty from conquered foreign power—the Mongols.] territories, gifts from believers] Tell students ¶ Have students read about and discuss the that merchants of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa tolerant attitude of the Great Khan. How did supplied many of the Crusaders’ needs and this contribute to the luck of the Polos? How financed most of the Crusades. What could did this tolerance contrast with the attitude of they be offered in return? [trading monopolies the Crusaders? What reasons might there be with the new Crusader kingdoms] Why were for this difference in attitude? [lack of these trading monopolies valuable? [The experience with the world outside Europe; pro- Crusader kingdoms controlled major trade Christian religious fervor whipped up by the routes to Arabia, Persia, and India.] pope to help win the wars] ¶ Ask students to recall words and pictures from the program that describe the wealth of the East CONTENT QUESTIONS: LITERATURE and to name some of the goods that traveled on 1. Who wrote a book of tales told by English those routes. [luxury goods, silks, spices, jewels] pilgrims on their way to a shrine at the Given what they know about the Normans and Canterbury Cathedral? [Geoffrey Chaucer] Venetians, ask students to reason how goods Name the book. [Canterbury Tales] were carried from the Holy Land to Europe. [by 2. Who were the heroes of the literature of ship—both the Normans and Venetians were chivalry? [knights] seafaring peoples] Ask students to speculate 3. Who was the hero of a poem about a knight about what happened to feudal economic values fighting to recapture Spain from the Muslims as commerce developed. [Wealth from trade was (Moors)? [El Cid]

8 TEACHER’S GUIDE

4. Name two books not written in Europe that had Students should be able to reason that the chivalrous knights in them who were similar in earliest and most reliable manuscripts are those character to the most sophisticated knights of in the French of the Normans and the Italian of Europe. Name their country of origin, too. [Tale the Venetians, while the most widely read of Genji, Japan; Annals of Rajasthan, India] manuscripts were those in Latin and Greek.] 5. Who wrote the most influential travel book in 2. Evolution of the Knightly Hero. Why were history? [Marco Polo] military prowess and generosity valued by the 6. Why was Marco Polo’s travel account so early knights of chivalry? [because successful important? [It created demand in Europe for the knights rewarded their followers with grants of luxury goods of Asia, a demand that eventually land and booty] What gentler skills did the ideal led to the Europeans’ reaching America.] literary knight acquire during the 1100s? 7. Which monk reacted to the growth of wealth [dressing well, playing music, writing poetry, and power by encouraging poverty? [St. Francis entertaining the ladies] From where did this of Assisi] ideal of chivalry come? [Asian sources, such as 8. Name a Dominican monk who was part of a Japan’s Tale of Genji and India’s Annals of growing intellectual movement in Europe and Rajasthan] Ask students why Asian knights were argued that reason and experience should be more “civilized.” Have them compare European the basis for belief. [St. Thomas Aquinas] and Asian soldiers to arrive at the answer. 9. Who wrote the Divine Comedy, and who did it Students should reason that Asian knights were criticize? [Dante Alighieri; Church leaders, more “civilized” because they belonged to more disreputable politicians, and others who abused advanced civilizations and fought in professional their power] armies. Help students grasp the difference by 10. What were some of the sources for the stories contrasting a guerrilla fighter of today with a in Boccaccio’s Decameron? [tales from Asia, member of a modern fighting unit. Which India, and the Arabic world such as A soldier has more wealth, is better dressed, and Thousand and One Nights, legends of chivalry, has more leisure time for civilian pursuits? Lead bawdy comedy, and even lives of the saints] a general class discussion of how the knightly 11. In what masterpiece of early English literature ideal is still reflected in the war literature of do stories from Marco Polo and Boccaccio today. Ask students to predict ways in which the appear? [Canterbury Tales] knightly ideal might change now that women are part of many of the world’s armed forces. H.O.T. TOPICS: LITERATURE 3. “Serious” Literature versus “Trash.” Ask students The following Higher Order Thinking questions to recall who controlled most of the writing should be presented in order to achieve maximum and education in Europe during the Middle effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide Ages. [the Roman Catholic church] What supporting details for general discussion, distribute scholarly and sacred language did the Church copies of the Chronology of Literature Chart: The use? [Latin] Who learned Latin and where did Late Middle Ages (page 14). they learn it? [members of the clergy and sons 1. Marco Polo’s Language. Marco Polo, although of aristocrats; at universities] In what languages not a clergyman or a member of the upper were most tales of chivalry, such as Percival and classes, knew how to read and write in several the Holy Grail, written? [local languages, such as languages. To what class did Marco Polo belong? Norman French, German, English] Who read [the middle class; he was a merchant] Why did and wrote in these languages? [upper-class people like the Polos learn several languages? [to women, merchants] Romances, such as facilitate trade and travel] From these facts, ask Romance of the Rose, one of the most popular students to make educated guesses about the books of the Middle Ages, were written in original language of Marco Polo’s travel account. vernacular language. (Romance of the Rose took [Note: This question is still being debated by almost 22,000 lines for the gallant hero to scholars, so accept all reasonable answers. capture his fair prize!) Most romances were

9 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—CHIVALRY AND COMMERCE: THE LATE MIDDLE AGES

composed to be sung by troubadours. As songs, Crusade, controlled by Polo’s native Venice] what other audiences would the romances have What other Christian lands still existed in reached? [the listening audience] western Asia? [the remnants of the Crusader ¶Miracle plays and mystery plays were reli- states in Palestine, the last of which fell in gious works and were also written in local lan- 1291] How did the rise of the Ottoman guages. Have students speculate about the pur- Empire affect Venetian trade? [Most of Venice’s pose of these plays. [to teach Christian doctrine trading privileges were cut off.] Based on their to the masses who could not read] From these knowledge of geography and history, ask facts, ask students to reason that romances and students to predict how western Europeans other forms of vernacular or “trash” literature would get around the Ottoman blockade. would spread more quickly and develop more [through the Baltic trade to the north and the variations than scholastic literature, even west African trade to the southwest] though they were often received by illiterate 3. Ask students to compare Islamic, Greek audiences. Have interested students refer to Orthodox, and Roman Catholic cultures in Cross-Curricular Explorations, Question 1. terms of general literacy and knowledge. Which two cultures preserved the Greek DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES language? [Orthodoxy and Islam] Which If you are showing this program in chronological culture also preserved more secular classical order with the other programs in this History through thought? [Islam] How did the learning of the Literature series, use this review and discussion to Arabic world eventually reenter Europe? prepare students for the next program. [through the trading networks that were set up 1. Ask students to remember the maps they saw after the Crusades] In what parts of Europe in Chivalry and Commerce: The Late Middle was Arabic learning most widely known? Ages and in the previous program, Faith and [Islamic Spain and Italy] Ask students to Feudalism: The Early Middle Ages. What predict which areas would first awaken to the religions were expanding during the early Renaissance, a rebirth of classical learning that Middle Ages? [Christianity, Islam, Buddhism] brought an end to the Middle Ages. [Italy and Which of these two religions clashed in Spain] Have students check this prediction Europe, North Africa, and western Asia? after viewing the next program in this series. [Christianity and Islam] During the late 4. Ask students to review the relationships Middle Ages, both these religions had split into between feudalism and the Christian church as competing factions. The Sunni and Shi’ite presented in the previous program, Faith and Muslims factions split Islam. (Have students Feudalism: The Early Middle Ages. Ask students do a brief search into the cause of this split that to suggest some of the reasons secular rulers still exists today.) What factions split might resent the Church. [The Church owned Christianity? [the church at Rome (now much of the valuable land and church lands known as Roman Catholic) and the Greek did not divide from generation to generation. church at Byzantium (now known as Greek In addition, the Church was wealthy and Orthodox)] Ask students what they know corrupt.] Why might common people resent about the centers and beliefs of these branches the Church? [Its liturgy was in a language they of Catholicism today. Ask students if they can didn’t understand, its wealth was immense see a political reason for Pope Urban to want compared to their own poverty, and its the Crusades. [to assert Rome’s power over the interests lay with the ruling classes.] From the Greek church and reunite the two] information in the program and from their 2. When Marco Polo went to China in 1275, general knowledge of history, ask students to what Christian empire lay between his native predict how the expansion of Arabic learning Venice and the Mongol territories, and who and the rising discontent with the Church controlled this empire? [the Byzantine Empire, would combine to break the monopoly of the which was, since the destructive Fourth Church over European politics and culture.

10 TEACHER’S GUIDE

In-Depth Research The following topics for further study will help students make connections between history and literature, between western and eastern history, and between the past and present. EXTRA HISTORY STUDY EXTRA LITERATURE STUDY 1. Temporal versus Spiritual Powers. The late 1. Marco Polo’s Travels. Suggest that students read Middle Ages were marked by many bitter the very accessible Travels of Marco Polo, trace conflicts between secular rulers and the papacy. his journeys on a modern map, and compare Have students research and report on some of his observations with travelers’ accounts of these conflicts, many of which broke out in those regions today. Interesting class actual warfare. Students should concentrate on presentations can be made by comparing the conflicts between the Holy Roman videos and slides of Asia today with Polo’s Emperors of Germany and the papal states and descriptions of those same places. between the Inquisition and heretics. For 2. Dante’s Divine Comedy: Inferno. Have students example, the Albigensian “heretics” persecuted read all or part of Dante’s Inferno to find clues by the Inquisition in the south of France were about everyday life in Dante’s time. A productive also owners of rich lands coveted and claimed exercise might involve listing every occupation by the papacy. Dante describes, along with what Dante has to 2. The Roots of Modern Nations. Have students say about it. Have students tell where Dante research and report on how institutions that placed each occupation in hell—and why. began during the late Middle Ages contributed 3. Boccaccio’s Decameron. Have students read all to the decline of feudalism and the growth of or parts of Boccaccio’s Decameron, paying national monarchies. Such institutions include special attention to the probable origins of the reformed monasteries, universities, banks and stories. In their reports, students should commercial lending institutions, professional mention the sources of the stories as well as armies, and city guilds. similar variants that are found elsewhere in 3. Other World Civilizations. Have students world literature. research and report on other dynasties that 4. Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. Have students read were expanding in different parts of the world all or parts of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, during the late Middle Ages. Examples include looking for telling details about everyday life in the Romanov dynasty of Russia, which was late medieval England. As with Dante, it is expanding into Asia; the Sung Dynasty of productive to list occupations and Chaucer’s China; the African kingdoms of Mali, Bornu, description of them. Another vein of study Kanem, and Zimbabwe; the burial mound and might involve researching the origins of the tales. temple mound cultures of North America; the 5. The Community of Learning. Suggest that Toltecs, Chichimecs, and Aztecs of Mexico and students research the connections between Central America; and the Chimú, Chincha, writers mentioned in this program and (a) other and Inca empires of Peru. writers and thinkers of their own times, (b) writers in the generations before them, and (c) writers in later generations. Students may already have noted such connections in the program. For example, Dante and Marco Polo lived and wrote at the same time and place; Chaucer traveled to Italy and knew of the work of Boccaccio and Marco Polo, and he also undoubtedly knew of church rebel John Wycliffe, since Chaucer worked for the monarch who suppressed Wycliffe. Students will discover other connections in their research.

11 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—CHIVALRY AND COMMERCE: THE LATE MIDDLE AGES

Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study The chronologies of history and literature located on the following pages are designed both to summarize the era covered by the program and to motivate students to learn more about the era. Copy and distribute the chronologies to individual students or study groups. Use the pages for both in-class discussion and extra study assignments. CHRONOLOGY OF HISTORY: CHRONOLOGY OF LITERATURE: THE LATE MIDDLE AGES THE LATE MIDDLE AGES 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. Encourage students to restate key ideas and Encourage students to restate key ideas and draw conclusions from details on the chart. The draw conclusions from details on the chart. The following are some conclusions they can draw. following are some conclusions they can draw. • Both the Islamic and Christian worlds •During the Middle Ages, most European were divided by theological differences scientists and religious scholars still wrote during the late Middle Ages. in Latin. • Christian and Muslim armies had frequent •Much of the literature of the late Middle encounters during the late Middle Ages. Ages was still passed down orally. •Islam and Christianity both expanded into • Classical learning was preserved by Greek- Africa during the late Middle Ages. speaking Byzantine scholars and Jews as •During the late Middle Ages, the Vikings well as the Arabs. left their mark from North America to •Medicine, science, and mathematics were western Asia. more advanced among Indians, Arabs, and • The general trend of migration in Eurasia Jews than among western Europeans. was from east to west, while in the •Some western scholars studied Hebrew Americas it was from north to south. and Arabic as well as Latin. •It took four centuries for printing with •Many scholars, such as Avicenna, Albertus movable type to migrate from China to Magnus, and Thomas Aquinas, wrote on a Germany. variety of topics. • The Aztec, Mali, and Ottoman empires all •Women as well as men were writers and arose at about the same time as the empire scholars during the late Middle Ages. of Timur the Lame. 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask students to research and report on writers students to research and report on events listed and literary works listed on the chart. You on the chart. You might want to assign one might want to assign one literary category to continent to each study group and have group each study group and have group members members choose from events in their column. choose from writers and works in their You might also assign each group a time period column. You might also assign each group a and have group members file reports from time period and have group members file different continents. reports about developments in different categories of literature.

12 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Chronology of History Chart: The Late Middle Ages

DATES EUROPE ASIA AFRICA AND OCEANIA AMERICAS

Vikings invade England, Ireland, Arab Empire divided by Sunni & Fatimids conquer north Africa & Apache & Navajo move south before & settle in France; monastery Shi’ite civil wars; Fatimids build build Cairo; Islam spread to from Canada; Vikings settle 1000 founded at Cluny (France); Slavs Cairo; Ghaznevid dynasty Senegal; iron-working spreads to Greenland & Newfoundland; resist German expansion; Russia founded (India); Sung dynasty Zimbabwe; Arabs trade along Hohokam build canals; Maya accepts Orthodoxy founded (China) Africa’s east coast Empire collapses

in 1000, Christian nobles begin Muhammad of Ghazni attacks Algeria & Tunisia break from Toltecs build capital (Tula, 1000– reconquest of Spain from Moors; Hindu states (India); Colas con- Fatimids; Berbers found Almoravid Mexico); Pueblos flourish (Mesa 1049 Canute rules England, Denmark, quer Ceylon & invade Bengal; sect of Islam (Mauritania); Dia Verda & Chaco Canyon); Chaco & Norway; Byzantines expand to Chinese printers use movable dynasty of Berbers adopt Islam & trader routes reach Tula; Incas Bulgaria & Italy type blocks settle at Goa (India) found Cuzco (Peru)

Henry IV of Germany fights Comnenus dynasty founded Navajo & Apache keep moving Almoravids conquer kingdom of pope; El Cid fights Moors; Great (Byzantine Empire); south; Salado culture spreads; 1050– Ghana; Kanem converts to Islam; Schism divides Church; Normans Seljuk Turks capture Baghdad & Acoma pueblo founded; small 1099 Yoruba center Ife grows from vil- conquer England, Sicily, & eastern Byzantium; city-states, including Cuzco, lage to trading center Byzantine Italy crusaders capture Jerusalem flourish (Peru)

House of Brandenburg begins Islam reaches Niger River region crusaders fail to rescue Edessa; Hopewell mound culture domi- (Germany); Germans begin (Zanzibar); Yoruba settlements 1100– Carmelite order founded; Chin nates Ohio River & upper another eastward expansion; spread; Swahili culture & lan- 1149 take over northern China; Angkor Mississippi; Chichimec nomads Byzantine take Serbia, & recover guage develop in east coast Empire expands (southeast Asia) invade central Mexico from north parts of Anatolia trading cities

Henry II & Eleanor of Aquitaine Saladin conquers Latin crusader Saladin conquers Egypt; new create Angevin Empire; Henry Oraibi pueblo founded; Mogollon 1150– kingdoms & inspires Crusade; dynasty from Ife takes over quarrels with Becket; Barbarossa move south to Chihuaha; 1199 Muslim Persians invade India; Benin; trade & mining enrich city- of Germany invades Italy; Chichimecs overrun Tula Teutonic Knights founded Kamukara period begins (Japan) state of Mapungubwe

Magna Carta signed (England); Fourth Crusade results in Sundiata builds Mali Empire (west Moors defeated at Navas de Chichimecs found Texcoco; 1200– Venetian conquest of Africa); Hausa states rise (Lake Tolosa (Spain); Mongols invade Aztecs enter central valley 1249 Constantinople; Genghis Khan Chad region); Zimbabwe expands eastern Europe; Nevsky defeats & settle in Chapultepec Teutonic Knights begins Mongol conquest of Asia & trades with Arabs along coast

Hanseatic League begins; Greeks regain control of Mamelukes take power (Egypt); Swiss Confederation founded; Byzantine Empire; Mongols sack severe drought & Apache & 1250– Abyssinia & Coptic church Spanish & Portuguese crusaders Baghdad; Kublai Khan conquers Navajo raids strike Southwest; 1299 expand; Nilo-Saharans move recover all Iberia, except south China; Polos trade & Marco pueblos abandoned south to Lake Victoria Granada, from Moors works for Khan

pope moves residence to Ottoman Turks begin expansion; Mali Empire reaches zenith; Salado people build Casas 1300– Avignon (France); Hundred Years’ Tughlak dynasty founded (west- Mansa Musa of Mali makes pil- Grandes; Aztecs build 1349 War begins; Black Death reaches ern India); Minamoto shogunate grimage to Mecca; Kongo dynasty Tenochtitlán; trade flows from Europe; English Parliament creat- ends (Japan); Islam reaches established; Zimbabwe Empire Four Corners to Casas Grandes ed Sumatra reaches zenith to Tenochtitlán

peasants revolt in France, Timur the Lame conquers Middle Mansa Musa builds mosque & temple mound culture flourishes 1350– Flanders, & England; East & north India; Russia university at Timbuktu; Fulani (southeast North America); 1399 Turks defeat Serbs (Kossovo); defeats Mongols; Timurid dynasty people move east into Mali; Aztecs build aqueducts & floating gunpowder reaches Europe; begins (Persia); Ming dynasty Bornu founded; Hausa rulers gardens; Chimú & Chincha states Black Death reaches England founded (China) accept Islam expand (Peru)

Poles win over Teutonic Knights Timur the Lame attacks Hohokam & Salado cultures (Tannenberg); Hus burned at Ottomans; Cheng Ho begins sea Empire of Benin expands; 1400– disintegrate; Aztecs expand stake (Germany); English beat trade from China to Arabia; Chinese fleet visits east Africa; 1449 under Iztcoatl; Incas expand French at Agincourt; Portugal Vietnam regains freedom Portuguese ships reach Madeira under Viracocha begins naval expansion from China

Southern Death Cult spreads Portuguese explore coast, Ottoman Turks conquer through Temple Mound region; after Germans print with movable type; Songhay Empire expands (west Constantinople & Byzantine Aztecs conquer neighbors 1450 Hundred Years’War ends Africa); Monomatapa Empire Empire falls (Mexico); Inca Empire founded (east Africa) expands (Peru)

Chronology of Literature Chart: The Late Middle Ages NONFICTION: GOVERNMENT, FICTION: POETRY, PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION SCIENCE, GEOGRAPHY, DATES EDUCATION HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY DRAMA, FABLES, NOVELS al-Tasrif, Arabic medical textbook; Beowulf; before Boethius translated to al-Farabi on science; Nennus writes down parts of Mabinogion sung (Wales); 1000 English & German; al-Muqaddosi on geography; Arthurian legend; Fenian poems recited (Ireland); Saadia on Jewish theology al-Nadim, encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Hroswitha, plays; al-Jahshiyari, A science Thousand and One Nights

Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Constitutio de Feudis, Holy Kitab-ash-shifa; al-Biruni on science; Murasaki, Tale of Genji; 1000– Roman Empire; ben Jehuda on the Talmud; Ibn Sina (Avicenna), al-Qanu fi Firdawsi, Shah–nama; 1049 Avicenna, Lisan al-Arab, on ibn Gabirol (Avicebron), Mekor altib (Canon of Medicine) Annals of Rajasthan (India) Hayim & Kether Malkuth Arabic grammar

Anselm of Canterbury, Guilhem VII de Poitiers, Gesta anonymous, Chanson de Roland; Monologium & Proslogium; Constantine the African, transla- 1050– Willelmi; Norman, Domesday Breton minstrels compose & Guillaume de Champeaux, tion of Galen & Avicenna from 1099 Book;Crassus, Defensio Henrici spread “matter of Britain”; De sacramento altaris & Greek, Hebrew, & Arabic to Latin De origine animae IV; Oath of Salisbury (England) ibn-Zaydun, poems

Abelard, Sic et non & Theologia; Hildegarde, Causae et Curae; anonymous, Gesta francorum; anonymous, Poema del Cid; 1100– Peter of Cluny, tr. Koran to Latin; Avicenna translated to Latin; Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historia Welsh Black Book of Camarthen; 1149 Peter Lombard, Sententiae; Adelard, Quaestiones naturales; Britonum; Wm. of Malmsbury on first records of English miracle Hugh of St. Victor, ibn Zuh (Avenzoar), al-Taysir English history; plays; Omar Khayam, Rubiyat; Summa sententiarum (medical text) Anna Comnena on First Crusade Li Ch’ing Chao, poems

Maimonides, Mishna Torah, Gerard of Cremona translates Bodel, Jeu de Saint Nicholas; Dalalat al-Hai’rin; Euclid, Archimedes, & Arab math 1150– John of Salisbury, Policratus; Erras, Map, Chrétien de Troyes, ibn Rushd (Averroes), synthesis & science to Latin; 1199 Baha al-Din, biography of Saladin Wace, chivalric poems; Saigyo- of Platonic, Aristotelian, Almagest of Ptolemy hosi, Senzaishu & Islamic thought translated to Latin

Tatatongo translates Buddhist Albertus Magnus, Physica & Magna Carta (England & von Eschenbach, von Strassburg, works for Genghis Khan; works on animal & plant classifi- Scotland); 1200– chivalric poems; Meistersingers Albertus Magnus on philosophy & cation & other sciences; Celano, biography of St. Francis; 1249 Guild founded; de Lorris, Roman theology; Francis of Assisi, ibn Abdullah, Villehardouin, Conqueste de de la Rose; Guinizelli, love poems sermons, prayers, & poems dictionary of geography Constantinople

von Lichtenstein, Frauendienst; Aquinas, Summa theologica; Roger Bacon, Opus Maius; Pope Alexander IV, de la Halle, Le Jeu de Robin et 1250– Moses de León, Zohar; William of Saliceto, Chirurgia; Clamat in suribus; Marian, pastoral play; 1299 Bonaventura, Breviloqium; Marco Polo on his travels; de Varagine on history of Venice; Rutebeuf, satiric poems; Duns Scotus, sermons & lectures Avenzoar tr. to Latin Aquinas, De regime principum ms. of Carmina burana

John of Paris, De potestate regio Dante, Divina Commedia; Oderico on his travels; et papali; anonymous, Sir Gawain and the 1300– rival popes trade papal bulls Petrus de Crecentiis, Dante, De monarchia & De vul- Green Knight; 1349 & tracts Opus ruralium commodorum; garii eloquentia; Petrarch, sonnets & other poems; de Chauliac on medicine William of Ockham, Dialogos Lull, Blanquerna

Wycliffe translates Bible to Wycliffe & Lollards, tracts against Boccaccio, Decameron; 1350– English; Nicholas of Lura, Church power; Langland, Vision of Piers 1399 Postillae perpetuae; ibn Battuta on his travels Tirel, Le Viander, royal cookbook; Plowman; Catherine of Siena, letters ibn-Khaldun, Muqaddama; Petrarch, Canzionere; Froissart, Chronique Chaucer, Troilus and Creseyde

à Kempis, Imitation of Christ; Codex Tonalamatl, Gonzalo de Clavijo, Embajada a Chaucer, Canterbury Tales; 1400– Nicholas of Cusa, Aztec almanac; Tamor Lán; Alberti, Della pittura & Chartier, La Belle Dame sans 1449 De concordantia catholica; Ptolemy’s Geography translated Della famiglia;Cosimo de’Medici Merci; Crescas, Adonai; to Latin; founds Greek Academy Akmedi of Sives, Iskander-nama; Albo, Ikkarim d’Ailly, Imago Mundi (Florence, Italy) Mao-Tseu, Story of the Lute

Muller, Ephemerides Annals of Tacitus found after & De triangulis; Villon, Le petit testament & Le Gutenberg Bible (Germany); 1450 Albumazar’s astronomy grand testament Poggio, Liber facetiarum translated from Arabic to Latin

14 © CLEARVUE/eav TEACHER’S GUIDE

Cross-Curricular Explorations These projects are designed to relate the ideas in the program to other areas of study; assign them to individuals and study groups according to students’ interests and strengths. 1. True Romance. Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine is 2. True Crime. Research and report on the ruler primarily responsible for bringing the lawbreaking, crime, and punishment during Eastern hero into Western literature. She lived the Middle Ages. One fascinating way to do from 1122 to 1204. As a young woman, this is to focus on writers who were tried and Eleanor went with her first husband, King imprisoned for various reasons. These include Louis VII of France, on the Second Crusade. Roger Bacon, who was imprisoned by his For the rest of her life, Queen Eleanor tried to Franciscan order for heresy; Dante, who was copy the luxury she had seen in Sicily, imprisoned several times for taking the wrong Constantinople, and Damascus. Like the side in Italy’s internal wars; and Marco Polo, Eastern rulers, she hired poets and musicians who was taken prisoner during a war between to entertain her and held elaborate “courts of Venice and Genoa. Polo used his time in love” at which noble ladies debated affairs of prison to prepare the manuscript of his the heart. Eleanor loved stories about the travels. Students’ reports should include knights of King Arthur’s Round Table, so common punishments for ordinary people’s Chrétien de Troyes wrote his Percival and the everyday crimes. Holy Grail for her. From Eleanor’s court, 3. Creative Writing: True Tales. People in Marco Arthurian romances spread through Europe. Polo’s time did not believe his accounts of what Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, an he had seen in the East. Have students imagine anonymous English poem, first appeared a meeting with Marco Polo in which they try during the 1300s. Tales of Robin Hood also to describe to him some of the wonders of our appeared later and included Richard the age. Whenever possible, describe phenomena Lionhearted, who was, in fact, Eleanor’s son by today in terms Marco Polo might understand. her second husband, England’s King Henry II. For example, students might compare a The meaning of the word “romance” has blastoff of a space mission to Chinese changed a great deal since the days of Queen fireworks, or explain how modern highways Eleanor—largely because of her work. evolved from ancient trade routes. (Note: Research how romance in literature changed Check a current political map of Asia and from knightly adventure to sentimental love, compare it with a map of Marco Polo’s paying special attention to how the journeys.) Students’ writing can take the form troubadours and Queen Eleanor’s “courts of of a travel journal, a question-and-answer love” helped bring about this change. Another session, or even a chivalric romance. important love source is the great Italian writer Petrarch. Once researched, stage a court of love, assigning singing and speaking roles to various students. ¶ Meanwhile, have students investigate the connection between Henry II and the reason behind Chaucer’s pilgrims’ journey.

15 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—CHIVALRY AND COMMERCE: THE LATE MIDDLE AGES

Transcript When English poet Geoffrey Chaucer wrote his by local and long-distance trade, small villages grew Canterbury Tales in the late 1300s, he was following into towns, and towns became small cities. the time-honored tradition of storytelling, begun long before people knew how to write. Warlords who had risen to power during the invasions began to turn into princely statebuilders, no matter As a court and customs official, he was able to gather how small their states were. And statebuilding princes tantalizing and amusing tales from far-away lands in needed farmers, warriors, and merchants if they were the then-known world, and he invented a few himself. not to be outdone or absorbed by their neighbors.

He ascribed the tales to a fictional band of pilgrims, To build territorial principalities meant to fight. themselves representing a cross-section of common Fighting required wealth, and wealth was land—both society, including tradesmen, guildsmen, clerics, a its products and the labor that produced them. doctor, a cook, farm laborers, soldiers, and merchants. Sometimes labor was slave labor; sometimes half-free peasants or serfs, who were not property, but were There was a Merchant with a forking beard tied to the land that they worked; sometimes it was And Motley dress; high on his horse he sat. the labor of free peasants who worked their own land. Upon his head a Flemish beaver hat And on his feet daintily buckled boots. Over the labor force, in this system known as feudal- Canterbury Tales ism, were the lords, large and small, to whom most —Geoffrey Chaucer people owed labor or rent.

In vivid descriptions such as this, Chaucer and other EDWARD M. PETERS authors have given us a wonderful picture of the peo- In a sense, the position of the nobility was ple and history of their time—the late Middle Ages, guaranteed because there was a king, and the a period from about 1000 to the flowering of the king was guaranteed because the nobles were Renaissance in the middle and late 1400s. willing, at least most of the time, to serve him. The kings also recruited lowborn servants, It was a time of phenomenal architecture, expanded people who had no noble blood, and there’s commerce, and new religious, social, economic, and always a kind of friction between the natural military ideals. aristocracy of the kingdom and the king’s lowborn servants, who wielded power that was Around the year 1000, western Europe emerged from sometimes greater than that of the aristocracy. more than a century of internal wars and a wave of new invasions from the north, east, and south by Great lords held vast amounts of land, some of which Vikings, Magyars, and Arabs. Once again, Europe they assigned to lesser lords who became their vassals began to absorb and convert many of its invaders to in return for military and other service. Lesser lords, Christianity in Scandinavia and Hungary, and tried in turn, gave part of their land to their own vassals, to impose peace on its own turbulent warlords. and those vassals to lesser vassals. In this way, land wealth was put to work to support a ruling order of Europe now consisted of so many diverse micro-soci- fighting men and lords. eties that it began to use a word designating the only thing they seemed to have in common: religion. Even church lands owed military service. But reform- They called the entire area and its culture minded clergy worked to establish the independence Christendom. of churches, church property, and churchmen from the control of the laity. The end of the invasions brought stability to agriculture. New land was cleared, the food supply By 1050 this reform movement had reached Rome increased, and the population grew rapidly. Spurred itself, and during the next few centuries, the popes

16 TEACHER’S GUIDE assumed the spiritual and moral leadership of cessful Muslim resistance. Jerusalem was recaptured Christendom, sometimes by cooperating with—and in 1187, and after four major crusades, the last sometimes by opposing—lords, kings, emperors, and Christian domain in the Holy Land fell in 1291. even other churchmen. But the crusade idea did not die. It remained a pow- The laity, too, began to assert the moral value of their erful force until the end of the sixteenth century. It own calling in this world and to claim a status equal to also contributed to the new idealization of the fight- that of the clergy. Clerics agreed and began to consider ing man in God’s service and helped to shape the the moral values of marriage, for example, and of idea of the knight. trade—and even the profession of arms and rulership. One example is the case of Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar— One of the most striking examples of the new vitality El Cid, the Arabic word for “chief.” El Cid was a and rich diversity of Christendom was the launching rough fighting man who lived from about 1043 to of the First Crusade by Pope Urban II at the Council 1099, serving different rulers in Spain, but also serv- of Clermont in November 1095. Urban had two ing his own interests. Much later, in the epic Poem of goals: to aid Christians in the East—especially those the Cid, an unknown poet describes the hero as an subject to the emperor at Constantinople—and to idealized lord who fought the Muslims in Spain: liberate the holy city of Jerusalem from its Muslim rulers—the powerful Seljuk Turks at Baghdad—and My Cid, Rodrigo Diaz.... the Fatimid rulers of Egypt: How well he rewarded each of his vassals! He has made his knights rich and his foot soldiers; Wrest the land from a wicked race, and subject it to in all his company you would not find a needy man. yourselves.... Undertake this journey eagerly for the Who serves a good lord lives always in luxury. remission of your sins, and be assured of the reward —anonymous of imperishable glory in the Kingdom of Heaven. —Pope Urban II Generosity—openhandedness—was always the greatest virtue of a lord in the eyes of his followers. Sometimes Urban offered the opportunity for fighting men to gain successful lords made themselves into kings. In 1066, forgiveness of their sins, not by the traditional means of William, the Duke of Normandy in western France, retiring from the world into a monastery or perform- assembled an army, sailed across the Channel, and con- ing penances that deprived them of their arms, but by quered England, which he claimed to have inherited fighting in a just cause. Pilgrims of all kinds, ages, and from its last king, Edward the Confessor. sexes had long traveled to the sacred places of the Holy Land, but these new pilgrims were different: They were EDWARD M. PETERS armed. They had come to fight as well as pray. In another direction, what’s often forgotten, is a number of ambitious Norman aristocrats By August of 1096, an army of more than 70,000 sol- began to function in south Italy—first as diers began the long trek by land and sea across the mercenaries in the service of Byzantine and known world, and in July 1099, after suffering enor- Lombard princes, and then as rulers of south mous losses and hardships, they conquered Jerusalem. Italy and Sicily—where they took over and The slaughter was enormous. One eyewitness wrote: established what ultimately became the wealthiest kingdom in all of western Europe In the streets were seen piles of heads and hands and the most thoroughly governed kingdom. and feet. One rode about everywhere amid the corpses of men and horses. It took great effort to teach the brutal warriors of the —Raymond of Agiles tenth and eleventh centuries how to live a moral life in the service of arms. Military service to God raised The conquest added new and distant territories to the moral stock of both crusaders and other fighting Christendom, but it also provoked renewed and suc- men who imitated them. Courtesy toward enemies

17 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—CHIVALRY AND COMMERCE: THE LATE MIDDLE AGES and generosity and protection to the poor and the the merchants had to (a) protect themselves, and oppressed, to women and churchmen, also became therefore be tough, and (b) try to find some way part of the knightly ideal. to overcome the enormous variety of things that we assume are standardized routinely. Emotional restraint and subordination to a lord or king, studious attention to and respect toward Labor became diversified, and new crafts and pro- women—all of these traits were embraced in the fessions emerged to serve an expanded demand. word “chivalry.” Chaucer captured the developed Asian products—woven silk, porcelain, and paper— spirit of chivalry in his portrait of the knight in his went westward. Canterbury Tales: Economic growth also produced new degrees and There was a knight, a most distinguished man, scales of wealth and poverty, which some critics, Who, from the day on which he first began notably Saint Francis of Assisi, fought against by liv- To ride abroad, had followed chivalry, ing a life of poverty himself, as a reminder to his Truth, honor, generousness, and courtesy. wealthy neighbors of their own new social and moral Canterbury Tales obligations to the poor. —Geoffrey Chaucer With knights and merchants there also emerged the Chaucer’s knight was an old freelance warrior. His scholars, usually clerics, who expanded their learning son, the squire, represents the civilizing process of from the study of the Bible into the worlds of litera- knighthood and hopes to win the favor of a lady ture, philosophy, and physics. with his courtly talents. The great learning of the Arab world—including ROBERT PINSKY Arabic versions of many works of Greek philosophy, In ardent hope to win his lady’s grace, science, and medicine, as well as Arabic numerals— Embroidered was he as a meadow bright, became available to Europeans. Scholars began to All full of freshest flowers, red and white. organize themselves into teaching corporations in Singing he was, or whistling all the day; cities like Paris and Bologna—the first universities. He was as fresh as is the month of May. Short was his gown, his sleeves were long and wide; There they developed professional academic disci- Well he became his horse and well could ride. plines, regulated admission to them, and offered cer- He could make songs and ballads and recite, tification—teaching degrees—to those who complet- Joust and make pretty pictures, dance and write. ed prescribed courses of study. In the world of the Canterbury Tales schools, as in that of the merchants and the knights, —Geoffrey Chaucer reason came to be regarded as God’s greatest gift to humans. Thomas Aquinas, a great Dominican schol- Both the knight and the squire represent an ideal, ar, argued that reason and experience should be the and in the late Middle Ages, ideals played powerful basis for belief: roles in setting standards for conduct appropriate to one’s rank and order in society. The argument from authority is the weakest.... The study of philosophy does not aim merely to Merchants, too, needed standards, and not only find out what others have thought, but what the those of trust and fair dealing. truth of the matter is. —St. Thomas Aquinas EDWARD M. PETERS Along the way they encountered a dismaying In the year 1000, western Europe was far behind variety of languages, for example; systems of both the Greek east and the Muslim world in terms weights and measures, coinage levels and values of both material and intellectual culture. By 1300 it that were different. In order to do their business, had gone a long way toward catching up. And it also

18 TEACHER’S GUIDE discovered a wider world. The world was widened by the world in contact with one another. The Mongol nomads. Early in the thirteenth century, a federation peace marked the end of the separate, unconnected of nomadic Mongol peoples from the plains of Asia, histories of the different parts of the known world. led by Genghis Khan, swept eastward into China and Some of these histories revealed striking similarities westward into eastern Europe and the Islamic world. to those of Europe. For more than a century, the Mongol conquests opened a safe pathway across Asia, and diplomats, In the early 1000s, a Japanese noblewoman, missionaries, and merchants began to use it. Murasaki Shikibu, wrote the Tale of Genji, which many people consider the first true novel. In the Late in the thirteenth century, two merchants of book, she describes her knightly hero: Venice, Nicolo and Maffeo Polo, prevented by a local war in Syria from returning home, met a ser- No one could see him without pleasure. He was vant of the Great Khan who invited them to follow like the flowering tree under whose shade even the him to China. They returned to Europe with a mes- rude mountain delights to rest. sage to the pope from the Khan, and then went Tale of Genji back to Asia, taking with them their 21-year-old —Murasaki Shikibu son and nephew Marco Polo, who worked in the service of the Great Khan for 18 years. Marco The Annals of Rajasthan, an Indian history from the recorded many of his impressions of China, includ- same era, celebrates the warrior heroes who defending the sounds of the Great Khan’s armies as they ed their northern Indian kingdoms against the rolled into battle. Muslim invasions.

ROBERT PINSKY Like Genji of Japan and Chaucer’s squire, the Just as it seems to be part of the European Indian knights were handsome ladies’ men who spirit to arrogate, steal, invade, or appropriate, could compose love poems while winning battles. there’s also a part of the European spirit that Perhaps they, too, were idealized. Arab and Indian seems fascinated and attracted by everything merchants also traveled the Red Sea, the Indian that’s foreign or exotic. Here are a few Ocean, and the Silk Road across Asia, where they sentences from Marco Polo: met their European counterparts.

As soon as the order of battle was arranged, an But high ideals also opened all ranks of society to infinite number of wind instruments of various sharp criticism for their failings—even kings and kinds were sounded, and these were succeeded by popes. In Dante’s allegorical masterpiece, The Divine songs...and there was such a beating of the cymbals Comedy, the story is told of a Christian’s journey and drums, and such singing, that it was wonderful through hell and purgatory to paradise. to hear.... The great drums of the Khan began to sound. Then a fierce and bloody conflict began. ROBERT PINSKY Travels or A Description of the World In translating the opening lines, I wanted to capture —Marco Polo the speed and attraction of Dante’s narrative, and also the feeling of almost complete despair and of When he returned to Venice, Marco had his memoirs something pulling him forward into that despair, written down. His book was widely read and, along through it, and out of it. with other narratives of the fabulous East, created a new interest in China and India that grew stronger in Midway on our life’s journey, the next 200 years. In 1492, Christopher Columbus I found myself in dark woods, owned his own copy of Marco Polo’s book. The right road lost. To tell about those woods Is hard, so tangled and rough and savage Even though the Mongol Empire collapsed at the That thinking of it now end of the fourteenth century, it left large parts of I feel the old fears stirring. Death is hardly more bitter.

19 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—CHIVALRY AND COMMERCE: THE LATE MIDDLE AGES

And yet to treat the good I found there as well, Many breathed their last in the open streets...and of I’ll tell what I saw. these and others who died the whole city was full. The Divine Comedy The Decameron —Dante Alighieri —Giovanni Boccaccio Translated by Robert Pinsky, Ph.D. The characters in The Decameron, Boccaccio’s collec- Dante had harsh words for kings who failed to rule tion of tales written around 1350, had fled the city justly, as well as for all social ranks who indulged in of Florence to escape the plague and passed the time anti-social and self-destructive sinful activity. The telling each other stories—many from Asia, India, poet ruthlessly criticized many churchmen and secu- and the Arabic world—as well as tales of chivalry and lar rulers, calling corrupt churchmen “miserable bawdy comedy. Boccaccio’s work influenced Geoffrey pimps and hucksters” who “deify silver and gold.” Chaucer when he visited Italy in the 1370s, and This increased devotion to spiritual pursuit also Chaucer adapted several of the stories into English. brought about the construction of some of the world’s grandest churches. In spite of famine, plague, a new and more devastating kind of warfare, and widespread social unrest, The preaching of the clergy and the spiritual hunger lines of communication remained open throughout of the laity produced in many people a new interest Europe and from Europe into the worlds of Islam, in vernacular translations of the scriptures from Persia, and India. Latin and a heightened and intensified personal devotion. Fear of God’s judgment on a sinful and The fifteenth century saw other signs of change. In disordered society was also colored by economic and 1453 the Ottoman Turks conquered political unrest, and the fourteenth and fifteenth Constantinople with cavalry and great cannon and centuries saw a number of peasant and noble rebel- brought an end to the east Roman, or Byzantine, lions and general anxiety about disorder of all kinds Empire. A long war between England and France in this world and salvation or damnation in the exhausted both kingdoms. next. These fears were heightened by increasing famine and epidemic disease. Wars now used gunpowder, a Chinese invention transferred to the West. The new wars were fought EDWARD M. PETERS by larger armies. They drew more and more on civil- The great plague, the Black Death, struck ian and governmental resources, and they were waged Europe in 1348 in three quite different and by strong and ruthless kings. Another Chinese inven- highly contagious forms. This caused an tion, the compass, also came west via the Arabs. enormous loss of life—not consistently across European sailors developed more accurate sailing all of Europe, but terribly in one place and charts and sailed confidently to more distant places. almost not at all in another place. What this did was reduce the population of Europe from In 1492, Christopher Columbus, a seaman from about 75 million in 1300 to about 35 million Genoa in the service of the rulers of Spain, used the in just after 1400. same tools to sail west to what he thought was China. He found something different, but his discov- Plague from port cities rapidly spread throughout all ery brought the merchants, clergy, scholars, knights, western lands, even to Iceland and Russia. An eyewit- and rulers of Europe to the brink of a new world— ness account of the epidemic by Giovanni Boccaccio, not only the world of the Americas, but the world of the Italian writer, noted: the modern age.

The mere touching of clothes [of plague victims], or of whatsoever had been used by the sick, appeared of itself to communicate the disease. The common people sickened by the thousands daily....

20 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Credits PROGRAM WRITERS PROGRAM PRODUCERS TEACHER’S GUIDE Judith Conaway, lead writer Rhonda Fabian Judith Conaway, writer Bob Burleigh Jerry Baber Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Josh Orth Jack Phelan Teresa Koltzenburg 21 Civilization and Writing (CL949-1CV) Philosophy and Government: The World in Greek Times (CL949-2CV) Empires of Heaven and Earth: The World in Roman Times (CL949-3CV) Faith and Feudalism: The Early Middle Ages (CL949-4CV) Chivalry and Commerce: The Late Middle Ages (CL949-5CV) Renaissance and Reformation (CL949-6CV) New Worlds and New Ideas (CL949-7CV) Industry and Enlightenment (CL949-8CV) Romanticism and Revolution (CL949-9CV) Imperialism and Progress: The Victorian Era (CL949-10CV) World Wars and the Quest for Order: The Early 20th Century (CL949-11CV) Liberation and Change: The Late 20th Century (CL949-12CV)

This Teacher’s Guide may be reproduced in whole or in part for use by students.

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Table of Contents Summary ...... 3 Intended Audience ...... 3 Presenting the Program ...... 3 Learning Objectives ...... 4 History in the Program ...... 4 Literature in the Program ...... 4 Key Words and Concepts ...... 5 Pre-Viewing Suggestions ...... 5 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 5 Discussion: Introducing the Program and Its Key Words and Concepts ...... 5 Post-Viewing Suggestions ...... 6 Content Questions: History ...... 6 H.O.T. Topics: History ...... 6 Content Questions: Literature ...... 7 H.O.T. Topics: Literature ...... 7 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 8 In-Depth Research ...... 9 Extra History Study ...... 9 Extra Literature Study ...... 9 Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study ...... 10 Chronology of History Chart: Renaissance and Reformation ...... 11 Chronology of Literature Chart: Renaissance and Reformation ...... 12 Cross-Curricular Explorations ...... 13 Transcript ...... 14 Consultants for the Series ...... 19 Credits ...... 19

Intended for students in junior high school and above. This program is closed captioned.

Summary Renaissance and Reformation is part of a 12-video Humanist scholars like Thomas More and his friend History through Literature series that examines the Erasmus of Rotterdam saw the great potential of connections between historical events and the literary printing for creating a better society. But scholars figures and works of each era. Other titles in this series were only a small part of the new book market. The are listed on the back of this Teacher’s Guide. program surveys the first printed literature, The opening scene of Renaissance and Reformation takes discovering many clues about the beliefs and tastes of place in July 1535. Sir Thomas More, the great English the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. humanist scholar, is beheaded, by order of King Henry Printing did not fulfill its great promise, largely VIII of England, for putting God above his king. because Europeans got caught up in wars. On the Sir Thomas More was a leading scholar of the surface, these were wars about religion. Christian Renaissance, or rebirth of classical knowledge, and a nations used religion as a rallying cry against the martyr of the Reformation, the conflict that split Ottoman Turks, who were Muslims. Later, after Europe into Catholic and Protestant nations. Both Luther’s revolt, regions that had long opposed the the Renaissance and Reformation had their roots in abuses and unlimited power of the Catholic church literature. Writers had more power than ever before to used Protestantism as a rallying cry against the pope. change history because of a new technology: printing The program follows the course of the Renaissance with moveable type. and Reformation in France, Spain, Holland, and The fifteenth century was one of dramatic change in England and shows how religious issues became European society. The program shows how rapidly intertwined with the concerns of royal dynasties such society changed in one decade: the 1450s, when the as the Spanish Habsburgs and the English Tudors. Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, Portuguese Viewers get glimpses into the increasingly lavish court ships reached the Cape Verde Islands, and printing lives of European monarchs and into two late was invented. The program connects these events to Renaissance literary cultures: Spain’s “century of gold” the gradual replacement of the feudal system by and England’s Elizabethan—and Shakespearian—age. mercantilism, the economic alliance between city merchants and monarchs. Intended Audience This program is designed for students in junior high school and above.

Learning Objectives After watching this program and completing the activities, students will be able to: 1. Define humanism, identify its origins in the 5. Describe the mercantile system and how it literature of ancient Greece and Rome, and increased the power of the monarchy and caused describe how European writers rediscovered the merchant class to prosper and expand; humanist ideals; 6. List some of the reasons for widespread 2. Identify some of the important events that discontent against the Catholic church; happened in world history during the 7. Identify some of the writers who led the Renaissance and the Reformation, between Reformation; 1400 and 1660 (see History in the Program); 8. Describe the wars of the Reformation and how the 3. Name some of the authors who lived and invention of printing contributed to this conflict; wrote during the Renaissance and the 9. Explain how, in England and Spain, religion Reformation and list some of their works (see fused with issues of dynastic succession; and Literature in the Program); 10. Describe the siglo de oro (golden century) in 4. Give examples of how the events of the era Spanish literature and the Elizabethan age in were interpreted by writers and how writers English literature, identifying some of the affected historical events; important writers of each movement.

Key Words and Concepts Most of these vocabulary words are in the Transcript, where they appear in bold type the first time they are used. Catholic feudalism pamphlets Reformation chivalry humanism papal Renaissance classical liberty of conscience parliament siglo de oro courtier materialism patronage slave trade dissenters mercantilism propaganda dynasty monarchs Protestant

Pre-Viewing Suggestions DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES that they watch the program for examples of If you are showing this program in chronological how feudalism and chivalrous ideals influenced order with the other programs in the History through events for centuries to come. Alert them to Literature series, or if you want to provide watch for signs that the feudal system was background for students who may have missed the dying out and being replaced. previous program, lead this review and discussion. 4. What religion was at the center of western 1. The previous program, Chivalry and European culture during the Middle Ages? Commerce: The Late Middle Ages, described [Roman Catholicism] What language was used how some Europeans established trade as the religious and scholarly language of networks that reached to China. Identify those Europe? [Latin] Ask students to recall some of Europeans [merchants from Venice and other the reasons why the Church had great secular as Italian city-states] and ask students to name well as religious power. [The Church was the the ventures they financed during the Middle largest single landowner in a system where Ages. [the Crusades] Suggest that, as they wealth was based on land. Bishops and other watch this new program, students look for Church leaders were feudal overlords. what the Italians did with their money. Corruption was rampant.] Ask students to 2. Ask students to recall the maps they saw in recall the name of an important Italian writer Chivalry and Commerce: The Late Middle Ages who protested against or exposed Church and to describe the extent of Muslim corruption. [Dante] Have students look for domination at the time of Marco Polo (c. how Dante’s ideas developed during the 1300). What Christian empire lay between fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. western Europe and the Arabic empire? [the DISCUSSION: INTRODUCING THE PROGRAM Byzantine Empire] Of what great classical AND ITS KEY WORDS AND CONCEPTS empire was the Byzantine Empire the last Introduce the title Renaissance and Reformation and remnant? [the Roman Empire] What language speculate on the meaning of its terms. Suggest that and religion were at the center of Byzantine students note what was being reborn and what was culture? [Greek and Greek Orthodox] Ask students to follow the fate of the Byzantine being reformed and pay attention to how writers Empire as they watch the program. helped bring about these changes. 3. Who were the heroes both of the Crusades and Introduce the Key Words and Concepts and ask of most literature during the Middle Ages? students to define words they know, looking up [knights] Why were knights heroes? [In real unfamiliar words in a dictionary. Suggest that they life, most people depended on knights for listen for these terms as they watch the program. Pay defense.] Under the feudal system, how were special attention to the word “Protestant.” Most knights rewarded for their services? [with land] students will think they know what it means; as they What was the elaborate code of honor that watch the program, they should understand the developed around knighthood? [chivalry] Remind students that trends take hold historical distinction between the Protestant and gradually in both history and literature; suggest Catholic faiths. 5 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

Post-Viewing Suggestions CONTENT QUESTIONS: HISTORY the colonies of New England? [Puritans, 1. From what activity did the Renaissance get its Dissenters, and other radicals] name? [rebirth of intellectual activity] H.O.T. TOPICS: HISTORY 2. From which guardians did Renaissance The following Higher Order Thinking questions scholars retrieve many of their lost literary and should be presented in order to achieve maximum intellectual masterpieces? [the Muslims] effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide 3. What empire conquered the last of the supporting details for general discussion, distribute Byzantine Empire in 1453? [the Ottoman copies of the Chronology of History Chart: Turks] What effect did this have on Italy? Renaissance and Reformation (page 11). [Greek scholars fled Turkey and settled in 1. Communications Technology. What was the Russia and Italy; the Portuguese and Italians significance of the Gutenberg Bible to the developed new sea routes] history of technology? [It was the first book 4. What is the difference between feudalism and printed with movable type.] From their general mercantilism, and what did the switch from knowledge of history, or from previous one to the other indicate? [Feudal wealth and programs in this series, ask students to recall alliances were military in nature and based on how books were reproduced during the Middle land and loyalty; mercantile wealth was based Ages. [They were copied by hand.] Ask on money and trade rights. This new economic students to determine what interim technology arrangement indicated fundamental changes in must have appeared between hand-copied values and in who would influence the books and movable type. [woodcut pages— government in Europe; it also involved a much whole pages carved by hand but then printed wider world view.] from blocks] Ask students to reason what 5. Which European nation began exploring kinds of work would have been gradually Africa and started the slave trade? [Portugal] eliminated by printing [preparing parchment, 6. What new technology began during the 1450s? hand copying, and illumination] and what new [printing with movable type] jobs were created by printing. [typesetting, 7. What was the official religion of almost proofreading, selling, and distributing books] everyone in western Europe at the beginning of 2. The Mercantile System. What basic economic the sixteenth century? [Roman Catholicism] alliance made the mercantile system work? [an 8. What was the Protestant Reformation? [a alliance between monarchs and wealthy religious movement aimed at reforming merchants, who shared the profits] Why did it corruption in the Catholic church, but which work? [monarchs had power; merchants had eventually created its own church] Which ships and money] What groups formed the German writer gets historical credit for having mercantile alliance that financed the exploration kindled it? [Martin Luther] of west Africa and the beginning of the slave 9. Name two European rulers who were related to trade? [the rulers of Spain and Portugal and the each other by marriage and who came into companies of Italian merchants] Have students conflict with each other because of the think about mercantilism in terms of Christopher Reformation. [Charles V of Spain and Henry Columbus, who was from the Italian city-state of VIII of England] Genoa and sailed to the Indies under the Spanish 10. Name some of the accomplishments of Queen flag. Lead students to conclude that, since Italian Elizabeth I of England. [supported Protestant merchant-bankers were helping finance armies in Europe, united England under the Portuguese and Spanish ventures, the Italians Anglican church, attacked Spanish galleons on naturally had a voice in the internal affairs of the high seas, defeated the Spanish Armada, those two nations. and patronized Shakespeare and other writers] 3. Mercantilism, Monarchy, and the Reformation. 11. During the 1600s, what Protestant groups Who was the most powerful monarch in Europe toppled the English monarchy and founded at the time Martin Luther revolted? [Charles the 6 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Great of Spain] Who were Charles the Great’s 4. Who printed the first European book with grandparents? [Isabella and Ferdinand of Spain] movable type; what was the book? [Johannes How was Charles the Great related to Queen Gutenberg; the Bible] Catherine of England, the first wife of Henry 5. What was the subject matter of the most popular VIII? [She was his aunt.] literature of the day? [religion, science, mystical ¶ Ask students to think about a great political subjects, romances of chivalry, manners] power that, like Venice, Genoa, and other city- 6. What was intended to be reformed by the states, was based in Italy. [the papacy] Ask Reformation? [the Catholic church] them to recall examples from the program of 7. How were bibles different after the Renaissance wars fought by the papacy. [the pope’s wars and Reformation? [They were available in against the Turks] Ask them who the pope everyday languages, not just in Latin.] went to when he needed money. [Italian 8. What do many believe is Martin Luther’s best merchant bankers] From these facts, students contribution to literature? [his German should conclude that the papacy and the translation of the New Testament] Habsburg dynasty were intimately connected 9. Who is the most famous writer of Spain’s by both finances and religion. “golden century” and what masterpiece did he ¶ In light of these conclusions, ask students to write? [Miguel de Cervantes; Don Quixote] think about the significance of King Henry 10. Name some writers who flourished during VIII’s defiance. Have them recall that, in England’s “Elizabethan Renaissance.” addition to divorcing Catherine of Aragon, [Shakespeare, Marlowe, Jonson, Spenser, Henry confiscated Church property. Sydney, Raleigh] 4. Rethinking the Lead Story. Ask students to rethink 11. Name three plays by William Shakespeare. the drama of Sir Thomas More’s execution. [Hamlet, Merchant of Venice, Julius Caesar] What office did he hold? [Lord Chancellor of 12. What masterpiece of English literature was England] Inform students that the Lord sponsored by King James I, Elizabeth the Chancellor was the senior diplomat—in modern Great’s successor? [the King James Bible] terms, part prime minister, part secretary of state, H.O.T. TOPICS: LITERATURE and part secretary of the treasury. Knowing this, The following Higher Order Thinking questions students should determine that More had been should be presented in order to achieve maximum central to King Henry’s negotiations with the effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide pope and Charles of Spain over the question of supporting details for general discussion, distribute divorcing Catherine. Students should conclude copies of the Chronology of Literature Chart: that More remained loyal out of belief not just in Renaissance and Reformation (page 12). the Church’s teachings, but in the ideal of a 1. Classical versus Christian ideas. Review what was society united under the Church, which he being “reborn” during the Renaissance. [the believed could be reformed from within. Have learning of classical Greece and Rome] Recall students research this viewpoint in light of the some of the great ideas that Renaissance quote from More’s Utopia (page 17) and the scholars adapted from classical culture. spirit of reform in that book. [humanism, materialism, democracy, liberty of CONTENT QUESTIONS: LITERATURE conscience] Ask students to suggest how 1. For what masterpiece is Sir Thomas More classical learning helped erode the cultural chiefly remembered? [Utopia] power of the Church. [by introducing great 2. What was reborn during the Renaissance? moral ideas that were not part of Christian [the humanist literature of classical Greece theology] Define “syncretize.” Have students and Rome] research beliefs that were syncretized into 3. What Greek writer said “Man is the measure of current theology. Discuss how this process all things”? [Plato] Discuss how this statement occurs. [Historic examples can be found during could define humanism. the late Roman times and early Middle Ages, when a new Christian community sought converts among the Romans and barbarians.] 7 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

2. Literature as a Sign of the Times. Have previous program, Chivalry and Commerce: The students discuss how Machiavelli’s The Prince Late Middle Ages. Who conquered territory was a sign of the times. What about Erasmus’s from China to Europe during the Middle The Education of a Christian Prince? [Because Ages? [the Mongols, led by Genghis and of economic changes under mercantilism, Kublai Khan] When Marco Polo went to rulers were becoming more powerful; since China, what Christian empire lay between his there was only one very powerful church, it native Venice and the Mongol territories? [the was natural that politics and religion should Byzantine Empire] What power arose in the cross paths in literature. The books’ moral eastern Mediterranean after the Mongols conflicts over the use and misuse of power withdrew from the region? [the Ottoman were mirrored in the Reformation.] Turks] Using their general knowledge of 3. “Serious” Literature versus “Trash.” Ask students history as well as facts from this program, to recall the kinds of books that sold well guide students to state the relationship during the first decades of printing (see Post- between the fall of Constantinople and the Viewing Suggestions: Content Questions: discovery of America. [When the Byzantine Literature, Question 5). Have students make Empire fell, Christian nations were cut off comparisons between these tastes and (a) the from access to Asia. This led Europeans to seek “bestseller” book lists of today; and (b) the a new route to China, first around Africa and kinds of information available on the Internet. then across the Atlantic.] 4. Literature and the End of Feudalism. Ask students 2. Ask students to remember why the new to recall the name of the first book printed in technology of printing did not fulfill its English. [Thomas Mallory’s Le Morte d’Arthur] humanist promises. [Europeans got caught up in What was this book about? [tales of King Arthur wars over religion.] Suggest that, from the point and the Round Table] What feudal ideal did of view of literature, the Reformation was a these stories glorify? [chivalry] What was the return to medievalism because religion was in chief purpose of the book and who was the almost total control of culture once again. Why audience? [to entertain the general reader] Have didn’t classical learning disappear again? Students students analyze why using the chivalrous ideal should conclude that, since printing made more for popular entertainment was a sign that the copies of books available, any given work of ideal was weakening. [Once it is a source of literature was more likely to be preserved. entertainment, any ideal runs the danger of 3. How did the wars of Reformation settle the becoming “just a story.”] Can they think of question of the relationship between church contemporary examples of this? [Have students and state? [National churches were focus on TV shows and movies that treat lightly established; nations were Catholic or subjects that were previously quite serious (e.g., Protestant, depending on the religion of the the presidency, the clergy, etc.).] Ask students to ruler.] In light of this fact, ask students to name the first modern novel. [Don Quixote, by predict what would happen to the political Miguel de Cervantes] What attitude did this balance of power in Europe. [Alliances of book take toward chivalry? [It treated chivalry as nations would be formed according to both a joke.] Ask students to discuss how the feudal religion and dynastic relationships.] ideal of chivalry changed between the time of 4. From the information in the program and Mallory (1485) and Cervantes (1605). from their general knowledge of history, ask students to predict how European monarchs DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES would expand their power [by establishing If you are showing this program in chronological global trading networks and colonies] and order with the other programs in this History through what would finance this expansion. Literature series, use this review and discussion to [mercantile alliances] prepare students for the next program. 1. Ask students to remember the maps they saw in Renaissance and Reformation and the 8 TEACHER’S GUIDE

In-Depth Research The following topics for further study will help students make connections between history and literature, between western and eastern history, and between the past and present. EXTRA HISTORY STUDY Bible; the Geneva Bible; the Douai–Rheims 1. The Hundred Years’ War. In 1453, the year Bible; and the King James Bible. Constantinople fell to the Ottomans, the 2. Christian Humanism. Erasmus, More, and Hundred Years’ War between France and others tried to syncretize the ideals of classical England came to an end. Suggest that learning with their Christian faith. Suggest that students research the causes and results of the students research the Brethren of the Common war, including its role in the formation of Life (to which Erasmus belonged) and the modern armies and its function in Augustinian order (to which Luther belonged) consolidating the power of both the English to discover how Christian humanist and French monarchs. scholarship developed. 2. The Ottoman Empire. Have students research 3. Life and Works of Miguel de Cervantes. and report on the expanding Ottoman Empire. Encourage students to read Don Quixote, in Researchers should explore the Ottoman wars the original Spanish if possible. Ask students in the Balkans, where the Serbs, Muslims, not only to report on what they have read, but Russians, Greeks, and Habsburgs all struggled to judge the book’s literary style and read for control. Student reports should include an favorite passages to the class. Assign other analysis of Balkan geography and an individuals or study groups to research the explanation of the strategic importance of that biography of Cervantes and connect his life to region, not only during the Renaissance and the historical events of his time. (Note: Reformation, but in our time. Students should discover that Cervantes fought 3. Other World Dynasties. Have students research at Lepanto, the great naval battle that halted and report on other dynasties that were Ottoman expansion in the Mediterranean. expanding in different parts of the world while Later, in his capacity as a royal official, he the Habsburg dynasty was expanding in helped supply the Spanish Armada.) Europe. Examples include the Romanov 4. Life and Works of William Shakespeare. dynasty of Russia, which was expanding into Encourage students to explore plays and Asia; the Ming dynasty of China; the Safavid sonnets by Shakespeare and to read favorite dynasty of Persia; and the Moghul dynasty of passages to the class. Assign other individuals or India. (Note: New dynasties in both Mexico study groups to research the biography of and Peru—and their unpopular wars of Shakespeare and connect the contents of his conquest—contributed to the fall of both the work to the historical events of his time. (Note: Aztec and Inca Empires.) Students should mention Shakespeare’s ability to influence royal opinion, as well as his EXTRA LITERATURE STUDY attempts to earn Elizabeth’s approval by 1. Bible Study. Suggest that students research how rewriting history in favor of the Tudor dynasty.) access to the Bible became one of the central 5. The Community of Learning. Suggest that issues of the Reformation. Researchers should students research the connections between return to the revolt of John Wycliffe in writers mentioned in this program and (a) England, during the 1380s, and discover why other writers and thinkers of their own times; Wycliffe’s translation of the Bible was so (b) writers in the generations before them; controversial. Other important bibles: and (c) writers in later generations. Students Erasmus’s translation of the New Testament may already have noted such connections in into Latin from the original Greek; Luther’s the program (e.g., Erasmus corresponded New Testament in German; the Coverdale with Luther).

9 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study The chronologies of history and literature located on the following pages are designed both to summarize the era covered by the program and to motivate students to learn more about the era. Copy and distribute the chronologies to individual students or study groups. Use the pages for both in-class discussion and extra study assignments. CHRONOLOGY OF HISTORY: CHRONOLOGY OF LITERATURE: RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. Encourage students to restate key ideas and Encourage students to restate key ideas and draw conclusions by examining details on the draw conclusions by examining details on the chart. The following are some examples. chart. The following are some examples. •European nations expanded during the •During the Renaissance and Reformation, 1500s and 1600s by means of their navies. most European scientists and religious •France and England were at war from the scholars still wrote in Latin. 1350s to the 1450s. • Classical learning was preserved by Greek- •Europe expanded into Asia, Africa, and speaking Byzantine scholars as well as by the Americas during the Renaissance and the Arabs. Reformation. • The Renaissance began with Petrarch’s •Europe was undergoing both internal wars, rediscovery and study of ancient between Protestants and Catholics, and manuscripts. external wars, against the Ottoman Turks. •European discoveries of new worlds • The African slave trade began during revolutionized both geography and the 1400s. mapmaking. • All the seafaring European nations took •During the Renaissance, plays were part in the African slave trade. popular around the world. • The Habsburg dynasty of Europe, the •Witchcraft, astrology, and other occult Ottoman Turks, the Russian Empire, and topics attracted reading audiences. the Moghul dynasty of India were also 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask expanding during the Renaissance. students to research and report on writers • The Ottoman Empire was expanding and literary works listed on the chart. You westward into Europe, north toward might want to assign one literary category to Russia, and east toward Persia. each study group and have group members •Advanced civilizations existed in Asia, choose from writers and works in their Africa, and the Americas before the arrival column. You might also assign each group a of the Europeans. time period and have group members file 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask reports about developments in different students to research and report on events listed categories of literature. on the chart. You might want to assign one continent to each study group and have group members choose from events in their column. You might also assign each group a time period and have group members file reports from different continents.

10 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Chronology of History Chart: Renaissance and Reformation AFRICA, INDIAN OCEAN, EUROPE DATES ASIA PACIFIC OCEAN AMERICAS before Hanseatic League formed; Wycliffe Timur the Lame conquers Middle East Fulani people expand east into Aztecs build capital, 1400 revolts; Turks defeat Serbs (Kossovo) & north India; Russians defeat Mongols Mali; Bornu founded (Lake Chad) Tenochtitlán (Mexico) 1400– plague kills thousands from Italy Timur the Lame invades Ottoman Chinese fleet explores south 1409 to England Empire; Ch’eng Tse begins reign (China) Pacific 1410– Hus burned at stake; English win at Venetian navy defeats Turks; Ming Cheng Ho of China explores Indian 1419 Agincourt; Portugal begins expansion capital moves to Beijing Ocean, Arabia, & east Africa 1420– Hussite wars divide Bohemia; Vietnam regains freedom from Portuguese ships reach Aztecs expand under Itzcoatl 1429 Portugal starts navigation school China Madeira 1430– English burn Joan of Arc (France); Ottoman Turks close in on last Portuguese reach Azores; Berbers Pachacutec founds new Inca 1439 African slaves reach Portugal Byzantine lands; Orthodox scholars flee take Timbuktu; Zimbabwe walls built dynasty, Peru Portuguese reach Senegal River; 1440– Turks defeat Albanians & Greeks shogun Yoshimasha comes to Montezuma I spreads Aztec con- 1449 power (Japan) Monomatapa Empire founded quests; Incas conquer Chimu (Peru) 1450– Germans print w/ movable type; Ottoman Turks conquer Portuguese reach Cape Verde 1459 Hundred Years’War ends Constantinople; Byzantine Empire falls Islands 1460– Peace of Thorn ends war bet. Teutonics Turks take Trebizond; Mahmud I Sonni Ali comes to throne Tarascans halt Aztec expansion 1469 & Poles; Aragon & Castile unite begins reign (north India) (Songhay) west; Aztecs carve calendar stone 1470– first printers (Spain, France, Turks & Venetians sign peace treaty; Netzahualcóyotl, Aztec poet- Portuguese reach Gold Coast 1479 England); Isabella starts Inquisition century of civil wars begins (Japan) king, dies (Mexico) 1480– Torquemada controls Inquisition; Bayazid II assumes Turk throne; Portuguese reach Congo & Thousands sacrificed to 1489 first canal locks built African slaves rebel (India) round Cape of Good Hope Aztec war god (Mexico) 1490– Spain expels Moors & Jews; Portuguese reach India; Askia of Songhay Empire invades empire Columbus explores Caribbean 1499 Italian wars begin Songhay makes pilgrimage to Mecca of Mali; Congo king converts region; Incas found Quito (Ecuador) 1500– Italian Renaissance reaches Safavid dynasty founded (Persia); Portuguese begin east African new Aztec cycle begins; Portuguese 1509 peak; first watches invented Sikh faith founded (India) trade; Oyo & Benin kingdoms begin reach Brazil; Spain settles Hispaniola 1510– Luther & Zwingli begin Reformation; Ottoman Turks conquer Syria, Egypt, & Spain officially enters slave Spanish explore Panama, Florida, 1519 Charles I founds Habsburg dynasty Arabia; Portuguese reach China trade & Yucatán & find Maya civilization 1520– Wars of Reformation break out in Babar founds Moghul dynasty (India); Muslim armies invade Ethiopia; Cortés conquers Aztec Empire 1529 Germany; Turks conquer Hungary ships of Magellan circle globe Afonso of Congo protests slavery (Mexico); Inca Empire suffers civil war Henry VIII of England breaks with Portuguese now ship approx. Pizarro conquers Inca Empire 1530– Ottomans conquer Persia 1539 pope; Loyola founds Jesuit order 5,000 slaves per year to Brazil (Peru); Spanish conquer Colombia 1540– Council of Trent begins Counter- Russia begins conquest of Kazan Songhay Empire completes Spanish explore from Florida to New 1549 Reformation; Copernicus prints theory & Astrakhan conquest of Mali Mexico; French explore Newfoundland 1550– Elizabeth I ascends English Mongols invade north China; Turks conquer Tunisia & Algeria; Francis Drake captures 1559 throne; Peace of Augsburg signed Portuguese build trade center (Macao) Hausa states resist Songhay Spanish silver galleons 1560– Protestant Huguenots revolt Akbar begins rule (1560–1605) sugar planting begins (Brazil); English enter slave trade 1569 (France) over Moghul Empire (India) Spanish build St. Augustine (Florida) 1570– Dutch revolt against Spain; Holy Spanish build Manila; Ashikaga Portuguese colonize Angola, Native Americans found Mohawk 1579 League defeats Turks (Lepanto) shogunate ends (Japan) fail to subdue Morocco Confederacy; Jesuits preach (Virginia) 1580– Spain & Portugal unite; English Russia begins conquest of Spain occupies Ceuta Roanoke colony disappears; 1589 navy defeats Spanish Armada Siberia; Europeans reach Japan (Morocco) Spanish found Buenos Aires 1590– Henri IV converts & ends Huguenot Japan unified under Toyotomi Morocco conquers Songhay Spanish colonize south 1599 wars & founds Bourbon dynasty Hideyoshi; Akbar conquers Sind Empire; Dutch enter slave trade Arizona & New Mexico English colonize Virginia & after Thirty Years’War Dutch take over from Portuguese kingdom of Bornu reaches 1600 (east India); Tokugawa period (Japan) height Massachusetts

Chronology of Literature Chart: Renaissance and Reformation

RELIGION, SCIENCE, GEOGRAPHY, NONFICTION: ECONOMICS, FICTION: POETRY, DATES PHILOSOPHY EDUCATION GOVERNMENT, HISTORY DRAMA, FABLES, NOVELS before Wycliffe Bible; universities throughout Islamic Froissart, Chronique; Boccaccio, Decameron;Petrarch, 1400 Oresme, De divinatione world; 15 universities in Europe Ibn-Khaldun, Muqaddama poems, ancient manuscripts 1400– Henry IV of England, Ptolemy’s Geography translated to Gonzalo de Clavijo, Embajada a Chaucer, Canterbury Tales; 1409 De haeretico Latin Tamor Lán Mao-Tseu, Story of the Lute 1410– Crescas, Adonai; Council of Limburg brothers, Book of Boccaccio, Decameron (1353) pub.; d’Ailly, Imago mundi 1419 Constance, Sacrosanta Hours of Jean Duc d’Berry Akmedi of Sives, Iskander-nama 1420– Boethius, Historia Scotorum; Charteri & d’Orleans, poems; àKempis, Imitation of Christ 1429 Landriani finds Cicero letters Plautus plays rediscovered 1430– Nicholas of Cusa, De concordan- Alberti, Trattato della famiglia; Alberti, Della pittura 1439 tia Catholica;Albo, Ikkarim Greek scholars emigrate to Italy Cosimo de’Medici founds library; 1440– Filelfo translates Greek poetry 1449 Platonic Academy (Florence) 1450– Gutenberg Bible; Argyropoulos & Annals of Tacitus found (Germany); Villon, Le petit testament 1459 others tr. Aristotle into Latin Poggio, Liber facetiarum Netzahualcóyotl, poems; 1460– al-Jazuli, Signs of the Blessings 1469 Villon, Le grand testament 1470– Ficino & others retranslate Plato Muller, Ephemerides; Fortescue, De laudibus legum Dante & Chaucer printed; 1479 into Latin De triangulis Angliae; Lascaris, Greek grammar Mallory, Morte d’Arthur 1480– Jami, religious poems; Kramer & Albumazar’s astronomy tr. from Arabic Bhizad, Book of Victories; Pulci, Morgante Maggiore; 1489 Springer, Hammer Against Witches to Latin; Aztec Codex Tonalamatl Landino edits Horace Jami, love poems 1490– Savonarola’s pamphlets; Behaim’s globe, 1st flat map of round Manutius prints Greek & Latin de Rojas, La Celestina; de Mena, 1499 Ximenes, Biblia polyglotta world; 80+ universities (Europe) classics Laberinto;Brant, Das Narrenschiff Erasmus, Praise of Folly; Pliny’s Ariosto, Cassaria; 1500– Kabir, Songs (date approx.) Da Vinci, Notebooks; 1509 Waldseemüller, Cosmographiae letters found (Italy) Barclay, Ship of Fools 1510– Luther, 95 Theses; Pomponatius, Martyr, De rebus oceanicis et Machiavelli, The Prince; More, Everyman (anonymous); 1519 De immortalitate amimi novo orbe Utopia;Erasmus, Christian Prince Ariosto, Orlando Furioso; 1520– first printing of Jewish Talmud; Luther Machiavelli, The Art of War; Gil Vicente, plays; Vives, De tradendis disciplines 1529 New Testament;Tyndale Bible Babur, Memoirs; Bembo, Prosa Castiglione, Il Cortegiano Melancthon, Confessio Paracelsus, Die Grosee Wundartznel; 1530– Oveido, Historia General de Rabelais, Pantagruel 1539 Augustana; Calvin, Institutes Tar taglia, Nova scientia las Indias 1540– Cranmer, Book of Common Prayer; Vesalius, Anatomy; Copernicus, Las Casas, Destruccion de las Heywood, Proverbs;Howard, 1549 Tridentine Decrees; Coverdale Bible De revolutionibus Indias tr. of Aeneid;Ronsard, Odes

1550– Nostradamus, Centuries;Teresa of von Gesner, Historia animalium; de Leon, Crónica del Peru Jodelle, Cleopatra Captive; 1559 Avila, Vida;Tulsidas, Ramcaritmanas Agricola, De re metallica Udall, Ralph Roister Doister 1560– Geneva Bible; Foxe, Book of Martyrs; Mercator & projection maps; del Castillo, Conquista de Nueva Norton and Sackville, 1569 Rabbi Karo, Shulchan Aruch Lusitanus, Curiationum España; first newspaper (Frankfurt) Gorboduc 1570– Douai–Rheims Bible; Tulsidas, Ortelius, Theater of the World; Bodin, La république; de Camoes, Os Lusiados; 1579 Ramayana (date approx.) Alhazen’s Optics tr. from Arabic to Latin Holinshed, Chronicles Ronsard, La Franciade 1580– de Leon, De los Nombres de Cristo; Hakluyt, Divers Voyages;Cesalpino, Marlowe & Kyd, plays; Wu Montaigne, Essays 1589 Hammer Against Witches reprinted De plantis; Stevin, La disme Chen’en, Pilgrimage to the West 1590– Edict of Nantes; Bacon, Essays;Balbi, Viaggio all’ de Mariana, De rege et rege Spenser, The Faerie Queen; 1599 James VI, Demonology India orientale institutione; Historia de España Shakespeare, plays after Mahabharata tr. into Bengali; Kepler, Astronomia nova de mar- Grotius, Mare libarum; Shakespeare, Jonson plays; Cervantes, 1600 King James Bible tis; Gilbert, De magnete Mayflower Compact Don Quixote; Kabuki theater 12 © CLEARVUE/eav TEACHER’S GUIDE

Cross-Curricular Explorations These projects are designed to relate the ideas in the program to other areas of study; assign them to individuals and study groups according to students’ interests and strengths. 1. History, Literature, and the Art of War. and Holland. Students’ reports should include The predecessors of rifles appeared at works of art that depict events, issues, and about the same time as the printing people of the Renaissance and Reformation press. Research the history of firearms period as well as their beliefs, such as and describe how technological advances humanism and Protestantism. in weaponry contributed to (a) the 3. History, Literature, and Creative Writing: Ideal growth of national armies and navies; Imaginary Societies. Suggest that students (b) the expanding power of monarchies; follow Sir Thomas More’s example and create and (c) the expansion of the slave trade. their own literary utopias. Like Utopia, 2. History, Literature, and Art. Research students’ accounts should describe the rulers, and report on the art of the citizens, religion, culture, government, Renaissance, especially in Italy, Spain, education, and values of the ideal society.

13 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

Transcript On July 7, 1535, Sir Thomas More was escorted Society was changing quickly and writers had more from his cell in the Tower of London. Armed guards power than ever before to spread ideas that made led him to a nearby scaffold. Twice his daughter change happen. broke through the guards to ask him to bless her. Sir Thomas did, and he pardoned his executioner, as was They began to question every aspect of human the custom. existence, including existence itself.

[I am]..the king’s good servant and God’s first. ROBERT PINSKY —Sir Thomas More Fulke Greville was a brilliant English poet who wrote in the late 1500s. In the six-line poem The axe fell, and Sir Thomas More died—for putting I’m going to read to you, he addresses those God above his king. who find out what life is, or try to find out what life is, by considering death, which for a The death of Sir Thomas More was a deep shock to Christian like Greville is a way of interrogating the writers of Europe. To them, More was a hero, a or talking to himself. I think he packs an leading scholar of the European Renaissance. amazing amount into the six lines of this poem. And the moment when he addresses the The Renaissance was a period of incredible creativity reader always gives me something of a chill. that spanned more than 200 years, a cultural flowering that took root in Italy and spread through You that seek what life is in death all of Europe. During the Renaissance, Europe Now find it ere that once was breath. rediscovered its Greek and Roman heritage. New names unknown, old names gone Till time ends bodies, but souls none. “Man is the measure of all things,” said the Greek Reader, then make time what you be philosopher Plato. But steps to your eternity. —Fulke Greville Ideas about the worth and potential of every human being, expressed a thousand years before, affected Sir Thomas More and the Dutch scholar-priest people in the 1400s deeply. This reclaimed value Desiderius Erasmus were among the most famous became known as humanism. Renaissance writers. Their outspoken criticism of the Catholic church would soon kindle widespread What a piece of work is man! How noble in revolt—a conflict called the Reformation—that reason! How infinite in faculty! In form, in would split western Europe into Catholic and moving, how express and admirable! In action Protestant nations. how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! the beauty of the world! the paragon of animals! During the Renaissance, expanded trade in the East Hamlet brought great wealth to Italy. It also brought —William Shakespeare knowledge.

Writers, artists, and scientists now began to Chinese, Indian, and Muslim mathematicians and emphasize truth and accuracy as they took measure scientists were more advanced than those of Europe. of the real world and the heavens around them. They were adept in algebra, chemistry, astronomy, and medicine, and some had preserved the classical Sponsored by such “banker princes” as the studies of Greece and Rome. This “new learning” de’Medici family of Florence, arts flourished fed by spread from Italian cities to the cities of northern the talents of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Europe. Scholars studied physics and examined the Michelangelo, and others. human body. Scientific advances, especially in

14 TEACHER’S GUIDE navigation and weaponry, fostered even more The 1450s also marked the birth of modern expansion and trade. International networks of communications. During the early 1450s, Johannes banking and credit emerged, and the seeds of a new Gutenberg and other German book makers began economy were planted. printing with movable type—carved letters that were set in racks. To make a new page, the typesetter only On May 29, 1453, Muslim armies, led by the had to rearrange the letters. The magnificent Ottoman Sultan Mohammed II, captured the city of Gutenberg Bible appeared in 1456. Constantinople and ended the Byzantine Empire. ROSALIND REMER Many Byzantine leaders fled north to Russia, which Once you had type set into the press, you became the new center of power for the Greek could make as many copies as you wanted or as Orthodox faith. Other exiled Byzantine scholars you needed. But you would always have to be settled in Italy, where they taught the Greek language careful not to make too many because you had and helped rekindle interest in classical Greece. to make as many as you knew you could sell. And you have to spend money on paper and Cut off from their eastern trade routes, Italian ink and labor to make those impressions from merchants turned west and south. Some merchants the press, and until you knew for sure you and ship captains of Italy sailed for Portugal down could sell them, you would only print as many the west coast of Africa. as you needed. Particularly in the early years of printing, they didn’t go overboard printing Prince Henry the Navigator reached the Cape Verde large amounts of material because they had a Islands in 1456. From this base, they competed with fairly limited reading audience. the Arabs for the west African trade in gold—and slaves. The kings of Portugal and Spain rewarded Gutenberg’s triumph gave Europe a new and very their ship captains with land, just as their profitable industry. Printing transformed everyday predecessors had rewarded their loyal knights. life, and early printers became missionaries for their new technology. On the Cape Verde sugar plantations, these new landlords used slave labor, which they still regarded as Those who cultivate letters must be supplied with feudal serfdom. But the way this slave trade was the books necessary for their purpose, and until financed showed a new economy, replacing feudalism. this supply is secured I shall not rest. —Aldus Manutius In the Middle Ages, feudal armies had been formed by temporary alliances of knights, who fought in More and Erasmus belonged to the first generation return for land and favor from their king. But, in the of college students to be educated with printed 1450s, monarchs were hiring their own armies and books. Like their counterparts in Italy, More and navies, who received pay and orders directly from Erasmus and other northern scholars enthusiastically their kings. With the appearance of the first rifles, took up humanism and used printing to circulate royal armies had even greater advantages. To arm and their opinions. Their combination of humanism and supply their troops, rulers turned to the wealthy theology became a trademark of the Renaissance in merchants who controlled the cities. In return, the northern Europe. cities’ leaders received royal charters granting them trading privileges and a voice in government. The A printing press in the cellars of the Sorbonne, then exploration of Africa, India, and America, as well as a theology college in Paris, France, began to print the national wars of the 1500s, were all paid for by French editions of classical and humanist texts. this alliance of monarchs and merchants. The new economic system came to be called mercantilism. The French Renaissance writer Michel de Montaigne pioneered a new literary style—the essay, a short literary composition that explored one main idea.

15 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

A wise man never loses anything if he have himself. Literacy was spreading through the general Of Solitude population, especially among merchants and those —Michel de Montaigne who worked in the printing trades. For these readers, shorter pamphlets were much more affordable than Spain, too, felt the influence of the Renaissance with books. By 1500, thousands of titles were in print. advances in the fields of historical and biblical scholarship. Most people in Europe, including humanists like More and Erasmus, were devout Christians, and Cardinale Jiménez de Cisneros founded the religious literature topped the preferred reading university of Acala de Henares and published a lists—lives of the saints, editions of the Psalms, beautiful Bible in which the text was printed in books of sermons and devotions. The best-selling Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin. titles on the “new science” were those on military technology. Sensational murders, miracles, and But it was in Italy, above all places, that the mystical subjects, such as alchemy, astrology, and Renaissance flourished. The court of Leonello witchcraft, also sold well. Romances of chivalry were d’Estes, at Ferrara, became a center of Italian poetry wildly popular. In 1485, for example, the English and drama. The beautiful epic poem Orlando Furioso printing pioneer William Caxton printed Le Morte was written there by Ludovico Ariosto. d’Arthur—The Death of Arthur—by Thomas Mallory, a modern retelling of the legends of the Of loves and ladies, knights and arms, I sing, Round Table. Of courtesies, and many a daring feat; And from those ancient days my story bring, Advice on manners also sold well. These books When Moors from Africa passed in hostile fleet, appealed to civil servants, lawyers, merchants— And ravaged France, with Agramant their king, people who depended on favors from the expanding Flushed with his youthful rage and furious heat, royal bureaucracies. The Courtier, by Baldassare Who on king Charles’, the Roman emperor’s, head, Castiglione, was published in Italy in 1528 and soon Had vowed due vengeance for Troyano dead. translated into other languages. Orlando Furioso —Ludovico Ariosto During the 1500s, more writers than ever were courtiers themselves, composing sonnets, plays, and One of the most influential books of the songs for the increasingly lavish royal courts. But Renaissance, The Prince, was published in 1513. In thanks to printing, poems composed for monarchs it, the Italian writer Niccolo Machiavelli dropped all quickly became street ballads. pretense of piety and described the actual power plays of rulers. My true love has my heart, and I have his By just exchange one for the other given. A prince...should have no other object or thought, I hold his dear, and mine he cannot miss: nor acquire skill in anything, except war, its There never was a better bargain driven. organization, and its discipline.... The first way —Sir Philip Sydney to lose your state is to neglect the art of war. The Prince Discontent with the Church continued to spread —Machiavelli through all classes of European society. Nobles and rulers resented the Church because it owned many of To counter Machiavelli’s arguments, Erasmus, by the richest lands and cities. To make matters worse, then a priest, published The Education of a Christian church leaders usually refused to pay taxes toward Prince in 1516. But serious books were only a small local defense, while demanding their own fees from part of the booming market for print. the citizenry. Erasmus corresponded with many of his fellow humanist writers deploring the immense wealth and corruption of the church. In 1516 he

16 TEACHER’S GUIDE published an edition of the New Testament in Greek, between Protestant and Catholic forces that making it, and its belief in the redeemability of swept through Europe in the sixteenth century, humanity, available to people for the first time in its and well into the seventeenth. But there was original text. also something we also refer to as pamphlet wars, which is the use of print to get across Like Erasmus, Sir Thomas More demonstrated the your point—to use propaganda.... spirit of reform in his writings. In his book Utopia, he describes an idealized world where everyone is For all its horrors, the Reformation accomplished provided liberty of conscience. many positive social changes. The wars ended the feudal system once and for all, as well as the Church’s It should be lawful for every man to follow the control over literature, science, law, and education. religion of his choice. The Protestant writers who followed Luther gave the Utopia new faith firmer foundations in logic and theology. —Sir Thomas More The reformers also made the Bible available in many On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther, a monk and common languages, so that people could judge professor at the University of Wittenberg, Germany, matters of Christian faith for themselves. Martin nailed a document of protest to the door of the Luther’s greatest legacy, in fact, was his New Castle Church. Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses listed Testament in German. his complaints against church corruption and misuse of power. ROSALIND REMER You have the beginning with Luther’s use of The Protestant Reformation would have occurred print to get his message across, and then into without Martin Luther, but he fanned the fire that Calvin. And you have layers and layers of turned general discontent into an explosion. theology and sort of political structure built into this system of Protestantism. And so The immediate cause of Luther’s anger was the Protestantism was really based on the printed Church’s sale of indulgences—special favors with God word in some ways. sold in order to raise money for wars against the Turks. Many people besides Luther opposed this practice. Meanwhile, the Catholic church made some reforms from within, but also staged its dread Inquisition. After Luther’s protest, German nobles used his ideas The Reformation failed to truly separate church and as legal grounds for seizing church lands. All of state. Instead, national churches were established. Europe were drawn into the controversy. Erasmus, Nations were Catholic or Protestant, depending on More, and other Christian humanists wrote to the religion of the ruler. Luther. They sympathized with his opinions, but urged him to make peace with the pope. Luther grew In 1593, France was reunited under the Catholic even more militant. faith. Charles V of Spain, the Catholic grandson of Isabella and Ferdinand, inherited all the Habsburg If we strike thieves with the gallows, robbers with lands, plus Spain and its American colonies, and the sword, heretics with fire, why do we not much went down in history as Charles the Great. Under more attack in arms these masters of perdition, Charles and his successors, Habsburg Spain enjoyed a these cardinals, these popes...and wash our hands siglo de oro—a golden age of literary excellence. in their blood? —Martin Luther Spanish theater produced great playwrights such as Lope de Vega, Tirsa de Molina, and Pedro ROSALIND REMER Calderón de la Barca. Tirsa de Molina’s comic In a sense there were two wars during the masterpiece, The Rogue of Seville, inspired Reformation. There were the actual battles imitations in many languages.

17 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

Spain’s golden age also produced the first great But the greatest Elizabethan humanist writer of all novelist: Miguel de Cervantes. In Don Quixote, was William Shakespeare. Shakespeare celebrated Cervantes tells a story of an aging, foolish knight English history, retold ancient love stories, composed who has spent his dwindling fortune buying books. classical poetry, and made the English language richer Feudal chivalry had become material for comedy. than ever before.

As Spain was defending Catholic Europe and ROSALIND REMER conquering the Americas, England was becoming the Shakespeare had some political impact. strongest Protestant nation. Because his plays were performed before the queen, he could make some small political At first the English Reformation was more about comment to the queen—though his comments dynasty than religion. After 30 years of marriage, tended to be sort of hidden in the text. So in Henry and Catherine of Aragon had only one the Merchant of Venice, which is famous for its child—a daughter, Mary. Henry wanted a son. But treatment of anti-Semitism, he makes a plea, in the pope would not let him get a divorce. When a sense, for religious tolerance. Henry discovered that his mistress, Anne Boleyn, was carrying his child, he defied the pope, divorced The quality of mercy is not strain’d, Catherine, and married Anne. This was a terrible It droppeth gently as a rain from heaven insult to Catherine’s nephew, Charles the Great, who Upon the place beneath. It is twice bless’d: pressured the pope to excommunicate Henry. The It blesseth him that gives and him that takes. king responded by confiscating church lands, ’Tis mightiest in the mightiest: it becomes stripping the monasteries of their treasures, and The throned monarch better than his crown. demanding that church leaders acknowledge his The Merchant of Venice supremacy over the church. Many English church —William Shakespeare leaders complied. Sir Thomas More refused—and lost his head. Anne Boleyn was beheaded less than a “Good Queen Bess” died in 1601. Shakespeare lived year after Sir Thomas. Her child Elizabeth barely until 1616—long enough to read the last literary escaped the same fate. masterpiece of the English Renaissance: the King James Bible. After Elizabeth’s death, England’s fragile religious After a short Protestant reign by her half-brother peace was shattered. The Church and throne of Edward, and an even shorter Catholic reign by her England were threatened not only by Roman Catholic half-sister Mary, Elizabeth ascended the throne in conspirators, but by Puritans, Diggers, Ranters, Ravers, 1558. She ruled for more than 40 years, presiding and other radical Protestant dissenters. over England’s Elizabethan Renaissance. During the 1600s, in search of liberty of conscience, Elizabeth the Great supported Protestant armies in and armed with the King James Bible, the radicals Europe against her rivals in Bohemia, France, and would topple the English monarch, set up a religious Spain and united England under the Protestant commonwealth, and carry Protestant mercantilism to Anglican church. Her loyal ship captains, John America and around the world. European nations were Hawkins, Francis Drake, and Walter Raleigh, pirated becoming world powers, because of forces unleashed Spanish treasure galleons and explored the Americas. during the Renaissance and the Reformation. In 1588, Elizabeth’s ships defeated the Spanish Armada, or armed navy, at a great battle in the There is a tide in the affairs of men, Which, taken English Channel. at the flood, leads on to fortune; Omitted, all the voyage of their life Is bound in shallows and in Her deeds were celebrated by great writers like miseries. On such a full sea are we now afloat, Edmund Spenser, Philip Sydney, Walter Raleigh, Ben And we must take the current when it serves Or Jonson, and Christopher Marlowe. lose our ventures. Julius Caesar —William Shakespeare 18 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Credits PROGRAM WRITERS PROGRAM PRODUCERS TEACHER’S GUIDE Judith Conaway, lead writer Rhonda Fabian Judith Conaway, writer Bob Burleigh Jerry Baber Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Josh Orth Jack Phelan Teresa Koltzenburg 19 Civilization and Writing (CL949-1CV) Philosophy and Government: The World in Greek Times (CL949-2CV) Empires of Heaven and Earth: The World in Roman Times (CL949-3CV) Faith and Feudalism: The Early Middle Ages (CL949-4CV) Chivalry and Commerce: The Late Middle Ages (CL949-5CV) Renaissance and Reformation (CL949-6CV) New Worlds and New Ideas (CL949-7CV) Industry and Enlightenment (CL949-8CV) Romanticism and Revolution (CL949-9CV) Imperialism and Progress: The Victorian Era (CL949-10CV) World Wars and the Quest for Order: The Early 20th Century (CL949-11CV) Liberation and Change: The Late 20th Century (CL949-12CV)

This Teacher’s Guide may be reproduced in whole or in part for use by students.

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Table of Contents Summary ...... 3 Intended Audience ...... 3 Presenting the Program ...... 3 Learning Objectives ...... 4 History in the Program ...... 4 Literature in the Program ...... 4 Key Words and Concepts ...... 5 Pre-Viewing Suggestions ...... 5 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 5 Discussion: Introducing the Program and Its Key Words and Concepts ...... 5 Post-Viewing Suggestions ...... 6 Content Questions: History ...... 6 H.O.T. Topics: History ...... 6 Content Questions: Literature ...... 7 H.O.T. Topics: Literature ...... 7 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 8 In-Depth Research ...... 9 Extra History Study ...... 9 Extra Literature Study ...... 9 Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study ...... 10 Chronology of History Chart: New Worlds and New Ideas ...... 11 Chronology of Literature Chart: New Worlds and New Ideas ...... 12 Cross-Curricular Explorations ...... 13 Transcript ...... 14 Consultants for the Series ...... 19 Credits ...... 19

Intended for students in junior high school and above. This program is closed captioned.

Summary New Worlds and New Ideas is part of a 12-video monarchy” in response to new cultures they History through Literature series that examines the encountered; it also explores how the mercantile system connections between historical events and the literary linked European manufacturing, west African slavery, figures and works of each era. Other titles in this and American colonization. A new economic alliance— series are listed on the back of this Teacher’s Guide. between monarchs and merchants—allowed Europe to start surpassing the rest of the world in wealth and The opening scene of New Worlds and New Ideas power—and created a whole new class of readers. takes place in the summer of 1660. John Milton, propagandist for the English Revolution, goes into The rising power of the merchants was reflected in hiding as King Charles II returns from exile in the literary world. While many writers continued to France. Already blind, Milton is soon in prison, seek royal patronage, they found in the growing facing possible execution. Fortunately, the great poet middle class a new market for their essays, periodicals, survived to write his masterpiece, Paradise Lost. novels, and satiric comedies, now with ordinary heroes. The literate middle class—to which such This program uses the literary works of Milton and writers as John Milton, Isaac Newton, and John many other writers to report and comment on the Locke belonged—was also the most receptive historical events of the early modern era, when audience for radical ideas in science, education, European nations were becoming global powers. The philosophy, and government. program describes how Europe’s expansion to other continents gave writers new ideas in economics, John Milton’s radical and Puritan circles also government, religion, science, and literature. John supplied many of the Pilgrim and Puritan colonists Milton’s ideals—representative government, liberty of who emigrated to the Americas. The program conscience, and freedom of the press—were among connects Milton to Roger Williams and other the most radical of the time. radical Americans and explains why, by the end of the 1600s, England’s American colonies led the The program also explores how European writers world in providing refuge for those seeking liberty created the myths of the “noble savage” and “absolute of conscience.

Intended Audience This program is designed for students in junior high school and above.

Learning Objectives After watching this program and completing the activities, students will be able to: • List some of the important events that happened in ideas in economics, government, science, world history during the early modern era, between and literature; 1492 and 1700 (see History in the Program); •Describe how and why European writers •Name some of the authors who lived and wrote developed the myths of the noble savage and the during the early modern era and cite some absolute monarch; important literary works of the time (see •Describe the mercantilist system and explain how Literature in the Program); it connected European manufacturing, the west •Give some examples of how the events of the era African slave trade, and American colonization; were interpreted by writers and how writers •Describe the nature of the changes brought about affected historical events; by England’s Glorious Revolution; and •Describe how the discovery of other cultures •Identify some of the radical ideas colonists were led European and American writers to new carrying with them to the New World.

4 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Key Words and Concepts Most of these vocabulary words are in the Transcript, where they appear in bold type the first time they are used. absolute monarchy dynasty mercantilism plantations censorship Glorious Revolution noble savage propaganda charters humanist pamphlets Puritans colonization liberty of conscience Parliament radical commonwealth manufactured patronage slaves

Pre-Viewing Suggestions DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES students to recall some of the reasons Luther If you are showing this program in chronological and other Protestants revolted. Remind order with the other programs in the History through students that the wars of the Reformation Literature series, or if you want to provide established official religions—Catholic or background for students who may have missed the Protestant, depending on the religion of the previous program, lead this review and discussion. ruler—and that monarchies were growing in 1. The previous program, Renaissance and power. Suggest that students follow the Reformation, described how western growing power of monarchs as they watch Europeans broke away from the dominance of this program. one official religion. Identify that religion. [Roman Catholicism] DISCUSSION: INTRODUCING THE PROGRAM 2. Review what was being “reborn” during the AND ITS KEY WORDS AND CONCEPTS Renaissance [the learning of classical Greece 1. Introduce the title New Worlds and New Ideas and Rome] and the new medium [printing] and speculate on the meaning of its terms. that helped Renaissance ideas spread. Suggest After identifying the “New World” as the why classical learning helped erode the cultural Americas, recall when Europeans reached power of the Church. [by introducing great different parts of North and South America. moral ideas that were not then part of Review what other places Europeans were Christian theology] reaching at the same time, and ask students to 3. From their general knowledge, ask students to describe the reasons for European exploration. identify the world-changing event that was As students watch the program, have them happening during the Renaissance. [the look for the “New Ideas” that appeared during Spanish and Portuguese discovery of America] this period. Ask students to recall why England and other 2. Introduce the Key Words and Concepts and European nations did not rush to cross the ask students to define the words they know. Atlantic. [They became caught up in wars over Have them look up unfamiliar words in a religion.] Remind students that for the same dictionary. Suggest that they listen for the reason, the humanistic ideas of the early terms as they watch the program. Pay special printing community spread only slowly. attention to the word “radical.” Most students 4. Ask students to identify the new faith that will think they know what it means; as they arose in rebellion against the official church. watch the program, they should conclude that [Protestantism] Discuss how differences in the radical ideas of one century can become religious belief were used as rallying cries for the basic rights of centuries that follow. both actual battles and “pamphlet wars.” Ask

5 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—NEW WORLDS AND NEW IDEAS

Post-Viewing Suggestions CONTENT QUESTIONS: HISTORY monarchs] What legal means did they use to 1. Why was the summer of 1660 a time of official form this alliance? [royal charter] Describe the rejoicing in England? [Charles II was restored mercantile alliance that financed Columbus to the throne.] and other early Spanish explorers. [between the 2. Why was John Milton put in prison during the rulers of Spain and Portugal and companies of summer of 1660? [Milton had written widely Italian merchants] Based on details from the about radical ideas such as freedom of program, ask students to reason what conscience, separation of church and state, and commodities originally brought profits to these freedom of the press, and had supported Oliver Italian companies. [Like the Spanish Cromwell’s government, even when it beheaded monarchs, the Italians profited from Mexican King Charles I, the new king’s father.] and Peruvian gold and silver.] 3. What kind of government did most ¶ What form of economic activity replaced European nations have during John Milton’s mining as the main way for Europeans to time? [monarchy] profit overseas? [plantation farming] Ask 4. Which two European monarchies were the first students to describe how the plantation system to become global powers? [Spain and Portugal] functioned, including the crops that were 5. What other European nations established far- grown on Europe’s tropical plantations flung trading networks? [England, France, [sugarcane, tobacco, coffee, tea, sugar], who Holland, Sweden, Russia] worked on the plantations [enslaved native 6. What made Spain the wealthiest monarchy in peoples and Africans], where the products of Europe during the 1500s? [the gold and silver the plantations were sold [Europe], what of Mexico and Peru] European ships then carried to Africa 7. What new technology was helping spread radical [manufactured goods, especially weapons], and ideas throughout Europe? [machine printing] what human “commodity” traders exchanged 8. The Huguenots, French Protestants, were one European factory goods for. [African slaves] of the groups who came to America to escape ¶ Ask students to imagine how this system religious persecution. What other groups actually functioned. What elements would be emigrated for the same reason? [Moravians of needed to ensure that the monarchs and Bohemia, Pilgrims and Puritans of England, merchants would collect any profits due to Pietists of Germany] them? [expanded royal bureaucracies, more legal 9. How did New World explorers treat native and banking regulations, more international peoples? [sometimes like children, sometimes laws, greater royal power to tax and punish cruelly, sometimes in whatever manner offenders, stronger armies and navies] What necessary to gain an economic advantage] were some of the risks that might beset a 10. What disasters befell London in 1665 and plantation venture? [changes in royal policy, 1666? [Black Plague and fire] storms at sea, slave revolts, crop failures] Have students draw conclusions about which groups H.O.T. TOPICS: HISTORY lost power because of the mercantile system. For The following Higher Order Thinking questions example, who would suffer because of advances should be presented in order to achieve maximum in firearms manufacturing? [artisans who made effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide weapons by hand] supporting details for general discussion, distribute ¶ Ask students to explain how the mercantile copies of the Chronology of History Chart: New system might limit royal power. [Since the Worlds and New Ideas (page 11). merchant classes, who controlled the English 1. The Mercantile System. What basic economic Parliament and other representative assemblies, alliance made the mercantile system work? were sharing economic risks with the [between middle-class merchants and monarchs, they naturally demanded a greater share in political power.] 6 TEACHER’S GUIDE

2. Monarchy and Representative Government. Ask CONTENT QUESTIONS: LITERATURE students to recall lavish scenes from royal 1. For what masterpiece is John Milton chiefly courts seen in the program and to imagine, in remembered? [Paradise Lost] such a culture, overthrowing and beheading 2. What radical ideas did Milton hold? How did the king. Which people in such a society he circulate them? [In pamphlets that would be most likely to take such action and circulated throughout Europe, Milton argued succeed? [those who resented paying taxes for for dangerous new ideas: liberty of lavish royal lifestyles, disagreed with the idea of conscience, the separation of church and “divine right,” and were wealthy enough to state, and freedom from censorship for writers have leisure time for political activity] and printers.] ¶ Have students speculate, using clues from 3. What poet led the campaign to save Milton’s the program, on why the English Civil War life? [Andrew Marvell] and resulting Commonwealth ultimately 4. Who wrote the first printed book about the failed. Elicit the details that Charles II was in New World? When did this book appear? exile in France, that France was the most [Peter Martyr; 1516] powerful monarchy in Europe at the time, and 5. What literary myth, which appeared in the that only the most radical people in England— first book about the New World, was often such as the Puritans and John Milton— repeated by writers trying to recruit colonists? supported killing the king. [the myth of the noble savage] ¶ Remind students that discontent with the 6. What European monarch was also the author monarchy existed throughout European society. of a propaganda pamphlet in favor of the Have students speculate, using clues from the “divine right” of kings? [James I of England] program, on why monarchies endured. Have 7. What earned Samuel Pepys, a minor royal students identify groups with no rights [captive official, a place in literary history? [a colorful native peoples, slaves], with rights granted to diary describing the events of the 1660s, them by royal charter [mercantile groups, including the Restoration of the monarchy, the manufacturers, printers], and with rights Great Plague, and the Great Fire of London] claimed by dissent and revolution. [mercantile 8. Which English writer created the popular— groups, members of Parliament, religious and false—legends of Powhatan and minorities] Connect the discussion to American Pocahontas? [Captain John Smith] history by asking students to speculate on how 9. What book was owned and read by almost every the goals of mercantile groups and religious reader of English during the 1600s and 1700s? minorities in the American colonies might [the King James Bible, first published in 1611] coincide and conflict. 10. What book, besides the Bible, did most 3. Communications Technology. Remind students English colonists take to America? [Pilgrim’s that printing was quite a new technology Progress, by John Bunyan] during the 1500s and 1600s. Ask them to remember the uses of printing shown in the H.O.T. TOPICS: LITERATURE program. [maps, propaganda about the New The following Higher Order Thinking questions World, plays, poetry, and other literature] should be presented in order to achieve maximum What new audience was becoming literate effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide during this period? [the merchant middle class] supporting details for general discussion, distribute Discuss some of the reasons these classes might copies of the Chronology of Literature Chart: New have for discontent with their society. Ask Worlds and New Ideas (page 12). students to imagine how middle-class literacy 1. “Noble Savage” versus “Savage Brute.” Ask encouraged the spread of dissent. Encourage students to restate the myth of the noble students to make comparisons between the savage in their own words and to recall both early years of printing and the early years of the the classical and Christian origins of the myth. Internet. [classical myths of an ancient Golden Age,

7 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—NEW WORLDS AND NEW IDEAS

Christian accounts of the Garden of Eden] DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES What elements of Indian culture led If you are showing this program in chronological Columbus and other early explorers to order with the other programs in this History through conclude that Native Americans were Literature series, use this review and discussion to innocent? [The Native Americans wore few prepare students for the next program. clothes, which is how the Bible describes Adam 1. Compare the imprisonment of John Milton and Eve before their “fall from grace.”] with that of Sir Thomas More in the previous ¶ Ask students to recall details from the program. Both men faced conflicts of program that contradicted the noble savage conscience. Review More’s major life choice myth. [the advanced civilizations of Mexico [between first loyalty to Church or monarchy] and Peru, attacks on colonists by Native and Milton’s. [between monarchy and American warriors] Remind students that commonwealth] Lead students to the myths are powerful even when untrue. Discuss conclusion that, in the 130 years between the how the alternating myths about Native two events, the Catholic Church had lost Americans—the noble savage and the savage power in England. brute—continue to be reflected in movies and 2. Ask students to speculate on why Milton other popular media. Ask students to give escaped execution even though his crimes examples of more myths. What might be the against monarchy were greater than More’s. consequences of our society’s continuing to Recall the politically powerful group to believe in these myths? which Milton had strong ties. [the merchant 2. The “Divine Right” of “Absolute Monarchs.” Ask class in Parliament] students to restate the myth of absolute 3. Review the central issue of the English Civil monarchy in their own words and to describe War that was resolved by the Glorious where it came from. [European observations of Revolution: the right of Parliament to choose a advanced civilizations in Persia, India, and monarch. Identify some of the most radical China] Speculate on whether those ideas of the time. [liberty of conscience, observations were accurate. [Perceptive freedom of the press] Discuss how these ideas students will reason that the power of “oriental were reflected in the charters of England’s potentates” was not necessarily strong, for all American colonies. Ask students to predict, or its outward show.] Discuss how absolute restate based on their knowledge of American monarchs retain their power. history, how radical ideas from the 1600s ¶ Ask students to recall writers who wrote developed in America during the 1700s. against absolute monarchy [John Milton] and one writer who favored it. [James I] In the long run, of course, Milton’s point of view won out...or did it? What governs the world’s nations today: strong central government or democracy? As students debate, ask them to consider the question in terms of what mattered to Milton: freedom of the press, freedom of conscience, and separation of church and state.

8 TEACHER’S GUIDE

In-Depth Research The following topics for further study will help students make connections between history and literature, between western and eastern history, and between the past and present. EXTRA HISTORY STUDY EXTRA LITERATURE STUDY 1. The Eastern Slave Trade. Most Americans know 1. Life and Works of John Milton. Encourage the basic facts about the Atlantic slave trade, students to read Paradise Lost, a masterpiece of which brought millions of west Africans to the English literature. Assign other individuals or Americas. Few Americans are aware that a study groups to read Areopoegetica and Tenure similar trade existed in east Africa, taking of Kings and Magistrates. Ask students not only millions of Africans to European plantations in to report on the book they read, but to judge the east Indies. Suggest that students research its literary style and read favorite passages to the eastern slave trade, describing its effects on the class. African peoples, European colonists and 2. Lives and Works of the Cavalier Poets. Some of traders, and the economy of southeast Asia. the most elegant, graceful poetry of Milton’s 2. The “Absolute Eastern Monarch”: Fact or Fiction? time was written by poets who supported the To what extent was the European perception of king. Encourage students to read and report on Asian rulers correct? Suggest that students the work of Herrick, Lovelace, and other research the histories of the Ottoman Empire, “cavalier poets.” India, and China during the early modern era, 3 Literature of the Court. Especially after the paying special attention to how much power English Restoration, royal and noble patronage the rulers actually had. What groups kept continued to be the main source of income for rulers in power? What groups opposed royal writers during the early modern era. In power? How did expanding trade with Europe addition, writers tried to avoid censorship. affect the internal balance of power in China Therefore, a great deal of literature reflects and India? [Note: Researchers will discover admiration for the monarchy. Ask students to that in Ottoman lands, India, and China, there report on Racine, Corneille, Moliere, Dryden, were also economic alliances between and other “court writers.” Have them pay merchants and rulers.] special attention to conflicting attitudes toward 3. Nutrition and Addiction. Have students the upper, middle, and lower classes in the research the new European addictions of the work of these playwrights. early modern era—tobacco, sugar, rum, tea, coffee, and chocolate—and the new foods from the Americas—tomatoes, potatoes, pumpkins, and peppers. In their reports, ask students to connect the growing of these crops to the mercantile system.

9 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—NEW WORLDS AND NEW IDEAS

Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study The chronologies of history and literature located on the following pages are designed both to summarize the era covered by the program and to motivate students to learn more about the era. Copy and distribute the chronologies to individual students or study groups. Use the pages for both in-class discussion and extra study assignments. CHRONOLOGY OF HISTORY: CHRONOLOGY OF LITERATURE: NEW WORLDS AND NEW IDEAS NEW WORLDS AND NEW IDEAS 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. Encourage students to restate key ideas and Encourage students to restate key ideas and draw conclusions from details on the chart. The draw conclusions from details on the chart. The following are some conclusions they can draw. following are some conclusions they can draw. •Europe expanded into Asia, Africa, and •During the sixteenth and seventeenth the Americas during the sixteenth and centuries, most European scientists and seventeenth centuries. religious scholars still wrote in Latin. •Europe was undergoing both internal wars •Modern languages gained favor among between Protestants and Catholics and scholars as the 1700s approached. external wars against the Ottoman Turks. •Religious literature included many • The African slave trade expanded steadily versions of the Bible. during the sixteenth and seventeenth •European discoveries of New Worlds centuries. revolutionized both geography and • All of the seafaring European nations took mapmaking. part in the African slave trade. •During the sixteenth and seventeenth • The Ottoman Turks, the Russian Empire, centuries, plays were popular around and the Moghul dynasty of India were the world. expanding during the sixteenth century. •Pamphlets, newspapers, magazines, and •Advanced civilizations existed in Asia, novels were some of the new media that Africa, and the Americas before the arrival developed between 1500 and 1700. of the Europeans. • The Ottoman Empire, Persia, India, •Native Americans, Africans, and Asians China, and Japan were continuing to protested and rebelled against increasing develop their own literature during the European dominance. early modern era. •European conflicts were beginning to •Witchcraft, astrology, and other occult spread overseas. topics attracted reading audiences. •Most European nations were ruled by •Reports from the New World, especially monarchs. about its native peoples, were popular. •Women as well as men sat on the thrones • Literature of ancient Greece and Rome of Europe. was translated and printed, which widened 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask its availability to readers. students to research and report on events listed 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask on the chart. You might want to assign one students to research and report on writers continent to each study group and have group and literary works listed on the chart. You members choose from events in their column. might want to assign one literary category to You might also assign each group a time period each study group and have group members and have group members file reports from choose from writers and works in their different continents. column. You might also assign each group a time period and have group members file reports about developments in different categories of literature.

10 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Chronology of History Chart: New Worlds and New Ideas

DATES EUROPE ASIA AFRICA AMERICAS before Spain expels Moors & Jews; first Songhay Empire invades empire Columbus explores Caribbean Portuguese reach India 1500 rifles appear; Italian wars begin of Mali region; Incas found Quito (Ecuador) 1500– Italian Renaissance reaches Safavid dynasty founded (Persia); Portuguese begin east African Portuguese reach Brazil; 1509 peak; first watches invented Sikh faith founded (India) trade; Oyo & Benin kingdoms begin Spanish settle Cuba & Hispaniola 1510– Luther & Zwingli begin Reformation; Ottoman Turks conquer Syria, Egypt, Spain officially enters slave Spanish explore Panama, Florida, 1519 Charles I founds Habsburg dynasty & Arabia; Portuguese reach China trade & Yucatán & find Maya civilization 1520– Wars of Reformation break out in Babar founds Moghul dynasty (India); Muslim armies invade Ethiopia; Cortés conquers Aztec Empire 1529 Germany; Turks conquer Hungary ships of Magellan circle globe Afonso of Congo protests slavery (Mexico); Inca Empire suffers civil war 1530– Henry VIII of England breaks with Portuguese now ship approx. Pizarro conquers Inca Empire Ottomans conquer Persia 1539 pope; Loyola founds Jesuit order 5,000 slaves per year to Brazil (Peru); Spanish conquer Colombia 1540– Council of Trent begins Counter- Russia begins conquest of Kazan Songhay Empire completes con- Spanish explore from Florida to New 1549 Reformation; Copernicus prints theory & Astrakhan quest of Mali Mexico; French explore Newfoundland Francis Drake captures 1550– Elizabeth I ascends English throne; Mongols invade north China; Turks conquer Tunisia & Algeria 1559 England opens Russian fur trade Portuguese build trade center (Macao) Spanish silver galleons Protestant Huguenots revolt sugar planting begins (Brazil); 1560– Akbar (r. 1560–1605) begins rule English enter slave trade 1569 (France) over Moghul Empire (India) Spanish build St. Augustine (Florida) 1570– Dutch revolt against Spain; Holy Spanish build Manila; Ashikaga Portuguese colonize Angola & Native Americans found 1579 League defeats Turks (Lepanto) shogunate ends (Japan) fail to subdue Morocco Mohawk Confederacy 1580– Spain & Portugal unite; English Russia begins conquest Spain occupies Ceuta Raleigh founds colony; 1589 navy defeats Spanish Armada of Siberia (Morocco) Spanish found Buenos Aires 1590– Henri IV founds Bourbon dynasty Japan unified under Toyotomi Morocco conquers Songhay Spanish colonize south 1599 (France) Hideyoshi; Akbar conquers Sind Empire; Dutch enter slave trade Arizona & New Mexico 1600– Dutch Republic founded; Louis XIII Dutch & English start India trade; Europeans now ship approx. Spanish found Santa Fé; English set- 1609 crowned (France); James I (England) Tokugawa shogunate begins (Japan) 10,000 slaves per year to Americas tle Jamestown; French found Quebec 1610– Thirty Years’War begins (north Europe); English & Dutch settlers fight (India); Powhatan attacks Jamestown; 1619 Richelieu rises to power (France) Manchus invade (north China) English settlers attack French 1620- Catholic League puts down Bohemian English help expel Portuguese Emperor of Monomotapa English Puritans settle Mass.; 1629 revolt; Galileo invents telescope from Ormuz (Persian Gulf) becomes Portuguese vassal Dutch settle New Amsterdam Russians reach Pacific; Shah Swedes settle Delaware; English 1630– Sweden invades Germany 1639 Jehan builds Taj Mahal (India) colonize Rhode Island & Maryland 1640– England fights civil war; Louis XIV Ming dynasty ends (China); Dutch capture slave forts French found Montreal, explore 1649 crowned; Thirty Years’War ends Manchus found new dynasty (west Africa) St. Lawrence, & start fur trade 1650– Cromwell rules (England); Kristina rules Great Fire burns Tokyo (Japan); Dutch settle Capetown; Dutch seize Swedish forts (Delaware); 1659 (Sweden); Pascal invents calculator Aurangzeb assumes Moghul throne French reach Senegal French explore Great Lakes 1660– France expands under Louis XIV; Dutch fleets capture Portuguese Portuguese conquer England takes New York from 1669 monarchy returns to England trade ports (India) kingdom of Congo Holland; English settle Carolinas Europeans now ship approx. 25,000 Hudson’s Bay Co. brings 1670– Russo-Turkish wars begin Maratha kingdom founded (India) 1679 slaves per year to Americas English into fur trade 1680– Turks attack Vienna; Glorious Ming forces expel Dutch from Trekkers move inland LaSalle explores Mississippi; Penn 1689 Revolution takes place (England) Formosa (South Africa) gets charter for Pennsylvania 1690– Habsburgs recover Hungary; Conflict between natives & Quebec resists attack by English found Calcutta 1699 Newcommen builds steam engine Portuguese settlers (Zambezi region) English & Indians after European nations fight: Habsburg European wars spread to Indian Ashanti kingdom rises (Gold Coast); European wars continue to 1700 vs. Bourbon & other dynastic wars & Chinese trading ports English monopolize slave trade spread through colonies

Chronology of Literature Chart: New Worlds and New Ideas

RELIGION, SCIENCE, GEOGRAPHY, NONFICTION: ECONOMICS, FICTION: POETRY, DATES PHILOSOPHY EDUCATION GOVERNMENT, HISTORY DRAMA, FABLES, NOVELS before Savonarola’s pamphlets; Ximenes, Behaim’s globe, first flat map of Manutius prints Greek & Latin de Rojas, La Celestina; 1500 Biblia polyglotta round world classics Brant, Das Narrenschiff 1500– Da Vinci, Notebooks; Ariosto, Cassaria; Kabir, Songs (date approx.) Erasmus, Praise of Folly 1509 Waldseemüller, Cosmographiae Barclay, Ship of Fools 1510– Martyr, De rebus oceanicis et Machiavelli, The Prince; Everyman (anonymous); Luther, Ninety-Five Theses 1519 novo orbe More, Utopia Ariosto, Orlando Furioso first printing of Jewish Talmud; Gil Vicente, Don Duardas; 1520– Vives, De tradendis disciplines Machiavelli, The Art of War 1529 burning of Aztec & Maya codices Castiglione, Il Cortegiano Paracelsus, Die Grosee Oveido, Historia General 1530– Melancthon, Confessio Rabelais, Pantagruel 1539 Augustana; Calvin, Institutes Wundartznel;Tartaglia, Nova scientia de las Indias 1540– Cranmer, Book of Common Prayer; Vesalius, Anatomy; Copernicus, Las Casas, Destruccion Heywood, Proverbs;Howard, 1549 Tridentine Decrees; Coverdale Bible De revolutionibus de las Indias tr. of Aeneid;Ronsard, Odes 1550– Nostradamus, Centuries;Teresa of von Gesner, Historia animalium; Jodelle, Cleopatra Captive; de Leon, Crónica del Peru 1559 Avila, Vida;Tulsidas, Ramcaritmanas Agricola, De re metallica Udall, Ralph Roister Doister 1560– Geneva Bible; Foxe, Book of Martyrs; Mercator & projection maps; del Castillo, Conquista de Nueva Norton and Sackville, 1569 Rabbi Karo, Shulchan Aruch Lusitanus, Curiationum España; first newspaper (Frankfurt) Gorboduc 1570– Douai–Reims Bible; Tulsidas, Gilbert, Passage to Cathay; Bodin, La république; de Camoes, Os Lusiados; 1579 Ramayana (date approx.) Ortelius, Theater of the World Holinshed, Chronicles Ronsard, La Franciade 1580– de Leon, De los Nombres de Cristo; Hakluyt, Divers Voyages;Cesalpino, Marlowe & Kyd, plays; Wu Montaigne, Essays 1589 Hammer Against Witches reprinted De plantis; Stevin, La disme Chen’en, Pilgrimage to the West 1590– Edict of Nantes; Bacon, Essays; Balbi, Viaggio all’ de Mariana, De rege et rege Spenser, The Faerie Queen; 1599 James VI, Demonology India orientale institutione; Historia de España Shakespeare, 12 plays Grotius, Mare libarum; Garcilaso, La Shakespeare & Jonson plays; 1600– Mahabharata tr. into Bengali; King Kepler, Astronomia nova de 1609 martis; Gilbert, De magnete Florida del Inca; Historia de Peru Cervantes, Don Quixote; Kabuki theater Chapman, tr. of Homer; 1610– James Bible Galileo, Siderius nuncius;Kepler, Campanella, Civitas solis; 1619 Harmonices mundi Abu-l Fazl, Life of Akbar Donne, Anatomy of World 1620- Herbert writes poems later Bacon, Novum organum; Mayflower Compact; Grotius, de la Barca, Amor, Honor, 1629 published in The Temple Harvey, De motu cordis Deiure belli et pacis Poder; Donne, Devotions 1630– Bay Psalm Book; Descartes, Comenius, Didactica magna; Corneille, plays; de Rojas, Zorilla, Roundhead pamphleteers 1639 Discourse de la Methode Galileo, Dialogo & Discorsi & Calderón de la Barca, plays Browne, Religio Medici & Milton, Areopoegetica, Tenure of Corneille & de Molina, plays; 1640– von Helmont, Ortus mediciniae 1649 Vulgar Errors Kings; Gassendi, Epicurus Herrick & Lovelace, poems 1650– Ussher, Harvey, Exercitationes;Pascal and Hobbes, Leviathan;Bradford, Bradstreet, Tenth Muse; 1659 Annales veteris testamenti Fermat on probability theory On Plymouth Plantation Corneille, plays; Marvell poems Wigglesworth, “Day of Doom”; Boyle, New Experiments; Moliere & Racine, plays; Dryden, 1660– Le Rouchefoucauld, Reflexions 1669 Bunyan, Grace Abounding Swammerdam, History of Insects plays & poems; Milton, Paradise Lost 1670– Spinoza, Tractatus Theologico–Politicus Anderson, Racine, plays; Dryden, plays; 1679 & Ethics;Pascal, Pensées Use and Effects of the Gunne Bunyan, Pilgrim’s Progress 1680– Borelli, De motu animalium; Penn’s Treaty with Indians; Quakers’ Racine, Congreve, & Chikamatsu, 1689 Newton, Principia mathematica “Against Traffic in Mensbody” plays; Saikatu Ihara, novels 1690– Mather, Wonders of the Dampier, Voyage Round the Locke, Two Treatises on Government; L’Estrange, tr. Aesop’s Fables; 1699 Invisible World World;New England Primer Defoe, Essays on Projects Congreve, plays after Mather, Essays to Do Good; Defoe, Robinson Crusoe; Watts, hymns Newton, Optics 1700 Swift’s satires Swift, Guilliver’s Travels

12 © CLEARVUE/eav TEACHER’S GUIDE

Cross-Curricular Explorations These projects are designed to relate the ideas in the program to other areas of study; assign them to individuals and study groups according to students’ interests and strengths. 1. History, Literature, and Mathematics. and other sports that crossed the oceans. [Tip: Descartes, Leibniz, Kepler, and Pascal—all Read accounts of European explorers.] pioneers of modern mathematics—also wrote 3. History, Literature, and Creative Writing. general works of religion and philosophy. Squanto spoke to the Pilgrims in English when Have students research and write biographies he emerged from the woods. Captured as a of these thinkers. Ask students who are young man, Squanto had already traveled to skilled in math to demonstrate some of these Spain and England. Suggest that students men’s principles of geometry, algebra, research the life of Squanto, Garcilaso Inca, or calculus, and trigonometry. any other Native American who visited Europe 2. History, Literature, and Sports. Polo originated during the early modern era and compose in western China and Tibet, spread to India travel journals from the Native American point and then to England. Lacrosse, which was of view. [Note: using imaginary Native played by the Six Iroquois Nations, was carried Americans to criticize European culture was a to Europe by the French. Canoeing, kayaking, literary convention by writers of the sixteenth and snow shoeing entered Europe from the century. See “On Cannibals,” by Michel de Americas, while bowling, golf, and rodeo Montaigne and Robinson’s discussions with sports came to the New World from Europe. Friday in Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe.] Have students find literary references to these

13 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—NEW WORLDS AND NEW IDEAS

Transcript The summer of 1660 was a season of official rejoicing Milton would go on to write his masterpiece, Paradise in England. Lost, an epic poem that used the story of the Garden of Eden to explore his lifelong obsession—liberty. King Charles II had returned home from his exile in France, and all through the summer, he sponsored Give me the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue parades, pageants, and fireworks in celebration of his freely according to conscience, above all liberties. return to power. After 20 years of civil war and Areopoegetica revolution, England was a monarchy once again. But —John Milton for England’s greatest writer, John Milton, it was a time of terror. He was totally blind, hiding, and afraid Milton also shows his empathy with rebellion in the for his life. defiant speeches of Satan and other demons, after God has cast them into hell. In one passage, ROSALIND REMER Mammon, the demon of wealth, recalls that heaven To begin with, Milton had supported had been an eternity of “warbled hymns” and Parliament’s drive against the king’s father, “forced hallelujahs.” Charles I. In fact, Parliament ordered that his father be executed. Milton played a role in this Let us not then pursue...our state because he served in the government—in the Of splendid vassalage, but rather seek Parliamentary government after the king was Our own good from ourselves... executed and when his son Charles would flee preferring hard liberty before the easy yoke to France. So when Charles II came back to the Of servile pomp. throne, he was very wary of Milton, and Milton Paradise Lost, Book II was a very influential writer and poet, someone —John Milton people paid attention to. And so when he wrote a series of pamphlets that were critical of the While Milton was writing these words, his friend king’s authority, it was very clear that the king Roger Williams and others from their radical circle would not accept that type of writing. were experimenting with “hard liberty” in the American colonies of New England, helping to lay It is lawful...to call to account a tyrant and the foundation for the American Revolution. wicked king, and, after due conviction, to depose him and put him to death. Milton lived during the early modern era, when The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates European nations, led by strong monarchs, were —John Milton becoming global powers—setting up trade networks around the world, conquering native peoples, and In pamphlets that circulated throughout Europe, John building colonies. Milton had argued for dangerous new ideas: liberty of conscience, the separation of church and state, and European expansion led to important new ideas freedom from censorship for writers and printers. in economics, government, religion, science— and literature. Because of his radical ideas, Charles II had captured and imprisoned Milton. A new technology—machine printing—would help to spread these ideas—ideas revolutionary enough to Milton’s friends, led by the poet Andrew Marvell, overthrow kings. desperately campaigned to save his life. In 1500, just 100 years before Milton’s time, And then, to everyone’s surprise, in December of Portuguese ships became the first from Europe to 1660, the king restored the blind poet’s freedom. explore the entire coast of Africa and to eventually reach the coveted shores of India. 14 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Sailing for England, John Cabot’s claim to ROSALIND REMER Newfoundland helped establish an extremely This is something the Europeans both valued lucrative fishing trade off the Grand Banks, fueling and thought was sort of romantic. But it’s also future colonization at Roanoke and Jamestown. something that enabled them, sort of ironically, to treat the natives as not quite Spanish fleets had made several voyages across the humans and to treat them almost like children. Atlantic to the Caribbean, and the Italian captain, And it also made it possible in the European Amerigo Vespucci, sailing on a Spanish ship that mind to conquer the wilderness that the explored the coast of South America, wrote to natives lived in. Lorenzo de’Medici, his patron in Florence, Italy: Like all myths, the idea of the noble savage retained Those new regions which we found and explored its literary power long after it proved to be untrue. with the fleet...we may rightly call a New During the 1520s and 1530s, the Spanish World.... If there is any Earthly Paradise conquistadors conquered the highly organized anywhere in the world, it must without doubt be empires of Mexico and Peru for their gold—and for not very far from here. the “glory of God.” Letter to Cosimi de’Medici —Amerigo Vespucci These were sophisticated cultures advanced in science—especially agriculture, medicine, and This image of an “earthly paradise” struck at the heart astronomy. of many European nations. Their drive to expand was fueled not only by greed, but the powerful desire to Their gold and silver mines made Philip II and spread Christianity. succeeding Spanish kings the wealthiest monarchs in all of Europe. The simple lives of American natives seemed to prove the ancient Greek myth of a golden age of By the late 1500s, the economic interests of Spain human innocence and the Christian belief in a and Portugal stretched around the globe: from the Garden of Eden. mines, ranches, and plantations in the Americas to the slave ports in west Africa, the gold and ivory ports In the first printed book about the New World, in east Africa, and the trading colonies in India, published by Peter Martyr in 1516, an idyllic picture southeast Asia, China, and the Philippines. These of the natives of Cuba was presented. achievements stirred national pride.

ROSALIND REMER The Lusiads, an epic poem by Luiz de Camoes, Peter Martyr’s work was the first book that celebrated the deeds of Portuguese mariners like really illustrated this concept of the noble Vasco da Gama: savage. So, Peter Martyr published the first book in which the concept of the noble savage ...daring every danger, every war, was illustrated. And to the European mind, the With courage that excelled the powers of Man, natives in the New World represented a kind of Amid remotest nations caused to rise a innocence, almost childlike is the way they Young empire, which they carried to the skies. were described, and in a sense closer to nature. The Lusiads —Luiz de Camoes Theirs is the golden age.... They live in gardens open to all. Without laws, without books, The young empires of Spain and Portugal soon had without judges, but by their own nature they competition from other seafaring nations—such as cultivate the right. England, Holland, France, Sweden, and Russia. De rebus oceanicis et nuevo orbe —Peter Martyr

15 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—NEW WORLDS AND NEW IDEAS

The energy and money for this expansion and The Prince brought his elephants about sixe exploration came from alliances formed between the hundred richly trapped and furnished, and his monarchies and middle-class merchants. Both groups fellows by estimation ten thousand Horse, many quickly began to grow in wealth and power. in cloth of gold...Himselfe in cloth of Silver imbroydered with great Pearle and shining in The monarchies would grant charters, or special Diamonds like a Firmament. licenses and privileges, to companies of merchants in Letter from India return for large shares of the profits. Many of these —Thomas Roe royal charters would eventually help to finance the colonizing of the Americas. ROSALIND REMER Europeans who visited Asia, China, India, and By the 1600s, these royal monopolies were being used even parts of Africa came back with reports to control every aspect of trade: raw materials, that rulers in those places had very complete manufactured goods, labor, and distribution. powers. They were able to rule absolutely. And Historians have named this economic system this also included religious rule. When reports mercantilism. of these kinds of empires came back to the European monarchs, they were impressed. In the tropical colonies of America and southeast And they would like to have seen that kind of Asia, Europeans grew the crops that people were power in their own situations. The first rapidly becoming addicted to: sugar cane, tobacco, English monarch to really embrace this myth coffee, tea, and chocolate. of the Divine Right to Rule—that is, the right to rule given to a king by God—was James I, In the more northern colonies, such as Siberia and who really used that as a way to justify his Canada, the Europeans traded with native peoples for actions toward Parliament. furs and timber. The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon These raw materials from around the globe were earth. For kings are not only God’s lieutenants on brought to Europe to be exchanged for manufactured earth, and sit upon God’s throne, but even by God goods, such as books, wine, cloth, metal tools, and himself are called gods. firearms, which were shipped back to the colonies —James I and traded for more raw materials—or to west Africa, to be traded for slaves. The slaves were then shipped But in reality, Europe’s so-called absolute rulers faced to the colonies to work on the plantations. The ships heavy opposition from all classes of society. Literature of each European nation completed the entire circuit of the time shows deep discontent. The English of trade. devotional poet George Herbert used workaday experience to illustrate the paradox of Christian Throughout the 1600s, trade and expansion doctrine. continued to grow. European monarchies reached new heights in wealth and power while the ROBERT PINSKY underclasses struggled. Here’s the spectacular—somewhat frightening— opening sentence of George Herbert’s great The monarchs, and their courtiers, had begun acting poem “Church Monuments.” Someone who is out another literary myth—absolute monarchy. about to go into church to pray stops to organize his feelings and looks at the gravestones outside This myth had developed shortly after Europeans had the church. reached India, southeast Asia, and China, where rulers seemed to have immense wealth and total power. Thomas Roe, the English ambassador, described the court of the Great Mogul of India, in 1617.

16 TEACHER’S GUIDE

...While that my soul repairs to her devotions, Why should you take by force that from us which Here I entomb my flesh, you can have by love? Why should you destroy us, That it betimes may take acquaintance of this who have provided you with food?.... You see us heap of dust unarmed, and willing to supply your wants, if To which the blast of death’s incessant motion fed you will come in a friendly manner. By the exhalation of our crimes drives all at last.... True Historie of Virginia “Church Monuments” —John Smith —George Herbert But in 1610, a year later, Chief Powhatan led reprisal Defying royal censorship in both Catholic and raids that almost wiped out the entire Jamestown Protestant countries, enlightened writers kept alive the colony. As more colonists flocked to the New World, humanist and republican ideals of the Renaissance. and more natives resisted them, the literary image of noble savages in an earthly paradise gave way to the Ideas spread quickly, because many writers still used picture of savage brutes in an untamed wilderness. Latin as an international language and because printing presses, paper, and ink cost less than ever ROBERT PINSKY before. A flourishing underground press kept the royal In these fairly repulsive lines from Michael censors busy—especially in England and Holland, Wigglesworth’s poem “Day of Doom,” he where the most radical printing centers were located. celebrates the fact that the Native Americans died in fairly great numbers when they Radical thinkers such as John Milton identified encountered the microbes brought by the absolute monarchy with the Catholic faith and Europeans. Wigglesworth writes: nurtured a middle-class dissent against the throne. ...The western shore, Both King James and his successor Charles I Where naught but brutes and savage wights persecuted the radical Protestants and Milton for did swarm.... their opposition. As a solution for getting rid of the ...My fatall broom Puritans, the kings granted them charters to start up Did sweep them hence, to make my people colonies in the New World. elbow-room.... “Day of Doom” This approach helped create another important —Michael Wigglesworth literary vision of the New World as a refuge from the problems of the old. Massive poverty, forced labor, By the 1660s, Europe was pulling ahead of the rest of religious persecution, heavy royal taxation, frequent the world in wealth and power, and England was plagues—to all these European problems, America starting to surpass the rest of Europe. With Charles II seemed to offer answers. restored to the throne in England, monarchy seemed more solid than ever. The Huguenots of France, the Moravians of Bohemia, the Pilgrims of England and Holland, and But Charles II’s reign would be marked by two great the Pietists of Germany all founded Protestant natural disasters. settlements in North America during the early 1600s. In 1665, the Black Death plague crossed the channel Alongside religious freedom, the prospect of wealth from Holland to England, killing thousands of people. and power was a strong lure to the New World. Only a second disaster, the Great Fire of 1666, Captain John Smith of the Jamestown colony wrote would cleanse London of the plague. Two-thirds of profitable and persuasive propaganda to encourage the city burned—but so did the rats and fleas that colonizing America. He ascribes these words to the carried the disease. father of Pocahontas, Chief Powhatan.

17 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—NEW WORLDS AND NEW IDEAS

Samuel Pepys, a royal official who kept a now famous ROBERT PINSKY diary during the 1660s, described his emotions. In these lines from Paradise Lost, John Milton evokes the wonder and the melancholy of the It made me weep to see it. The churches, houses, first people walking out into the earth together and all on fire and flaming at once; and a horrid for the first time. noise the flame made, and the cracking of houses at their ruin. ...The world was all before them, where to choose Diary Their place of rest, and Providence their guide: —Samuel Pepys They, hand in hand, with wandering steps and slow, Through Eden took their solitary way.... A new London soon rose from the flames, and although Paradise Lost the royal court returned to its pleasures, the rebuilt city —John Milton was financed by wealthy London traders and stood as a monument to merchants, not monarchs. England’s government had reached a positive compromise. In the peaceful, Glorious Revolution of By the late 1600s, writers were shifting their focus 1688, Parliament finally established its right to away from the upper classes by producing new forms control the monarchy by forcing James II to abdicate of literature—poems in modern languages, periodicals, the throne and inviting his daughter Mary and her and novels—that appealed to middle-class tastes. husband, the Dutch Protestant leader William of Orange, to rule. For the first time, writers began to support themselves by selling their work, rather than relying The Parliament now had the right to control on royal patronage for their livelihood. Toward the the monarchy. end of his life, even John Milton depended on sales for his survival... Now, with less censorship than ever before, English writers looked forward to an expanding world of free ...as did Daniel Defoe, author of Robinson Crusoe, a inquiry. But they knew that they were only beginning great adventure story and parable of Europe’s the journey. exploration of the world... As Isaac Newton wrote: ...and John Bunyan, who like Milton was imprisoned as a dissenter. I seem to have been only a boy playing on the sea- shore, and diverting myself now and then finding While in jail, John Bunyan wrote Pilgrim’s Progress, a prettier pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, another parable of travel, this time through the world whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered of sin to the Celestial City. Pilgrim’s Progress was the before me. one book, besides the Bible, that most English Memoirs colonists took to America. —Isaac Newton

The last decades of the 1600s had emerged as a time of optimism in England. Even Milton, writing of “man’s first disobedience,” ended Paradise Lost on a sad, but hopeful, note.

18 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Credits PROGRAM WRITERS PROGRAM PRODUCERS TEACHER’S GUIDE Judith Conaway, lead writer Rhonda Fabian Judith Conaway, writer Bob Burleigh Jerry Baber Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Josh Orth Jack Phelan Teresa Koltzenburg 19 Civilization and Writing (CL949-1CV) Philosophy and Government: The World in Greek Times (CL949-2CV) Empires of Heaven and Earth: The World in Roman Times (CL949-3CV) Faith and Feudalism: The Early Middle Ages (CL949-4CV) Chivalry and Commerce: The Late Middle Ages (CL949-5CV) Renaissance and Reformation (CL949-6CV) New Worlds and New Ideas (CL949-7CV) Industry and Enlightenment (CL949-8CV) Romanticism and Revolution (CL949-9CV) Imperialism and Progress: The Victorian Era (CL949-10CV) World Wars and the Quest for Order: The Early 20th Century (CL949-11CV) Liberation and Change: The Late 20th Century (CL949-12CV)

This Teacher’s Guide may be reproduced in whole or in part for use by students.

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Table of Contents Summary ...... 3 Intended Audience ...... 3 Presenting the Program ...... 3 Learning Objectives ...... 4 History in the Program ...... 4 Literature in the Program ...... 4 Key Words and Concepts ...... 5 Pre-Viewing Suggestions ...... 5 Discussion: Linking Parts in the Series ...... 5 Discussion: Introducing the Program and Its Key Words and Concepts ...... 5 Post-Viewing Suggestions ...... 6 Content Questions: History ...... 6 H.O.T. Topics: History ...... 6 Content Questions: Literature ...... 7 H.O.T. Topics: Literature ...... 8 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 9 In-Depth Research ...... 9 Extra History Study ...... 9 Extra Literature Study ...... 9 Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study ...... 11 Chronology of History Chart: Industry and Enlightenment ...... 12 Chronology of Literature Chart: Industry and Enlightenment ...... 13 Cross-Curricular Explorations ...... 14 Transcript ...... 15 Consultants for the Series ...... 21 Credits ...... 21

Intended for students in junior high school and above. This program is closed captioned.

Summary Industry and Enlightenment is part of a 12-video Diderot had faith in science as a means of solving History through Literature series that examines the social problems. Their trust in reason also led such connections between historical events and the literary philosophes to challenge the class structure of society. figures and works of each era. Other titles in this The program then describes how Europe’s almost series are listed on the back of this Teacher’s Guide. continual warfare, social problems, and natural The opening scene of Industry and Enlightenment disasters created a growing sense of pessimism among takes place in June 1752, as Benjamin Franklin flies a Rousseau and other writers. Students learn of the kite in a thunderstorm and proves that lightning is Seven Years’ War, or Great War for Empire, and its made of electricity. His discovery of “electric fire” effects on Britain, the American colonies, and France. earns him the nickname “the modern Prometheus.” The program looks at literary and social life in London, Franklin embodied the ideals of his time: he was a where Franklin lived between the Seven Years’ War and self-made man who achieved success by his own the American Revolution. At that time, London was the industry, an apologist for industrial, scientific, and world’s commercial and cultural capital; also during this political revolution. The program uses the work of period, the middle classes were expanding both their Franklin and other writers to explore how Europeans political power and their influence on literature. Writers gradually adopted the ideas of Locke, Newton, and such as Daniel Defoe, Henry Fielding, Samuel Johnson, other pioneers of the Enlightenment. and Edward Gibbon gathered in coffeehouses and circulated pamphlets, discussing such issues as the slave During the 1700s, humanist ideals created a “second trade and taxation of the American colonies. The Renaissance.” Classical ideas, combined with a new program examines how this literary activity helped optimism and reliance on technology, helped spread create the American Revolution. not only the scientific revolution, but the ideals of freedom of religion, freedom of speech, free trade, fair The program also follows revolutionary ideas to Paris, taxation, and representative government. where they helped foment the French Revolution. The program ends with a look ahead to developments The program shows how both the secular and in both the industrial and democratic revolutions, religious writers of the time believed that society especially the struggle for the abolition of slavery. could be improved. Writers such as Voltaire and

Intended Audience This program is designed for students in junior high school and above.

Learning Objectives After watching this program and completing the activities, students will be able to: • List some of the important events of world •Explain how the Seven Years’ War helped history during the late seventeenth and spark both the American Revolution and the eighteenth centuries (see History in the Program); French Revolution; • List some of the authors who lived and wrote •Describe Benjamin Franklin’s role in the during the late seventeenth and eighteenth American and French revolutions; and centuries (see Literature in the Program); •Identify important documents in the •Give examples of how the scientific and development of democracy and the establishment industrial revolutions changed everyday life in of the United States of America. Europe and America;

Literature in the Program The following authors and works of literature are specifically mentioned in the program’s narration. The works are listed in roughly the order in which they are cited in the program. More authors and works are listed in the Chronology of Literature Chart: Industry and Enlightenment (page 13). Benjamin Franklin, The Way to Rousseau, The Social Contract Edward Gibbon, Wealth; revolutionary pamphlets Oloudah Equiano, The A History of the Decline and Fall King James Bible Interesting Narrative of the Life of the Roman Empire John Bunyan, Pilgrim’s Progress of Oloudah Equiano, Or Samuel Johnson, Dictionary of John Locke, Second Treatise on Gustavus Vassa the English Language; Taxation Civil Government Jonathan Swift, Gulliver’s Travels No Tyranny Isaac Newton Samuel Richardson, Pamela James Boswell, Life of Johnson Alexander Pope, An Essay on Man Henry Fielding, Pierre de Beaumarchais, Cotton Mather, Essays to Do Good Tom Jones, A Foundling The Barber of Seville Daniel Defoe, Essays on Projects; Tobias Smollett, Thomas Jefferson, Declaration of Robinson Crusoe Tristram Shandy Independence Diderot, Encyclopédie Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Thomas Paine, The Crisis; Common Voltaire, “Sonnet on the Lisbon The Rivals Sense; Rights of Man Earthquake” 4 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Key Words and Concepts Most of these vocabulary words are in the Transcript, where they appear in bold type the first time they are used. abolition freedom of religion industry representation absolute monarchy free trade lightning rod scientific revolution American Revolution French Revolution Middle Passage slavery calculus frontier Natural Law social contract capital humanists pamphlets taxation corporation immigration periodicals War for Empire democracy independence philosophes enlightenment industrial revolution primogeniture

Pre-Viewing Suggestions DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS IN THE SERIES DISCUSSION: INTRODUCING THE PROGRAM If you are showing this program in chronological AND ITS KEY WORDS AND CONCEPTS order with the other programs in the History through 1. Introduce the title Industry and Literature series, or if you want to provide Enlightenment and speculate on the meaning background for students who may have missed the of its terms. Suggest that students look for previous program, lead this review and discussion. changing definitions of the two terms as they 1. The previous program, New Worlds and New watch the program. Ideas, described how the radical ideas of the 2. Introduce the Key Words and Concepts and ask English Civil War were transplanted to students to define the words. Have them look America by such dissenters as the Puritans, up unfamiliar words in a dictionary. Suggest Roger Williams, and William Penn. Discuss that they listen for the terms as they watch the reasons why the colonists developed forms of program. Pay special attention to the definitions government that were freer than those in of “freedom,” “revolution,” and “independence” Europe. [isolation, need for protection against as they appear in different Key Words. Indians, economics, ideology] 3. Ask students to state what they already know 2. Review the issue settled by England’s Glorious about Benjamin Franklin. Tell the class when Revolution—the right of Parliament to choose a he lived (1706–1790). Ask students to tell you monarch—and discuss why representation in where he lived, and after students identify Parliament became an important issue to the Philadelphia, inform them that Franklin English colonists. actually spent much of his adult life living in 3. Review the new markets and colonies that Europe. In fact, he played a central role in the Europeans opened between the fifteenth and most important European events of his time. seventeenth centuries. Define “mercantilism” Suggest that students keep track of Franklin’s and have students describe how colonies fit whereabouts as they watch the program, into the mercantile system. Remind students noting that he always managed to be where the that, at the time, the world was economically action was. interconnected by European traders; ask students to predict how European wars would affect the world’s politics. 4. Define “scientific reasoning” and “humanism” and review some of the scientific advances that Europeans had made by 1800. Ask students to predict the next level of scientific advance and to discuss the probable effects on society of the early industrial revolution.

5 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—INDUSTRY AND ENLIGHTENMENT

Post-Viewing Suggestions CONTENT QUESTIONS: HISTORY 11. Name some improvements made in farming 1. Name a variety of activities for which and manufacturing during the eighteenth Benjamin Franklin was known. [scientific century. [seed drill, smelting, steam engine, experiments, such as his experiment with hot-metal type, flying shuttle for weaving, lightning, a key, and a kite; writing; printing; cotton gin, steam-power loom] diplomacy; government leadership] 12. What radical movement began in London 2. What were some of the revolutions that took during the years Benjamin Franklin lived place during Franklin’s lifetime? [the industrial there? [abolition] revolution, the scientific revolution, the 13. Which European nation underwent a American Revolution, the French Revolution] revolution as a result of the Seven Years’ War 3. Who were some of the pioneers of scientific and the American Revolution? [France] enlightenment? [Benjamin Franklin, Francis Bacon, John Locke, Isaac Newton] H.O.T. TOPICS: HISTORY 4. What was the difference between the scientific The following Higher Order Thinking questions and religious definitions of “enlightenment”? [In should be presented in order to achieve maximum science, “enlightenment” referred to the human effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide ability to understand, explain, and improve the supporting details for general discussion, distribute world; in religion it meant the ability of people copies of the Chronology of History Chart: Industry to know God and his purpose for them.] and Enlightenment (page 12). 5. What are the various meanings of “industry” 1. The Industrial Revolution. Where did the used in the program? [manufacturing, to work industrial revolution begin? [northern Europe] hard to bring about good] Who financed the industrial revolution? 6. What political system governed most of [companies of merchants, monarchs] Using Europe in the eighteenth century? [monarchy] clues from the program, discuss some of the 7. By the 1750s, about how many Africans were negative and positive effects of the early being shipped to the Americas every year? industrial revolution. [Positive: “useful [more than 50,000] What was the Middle manufactures” improved public life and made Passage? [the trip during which slaves bound nations more prosperous. Negatives: for America were cruelly packed like cargo into modernization of agriculture drove workers off the hold of a boat] the land; the rise in poorly paid factory labor 8. Who won and lost the Seven Years’ War? made cities more crowded.] [England won, France lost.] What was the war ¶ Discuss which groups, such as Native called in the American colonies? [French and Americans, might be threatened by the Indian War] steamboat and other advances in technology. 9. Why did Great Britain increase colonial taxes Ask students to give examples of the same after the Seven Years’ War? [to repay the war trends continuing today (e.g., the trend of debt, to pay costs of defending the frontier] workers leaving the land for cities and factories With what slogan did the colonists protest these continues into our time, and advances in taxes? [“no taxation without representation”] agricultural science are still driving farm 10. Where did Benjamin Franklin spend the time families off their land). between the Seven Years’ War and the ¶ Draw other parallels between the beginning American Revolution, and what was he doing? of the industrial revolution and the beginning [Franklin lived in London, representing the of the communications revolution, which is interests of the American colonies at the British taking place in our own time. Ask students to court and writing pamphlets in support of the identify which nations and groups are growing colonists’ positions.] more prosperous as a result of computer technology and which jobs are being eliminated from the economy. 6 TEACHER’S GUIDE 2. The American Revolution. How did the Seven [Examples: “Early to bed and early to rise, Years’ War help cause the American Revolution? makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.” “A [Parliament tried to tax the colonists to pay for fool and his money are soon parted.”] the cost of the war.] How did increased 2. What one book, which almost every English immigration from Britain and other European speaker knew, was the first book that Benjamin nations help cause the American Revolution? Franklin read? [the King James Bible] [immigrants moved into Indian territory; 3. Who were some of the writers who spread the Britain sent troops to keep peace in Indian “new science”? [Francis Bacon, John Locke, territory, then taxed colonists to pay for the Isaac Newton, Benjamin Franklin] troops] Discuss how the slogan “No taxation 4. Why did Isaac Newton write most of his major without representation” resonated among the works in Latin? [It was still the international American colonists. scholarly language of Europe.] 3. The French Revolution. Remind students that 5. How did Franklin’s generation of writers help the French Revolution was much more violent spread the new science? [by translating than the American Revolution and ask them to scholarly work into modern languages] think of possible reasons for this. Students 6. What practical projects did Daniel Defoe might note that, after the Glorious Revolution suggest in his Essay on Projects? [roads, public in England in 1688, monarchy was more libraries, police and fire departments] “absolute” in France than in England. In 7. Who were the philosophes? [French addition, the American Revolution was the philosophers of the Enlightenment who revolt of distant colonies, while the French encouraged scientific learning by monarchs Revolution was an internal civil war. Discuss and others] What multi-volume work, parts of and compare the logistics of fighting the two which were later burned because of their wars. Students should reason that in America radical essays on religion, did philosophe Denis the strategic advantage was with the rebels, Diderot help edit? [Encyclopédie] Name while in France the military advantage was another philosophe. [Voltaire] with the royalists. 8. How did middle-class literature portray 4. Communications Technology. What important aristocrats? [as bumbling idiots, self-indulgent advance in printing took place during the fops, and heartless villains] eighteenth century? [hot-metal type] Why 9. Who were the heroes of eighteenth-century were pamphlets such an important medium of novels? [middle-class people who triumphed communication? [They were much cheaper to through their own hard work, honest print than books.] Inform students that simplicity, or good-natured cunning] Give Benjamin Franklin always had his own examples. [Gulliver, Crusoe, Pamela, Tom printing press wherever he lived so he could Jones, Tristram Shandy] print his own pamphlets. Ask students to 10. Name the author of the first dictionary of the compare Franklin’s situation with that of English language, the man who was at the desktop publishers today. Discuss the political center of London’s literary life in the advantages of self-publishing—especially eighteenth century. [Dr. Samuel Johnson] freedom from censorship. Compare hand- 11. Name some authors whose work helped create printed pamphlets with computer-printed the American Revolution. [John Locke, pamphlets in terms of aesthetic results, cost, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and distribution. Thomas Paine] 12. What new occupation came into being during CONTENT QUESTIONS: LITERATURE the eighteenth century? [a freelance writer: a 1. What character featured in his book The Way writer who earned his or her living entirely to Wealth and in almanacs made Benjamin from sales of printed work] Franklin wealthy? [Poor Richard] Cite some of Poor Richard’s memorable self-help sayings.

7 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—INDUSTRY AND ENLIGHTENMENT

H.O.T. TOPICS: LITERATURE between the beginning of the scientific The following Higher Order Thinking questions revolution and the early communications should be presented in order to achieve maximum revolution of today. Do people need to effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide understand computer science in order to use supporting details for general discussion, distribute computers? [Not necessarily; however, those copies of the Chronology of Literature Chart: who do know about computer science can use Industry and Enlightenment (page 13). their computers to do a lot more.] 1. Democratic Thinking. What pioneer of 3. Human Potential and Self-Improvement. What philosophy and science wrote Two Treatises on was the meaning of the word “industry” at the Government? [John Locke] What was the main beginning of the eighteenth century? [diligence idea of Locke’s work? [that people had the or lack of laziness] Who were two writers, both right to depose unjust rulers] Why was this a read by the young Benjamin Franklin, who radical idea? [Most nations up to that time wrote essays about self-improvement? [Cotton were founded on the idea that the people Mather and Daniel Defoe] How did their idea existed to benefit the ruler, not vice versa.] of the correct direction of improvement differ? ¶ Ask students to identify some of the [Mather was concerned with moral goodness documents of the American Revolution. that would get a person into heaven; Defoe [Declaration of Independence, Constitution, was concerned with practical ideas to improve Bill of Rights] Discuss how these documents life on Earth.] What ideas for urban reflected Renaissance humanism, especially improvement did Franklin and his associates in the ideals of happiness as a worthwhile Philadelphia try to put into practice? [public human goal and the basic dignity and worth libraries, better roads, police and fire of individual human beings. departments] 2. Scientific Thinking. Why is Isaac Newton called ¶ Ask students to define “humanism” in their “the father of the new science”? [He own words and read selections from An Essay on formulated basic laws of gravity, light, and Man, the great humanist poem by Alexander color, and helped develop modern algebra and Pope. Read selections from the poem. What calculus.] Why did the new science constitute were some of the ideals of humanism? [the a challenge to established religion? [Science desirability of human happiness and freedom of used scientific laws instead of miracles to religion, the belief that people could improve explain events in nature.] society] Discuss how Poor Richard, Franklin’s ¶ What were some of the practical self-made hero, helped create the United States, applications of science that were invented a self-made country. during Franklin’s time? [canals, watermills, 4. Abolition of Slavery. Ask students to remember Franklin’s lightning rod, first steam engines, which great writer taunted the American smelting furnaces, spinning and weaving colonists on the issue of slavery. [Samuel machines] What important scientific Johnson, in his pamphlet “Taxation No principles were being formulated during the Tyranny”] When and where did Benjamin eighteenth century? [scientific laws concerning Franklin get involved in the abolition motion, gravity, light, and electricity; movement? [when he was living in London] principles of algebra and calculus] Using details from the program as well as their ¶ Note the differences between people’s general knowledge of American history, practical use of a scientific application and their students should analyze the reasons why understanding of how it works. For example, slavery was not abolished by the young United did people who used lightning rods understand States of America. electricity? [not necessarily] Draw parallels

8 TEACHER’S GUIDE DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES many subjects—including government, If you are showing this program in chronological literature, art, and music—became the norm order with the other programs in this History through (even examples from current history will serve Literature series, use this review and discussion to the purpose of analysis). Name some radical prepare students for the next program. ideas that never became widely accepted. Have 1. Compare the ideas of Benjamin Franklin, students suggest possible reasons for this. Thomas Jefferson, and Thomas Paine with 2. Think about how the spread of scientific those of John Milton in the previous program. thinking led to more acceptance of radical Review Milton’s major life choice [between political thinking. [Both science and liberal monarchy and commonwealth] and Franklin’s. politics questioned the established order of [between monarchy and democracy] Point out monarchy, controlled trade, and official religion.] that since Milton’s ideas were too radical for 3. Ask students to evaluate Franklin’s skill in Cromwell’s Commonwealth, he probably using self-printed pamphlets to spread his would have preferred to live in Franklin’s time. point of view and gain support for American Lead students to the conclusion that, in the democracy. Point out that after 1800 the century after Milton’s death, radical ideas industrial and scientific revolutions would gained much more widespread acceptance. continue to spread around the world. Ask Have students give examples of other instances students to predict the political consequences. throughout history when radical ideas about

In-Depth Research The following topics for further study will help students make connections between history and literature, between western and eastern history, and between the past and present. EXTRA HISTORY STUDY taxation, economic organization, and religion. 1. European Dynastic Wars. For most of the Researchers should also compare the leaders of eighteenth century, European nations fought the two rebellions, especially in terms of class. wars over the succession to various European In their reports, students should also note thrones. Have students research and report on specific connections between the two the War of the Spanish Succession, the Great revolutions (e.g., the roles of Benjamin Northern War, the War of the Polish Succession, Franklin, Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, and the War of the Austrian Succession. John Adams, and the Marquis de Lafayette in Researchers should identify the nations that both conflicts). fought the war, list the winners and losers, and describe some of the social consequences. EXTRA LITERATURE STUDY 2. The Balkan Wars. Tragically, the eighteenth- 1. The Rise of Periodicals. Newspapers and century wars in the Balkans still have magazines boomed during the eighteenth repercussions today. Have students research the century. Have students research this fighting among Serbs, Muslims, Russians, and phenomenon, including statistics on growing Turks during the eighteenth century and relate literacy, examples of magazines and newspapers the events of those times to the conflicts in the from various countries, and analysis of these Balkans today. periodicals’ contents. Selections from 3. American versus French Revolutions. Research eighteenth-century periodicals should also be the issue of why the French Revolution was so included in students’ reports. much more violent than the American 2. The Rise of Novels. Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Revolution (see H.O.T. Topics: History, Crusoe and Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels are Question 3). Research should include just two examples of the novel, a new literary comparisons of the British and French medium that developed during the eighteenth monarchies on such key issues as censorship, century. Ask students to research how the novel 9 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—INDUSTRY AND ENLIGHTENMENT

developed and to read and report on works by should find out about Franklin’s political the creators of the English novel, including missives as well as his scientific Defoe, Swift, Henry Fielding, Tobias Smollett, correspondence. Remind students that the Samuel Richardson, Ann Radcliffe, Horace American revolutionaries communicated Walpole, and Mary Shelley. through “committees of correspondence.” In 3. Benjamin Franklin’s Letters. The story of their reports, students should mention Franklin’s kite-flying appears not only in his Franklin’s position as postmaster general of Autobiography, but also in a letter from Joseph several colonies, which allowed him to organize Priestley, discoverer of oxygen and one of revolutionary letter writing. (It would be Franklin’s many correspondents. Suggest that interesting, too, to find out how scientists students review a collection of Franklin’s letters communicate with each other today, noting and make a list of his international scientific particularly that the Internet was originally correspondents. If possible, have students list designed by scientists and other scholars for the topics discussed in the letters. Students exactly this purpose.)

10 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study The chronologies of history and literature located on the following pages are designed both to summarize the era covered by the program and to motivate students to learn more about the era. Copy and distribute the chronologies to individual students or study groups. Use the pages for both in-class discussion and extra study assignments. CHRONOLOGY OF HISTORY: CHRONOLOGY OF LITERATURE: INDUSTRY AND ENLIGHTENMENT INDUSTRY AND ENLIGHTENMENT 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. Encourage students to restate key ideas and Encourage students to restate key ideas and draw conclusions from details on the chart. The draw conclusions from details on the chart. The following are some conclusions they can draw. following are some conclusions they can draw. •Technology was developing rapidly during •During the eighteenth century, most the eighteenth century. European scientists and scholars wrote in •European wars during the eighteenth modern languages. century were fought over succession to the •Modern languages gained favor among thrones of European nations. scholars as the 1700s approached. • The African slave trade expanded steadily •Some writers during this time translated during the eighteenth century. the literature of ancient Greece and Rome. •Britain superseded France as the greatest • Although philosophers began to attack world power after the Seven Years’ War. Christianity during the 1700s, •Because of the slave trade and European Christianity also developed new forms, and Muslim expansion, there was such as Methodism. considerable internal migration in Africa •During the eighteenth century, plays were during the 1700s. popular around the world. •Native Americans, Africans, and Asians 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask protested and rebelled against increasing students to research and report on writers European dominance. and literary works listed on the chart. You 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask might want to assign one literary category to students to research and report on events listed each study group and have group members on the chart. You might want to assign one choose from writers and works in their continent to each study group and have group column. You might also assign each group a members choose from events in their column. time period and have group members file You might also assign each group a time period reports about developments in different and have group members file reports from categories of literature. different continents.

11 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—INDUSTRY AND ENLIGHTENMENT

Chronology of History Chart: Industry and Enlightenment

DATES EUROPE ASIA AFRICA AND OCEANIA AMERICAS Peter I tours Europe incognito; Japanese prime minister Omanis expel Portuguese from King William’s War ends (North before English invent steam pumps; assassinated; Russia & China Horn of Africa; Boers trek America); French build Illinois 1700 Louis XIV of France loses sign Treaty of Nerchinsk; inland (South Africa); 35,000 forts; Portuguese discover gold territory to Grand Alliance Chinese take Taiwan enslaved per year (1651–1600) (Brazil)

England & Scotland unite; Darby Algeria, Tripolitania, & Tunisia German immigrants flood to 1700– smelts iron; Tull invents seed Aurangzeb dies (India); shogun break free from Ottoman Turks; Pennsylvania & New York; 1709 drill; Russia defeats Sweden at Sunayoshi dies (Japan) Ashanti kingdoms rise (Gold Louisiana becomes French royal Poltava; Halley identifies comet Coast) province

George I ascends British Britain gets Nova Scotia & Moghul Empire breaks apart throne; War of Spanish British get Gibraltar & found Newfoundland after Queen 1710– (India); Russians fight Turks; succession ends; Louis XIV South Sea Company Anne’s War; Carolina colonies 1719 Mir Vais founds Afghanistan dies (France) divide; French attack Brazil

Great Northern War ends; Czar Russians, Turks, & Afghans Spanish & Mexicans colonize 1720– Peter I issues Spiritual carve up Persia; K’ang Hsi dies Dahomey expands to sea; Texas & Uruguay; Tuscaroras & 1729 Regulations; Wesley founds (China); Yoshimune codifies “South Sea bubble” pops slaves rebel (Carolinas); Methodism laws (Japan) Russians reach Alaska

Russians & Turks fight; Kingdom of Bornu revives British colonize Georgia; Bering War of Polish Succession takes Nadir Shah deposes Safavid 1730– (Sudan); Kingdom of Oyo reaches Alaska; French fur place; Kay invents flying shuttle dynasty (Persia); 1739 invades Dahomey traders reach Rocky Mountains Persians sack Delhi (India)

Habsburgs & Bourbons fight Great Awakening begins in 1740– War of Austrian Succession; Wahabi movement begins 58,000 enslaved per year English colonies; slaves rebel 1749 Prussia rises to power; Leyden (Arabia) (1701–1750) (South Carolina); Franklin jar developed invents stove & opens library

British defeat French (India); Franklin flies kite & writes Albany Earthquake rocks Lisbon Funj conquer north Sudan; China conquers Tibet; Plan; colonies fight French and 1750– (Portugal); Seven Years’War Masai move to Tanzania; Tutsis Alaungyapa defeats British & Indian War; British capture 1759 begins move to Rwanda & Burundi unites Burma Quebec

Seven Years’War ends; Bruce reaches Blue Nile; Seven Years’War ends; France Seven Years’War ends; Afghans defeat Marathas & Ashanti invade coast; Boers loses northern colonies; Pontiac 1760– spinning jenny invented; Watt Great Famine kills 10 million cross Orange River; Cook & rebels; Bourbons reform Spain’s 1769 patents steam engine (India) Dampier begin exploring Pacific colonies

Austria, Russia, & Prussia Turks and Russians fight; American Revolution breaks out; divide Poland; pope abolishes Egyptians capture Damascus; 1770– Cook discovers Hawaii Fr. Serra founds missions; Boone 1779 Jesuit order; Priestley identifies British fight First Maratha War crosses Appalachians oxygen (India)

hot-air balloon ascends Selim III reforms Ottoman Tuaregs take Timbuktoo; British U.S. wins Revolution, creates 1780– (France); Gordon riots shake Empire; British fight Mysore & take Sierra Leone; Boers fight constitutional government, & 1789 up London; British develop Maratha wars (India); Muslim Kaffir Wars; British claim expands into Ohio Valley steam-powered textile mills revolt suppressed (China) Australia & New Zealand

French Revolution and Reign of Russians and Turks fight again; Napoleon invades Egypt; U.S. Bill of Rights ratified; 1790– Terror end monarchy; Napoleon Kajars begin rule (Persia); Mungo Park explores Niger Whitney invents cotton gin; 1799 rises to power; hydraulic press Britain conquers Ceylon; Ch’en River; 87,000 enslaved per Haiti’s slaves revolt; McKenzie invented Lung ends rule (China) year (1751–1800) explores western Canada

Britain ends slave trade; Fulton builds steamboat; England, Spain, France, Italy, White Lotus Rebellion put Ashanti armies overrun Fante U.S. buys Louisiana; after Belgium, & others fight down (China); states; Cape Colony ceded to Lewis and Clark & Pike explore 1800 Napoleonic Wars British colonize Singapore Britain West 12 © CLEARVUE/eav TEACHER’S GUIDE

Chronology of Literature Chart: Industry and Enlightenment

RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY SCIENCE, EDUCATION, NONFICTION: FICTION: POETRY, DATES GEOGRAPHY GOVERNMENT, HISTORY DRAMA, NOVELS Mather, Wonders of the Locke, Two Treatises on L’Estrange tr. Aesop’s Fables; before Invisible World; Locke, Essay Dampier, Voyage Round the Government; Defoe, Essays on Dryden, Cibber, Congreve, & 1700 Concerning Human World;New England Primer Projects;Sewall, Selling of Racine, plays; Mother Goose Understanding Joseph;Sidney, Discourses Tales

Mather, Essays to Do Good; Rowe, Vanbrugh, Cibber, 1700– Taylor, Christographia & Swift, satires; Addison and Steele, Farquhar, Lesage, & de Newton, Optics 1709 Meditations Steele, Tattler; Campbell, Crebilion, plays; Arabian Nights News-Letter (Boston) tr. to English

Watts, Psalms of David; Gay, Cibber, Lesage, & Voltaire Taylor, Methodus Leibniz, Monadology; Addison and Steele, Spectator; plays; Pope, Essay on 1710– incrementorum directa et Berkeley, On Human Lady Montagu, Letters Criticism; Defoe, Robinson 1719 inversa Knowledge Crusoe; Kiseki, novels

Watts, Divine and Moral Songs de Reumier, first tech. manual Swift, Gulliver's Travels; Montesquieu, Persian Letters; for Children;Law, Serious Call on steelmaking; Hales, Defoe, Moll Flanders; 1720– Franklin, Pennsylvania Gazette; to a Divine and Holy Life; Vegetable Statics; Rameau, Congreve, plays; 1729 Swift, Modest Proposal Woolston, Six Discourses Treatise on Harmony Chikamatsu, puppet plays

Newton, Concerning Hales, Haemostatics; Franklin, Poor Richard’s Pope, Essay on Man; 1730– Prophecies of Daniel; Butler, Euler, Mechanica; Almanac; Montesquieu on fall Prévost, novels; Cibber, 1739 Analogy of Religion; Kanjur, Linnaeus, Genera Plantarum; of Rome; Voltaire, English Voltaire, Marivaux, Congreve, Tibetan Buddhist sutras Bernoulli, Hydrodynamics Letters Lesage, & Gil Blas, plays

Maupertuis, Cosmology; Venus Richardson, Fielding, & Edwards, “Sinners in the Diderot, Pensées physique; l’Alembert, Traité de Smollett, novels; Cibber & 1740– Hands of an Angry God”; philosophiques; Montesquieu, dynamique; Buffon, Histoire Voltaire, plays; Pope, Dunciad; 1749 Wesley, Rules Spirit of the Laws naturelle Hamziya, first Swahili epic

Swedenborg, The New Franklin, Albany Plan & Way to Smollett, novels; Johnson, 1750– Jerusalem; Le Mettrie, Maupertuis, Systeme de la Wealth; Johnson, Dictionary of Rasselas;Voltaire, Candide; 1759 Systeme d’Epicure; Helvetius, nature; Lind, On Scurvy the English Language; Goldoni, plays De l’esprit; Whitehead, Hymnal Quesnay, Tableau economique

Rousseau, The Social Contract Sterne, Tr istram Shandy; d’Holbach, Christianity Rosenstein, Diseases of & Confessions; Walpole, Castle of Otranto; 1760– Exposed & Natural History of Children;Priestley, History and Franklin, pamphlets; Goldoni, Beaumarchais, & 1769 Superstition Present State of Electricity Hume, History of England Lessing, plays

d’Holbach, Systeme de la Smith, Wealth of Nations; Jefferson, Goethe, Faust; Smollet & 1770– Hume, Concerning Natural nature; Encyclopaedia Declaration of Independence; Paine, Burney, novels; Goldsmith, 1779 Religion;Woolman, Journal Britannica begins; Diderot’s Common Sense; Gibbon, Decline poems & plays; Sheridan & Encyclopédie completed and Fall of Roman Empire Beaumarchais, plays

Kant, Critique of Pure Reason; Cavendish, Experiments on Madison & Hamilton, Federalist Beaumarchais, Schiller, & 1780– Bhagavad-Gita tr. to English; Air; Lagrange, Mechanique Papers;U.S. Constitution; Lessing, plays; Burns & Blake, 1789 Mendelssohn, German Talmud; Analitique;Lavoisier, Elements Madame de Stael, Letters;Vassa, poems; Landívar, Rusticatio Abad, De Deo of Chemistry Life of Oloudah Equiano Mexicana

Kant, Critique of Judgment; U.S. Bill of Rights; Paine, Rights Schiller, plays; Blake, poems; Hutton, Theory of the Earth; Schleiermacher, Religion: of Man; Boswell, Life of Wordsworth & Coleridge, 1790– Jenner on vaccination; Speeches to Its Cultural Johnson;Wollstonecraft, Rights Lyrical Ballads; Radcliffe, 1799 Edgeworth, Practical Education Despisers of Women novels

Wordsworth, Blake, Byron, Davy, Researches & On Webster, American dictionary; after Bentham, Schopenhauer Shelley, & Keats, poems; 1800 Electricity; Dalton on chemistry Irving, History of New York Shelley, Frankenstein

Cross-Curricular Explorations These projects are designed to relate the ideas in the program to other areas of study; assign them to individuals and study groups according to students’ interests and strengths. 1. History, Literature, and Urban Planning: close-formation firing. Students might also Franklin’s Philadelphia. The Philadelphia of want to describe why this European style of Franklin’s day attracted international fighting did not succeed against the guerrilla admiration as a model of rational city tactics of the American rebels. planning. Have students research William 3. History, Literature, and Music. Suggest that Penn’s plans for the city as well as students research the music that Franklin improvements made by Franklin’s generation. might have heard in the theaters of London Consult travel accounts of Peter Kalm, the and the salons of Paris. Students should also Marquis de Lafayette, and de Crevecour for find folk songs that date from Franklin’s time. early descriptions of the city. Ask musically talented students to perform 2. History, Literature, and Military Technology. The some of the music for the class. Seven Years’ War was the first global war and 4. History, Literature, and Art. Have interested one of the first to make use of the modern students research the lush paintings, sculpture, army, perfected by Frederick the Great of and architecture of the baroque, the rococo Prussia. Have students research the military style that followed the baroque period, and, technology of the time, concentrating on how finally, the manifestations of the advances in cannonry and musketry made Enlightenment found in the precise gardens of possible larger, closer military formations. Louis XIV and the orderly works by artists of Suggest that students consult historical military the Academy. Students can select their favorite manuals for information on how squadrons styles and artists and report to the class using formed and marched, the functions in battle of illustrations found on CD-ROMs and works cavalry and infantry, and the advantages of of art seen in the video or in books.

14 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Transcript On a June night in 1752, on a hill outside Faith that human effort, or “industry” as it was Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, a man named called, could and would improve society was Benjamin Franklin flew a kite in a thunderstorm— central to Enlightenment thinking. In 1758 and proved that lightning was electricity. Franklin published The Way to Wealth, a self-help book of sayings, attributed to the fictional “Poor The poets and journalists who spread the word Richard.” It was a bestseller in English, German, about Ben Franklin’s amazing discovery of French, and Italian. “electric fire” made him famous. They compared him to the Greek hero Prometheus, who Laziness travels so slowly, that Poverty soon discovered fire by stealing it from the gods. overtakes him. Early to Bed, and early to rise, makes a Man Europeans marveled that “the American sage” healthy, wealthy, and wise. didn’t even have a university education. Franklin proudly called himself a “leather-apron man”— Diligence is the Mother of Good Luck, and an ordinary worker—who had educated himself God gives all Things to Industry. and made his own fortune. The Way to Wealth —Benjamin Franklin Franklin became a living symbol of his time—the self-made man, hero of the age of industry and During the 1700s, the word “enlightenment” had enlightenment. both religious and scientific meanings.

Two ideas—industry and enlightenment—are The King James Bible, for example, speaks of “the woven through much of the literature of the eyes of your understanding being enlightened.” eighteenth century. The writers who refined and spread these ideas fed the flames of the coming This great Bible, first published in 1611, was industrial revolution and helped to create familiar to every English speaker. It was the first political revolution as well: the change from book Benjamin Franklin read. monarchy to democracy. The second was Pilgrim’s Progress, by John Even as practical applications of science—such as Bunyan, the story of a Christian who became canals, watermills, and Franklin’s lightning rod— enlightened in his journey to the celestial city. started to improve everyday life, ideas about self- determination were being discussed by educated Among the pioneers of scientific enlightenment people everywhere. were the English philosophers Francis Bacon, John Locke, and Isaac Newton. These writers, SUSAN BALÉE like Greek humanists centuries before them, In his autobiography Ben Franklin says, “I proposed that knowledge came not from divine learned what tyranny was all about from inspiration, but from human experience. working for my older brother. And that feeling never left me.” Well, they were also Locke carried this reasoning into the political feeling tyranny in the colonies because of realm. He argued that government was not a the English presence there. Even in the divine, but a human, institution—the result of 1720s, Benjamin Franklin and his elder “social contract” between rulers and subjects. brother James published the second Like all contracts, governments could be altered newspaper ever in the American colonies. at the people’s will. It was called the New England Current. And in this they would lampoon some of the English leaders of the day. 15 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—INDUSTRY AND ENLIGHTENMENT

Whenever the legislators endeavor to take Humanists like Pope believed that individual away and destroy the property of the people, happiness was a worthwhile human goal and that or to reduce the people to slavery under reason was the surest path to reach it. arbitrary power, they put themselves into a state of war with the people, who are thereby ROBERT PINSKY absolved from any further obedience. He makes that idea of reason seem sneaky, Second Treatise on Civil Government surprising, and explosive. Here’s just four —John Locke lines from An Essay on Man. Listen at the end with what he does with the word Even as Enlightenment thinkers argued that “bear” as paired with the word “dare.” human religions and laws were relative and changeable, they were discovering some Oh, happiness! our being’s end and aim! immutable truths—the laws of science, which Good, Pleasure, Ease, Content! whate’er thy they called Natural Law. name: That something still which prompts th’ eternal sigh. For which we bear to live, or The father of the new science was Isaac Newton. dare to die. He formulated basic laws of gravity, light, and color, and helped develop modern algebra and Humanists also favored freedom of religion. calculus. When Newton died in 1720, the poet Fierce wars between Catholics and Protestants had Alexander Pope wrote: torn Europe apart during the 1600s. Pope and other humanists called for an end to this evil. Nature and Nature’s Laws lay hid in Night. God said, “Let Newton be!” and all was Light. Enlightenment writers, religious and scientific, Epitaph intended for Sir Isaac Newton believed that people could create a better world. —John Locke As a young man, Ben Franklin was affected The generation of writers that followed Newton profoundly by the book Essays to Do Good, by translated his work from Latin and spread the Cotton Mather, a famous New England preacher. new science to the general public. He also read Essays on Projects, by the British Technological advances in printing and merchant and writer Daniel Defoe. Defoe papermaking finally made books affordable by suggested many reforms: roads, public libraries, ordinary people. This surge of new readers caused police, and fire departments. Years later, in a “second Renaissance” during the 1700s. Philadelphia, Benjamin Franklin and his friends implemented many of Defoe’s ideas. SUSAN BALÉE A lot of the thinkers in the Enlightenment “What signifies hoping and wishing for better went back to the ancient Greeks and Times?” asked Poor Richard. “We may make Romans and said, “What were they thinking these Times better, if we bestir ourselves.” of and how can we use that to understand The Way to Wealth our own period?” And in the Enlightenment —Benjamin Franklin the emphasis is briefly off the intensity of religion—science has taken the focus off of Writers often expressed ideas through private religion and mysteries, and only God knows letters. They knew their letters would be shared the universe—and it’s put it on man. That’s with like-minded individuals. Such sharing really what humanism is about. eventually built a revolution.

16 TEACHER’S GUIDE Their revolutionary ideas included freedom of salvation, obtained by doing God’s will—not speech, representative government, free trade, personal happiness—should be humanity’s goal. and fair taxation. Enlightenment science also challenged religion British, Dutch, and German merchants were because it used scientific laws instead of “God’s interested in making and keeping their profits. will” to explain events in nature.

With their pooled capital, private companies In 1755, a major earthquake hit the western invested in projects, such as canals and ironworks, Mediterranean. More than 60,000 people were that applied the latest scientific technology. killed in Lisbon, Portugal. Then Mt. Etna erupted in Italy, killing several thousand more. England pioneered many of the most important The events triggered months of debate about inventions: Jethro Tull’s mechanical seed drill, the whether such disasters were signs of God’s wrath. smelting process for iron ore, the steam engine, hot-metal type for printing, the “flying shuttle” For Voltaire, the Lisbon quake gave reason to for mechanical weaving. question not only the Christian idea of a benevolent God, but also the Enlightenment idea Wealth created by technological advances, of trusting in human effort and Natural Law. especially in agriculture, made Holland and Great Britain the envy of other nations. ROBERT PINSKY These are lines from Voltaire’s sonnet on In France, enlightened writers formed a group that earthquake. called the philosophes. Much of the philosophes’ energy was devoted to bringing France up to Unhappy mortals! Dark and mourning earth! Dutch and British economic standards. Affrighted gathering of human kind! Eternal lingering of useless pain! A few European rulers were farsighted enough to Come, ye philosophers, who cry, “All’s Well,” improve their manufactures and invest in And contemplate this ruin of a world. scientific pursuits. Voltaire, the most famous of “Sonnet on the Lisbon Earthquake” the philosophes, referred to such rulers as —Voltaire “enlightened despots.” Such flattery was necessary for securing royal approval, without which no Even more ruinous than natural disasters like one was allowed to write. earthquakes were man-made ones: slavery and war.

Though they dreamed of a freer society, the Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a young Swiss writer philosophes, like most European writers, lived living near Paris, noted how far reality was from under an “absolute monarchy.” The king’s word Enlightenment ideals. was law, and the king’s religion was the official faith. Those who wrote in favor of freedom of Man was born free, but he is everywhere religion risked the royal wrath. in chains. The Social Contract Several volumes of Denis Diderot’s —Jean-Jacques Rousseau Encyclopedia—a masterpiece of French literature—were confiscated and burned by royal By the 1750s, over 50,000 Africans a year were order because it contained many liberal essays on being captured and sold as slaves. art, politics, and religion. The dreadful “Middle Passage” across the Enlightenment humanism offended many Atlantic Ocean is recounted in this rare firsthand conservative religious people. They believed that account by Oloudah Equiano. In 1756, when he

17 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—INDUSTRY AND ENLIGHTENMENT

was 11 years old, Equiano was kidnapped and However, even Great Britain, the clear victor, crowded into a slave ship bound for America. went into economic and social shock after the Great War for Empire. The air soon became unfit for respiration, from a variety of loathsome smells, and brought on a The war increased the British national debt by at sickness among the slaves, of which many least 60 million pounds. died.... The shrieks of the women, and the groans of the dying, rendered the whole a scene To settle this debt, Britain tried to tax its of horror almost inconceivable. colonies. The colonies, with no representation in The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Britain’s Parliament, opposed these taxes. Oloudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa —Oloudah Equiano Benjamin Franklin was at the middle of this tax controversy. He spent most of the years Like most enslaved Africans, Equiano was put to between 1757 and 1775 in London, work on a plantation in the New World. campaigning for colonial interests at the British court and Parliament. Plantations in America and Asia were now cash- producing investments for European countries, Franklin performed this task tirelessly, writing a producing sugarcane, rum, tobacco, coffee, series of carefully reasoned pamphlets that chocolate, and tea. repeated the American rallying cry: “No taxation without representation.” These international interests turned a 74-year series of European wars into the first worldwide Despite his difficult task, Franklin’s London years conflicts. Collectively, they are known as the War were the happiest ones of his life. He reveled in for Empire. The fourth and final war in this the scientific and literary life of the city, the series was between the French and the British. In “golden age” of English literature. Europe, it was called the Seven Years’ War, but in North America, because it involved Indian lands, For their growing middle-class audience, London it is known as the French and Indian War. writers created new literary forms: newspapers, magazines, novels, short stories, informal essays, SUSAN BALÉE and comedies of manners. If you look at Europe you see how small those countries are. They didn’t have that A new occupation came into being—that of many resources. England in particular had freelance writer. “Freelancers,” like Alexander Pope, to go abroad. Most things—it’s a tiny supported themselves from the sale of their work, island—they couldn’t produce there. So not from royal grants or aristocratic patronage. the War for Empire at this period—the 1760s, the period of the Seven Years’ War Freed from the need to flatter the upper classes, in Europe—what they’re really battling Enlightenment writers gleefully made fun of them. for is North America. North America’s Writers portrayed aristocrats as self-indulgent fops, been there; the colonies have been there; bumbling idiots, and heartless villains. everyone in Europe knows what the resources are of this massive country, and The heroes, on the other hand, were middle- or they’re beginning to fight to see if they even lower-class people who triumphed through can get it. their own hard work—industry—honest simplicity, or good-humored cunning. The war ended with a British victory. France lost all its territory on the North American continent. Such heroes were created by Daniel Defoe in Britain also triumphed in India and Asia. Robinson Crusoe; Jonathan Swift in Gulliver’s

18 TEACHER’S GUIDE Travels; by Samuel Richardson in Pamela: or, Dr. Johnson, an outspoken enemy of slavery, Virtue Rewarded; by Henry Fielding in The derided colonial demands for more freedom. History of Tom Jones, A Foundling; and by Tobias Smollet in Tristram Shandy. How is it that we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers of Negroes? The most popular plays were comedies of Taxation No Tyranny manners, such as The Rivals, by Richard —Samuel Johnson Brinsley Sheridan. These plays poked fun at the nobility and middle-class people who put on “Dr. Johnson’s London” was the birthplace of aristocratic airs. abolition—the international movement to end slavery. Benjamin Franklin had always opposed Disrespect for the upper classes also pervaded slavery, but only after living in London did he more serious writing. become active in the anti-slavery cause.

For example, Edward Gibbon’s history Many abolitionist pamphleteers also supported masterpiece, The Decline and Fall of the Roman other radical causes, such as home rule for Empire, blamed the fall of Rome on its corrupt Ireland, voting rights for people who did not ruling classes. own property, civil rights for women, and redistribution of land. And Dr. Samuel Johnson, in his great Dictionary of the English Language, defined a patron as “a Millions of peasants and owners of small farms wretch who supports with insolence and is repaid were forced off the land during the 1700s by with flattery.” technology that was making farming jobs scarce.

Dr. Johnson was the subject of another literary SUSAN BALÉE masterpiece, the Life of Johnson, by James In Europe, what prevailed at that time was Boswell, the first modern biography. Eighteenth- a concept called primogeniture. What this century London is often referred to as “Dr. meant was that if your family owned Johnson’s London.” Boswell’s book made Dr. property, only the eldest son could inherit Johnson and his circle immortal. the property. That meant that younger sons inherited nothing. They either went Like London, other European capitals into the military if they could, they went supported growing populations of middle-class into the Church and they became priests, writers and readers. or they had to go to one of the colonies to make their fortune. So a lot of them came In France, Pierre de Beaumarchais’s 1775 play to America. The Barber of Seville introduced literature’s ultimate anti-aristocrat: Figaro, a wily rascal who Between 1750 and 1775, about a quarter of a outwits his social superiors at every turn. million people reached America from the British Isles and northern Europe. For each play, book, or magazine that rolled off Enlightenment printing presses, there were This giant wave of immigration pushed the dozens of pamphlets. colonial frontier across the Appalachian Mountains into Indian territory. The settlers’ A short pamphlet was cheap enough that almost safety became a major concern during the French anyone could afford to print one. Writers and Indian War. Parliament sent British troops to debated public issues with “pamphlet wars.” Dr. protect its interests and fight the French, who Samuel Johnson, for instance, countered wanted the land for fur trading with the Indians. Benjamin Franklin’s pro-American arguments Afterwards the troops stayed to protect the with a pamphlet called Taxation No Tyranny. 19 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—INDUSTRY AND ENLIGHTENMENT

frontier. Britain insisted that the colonists be On July 14, 1789, a radical mob stormed the taxed to pay the soldiers. Taxed without consent Bastille, a royal prison, and began fifteen years of or representation, the colonists became enraged. warfare, bloodshed, and violence.

Right up to the start of the American While political revolution raged in France, the Revolution, Franklin worked hard to prevent war industrial revolution moved ahead in the United between Great Britain and its colonies. By the States and Europe. New factories, powered by spring of 1775, he realized that he had failed. steam, began to consume the northern forests.

Late in March, Franklin boarded a ship for Writers began warning that science, for all its America, barely avoiding arrest for treason. good to society, was a monster that could get out of control. During his ocean crossing, the first shots of the American Revolution were fired at Lexington After all, in the Greek myth, Prometheus stole and Concord. fire from the gods—and then had to suffer the consequences. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by In the young United States, pioneers pushed the their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, frontier farther and farther west. that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness. New inventions, such as the cotton gin and the Declaration of Independence steam-powered loom, drove up the demand for —Thomas Jefferson southern cotton, which in turn increased the demands for land and slaves. We must all hang together, or we will surely hang separately. SUSAN BALÉE At the signing of the Declaration of Independence The South that they had thought of as a —Benjamin Franklin Garden of Eden that would be pure as opposed to the corrupt cities of the The success of America’s revolution restored Northeast or the corrupt cities of Europe— optimism to the French Enlightenment. French there was that snake in the garden, and the writers now dared to be more radical. snake was slavery. That was what would eventually bring down the South. Thomas Paine—whose pamphlets The Crisis and Common Sense had drummed up support for the Fifty years after Benjamin Franklin’s death, his American Revolution—moved to France to last effort to “do good”—to end slavery— distribute copies of his new pamphlet, the Rights remained undone. of Man. The world was rapidly turning to industry—but As Benjamin Franklin lay dying on April 17, it was still a long way from enlightenment. 1790, the French Revolution was coming to life.

20 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Credits PROGRAM WRITERS PROGRAM PRODUCERS TEACHER’S GUIDE Judith Conaway, lead writer Rhonda Fabian Judith Conaway, writer Bob Burleigh Jerry Baber Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Josh Orth Jack Phelan Teresa Koltzenburg 21 Civilization and Writing (CL949-1CV) Philosophy and Government: The World in Greek Times (CL949-2CV) Empires of Heaven and Earth: The World in Roman Times (CL949-3CV) Faith and Feudalism: The Early Middle Ages (CL949-4CV) Chivalry and Commerce: The Late Middle Ages (CL949-5CV) Renaissance and Reformation (CL949-6CV) New Worlds and New Ideas (CL949-7CV) Industry and Enlightenment (CL949-8CV) Romanticism and Revolution (CL949-9CV) Imperialism and Progress: The Victorian Era (CL949-10CV) World Wars and the Quest for Order: The Early 20th Century (CL949-11CV) Liberation and Change: The Late 20th Century (CL949-12CV)

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CL949-9CV CLEARVUE/eav THE MOST COMPLETE SOURCE FOR CURRICULUM-ORIENTED A-V MATERIALS History through Literature Romanticism and Revolution

Program #CL949-9CV Running Time—22:50

Table of Contents Summary ...... 3 Intended Audience ...... 3 Presenting the Program ...... 4 Learning Objectives ...... 4 History in the Program ...... 4 Literature in the Program ...... 5 Key Words and Concepts ...... 5 Pre-Viewing Suggestions ...... 6 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 6 Discussion: Introducing the Program and Its Key Words and Concepts ...... 6 Post-Viewing Suggestions ...... 7 Content Questions: History ...... 7 H.O.T. Topics: History ...... 7 Content Questions: Literature ...... 9 H.O.T. Topics: Literature ...... 9 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 11 In-Depth Research ...... 11 Extra History Study ...... 11 Extra Literature Study ...... 12 Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study ...... 13 Chronology of History Chart: Romanticism and Revolution ...... 14 Chronology of Literature Chart: Romanticism and Revolution ...... 15 Cross-Curricular Explorations ...... 16 Transcript ...... 17 Notes ...... 22 Consultants for the Series ...... 23 Credits ...... 23

Intended for students in junior high school and above. This program is closed captioned.

Summary Romanticism and Revolution is part of a 12-video Next, the program describes these revolutions, History through Literature series that examines the showing how the American Revolution influenced connections between historical events and the literary the French Revolution, which in turn sparked figures and works of each era. Other titles in this revolutions in Haiti, Spain, the Spanish American series are listed on the back of this Teacher’s Guide. colonies, north Africa, the Balkans, and Greece. Most of these revolutions, however, ended in dictatorship The opening scene of Romanticism and Revolution or even a return to monarchy. takes place in April 1824. George Gordon, Lord Byron, has come to Greece to join the fight for Warfare was deadlier—and armed control by independence against the Ottoman Empire. As he dictators more possible—than ever before because of plans a naval siege, he dies of a fever. Already the advance of the industrial revolution. Steam power, legendary for his dark, brooding looks and romantic advanced weaponry, factories, and railroads helped poetry, Byron now becomes a revolutionary hero as Europe and the United States expand their territories. well. The adjective “Byronic” is often used to describe Advances in cotton processing and textile production the rebellious spirit of his times. impelled plantation owners west, causing not only the deportation of southern and other Native American Romanticism and Revolution first briefly summarizes tribes, but also a dramatic increase in plantation the literary, political, and industrial revolutions that slavery. At the same time, both Great Britain and took place during the late eighteenth and early France were expanding their colonial conquests in nineteenth centuries; the program then points out Africa, India, and southeast Asia. that all of these movements were reactions against the formal conventions and royal institutions of the The program examines how the literary and previous so-called “Age of Reason.” revolutionary spirit created by romantic writers evolved in the face of these overwhelming changes, For writers of the time, the word “romantic” conjured emphasizing how romanticism evolved in America up the romances of chivalry and the medieval world through the folktales of Irving, transcendentalism of these poems portrayed. Nostalgia for this fictional Emerson, and nature worship of Thoreau. The past, a deep, almost mystical affinity with nature, program ends by connecting American romanticism empathy for the common man and woman, the spirit to the beginnings of the labor movement and to the of rebellious individualism, and deep ethnic and abolition movement, with its passionate, national pride were all part of the romantic spirit. revolutionary, and heroic writers such as David Walker, Frederick Douglass, and Sojourner Truth. The program demonstrates how romantic writers combined their admiration for the ancient Greeks, their belief in the myth of the “noble savage,” and their search for their own ethnic roots as they supported nationalist revolutions against European and Ottoman monarchs.

Intended Audience This program is designed for students in junior high school and above.

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Learning Objectives After watching this program and completing the activities, students will be able to: • List some important events in world history from •Explain how romantic literature helped motivate the late eighteenth to mid-nineteenth centuries political revolution; (see History in the Program); •Give examples of romantic elements in the • List some European and American authors who literature of the young United States; lived and wrote during the late eighteenth and mid- •Describe the territorial expansions of the United nineteenth centuries (see Literature in the Program); States, Great Britain, and France during the early •Explain the cause-and-effect relationship between nineteenth century; the American and French revolutions, and •Describe how the romantic spirit influenced between the French Revolution and struggles for writers in both slave and free states during the independence in Haiti, Mexico, Central and decades before the Civil War; and South America, north Africa, and Greece; •Describe the life and work of leading writers of • Identify key inventions of the early industrial the American abolition movement. revolution and describe their social effects;

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Literature in the Program The following authors and works of literature are specifically mentioned in the program’s narration. The works are listed in roughly the order in which they are cited in the program. More authors and works are listed in the Chronology of Literature Chart: Romanticism and Revolution (page 15). George Gordon, Lord Byron, Thomas Paine, Rights of Man Don Juan; “She Walks in Beauty”; Percy Bysshe Shelley, “Ode to Napoleon Bonaparte” “The World’s Great Age Begins Anew” Samuel Taylor Coleridge Edgar Allan Poe Wolfgang von Goethe, James Fenimore Cooper, Leatherstocking Saga The Sorrows of Young Werther; Faust Philip Pendleton Cooke, John Keats, “The Nightingale” The Two Country Houses William Blake, “Jerusalem” David Walker, Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm, fairy tales An Appeal to the Colored Peoples of the World Horace Walpole, The Castle of Otranto Sarah Remond Grey, “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” Charles Remond Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, Frankenstein Sojourner Truth William Wordsworth, Frederick Douglass, “Lines Composed above Tintern Abbey” Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract Harriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle Tom’s Cabin Thomas Jefferson, Declaration of Independence Ralph Waldo Emerson, Self-Reliance

Key Words and Concepts Some of these vocabulary words are in the Transcript, where they appear in bold type the first time they are used. abolition French Revolution medieval American Revolution frontier monarchy ballad Gothic nationalism Byronic humanism noble savage capitalism immigration pioneer democracy independence plantation dictatorship individualism revolution empire industrial revolution romanticism free trade labor movement slave trade freedom of religion mass production transcendentalism

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Pre-Viewing Suggestions DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES industrial revolution as well.] What happened If you are showing this program in chronological to the monarchs during the French order with the other programs in the History through Revolution? [They were beheaded.] Remind Literature series, or if you want to provide students that the French royal bureaucracy and background for students who may have missed the armies were the largest in Europe, and ask previous program, lead this review and discussion. students to predict what will happen to the 1. The previous program, Industry and government of France in the years after the Enlightenment, described the eighteenth revolution. Have them watch the program to century, the so-called “Age of Reason.” Discuss see if their predictions were correct. the reason for this name. What optimistic 4. Ask students to define the industrial revolution belief was reflected in such works of literature and, from their general knowledge of history, as Cotton Mather’s Essays to Do Good and to predict how this revolution will develop. Daniel Defoe’s Essays on Projects? [the belief Ask them to think of ways in which the that society could be made better by human industrial revolution was connected to the efforts] Why did Benjamin Franklin and other westward expansion of the United States. [The writers have such faith in science? [From their cotton gin and its effects were covered at the experience, they believed it could help improve end of Industry and Enlightenment.] Suggest society.] Ask students whether they think that students watch for how progress in the everyday life improved during the 1700s. After industrial revolution was related to events such a brief debate, suggest that students search the as wars with and relocation of Native program for details of how everyday life Americans as well as the expansion of slavery. changed during the early 1800s. Students should also look for how the spirit of 2. What were some of the freedoms advocated by revolution spread among these people. Defoe, Benjamin Franklin, Samuel Johnson, Adam Smith, and other writers during the DISCUSSION: INTRODUCING THE PROGRAM 1700s? [freedom of speech and worship, AND ITS KEY WORDS AND CONCEPTS freedom from unfair taxation, free trade, 1. Introduce the title Romanticism and freedom from slavery (abolition)] Were these Revolution and speculate on the meaning of freedoms won during the 1700s? [only to a its terms. Suggest that students look for limited extent—in the United States] What changing definitions of the two terms as they great freedom struggles still remained in the watch the program. United States? [the abolition of slavery, rights 2. Introduce the Key Words and Concepts and for workers and women] Suggest that students ask students to define words they know, follow what happened to these struggles during looking up unfamiliar words in a dictionary. the early 1800s. Suggest that they listen for these terms as they 3. In what three great revolutions did Benjamin watch the program. Pay special attention to Franklin take part? [Students will probably the definitions of “freedom,” “revolution,” and remember the American and French “independence” as they appear in different revolutions; prompt them to recall the Key Words.

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Post-Viewing Suggestions CONTENT QUESTIONS: HISTORY H.O.T. TOPICS: HISTORY 1. What was Lord Byron doing in Greece when The following Higher Order Thinking questions he died? [He was fighting for Greek should be presented in order to achieve maximum independence from the Ottoman Turks.] effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide 2. Byron was only 36 when he died in 1824. supporting details for general discussion, distribute What were some of the political revolutions copies of the Chronology of History Chart: that took place during his lifetime? [French Romanticism and Revolution (page 14). Revolution, Haitian Revolution, Latin 1. Communications Technology. What source of American Revolutions, independence wars of energy, developed during the 1700s, found Egypt and Greece] many industrial applications in the 1800s? 3. Against what kind of government were all [steam] How did steam-powered engines those revolutions fought? [monarchy] compare to earlier machines? [They were 4. What political system did the revolutionaries stronger and faster.] From these facts, have fight for? [democracy] students draw conclusions about technological 5. What revolutions had profoundly changed the advances in the printing industry. [Students social and economic status of many people? should conclude that printing presses became [scientific and industrial revolutions] steam-powered, making possible faster, cheaper 6. What event of excess followed the French printing.] Discuss the effect of industrialized Revolution? [Reign of Terror] printing on society. Students should reason 7. What political system did France, Haiti, and that more titles would be available at lower most Latin American countries end up with? cost, spreading both serious and popular [dictatorship] literature more quickly to people of all classes. 8. What military leader became consul, then Students should also note the role of railroads emperor, of post-Revolution France? [Napoleon] in making possible the faster and cheaper 9. Name some of the nations that fought in the distribution of printed materials. Napoleonic Wars. [France, Italy, Germany, ¶ What form of instant communication was Belgium, Spain, Britain, United States] At what invented around the middle of the 1815 meeting was long-term peace established nineteenth century? [the telegraph] Discuss throughout Europe? [Congress of Vienna] how this invention changed the collection, 10. What role did Daniel Boone and Davy reporting, and distribution of information— Crockett—and others like them—play in especially newspapers. United States history? [They pushed the 2. The Industrial Revolution. Ask students to frontier of the United States westward, through define mass production and to name some Indian territory.] inventions that made mass production possible 11. Why did America push westward? [in the and profitable. [steam-driven machinery, the North: more land for agriculture and assembly line, the railroad for distribution] industrialization; in the South: more cotton ¶ Discuss which kinds of workers might lose plantation land to supply growing British their jobs because of the aforementioned textile mills] changes. [farm workers, makers of handicrafts] 12. What was abolition? [a movement to outlaw Which groups, such as Native Americans, slavery] Why were southern plantation owners might be threatened by the steamboat, opposed to abolition? [slaves were an integral railroads, mass-produced firearms, and other part of the economic success of plantations] technological advances? Ask students to give examples of the same trends continuing today. Every advance in transportation technology, for example, brings people who were previously removed from society into contact

7 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—ROMANTICISM AND REVOLUTION

with the rest of the world, sometimes further 4. The Napoleonic Wars and the Balance of Power. destroying native ecosystems. Lead a brief Ask students to recall the name of the empire debate on the moral questions raised by that ruled the Middle East during the early technological advances, guiding students to 1800s, when Napoleon was conquering understand that these questions were just as Europe. [the Ottoman Empire] What part of complex for the pioneers of the 1800s as they the Ottoman Empire did Napoleon invade? are for us today. [Egypt] Remind students that Napoleon’s ¶ Draw other parallels between the beginning armies called themselves liberators. From these of the industrial revolution and the beginning facts, students should be able to conclude that of the communications revolution, which is the liberal ideas of the American and French taking place in our own time. Ask students to Revolutions entered Egypt and the Ottoman identify which nations and groups are growing Empire with Napoleon’s armies. more prosperous as a result of computer ¶ What other parts of the Ottoman Empire technology and which jobs are being revolted against Ottoman rule during the early eliminated from the economy. 1800s? [Serbia, Greece] Which nation led the 3. The French Revolution and the Rise of Napoleon. international alliance that finally defeated Remind students that the French Revolution Napoleon? [Great Britain] Since revolutionary was much more violent than the American ideas from France helped weaken the power of Revolution and ask them to speculate on the the Ottoman Empire, why might Great Britain reasons for this. First, be sure students realize support the cause of Greek independence? that the American Revolution was primarily Prompt students to recall that Ottoman based on Enlightenment ideals and reason, territories bordered Russia, an ally of Britain whereas the French Revolution was a war based during the Napoleonic Wars. Students should on romantic ideals and passions. Next, reason that Britain, France’s great rival, would students might note that monarchy was more want to counteract French and Russian power “absolute” in France than in England, and that in eastern Europe and western Asia. the American Revolution was the revolt of ¶ Remind students that nationalists in both distant colonies while the French Revolution Spain and the Spanish colonies revolted against was an internal civil war. Discuss and compare Napoleon’s takeover of the throne of Spain. the logistics of fighting the two wars. Students Students should conclude from this fact that should reason that in America, the strategic Great Britain supported the first revolts of advantage was with the rebels, while in France Bolívar and others. How did the Congress of the military advantage was with the royalists. Vienna, which ended the Napoleonic Wars, In addition, the previous question (H.O.T. affect South American history? [Back on the Topics: History, Question 2) should help throne, the Spanish Bourbons tried to retake students conclude that Napoleon’s troops had their colonies by force instead of thanking them access to mass-produced weaponry. for their loyalty with greater independence. ¶ Inform students that, as he rose through the Meanwhile, thousands of veterans of the wars, military ranks, Napoleon was instrumental in especially those from Britain and the Spanish shifting the allegiance of the French army from Resistance, went to South America to join the monarchy to the revolutionary cause. From Bolívar and help him win the war.] this, students should draw such conclusions as 5. Rethinking the Lead Story. In light of the (a) the army was the source of Napoleon’s preceding discussion, revisit the story of power; (b) the army was the most intact part of Byron’s life—especially his support for Greek the old royal order; and (c) the army, used to independence. Ask students to identify the ruling by force, was the perfect tool for the revolution that began right after Byron was new dictatorship. Students should also reason born. [the French Revolution] Ask students to that many forces of the old order regained imagine young Byron, a young aristocrat, power after Napoleon became emperor. hearing the news of the Reign of Terror,

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during which many nobles, even liberal ones, 9. Name some authors whose work supported the were executed. movement to end slavery. [Byron, David ¶ Ask students to recall the name of a South Walker, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Frederick American aristocrat, a contemporary of Byron, Douglass, Sojourner Truth] who also grew up during the French Revolution. 10. What was Uncle Tom’s Cabin’s appeal to both [Simón Bolívar] Who was the youthful hero of romantics and abolitionists? [It was a Gothic both Byron and Bolívar? [Napoleon Bonaparte] tale of an innocent slave girl who was saved When did Bolívar become a hero of from evil by the kindness of strangers.] independence? [during the 1810s] When did Byron become famous as a literary rebel? H.O.T. TOPICS: LITERATURE [during the 1810s] Remind students that liberal The following Higher Order Thinking questions factions in Britain supported both South should be presented in order to achieve maximum American and Greek independence. From these effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide facts, students should conclude that Byron and supporting details for general discussion, distribute Bolívar had probably heard of each other and copies of the Chronology of Literature Chart: probably knew some of the same people. Assign Romanticism and Revolution (page 15). interested students to do further research on this 1. Democratic Writers, Revolution, and Empire. connection (see In-Depth Research: Extra Have students recall the names of eighteenth- Literature Study, Question 4). century writers whose work helped bring about revolt against monarchy. [Thomas Jefferson, CONTENT QUESTIONS: LITERATURE Thomas Paine, Rousseau] Lead a general 1. For what kinds of poetry did George Gordon, discussion of how these writers’ Enlightenment Lord Byron become famous? [love poetry, ideas contributed to the American Revolution, satirical epics] as well as how their romantic ideas contributed 2. To what era of European history did the to the French Revolution. Be sure students can romantic writers look back with nostalgia and differentiate between the two movements. ethnic pride? [the Middle Ages] Students should recall that Jefferson wrote the 3. What two romantic writers published Lyrical Declaration of Independence and was a close Ballads in 1798? [William Wordsworth and friend of Lafayette; that Paine’s “The Rights of Samuel Taylor Coleridge] Man” was both an apology for the United 4. With their use of simple words and ballad States Bill of Rights and the source for the forms, what were the romantics reacting French Declaration of the Rights of Man; and against? [the formal, stylized writing of the Age that Rousseau inspired both Paine and of Reason] Napoleon. Inform students that Jefferson 5. Name the writer whose pamphlet “The Rights served as U.S. ambassador to France just before of Man” supported the United States Bill of the French Revolution, as secretary of state Rights and helped bring on the French while Napoleon was rising to power and as Revolution. [Thomas Paine] president when Napoleon proclaimed himself 6. In calling for a return to nature, against what emperor. Ask students to recall the changing socioeconomic movement were the romantics attitudes of Wordsworth, Byron, and other protesting? [the industrial revolution] writers toward Napoleon; students should also 7. What types of people were heroes in romantic speculate on how Thomas Jefferson’s attitudes literature? [the dark, brooding genius; the might have changed as Napoleon’s career revolutionary soldier; the common man and advanced. From their general knowledge of woman] U.S. history, ask students for proof that 8. Who was the author of the essay Self-Reliance; Jefferson studied Napoleon closely and knew what was the name of the philosophical how and when to take advantage of him. movement with which he is associated? [Ralph Students should recall the Louisiana Purchase. Waldo Emerson; transcendentalism]

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2. The “Noble Savage” and the Romantic economy] From these facts, students should Movement. Ask students to restate the myth of conclude that slaveholders in the southern the “noble savage” as propagated by Rousseau states would be particularly fond of romantic and other European writers. [The noble savage literature. Tell students that Sir Walter Scott’s lived simply, according to so-called natural romantic novels were especially popular in laws, without the need for government or the pre-Civil War South. Summarize the plot social conventions.] What living peoples did and setting of one or more of his novels and Europeans associate with this myth? [Native ask students to surmise reasons for his Americans] What new sciences led Europeans popularity. [Scott presented a sentimentalized to connect Native Americans with their own view of every aspect of the feudal system, ancestors? [anthropology, archeology] Guide even serfdom. Also, many white southerners students to draw parallels between how Native were Scottish immigrants or descendants of Americans were romanticized in the early Scottish immigrants.] United States and how medieval Europeans 5. The Anti-Slavery Revolution. Explain to were romanticized in Europe. While James students that Haiti was the first modern nation Fenimore Cooper was writing the to liberate its slaves (1793). Two writers who Leatherstocking Saga, what was actually were inspired by the Haitian revolt were happening to Native Americans? [They were William Wordsworth and David Walker. being conquered and displaced.] While Remind students that Walker’s An Appeal to the Europeans were manufacturing ethnic pride Colored Peoples of the World was published in and nostalgia for their own tribal roots, what 1829, more than 30 years after the Haitian forces were transforming the landscape of revolt. Have students research events in the Europe? [modern warfare and the industrial history of abolition that probably shaped revolution] Lead students to conclude that Walker’s interpretation of events. [the escapism and denial were strong elements of establishment of the Napoleonic Code, the end romantic literature. of the British slave trade, the founding of 3. Romanticism and the Environment. Ask Liberia, the Missouri Compromise] Have students to recall some of the inventions that students compare David Walker, Frederick were transforming the United States in 1854, Douglass, and other abolitionist leaders with the year Henry David Thoreau published On the Byronic literary hero. Students should note Walden Pond. [steamboats, steam-powered that slaves were the ultimate outlaws of their factories, railroads, telegraph] Have students time, and that Walker, Douglass, Tubman, debate whether Thoreau’s ideas were escapist, Tr uth, and other abolitionists spoke for the since the industrial revolution was so clearly common person and fought passionately for triumphant, or hypocritical, since his own the cause of freedom. work was printed and distributed by machine 6. Lasting Literature. The romantic writer asked, power. Ask students to draw parallels between “Who Am I?” Have students examine some of Thoreau’s attitudes and those of the era’s finest literature—such as Goethe’s environmentalists today. The Sorrows of Young Werther and Mary 4. Romanticism and Slavery. As they searched Shelley’s Frankenstein—to determine how for their own tribal roots, what era of history romantic writers answered that question (e.g., did European writers glorify? [the Middle “I am” individual, relational, unique, and Ages] What political system prevailed during capable of strong emotions such as love, the Middle Ages? [the feudal system] What loneliness, etc.). Note that these novels are part of the United States resembled the among the first attempts to explore the human feudal system and why? [the southern states, mind in fiction. because of their reliance on the plantation

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DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES product of the Age of Reason and the French If you are showing this program in chronological Revolution as romantic. Compare the results of order with the other programs in this History through the two revolutions: establishment of a Literature series, use this review and discussion to representative democracy in the United States prepare students for the next program. and establishment of a military dictatorship in 1. Ask students to note similarities and differences France, which was replaced by a reformed between Lord Byron and Benjamin Franklin as monarchy during the 1830s. Ask what wars were revolutionary heroes. [Similarities: Both took taking place in the United States during the radical political positions and had wide influence 1830s. [the Indian wars] Have students on both sides of the Atlantic. Both were characterize the shift in national values that fundraisers for their causes. Both were noted for brought about the wars. Have them examine the their wit and were considered examples of “noble economic motivation that accompanied both savages”—Franklin because he was self-educated these wars and the Civil War, even though the and came from America, Byron because he came latter was couched in romantic ideals. Remind from the Scottish highlands. Differences: students of the phrase “Manifest Destiny” and Franklin was a great deal older than Byron at the lead them to realize that the romantic values of time he joined the revolution. Franklin was a liberty and rugged individualism were giving self-made middle-class person while Lord Byron way to more conservative, imperialist was an impoverished aristocrat. Franklin valued nationalism. Remind students that, on the scientific thinking while Byron did not. Franklin international front after the Napoleonic Wars, had more practical knowledge while Byron had a both Britain and France resumed their colonial classical university education.] conquests, this time in Africa, India, and 2. Briefly review some of the reasons for the southeast Asia. Ask students to predict what differences between the American Revolution would happen as European influences— and the French Revolution. Guide students to including romanticism and revolution—spread recognize the American Revolution as the throughout the world. In-Depth Research The following topics for further study will help students make connections between history and literature, between western and eastern history, and between the past and present. EXTRA HISTORY STUDY the Serbian revolts (1804–1878); the Russian 1. The Balkan Wars. The Greek war for conquest of Georgia (1801), Azerbaijan independence, during which Byron lost his (1803–1828), eastern Armenia (1803–1828) life, was one of a series of wars that rocked the and Bessarabia (1812); the Egyptian conquest of European territories of the Ottoman Turks the Sudan (1821) and Crete (1822–1840); the during the early 1800s. Repercussions of those French occupation of Algeria (1830–1847); and wars are still being felt today. Suggest that British, French, and Russian involvement in the students research the fighting among Serbs, Crimean War (1850s). In their reports, have Muslims, Greeks, Russians, and Ottoman students relate all of these conflicts to the Turks during the early nineteenth century and Napoleonic Wars as well as to the colonial relate the events of those times to present expansion of Britain and France into Africa. conflicts in the same region. 3. The Women’s Rights Movement. Mary 2. “The Sick Man of Europe.” The independent Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of dynasty established by Muhammad Ali and the Women (1792) was the first important Greek wars for independence demonstrated that document in the women’s rights movement, the Ottoman Empire was weakening. Suggest which was not an organized movement until the that individuals or teams research and report on 1830s. Suggest that students or teams research further disintegrations of the Ottoman Empire the pioneers of women’s rights, focusing that took place during the early 1800s, including especially on their work before the American

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Civil War. Students’ reports should connect the students should analyze the book’s title and women’s rights movement with the early labor examine why Frankenstein’s monster is a movement and the abolition movement. Byronic hero. Students should also draw some conclusions about the intellectual legacy left to EXTRA LITERATURE STUDY Mary Shelley by her mother. 1. Gothic and Horror Novels. “Gothic” novels such 3. A Dose of Realism. The novels of Jane Austen as Anne Radcliffe’s The Mysteries of Udolpho, are often hailed as early examples of realistic Horace Walpole’s The Castle of Otranto, and writing because of their lack of romantic Lewis’s The Monk were among the most sentimentality and for the many glimpses they popular fiction of the late eighteenth century. provide into everyday life during the romantic Scholars believe that novels in the Gothic era. Suggest that individuals or teams read genre, many of which were written by women, Austen novels and share amusing or helped create the romantic movement. The enlightening details with the class. Gothics were often set in medieval castles, had 4. The Community of Learning. Suggest that strong elements of the occult and supernatural, students research the connections between and often featured dark, brooding, outlaw writers mentioned in this program and (a) heroes. Suggest that students read the novels other writers and thinkers of their own times; mentioned above—and other Gothic novels— (b) writers in the generations before them; and and report on them to the class. Other students (c) writers in later generations. Students may should read and report on the work of already have noted such connections in the Charlotte and Emily Brontë, Nathaniel program. For example, Mary Shelley was the Hawthorne, and Edgar Allen Poe, identifying daughter of Mary Wollstonecraft and the wife the Gothic elements in their writing. of Percy Bysshe Shelley; Wollstonecraft herself 2. Frankenstein. Mary Wollstonecraft’s daughter, was part of a radical group that included who married the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, was Thomas Paine, William Blake, and William the author of Frankenstein: The Modern Wordsworth; and Rousseau influenced Byron, Prometheus, one of the longest-lasting works of Jefferson, Paine, Lafayette, Napoleon, and the romantic era. Suggest that students read Bolívar. Have students find other connections and report on this novel, paying special and report on them to the class. attention to its social criticism. In their reports,

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Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study The chronologies of history and literature located on the following pages are designed both to summarize the era covered by the program and to motivate students to learn more about the era. Copy and distribute the chronologies to individual students or study groups. Use the pages for both in-class discussion and extra study assignments. CHRONOLOGY OF HISTORY: CHRONOLOGY OF LITERATURE: ROMANTICISM AND REVOLUTION ROMANTICISM AND REVOLUTION 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. Encourage students to restate key ideas and Encourage students to restate key ideas and draw conclusions from details on the chart. draw conclusions from details on the chart. The following are some examples. The following are some examples. •Technology was developing rapidly during •New scientific disciplines such as geology, the romantic era. anthropology, and archeology developed •Events in far-flung places were becoming during the romantic era. more connected during the romantic era. •During the romantic era, several • The Ottoman Empire gradually weakened important scholarly attacks were made on during the early nineteenth century. the Christian faith. • The Russian Empire expanded into former •Gothic novelists and so-called “graveyard Ottoman territory during the early poets” preceded the romantic movement. nineteenth century. • The study of folklore and ethnic history • While successful revolutions took place in contributed to nationalist feelings during America, France, and Greece during the the romantic era. romantic era, many other revolutions failed. • The romantic movement spread from • The Napoleonic Wars had repercussions Europe to the Americas, Africa, and Asia. not only in Europe, but also in Africa, 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask Asia, and the Americas. students to research and report on writers • The United States not only won its and literary works listed on the chart. You independence, but its size expanded might want to assign one literary category to dramatically during the romantic era. each study group and have group members •Plantation slavery expanded in the choose from writers and works in their United States at the same time that column. You might also assign each group a Native American tribes were being time period and have group members file defeated and relocated. reports about developments in different 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask categories of literature. students to research and report on events listed on the chart. You might want to assign one continent to each study group and have group members choose from events in their column. You might also assign each group a time period and have group members file reports from different continents.

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Chronology of History Chart: Romanticism and Revolution

DATES EUROPE ASIA AFRICA AND OCEANIA AMERICAS Seven Years’War breaks out; Dahomey & Oyo kingdoms French & British fight over Indian Seven Years’War breaks out, before Prussia begins rise to power; flourish (west Africa); Kingdom lands; Seven Years’War breaks India; China invades east 1760 Prussians, Russians, Austrians of Kazende rises to power out; British colonists protest Turkestan fight (eastern Europe) (west central Africa) taxes & Indian boundaries

Seven Years’War ends; Bruce reaches Blue Nile; Seven Years’War ends; France Seven Years’War ends; 1760– Afghans defeat Marathas & Ashanti invade coast; Boers loses northern colonies; spinning jenny invented; 1769 Great Famine kills 10 million cross Orange River; Cook & Pontiac rebels; Bourbons Watt patents steam engine (India) Dampier begin exploring Pacific reform Spain’s colonies

Austria, Russia, Prussia Turks and Russians fight; British attack French colony American Revolution breaks 1770– partition Poland; pope Egyptians capture Damascus; (Senegal); out; Fr. Serra founds missions; 1779 abolishes Jesuit order; British fight First Maratha War; Cook discovers Hawaii; Boone crosses Appalachians Priestley identifies oxygen Gurkhas conquer Nepal British claim Australia

hot-air balloon ascends Selim III reforms Ottoman Tuaregs take Timbuktu; U.S. wins Revolution, creates 1780– (France); Gordon riots shake Empire; British fight Mysore & British take Sierra Leone; constitutional government, & 1789 up London; British develop Maratha wars (India); Muslim Boers fight Kaffir Wars; expands into Ohio Valley steam-powered textile mills revolt suppressed (China) British claim New Zealand

French Revolution and Reign Russians and Turks fight again; Napoleon invades Egypt; U.S. Bill of Rights ratified; 1790– of Terror end monarchy; Kajars begin rule (Persia); Mungo Park explores Niger Whitney invents cotton gin; 1799 Napoleon rises to power; Britain conquers Ceylon; Ch’en River; 87,000 enslaved per Haiti’s slaves revolt; McKenzie hydraulic press invented Lung ends rule (China) year (1751–1800) explores western Canada

England, Spain, France, Italy, French invade & Muhammad Ohio becomes state; Fulton Mustafa IV deposes Sultan Belgium, & others fight Ali founds modern Egypt; builds steamboat; U.S. buys 1800– Selim III (Turkey); White Lotus Napoleonic Wars; Serbs revolt Britain ends slave trade; Louisiana; Lewis and Clark & 1809 Rebellion put down (China) against Ottomans Ashanti overrun Fante states Pike explore west

Spanish patriots resist Russia invades Armenia, Mamelukes massacred U.S. fights War of 1812, defeats 1810– Napoleon; Napoleon defeated Azerbaijan, & Bessarabia; British (Egypt); Bornu repulses Fulani Tecumseh & Seminoles, 1819 at Waterloo; Congress of control Rajput states & Poona invasion; Arab traders reach annexes Florida; rebels in South Vienna remaps Europe (India) & colonize Singapore Lake Tanganyika America form juntas

Greeks fight independence war Russia conquers eastern Egypt occupies Sudan; U.S. Bolívar & San Martín lead 1820– against Ottomans; Russia Armenia & Azerbaijan & fights founds Liberia; Chamba successful revolution against Spain; 1829 supports Serbian revolt; O’Connell against Ottomans; British fight warriors enter Cameroon; Monroe Doctrine proclaimed; begins agitating for Irish freedom Burmese War Shaka forges Zulu nation Mexico outlaws slavery

Revolutions rock France & Poland; Egypt takes Syria from French occupy Algeria; Nat Turner leads slave revolt; 1830– Serbia wins independence from Ottomans; British occupy Matabele Empire, Basuto, Trail of Tears & Underground 1839 Ottomans; Victoria begins 60-yr. Mysore (India); British Swazi, & Tswana nations Railroad organized; Texas reign (Britain) monopoly ends (China) emerge in wake of Shaka wars revolts against Mexico

Kossuth leads Hungarian U.S. fights Second Seminole Afghan, Sikh, & Punjab forces Liberia becomes republic; independence struggle; labor War & Mexican-American War; 1840– surrender to British; China Maori people revolt against revolution rocks Paris, Vienna, American labor & women’s 1849 signs first treaty with U.S. British (New Zealand) Rome, Prague, Berlin, & Milan rights movements founded

Garibaldi begins fight for Italian Britain, Russia, & Ottomans South African Republic Missouri Compromise admits 1850– independence; Fenian fight Crimean War; Indians established; Boers found Orange both slave and free states; 1859 Brotherhood founded (Ireland); revolt against Britain; Perry Free State; Boers & Basuto Kansas bleeds; Brown raids Prussia leads united Germany opens U.S.–Japan trade people struggle over territory Harper’s Ferry arsenal

Republic of Italy founded; U.S. fights Civil War, civil war breaks out British invade Ethiopia & Bismarck comes to power emancipates slaves, & buys after (Afghanistan); Anglo-French control Zanzibar; French open (Germany); Russia liberates serfs; Alaska; Juarez leads Mexicans 1860 alliance signs Treaty of Peking Suez Canal Marx founds workers association against French occupation

14 © CLEARVUE/eav TEACHER’S GUIDE

Chronology of Literature Chart: Romanticism and Revolution

SCIENCE, GEOGRAPHY, NONFICTION: ECONOMICS, FICTION: POETRY, DRAMA, DATES RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY EDUCATION GOVERNMENT, HISTORY FABLES, NOVELS Linnaeus, Philosophia Johnson, Dictionary of the Law, Way to Divine Knowledge; Grey, Elegy; Lennox, Female before Botanica;Wallace, On the English Language;Franklin, Edwards, sermons; Helvetius, Quixote;Voltaire, Candide; 1760 Numbers of Man;Diderot starts The Way to Wealth; Hume, De l’esprit McPherson, Ossian poems compiling encyclopedia Political Discourses

d’Holbach, Christianity Rosenstein, Diseases of Rousseau, Social Contract & Sterne, Tr istram Shandy; 1760– Exposed & Natural History of Children;Priestley on Confessions;Franklin, Walpole, Castle of Otranto; 1769 Superstition; Campbell on electricity; Bonnet, pamphlets; Hume on English Goldoni, Goethe, miracles Contemplation de la nature history; Turgot on economics Beaumarchais, & Lessing, plays

Hume, Concerning Natural d’Holbach & Buffon on natural Smith, Wealth of Nations; Jefferson, Goethe, Faust; Smollet & 1770– Religion; Moses Mendelssohn, science; Diderot’s Encyclopédie Declaration of Independence; Paine, Burney, novels; Goldsmith, 1779 Immortality of the Soul; completed; Encyclopaedia Common Sense; Gibbon, Decline poems & plays; Sheridan & Swedenborg, Delights of Wisdom Britannica begins and Fall of Roman Empire Beaumarchais, plays

Kant, Critique of Pure Reason; Cavendish, Experiments on Madison & Hamilton, Federalist Beaumarchais, Schiller, & 1780– Bhagavad-Gita tr. to English; Air; Lagrange, Mechanique Papers;U.S. Constitution; Lessing, plays; Burns & Blake, 1789 Bentham on ethics & law; Analitique;Lavoisier, Elements Madame de Stael, Letters;Vassa, poems; Landívar, Rusticatio Mendelssohn, German Talmud of Chemistry Life of Oloudah Equiano Mexicana; Musåus, fairy tales

Kant, Critique of Judgment; Hutton, Theory of the Earth; U.S. Bill of Rights; Paine, “Rights Schiller, plays; Blake & Burns, 1790– Schleiermacher, Religion: Jenner on vaccination; of Man”; Malthus, Essay on poems; Wordsworth & 1799 Speeches to its Cultural Despisers; Edgeworth, Practical Education; Population;Wollstonecraft, Coleridge, Lyrical Ballads; Watson, Apology for the Bible Pinel on mental illness Rights of Women Radcliffe, novels

Kant, Religion within the Limits Davy on electricity; Dalton on Coraes on independence for Wordsworth, Blake, Byron, 1800– of Reason; Schleiermacher on chemistry; Lancaster on Greece; Webster, American Shelley, Keats, & Bryant, 1809 theology; Scheller & Hegel on education; Audubon, Birds of dictionary; Irving, History of poems; Shelley, Frankenstein; transcendentalism North America New York Irving, Knickerbocker Tales

Hegel, Encyclopedia of Cuvier on paleontology; Madame de Stael on German Wordsworth, Byron, & Keats, 1810– Philosophical Sciences; Candolle on botany; American romanticism; Grimm, German poems; Scott, poems & historical 1819 Schopenhauer, The World as Journal of Science founded; grammar; Wilson, Sanskrit- novels; Goethe & Austen, novels; Will and Idea; Mohr, Silent Night Bell on brain anatomy English dictionary Grimm, fairy tales

Sunday School movement Accum on adulteration of food; Lundy, Universal Emancipation; Scott, Cooper, Goethe, 1820– flourishes; Erskine, Evidence Lamarck on evolution; Lancet, Walker, Appeal to Colored Stendhal, & Hugo, novels; 1829 for Truth of Revealed Religion; medical journal, begins; Peoples; Sequoyah, Cherokee Byron, Wordsworth, Shelley, Keble, Christian Year Ampère on electricity alphabet Heine, Poe, & Pushkin, poems

Joseph Smith, Book of Mormon; Frobel & Mann on education; Emerson & Carlyle, essays; Scott, Irving, Stendhal, Hugo, 1830– Finney, sermons; Strauss, Life of Comte on sociology; Neibuhr, Carlyle, & Stevens on Balzac, Flaubert, & Gogol, novels; 1839 Christ; Schopenhauer, On Will in Blumenbach on anthropology; history; Bentham on law of Pushkin, Heine, & Tennyson, Nature Poisson on probability nations poems; Andersen, fairy tales

Baur on biblical criticism; Waitz, Foundation of Declaration of Rights of Dickens, Dumas, Balzac, 1840– Gorres on Christian mysticism; Psychology;von Mayer on Women; Prescott on history of Melville, Hawthorne, Brontë, & 1849 spiritualist craze hits U.S.; thermodynamics; Humboldt on Mexico & Peru; Weld, Remond, Dostoevsky, novels; Tennyson, Finney & Beecher, sermons cosmos Still, & Douglass on abolition Poe, Browning, & Heine, poems

Spenser, Social Statics & Douglass, biography, North Dickens, Balzac, Hugo, Herzog on Protestant theology; Principles of Psychology; Star newspaper, & orations; Melville, Hawthorne, Brontë, 1850– Finney, Beecher & Sojourner Chebyshev on primary numbers; Thoreau, Walden; Emerson, Dostoevsky, & Eliot, novels; 1859 Truth, sermons Darwin, Origin of Species Carlyle, & Holmes, essays Tennyson & Browning, poems

Dickens, Balzac, Hugo, Cardinal Newman, Apologia; Darwin, Descent of Man; Bryce & Rowlinson on history; Melville, Dostoevsky, Trollope, after Renan, Life of Christ;J.S. Mill Spenser on education; 1860 Marx, Das Kapital Eliot, & Tolstoy, novels; on utilitarianism Huxley on science Whitman, poems

Cross-Curricular Explorations These projects are designed to relate the ideas in the program to other areas of study; assign them to individuals and study groups according to students’ interests and strengths. 1. Romantic Art and Music. The romantic 2. Mad, Bad, and Dangerous to Know. Find movement manifested itself in art and examples of Byronic heroes in modern films music as well as in literature. Research and fiction. Start with film roles played by the lives and works of Beethoven, James Dean, Marlon Brando, Brad Pitt, and Chopin, and other romantic musicians; other movie stars of similar style. Look for Grieg, Mussorgsky, and other other examples in the outlaw styles of rock “nationalist–romantic” musicians; or stars. Write a report or make a video that David, Corot, Goya, and other compares these modern Byronic heroes to romantic artists. Notice the similarities Byron himself or to other romantic heroes of in philosophy, approach, and Byron’s time. expression between romantic art, music, and literature (e.g., both literature and music drew on the traditions of the folk ballad).

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Transcript The year is 1820, and the country of Greece is SUSAN BALÉE seething with the flames of revolution. Romanticism, though, really begins in Germany, and it begins with Wolfgang von The great English poet George Noel Gordon, Goethe’s The Sorrows of Young Werther, better known by his title, Lord Byron, has which is a novel about a young man who’s smuggled money into the country and joined the in love with a woman named Charlotte, oppressed Greeks in their fight for freedom from who’s already engaged to someone else. the Ottoman Empire. And he becomes so despondent that he ultimately commits suicide. Now, this is a He buys ships and weapons and begins to train really shocking idea when that comes out soldiers in preparation for an attack on Lepanto, in the 1770s, because all of the 1700s up a key naval fortress. till then have been about progress—you know, the Enlightenment. But Byron will not witness Greek independence. His poetic masterpiece, Don Juan, still Writers of the period expressed a clear unfinished, Byron will fall ill with fever and die, resentment for the Age of Enlightenment, the tragically, at the age of 36. belief that reason, intellect, and science could solve all problems. Famous throughout his life, Byron will become a hero in death. Women, especially, will mourn the Romantic poets such as John Keats emphasized loss of their noble, charismatic love poet. the virtues of passion over reason, and imagination and instinct over logic. Keats, ROBERT PINSKY considered one of the purist lyricists of the time, She walks in beauty, like the night celebrated the timeless beauty in nature and the Of cloudless climes and starry skies; transient quality of human experience. And all that’s best of dark and bright Meet in her aspect and her eyes: ROBERT PINSKY Thus mellow’d to that tender light I cannot see what flowers are at my feet, Which heaven to gaudy day denies. Nor what soft incense hangs upon the boughs, “She Walks in Beauty” But in embalmed darkness, guess each sweet —Lord Byron Wherewith the seasonable month endows The grass, the thicket, and the fruit-tree wild; Byron belonged to a generation of intense young White hawthorn, and the pastoral eglantine; poets and writers whose works rebelled against Fast fading violets cover’d up in leaves; the earlier classic forms of literature in favor of And mid-May’s eldest child, the full expression of emotion and a great love The coming musk-rose, full of dewy wine, for beauty, humanity, nature, and all things The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves. mystical. Goethe, Wordsworth, Shelley, Keats, “The Nightingale” Blake, and Coleridge were only a few of the poets —John Keats that would spark the spirit of a new age. The technological changes brought about by the Their life and works would help fuel a profound scientific and industrial revolutions were rapidly movement in literature and the arts that spread transforming society. throughout Europe and the Americas in the late 1700s and early 1800s, a movement now known Steam-driven machinery, factory production, and as the romantic period. private capital were changing the landscape, the job market, and the home.

17 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—ROMANTICISM AND REVOLUTION

In part, the romantics’ focus on nature was a sinister forces, and rescues of innocent heroines response to the stark conditions that by tall, dark, handsome strangers. industrialization was creating. Visionary English poet William Blake called the new factories “dark By 1800, the Gothic novel was extremely popular Satanic mills” and, in his poem “Jerusalem,” in England, utilizing mysterious plots and boldly declared his intention of reforming society. supernatural events intended to frighten the reader. They were called Gothic because they I will not cease from Mental fight, were set in gloomy, medieval castles built in the Nor shall my sword sleep in my hand Gothic style of architecture. Till we have built Jerusalem In England’s green and pleasant land. By the early 1800s, romanticism was flourishing “Jerusalem” in Germany. —William Blake Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, after the But a dark sense of melancholy often tremendous success of his novel The Sorrows of accompanied the romantics’ devotion to nature Young Werther, wrote his famous play Faust, the and the beauty of the world. The poems of story of a man who sells his soul to the devil. Samuel Taylor Coleridge are filled with the In exchange, he asks for the powers of dissatisfaction with the real world as compared to knowledge and eternal youth, common themes the world of the poet’s dreams. in many of the romantics’ longing desire to know the infinite. Another response to the rapid changes brought on by Enlightenment thinking was a nostalgia for Thomas Gray looked back to the pre-industrial more innocent times. age and reflected on the equality of everyone in death and, in his poem “Elegy Written in a SUSAN BALÉE Country Churchyard,” helped develop the so- They were sad, because a lot of things had called “graveyard school” of poetry. happened in the eighteenth century that had changed life for them: the industrial In her novel Frankenstein, Mary Shelley put all of revolution was changing the landscape; these elements to good use, combining the themes religion was falling apart—they were sad that were popular with the romantic writers of the about that. What could you have faith in time: isolation, the infinite, the supernatural, and when so much science had disproved the the dangers of science and knowledge. In her notion of a God creating all? story, she portrays an overachieving medical student named Victor Frankenstein, who, like In Germany, and throughout Europe, writers Faust, tries to reach beyond his grasp. He uses the searched the past through folklore, songs, and powers of science to create a living man out of a histories of their own countries. Two brothers, corpse; but the corpse, when brought to life, Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm traveled the German resembles a monster. countryside and compiled a collection of local fairy tales and stories that would one day become SUSAN BALÉE famous throughout the world. The creator of this creature imbues him with a human mind, but he’s horrible to The Middle Ages excited the romantic look at. He’s grotesque. So he comes out imagination. In England, the craze for the into society and he’s hated by everybody. medieval began with the Horace Walpole novel He’s the perfect romantic figure. He’s The Castle of Otranto, published in 1760. Set in isolated and he’s alienated, and he’s hiding the thirteenth century, it was the first of out from people and he reads certain thousands of books featuring ruined castles, things. One of the interesting things that

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the monster reads is The Sorrows of Young Rousseau condemned the evils of civilization and Werther, and he recognizes this totally: Yes, praised primitive human life as superior to life in this is what it’s like to feel lonely, to feel society. Such romantic ideals emphasized the that no one loves you. importance of the individual in a corrupt world and would help fuel the revolutionary wars in The urge to escape the excesses of science and the America and France. rapidly expanding industrial world became a common theme for the romantic poets. Their Common people began taking up arms and poetry focused more on the beauty and goodness declaring their independence from the ancien of nature and natural human instincts. régime—the alliance of monarchs and wealthy merchants that had ruled Europe for centuries. English poet William Wordsworth wrote that “humans could learn more by communing with The ostentatious habits of the wealthy upper nature or talking to country people than by classes, coupled with the extreme poverty of the reading books.” lower, convinced many people that the time had come for fundamental—and, if necessary, ROBERT PINSKY violent—change. The day is come when I again repose Here, under this dark sycamore, and view In America, Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of These plots of cottage-ground, these orchard tufts, Independence in 1776 stood as one of the Which at this season, with their unripe fruits, greatest testaments to individual freedom: “We Are clad in one green hue, and lose themselves hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men ’Mid groves and copses. Once again I see are created equal...” These hedge-rows, hardly hedge-rows, little lines Of sportive wood run wild: these pastoral farms, Inspired by the power of these words, Green to the very door; and wreaths of smoke revolutionary leaders in France wrote the Sent up, in silence, from among the trees! Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789, formally “Lines Composed above Tintern Abbey” declaring the beginning of the French Revolution. —William Wordsworth SUSAN BALÉE During the 1500s and 1600s, the myth of the You had what you frequently see at the end “noble savage” had emerged as Europeans of an empire—this is true at the end of the encountered the native peoples of America. The Roman Empire, true at the end of the noble savage was idealized as an individual French aristocratic empire—which was unspoiled by luxury and sophistication, living in people very wealthy, very decadent, very communion with the forces and laws of nature. cynical; belief in God is way down; they don’t have faith in anything; they have too Many believed that these primitive people were much money, too much luxury. The fact far happier and healthier than those who thought that Marie Antoinette can say of the people of themselves as “modern” and “civilized.” “Let them eat cake if they don’t have bread” is an example that she was so out of Radical writers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau touch with the working-class life of most and Thomas Paine breathed new life into the people. So they were ripe for a fall. And so myth that “noble savagery” was the natural form when they fell, first of all people cheered it, of government. Rousseau’s revolutionary but then, after the fall, a terrible massacre pamphlet The Social Contract begins “Man is began, called the Reign of Terror. born free, but is everywhere in chains.”

19 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—ROMANTICISM AND REVOLUTION

The Reign of Terror aimed at destroying all Byron’s close friend, the romantic poet Percy alleged pockets of resistance to the revolution. Bysshe Shelley, saw the defeat of Napoleon as Tens of thousands of aristocrats and middle-class the chance to continue democratic change. Ever leaders—and, eventually, other revolutionaries— the idealist and social reformer, Shelley believed were murdered, and years of chaos and civil war that only good things would come of ensued. But when the French Revolution was Napoleon’s defeat. finally over, the army, not the people, ended up with most of the power. ROBERT PINSKY Shelley: By 1799, a young general, Napoleon Bonaparte, became ruler of France. As a young officer, The world’s great age begins anew, Napoleon had been influenced by Rousseau, The golden years return, Goethe, and other romantic writers. But within a The earth doth like a snake renew few years, his liberal facade had crumbled, Her winter weeds outworn: revealing the absolute ruler within. In 1804, Heaven smiles, and faiths and empires gleam Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of France. Like wrecks of a dissolving dream. “The World’s Great Age Begins Anew” France was now a military dictatorship, and by —Percy Bysshe Shelley 1812, Napoleon’s armies controlled a large part of western Europe. In every sense of the word, the events in France constituted the beginnings of a new age. At the Britain, Russia, Spain, and other nations finally Congress of Vienna in 1815, the great powers joined forces against France and challenged that had conquered Napoleon redrew the Bonaparte’s power in the Napoleonic Wars. The boundaries of Europe and sought to lay the strength of the British navy and Napoleon’s own groundwork for peace. And although many excessive ambitions ultimately led to the French European territories were given to kings and defeat, and Napoleon was exiled to the island of princes who held them before the revolution, no Elba, off the coast of Italy. major fighting would break out in Europe for more than 40 years. Lord Byron, in his famous poem “Ode to Napoleon Bonaparte” captured the epic quality Meanwhile, liberal ideals and anti-imperial of Napoleon’s rise and fall. revolution spread to other parts of the world. Egypt, Greece, and Serbia revolted against the ’Tis done—but yesterday a King! Ottoman Empire in the 1820s. French and And arm’d with Kings to strive— Spanish colonies in America broke out in And now thou art a nameless thing revolution as well. In Latin America alone, over a So abject—yet alive!... dozen countries gained their independence Since he, miscall’d the Morning Star, between 1808 and 1830. Nor man nor fiend hath fallen so far. “Ode to Napoleon Bonaparte” Many of these countries were looking to the —Lord Byron young United States as the embodiment of the new society they hoped for. And America’s But the Napoleonic saga was not quite ended. writers responded. Between 1820 and 1865, Escaping from Elba, the former emperor returned romantic ideals dominated American literature. in triumph to Paris, rallied the French army, fought one last great battle, and was finally Dark and introspective, Edgar Allan Poe’s stories defeated on June 18, 1815, at the famous battle and poems examined human nature and of Waterloo. motivation.

20 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Another expression of romanticism can be seen By the 1840s, Americans heard the powerful in adventure stories such as James Fenimore writings and speeches of black leaders, such as Cooper’s Leatherstocking Saga, which wove tales Charles and Sara Remond, Sojourner Truth, and of Native American and European interaction Frederick Douglass. In his autobiography, on the early frontier. American writers Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, romanticized the rugged individualism that was Douglass wrote, “You have seen how a man was shaping the country. The ballads and stories of made a slave. You shall see how a slave was made courageous frontiersmen, like pioneer–explorers a man.” His book was widely acclaimed when it Daniel Boone and Davy Crockett, were read appeared in 1845. with enthusiasm. In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote her In the North, pioneers pushed west with the famous novel, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, which featured expansion of agriculture and industrialization an innocent heroine, the slave Eliza, who flees that would, within a century, make the United from the sinister forces of the slave catchers and States the greatest industrial nation in the world. is rescued by strangers. The emotional appeal of these Gothic elements drew many white women In the South, the push west was connected to the into the anti-slavery struggle. expansion of slavery and the ownership of land. As Indians were driven west along the infamous By the 1860s, the romantic movement began to Trail of Tears, their lands were turned into slave dwindle, but it did not die. Its themes continued plantations, which supplied cotton to the textile to influence the struggles for social reform— mills of the northern states and Great Britain. through the Civil War, which finally ended slavery in the United States; in the efforts to end The literary tastes in the South reflected their serfdom in Russia; and in the international slaveholding values. Novels like Philip Cooke’s movements for worker’s rights, women’s rights, The Two Country Houses romanticized plantation civil rights, and environmentalism. life—and even slavery. The power of the individual had been indelibly But abolition quickly became the most radical drawn on human consciousness. The age of free subject of the romantic era. In England, romantic will had dawned, or as American writers such as Byron and Shelley enthusiastically transcendentalist philosopher Ralph Waldo took up the anti-slavery cause. Abolitionist Emerson wrote, efforts, along with changing economic conditions, finally led to the end of the slave To believe your own thought, to believe that trade in the British Empire in 1808. what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men—that is genius.... Trust In the United States, African American writers thyself: every heart vibrates to that iron string. led the drive for abolition. In 1829, David Self-Reliance Walker published a powerful, no-holds-barred —Ralph Waldo Emerson indictment of slavery and a demand for immediate black freedom in his work An Appeal to the Colored Peoples of the World.

21 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—ROMANTICISM AND REVOLUTION

Notes

22 TEACHER’S GUIDE

This Teacher’s Guide may be reproduced in whole or in part for use by students.

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in conjunction with CLEARVUE/eav 6465 N. Avondale Ave. Chicago, IL 60631-1996 1-800-CLEARVU (1-800-253-2788) www.clearvue.com Imperialism and Progress: The Victorian Era

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Table of Contents Summary ...... 3 Intended Audience ...... 4 Presenting the Program ...... 4 Learning Objectives ...... 4 History in the Program ...... 5 Literature in the Program ...... 5 Key Words and Concepts ...... 5 Pre-Viewing Suggestions ...... 6 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 6 Discussion: Introducing the Program and Its Key Words and Concepts ...... 6 Post-Viewing Suggestions ...... 6 Content Questions: History ...... 6 H.O.T. Topics: History ...... 7 Content Questions: Literature ...... 8 H.O.T. Topics: Literature ...... 8 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 9 In-Depth Research ...... 10 Extra History Study ...... 10 Extra Literature Study ...... 11 Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study ...... 12 Chronology of History Chart: The Victorian Era ...... 13 Chronology of Literature Chart: The Victorian Era ...... 14 Cross-Curricular Explorations ...... 15 Transcript ...... 15 Consultants for the Series ...... 21 Credits ...... 21

Intended for students in junior high school and above. This program is closed captioned.

Summary Imperialism and Progress: The Victorian Era is part of a of the immortal characters created by Charles 12-video History through Literature series that Dickens and briefly surveys the work of French writer examines the connections between historical events Victor Hugo and American writer Herman Melville. and the literary figures and works of each era. Other The realistic style of Emily Dickinson is contrasted titles in this series are listed on the back of this with the more romantic and popular style of Alfred, Teacher’s Guide. Lord Tennyson. To further illustrate the transition from romanticism to realism, the program uses The opening scene of Imperialism and Progress: The excerpts from war poems by Tennyson and Whitman. Victorian Era takes place in April 1865, when poet Walt Whitman hears of the assassination of Abraham Using the United States Civil War and its aftermath Lincoln and, in his sorrow, composes his eulogy, as an example, the program describes how “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d.” international economics and warfare were now Whitman’s work celebrated the ordinary citizen, the interconnected because of industrial capitalism. The literary hero of the Victorian era—a time when program describes how millions of people moved to ordinary lives were changing dramatically. and across the United States after the Civil War: from the South to the industrial North and frontier West, The era is called “Victorian” after Queen Victoria of and from Europe and Mexico to the United States. Britain, who ruled over the British Empire at the height of its power. The program describes the Through increasingly realistic literature, the program industrialization that had already taken place by the examines the “crisis of faith” that swept through late first decades of her reign, the 1830s and 1840s, and Victorian society. On the one hand, both industrial the effects of factory work on society. Examples from and social progress were proceeding more quickly the writers Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Thomas than ever; on the other hand, the writings of Darwin Carlyle, and Karl Marx are used to evoke early and technological advances were leading people to Victorian conditions. The program describes the question religious faith itself. The program uses labor unrest of the time and the reasons that excerpts from Dostoyevsky, George Eliot, and Mark capitalism succeeded, including advancing Twain to illustrate the internal conflicts of late- technology, expanding economies, and movements Victorian life. for social reform. Imperialism and Progress: The Victorian Era next The program then describes two parallel processes: describes the expansion of European imperialism into the missionary movement, with its emphasis on Africa, southeast Asia, and China, the weakening of education and abolition of slavery; and the expansion these empires through over-expansion, and the rise of of European and American territory, motivated by the United States as a world power, all of which ideals such as “Manifest Destiny.” occurred at the end of Queen Victoria’s reign. The program describes and shows some of the negative The program explains how, like society in general, and positive features of American life at the turn of literature was torn between pride in progress and the century: racism, countered by social progress and nostalgia for the past. Late romantic fictional civil rights organization; immigration, labor unrest, formulas, new high-speed presses, and almost and urban slums, countered by the progressive universal literacy created “pulp fiction.” The public movement; and the disappearance of the frontier. education and Sunday School movements created a demand for moral romances. The program notes the birth of the communications revolution, which was led by inventors from the Amazingly, much truly great literature arose from this United States, and concludes by looking forward, formulaic atmosphere. The Victorian era was the with predictions from George Bernard Shaw and “golden age” of the novel. The script describes some Victor Hugo about the century to come.

3 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—IMPERIALISM AND PROGRESS: THE VICTORIAN ERA

Intended Audience This program is designed for students in junior high school and above.

Learning Objectives After watching this program and completing the activities, students will be able to: • List some of the important events of world movement, the abolition movement, the labor history during the Victorian Era, from the 1830s movement, and the progressive movement— to the first decade of the twentieth century (see and describe how they improved the lives of History in the Program); ordinary citizens; • List some European and American authors who •Give examples of how Victorian literature lived and wrote during the Victorian era (see contained elements of both romanticism Literature in the Program); and realism; •Explain the cause-and-effect relationship between • Contrast the world views of early and late the industrial revolution, the United States Civil Victorian writers; War, and the postwar economic expansion; •Describe the territorial expansions of the United •Identify key inventions of the Victorian era and States, Great Britain, Russia, and other industrial describe the social effects of these inventions; powers during the late nineteenth century; and •Identify some of the major reform movements •Describe the rise of the United States as a of Victorian times—the Protestant missionary world power.

4 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Literature in the Program The following authors and works of literature are specifically mentioned in the program’s narration. The works are listed in roughly the order in which they are cited in the program. More authors and works are listed in the Chronology of Literature Chart: The Victorian Era (page 14). Walt Whitman, “When Lilacs Last Herman Melville, Moby Dick George Eliot, Middlemarch in the Dooryard Bloom’d”; “The Emily Dickinson, Part II, Rudyard Kipling, “The White Wound Dresser” Nature Man’s Burden” Thomas Carlyle, Democracy Alfred, Lord Tennyson, “The Paul Laurence Dunbar, “We Karl Marx, Charge of the Light Brigade” Wear the Mask” The Communist Manifesto Chief Joseph Henrik Ibsen, A Doll’s House Elizabeth Barrett Browning, “The Mark Twain, The Adventures of Jules Verne Cry of the Children” Huckleberry Finn Arthur Conan Doyle, Adventures Charles Dickens, Hard Times; Charles Darwin, of Sherlock Holmes Martin Chuzzlewit; David The Descent of Man George Bernard Shaw, Candida Copperfield Friedrich Nietzsche Victor Hugo Victor Hugo, Les Miserables Fyodor Dostoyevsky, The Brothers Karamazov

Key Words and Concepts Most of these vocabulary words are in the Transcript, where they appear in bold type the first time they are used. abolition Gothic missionary realism capitalism immigrants pioneers reform child labor imperialism plantation revolution communism individualism progress romantic emancipation industrial revolution progressive movement slavery evolution labor movement pulp fiction Sunday School factory Manifest Destiny racism movement

5 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—IMPERIALISM AND PROGRESS: THE VICTORIAN ERA

Pre-Viewing Suggestions DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS IN THE SERIES what did the Greeks revolt? [the Ottoman If you are showing this program in chronological Empire] What other peoples revolted against the order with the other programs in the History through Ottomans at about the same time? [the Serbs Literature series, or if you want to provide and Egyptians] What expanding empire fought background for students who may have missed the continual wars with the Ottomans? [Russia] previous program, lead this review and discussion. Suggest that students pay attention to the 1. The previous program, Romanticism and program to learn what happened to the Revolution, described the late eighteenth and Ottoman Empire during the latter 1800s. early nineteenth centuries, the so-called 4. Ask students to define the industrial revolution “romantic era.” Discuss the meaning of this and, from their general knowledge of history, name. What era of history did the word predict how this revolution would develop. “romance” evoke to writers 200 years ago? [the Review how the industrial revolution was Middle Ages] What were some of the elements connected to the growth of plantation slavery of romanticism? [love of nature, nostalgia for the and the westward expansion of the United pre-industrial past, patriotism, revolutionary States. Ask students to predict not only the fervor] Suggest that, as they watch this program, outcome, but the longer-term results of the students note how romanticism developed later United States Civil War, and then to watch the in the nineteenth century. program to see if their predictions were correct. 2. What were some of the revolutions that occurred during the romantic era? [American, French, DISCUSSION: INTRODUCING THE PROGRAM Egyptian, and Greek wars for independence] AND ITS KEY WORDS AND CONCEPTS What dictator rose to power during the latter Introduce the title Imperialism and Progress: The part of the French Revolution? [Napoleon Victorian Era and speculate on the meaning of its Bonaparte] What nation led the allies who terms. Suggest that students look for changing finally defeated Napoleon? [Great Britain] Ask definitions of “imperialism” and “progress” as they students to predict which power would be the watch the program. strongest in Europe during the decades after the Napoleonic wars. [Great Britain] Ask students to Introduce the Key Words and Concepts and ask watch for how British power developed during students to define the words they know, looking up the rest of the nineteenth century. unfamiliar words in a dictionary. Have students listen 3. In what revolution did the poet Lord Byron take for the terms as they watch the program. part? [the Greek war for independence] Against Post-Viewing Suggestions CONTENT QUESTIONS: HISTORY percentage of the world’s population did 1. For whom is the Victorian era named? [Queen Queen Victoria rule? [25%] Victoria of England] 5. What new territories did the United States 2. For how long did Queen Victoria reign? [more acquire during the 1830s and 1840s? [Indian than 60 years, from 1837 to 1901] lands in the Southeast and Midwest, Mexican 3. What technological trend and economic system lands in the Southwest] were responsible for Britain’s rise to power? [the 6. During which war did Florence Nightingale industrial revolution and capitalism] pioneer modern nursing? [the Crimean War] 4. Where did Great Britain extend its imperial 7. During which war did Walt Whitman serve as power during the 1830s and 1840s? a nurse? [the U.S. Civil War] [Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, 8. What continent did Europeans arbitrarily Afghanistan, northern India] Have students divide during the 1880s? [Africa] identify all the countries that ultimately 9. What were some of the events taking place in the belonged to the British Empire. What United States during the 1880s and 1890s while

6 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Europeans were dividing Africa? [increased have nothing to lose but your chains.” Was that immigration, settlement of the West, Indian really true? Ask students to use verbal and visual wars, invention of electricity and telephones] examples from the program to support their 10. Name some improvements the progressive viewpoints. Refer interested students to In- movement gradually brought to social Depth Research: Extra History Study for further conditions during the Victorian era? research on the industrial labor movement. [outlawed child labor, set up public 3. “Manifest Destiny.” Who coined this phrase? education, shortened work hours, improved [journalist John L. Sullivan] What did it mean working and living conditions] to Americans at the time? [that God had ordained the United States to rule the whole H.O.T. TOPICS: HISTORY continent] What war was Sullivan trying to The following Higher Order Thinking questions encourage by using that phrase? [the Mexican- should be presented in order to achieve maximum American War] Remind students that the effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide United States reached from the Atlantic to the supporting details for general discussion, distribute Pacific oceans at the end of this war. The U.S. copies of the Chronology of History Chart: The now had a vast, “empty” territory to fill and Victorian Era (page 13). develop. What new source of labor was 1. Communications Technology. What was the arriving in America to help settle the land? fastest form of sending messages during the [European immigrants] From this discussion, 1830s? [by rail] during the 1840s? [by students should conclude that many of the telegraph] Ask students to remember the people who settled the West were recent pictures they saw in the program. Around what arrivals to the United States. Have students time did photography begin to be used to study maps for place names in states west of record events? [around the Civil War] Based on the Mississippi to check this conclusion. verbal and visual clues from the program, as 4. Industrialization and the Environment. Ask well as their general knowledge of United students to identify the main source of energy States history, ask students to conclude how for the industrial revolution. [steam power] these new technologies affected the outcome of From their general knowledge of science, have the Civil War. [Students should recall that students describe how steam power works. [A railroads helped the North win the war and source of energy is burned, which boils water conclude that, since the North was more and produces steam, which in turn moves the industrially advanced, it would have had a turbine or other mechanical part of a machine.] better telegraph system. Photography made the ¶ What was burned to provide steam power? war more real and personal for people who [wood] From these facts and from their general were not actively involved in the fighting.] knowledge of history, students should deduce 2. Industrialization and Labor. What new social that, as railroads and industry expanded, forests classes were created by industrialization? [the were depleted. Ask students to give another middle class, the working class] How did the example of a new technology affecting the location of where people lived and worked American environment. [Railroads, cattle change because of industrialization? [People left drives, and barbed wire had a great effect on the farms for jobs in mill towns and emigrated Great Plains and the disappearance of the when factory economies slowed down or western frontier.] Refer interested students to markets dried up.] From the program and from In-Depth Research: Extra History Study for their general knowledge of history, ask students further study on the beginnings of the to identify some of the worst evils caused by environmental movement, and to Cross- industrialization. [dislocation, crowded slums, Curricular Explorations for further exploration child labor] Ask students to imagine the daily of the effects of energy sources. lives of people forced to do factory work. 5. Rethinking the Lead Story. In light of the Discuss Karl Marx’s challenge to workers: “You preceding discussion, rethink what the program

7 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—IMPERIALISM AND PROGRESS: THE VICTORIAN ERA

presented about the life and work of Walt 8. Identify the scientist who most threatened the Whitman. Ask students to identify how the religious certainties of the Victorians; name news of Lincoln’s assassination reached Brooklyn two of his works. [Charles Darwin, On the [by telegraph] and how Lincoln’s coffin was Origin of Species; The Descent of Man] carried. [by rail] Ask students to imagine 9. What popular topic was explored by Ibsen Whitman’s mixed feelings in April 1865: relief and Shaw during the late Victorian period? and joy at the end of the war combined with [class structure] shock and sorrow at his hero’s death. 10. Who urged the United States to “take up the ¶ Ask students to recall Whitman’s poem “The white man’s burden”? [Rudyard Kipling] Wound Dresser” and contrast it with Tennyson’s “Charge of the Light Brigade.” Of what literary H.O.T. TOPICS: LITERATURE movement was Whitman a pioneer? [realism] The following Higher Order Thinking questions How did Whitman learn about the reality of should be presented in order to achieve maximum war? [He nursed wounded soldiers.] effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide ¶ What made Whitman call the United States supporting details for general discussion, distribute “a nation of nations”? [the flood of new copies of the Chronology of Literature Chart: The immigrants arriving from many different Victorian Era (page 14). places] What was Whitman’s attitude toward 1. Pulp Fiction. What new technology literally the railroad? [patriotic pride] Ask students for created pulp fiction? [high-speed presses capable examples that demonstrate how the United of handling the cheapest paper] What social States had become a world power by the end of movement increased the demand for pulp the nineteenth century. [victory in the fiction. How did it do so? [public education; by Mexican-American and Spanish-American creating almost universal literacy] What kinds of wars; inventions—especially in people led the literacy movement? [reformers, communications—such as the telegraph, especially religious ones] How did this affect the telephone, and first electronic media] content of popular literature? [It created a demand for “moral romances.”] Have students CONTENT QUESTIONS: LITERATURE speculate on some of the elements that might 1. What was the occasion for Whitman’s poem, have appeared in a moral romance [pious “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d”? sayings, good being rewarded, evil being [the assassination of Lincoln] punished, etc.] and discuss how those elements 2. What literary heroes were celebrated by continue to appear on television and in other Whitman and other writers of the Victorian forms of popular entertainment. Refer interested era? [the ordinary citizen, the working person] students to In-Depth Research: Extra History 3. Who were some of the writers who protested Study for further exploration of this topic. against the harsh conditions created by 2. Serial Fiction. Remind students that Charles industrialization? [Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Dickens wrote many of his novels one chapter Thomas Carlyle, Karl Marx, Charles Dickens, at a time, for the penny press. Ask students to Victor Hugo] speculate on how this practice affected the 4. What was the name of the political movement contents of the novels. [Students should founded by Karl Marx? [communism] conclude that chapters would tend to end with 5. What novelist was (and still is) the most famous “cliffhangers,” that writers would have to take writer of the Victorian era? [Charles Dickens] great care with the threads of the plot, and that 6. Name the British and Russian writers who are memorable characters would be a great help in contenders for the title of “the first modern keeping readers interested from week to week.] novelist.” [George Eliot, Fyodor Dostoyevsky] Have students compare these conventions with 7. Who wrote The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn those of a television mini-series or soap opera. and what kind of novel was it? [Mark Twain; a What devices do writers use to keep viewers satire] What was Twain satirizing? [Americans’ coming back? values and beliefs] 8 TEACHER’S GUIDE

3. Romanticism vs. Realism. Ask students to recall Study; have students read novels of the examples from the program of romantic and progressive era (1890–1910) to find examples realistic points of view. From the previous of such writings. program, verbal and visual clues in this program, and from their general knowledge, DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES ask students to identify some common If you are showing this program in chronological formulas of romantic fiction. Discuss how order with the other programs in this History through these formulas might be adopted to press some Literature series, use this review and discussion to point of view, such as Christian ideology or prepare students for the next program. imperialist expansion. Ask students once again 1. Compare the wartime experiences of Lord to recall the poems “The Wound Dresser” and Byron—the featured writer in the previous “The Charge of the Light Brigade,” this time program, Romanticism and Revolution—with concentrating on the ideology of the poems. those of Walt Whitman. Students should note Students should note that Tennyson’s “Light that Whitman’s war experience was much more Brigade” has a moral [“Theirs but to do or direct, inferring that his experience alone die”] while Whitman’s poem does not, and would have made Whitman a more “realistic” conclude that the lack of a “moral” is one of writer. How did the nature of warfare itself the hallmarks of realism in literature. Refer change between Byron’s time and Whitman’s? interested students to Chronologies: Class [It became more technologically advanced and Discussion and Extra Study for further therefore more deadly.] exploration of both romanticism and realism 2. From visual as well as verbal clues in the among Victorian authors. program, ask students to identify some other 4. Literature and Imperialism. Ask students to recall technologies that became more advanced the occasion for Kipling’s phrase “take up the during the nineteenth century. [agricultural white man’s burden.” [He was urging the United machinery, railroads, printing presses, States to enter the Spanish-American War.] In telegraphs, textile and other factory machinery] Kipling’s outlook, who had been carrying this Discuss the cumulative effect of such changes “burden”? [Great Britain] Discuss the phrase “to on everyday life and work. Ask for examples of serve your captives’ need” and the attitude it positive and negative effects of advancing expresses. [Students should note how the phrase industrialization, and then have students give implies that captivity is justified because the lot examples of how the same positive and negative of the captured person is improving.] Ask effects are continuing today. Use the ending of students to discuss how a native of India, Africa, this program to discuss how our era—“the or other imperial colony might feel about this communications age”—began in late Victorian attitude. What kind of native literature would times with the invention of electrical develop as a reaction to this attitude? [native communications machinery. literature attempted to preserve local culture and 3. Discuss the term “progressive” and discuss encourage resistance to imperialist powers] Refer how, by the end of the nineteenth century, the term had come to imply social as well as interested students to In-Depth Research: Extra industrial progress. Identify some progressive Literature Study for further research on the causes and ask students to predict how those world literature of the Victorian era. causes would be supported or attacked during 5. Literature and Progressivism. Review the brief the twentieth century. treatment of progressive ideology in the 4. Remind students that although capitalism program and ask students to name some of the triumphed in the nineteenth century, opposing causes for which these social reformers factors—such as the labor movement, socialism, campaigned. Ask students to predict how and communism—were also very active. Ask realistic fiction might have been used to further students to predict what would happen to both progressive causes. Refer interested students to capitalism and communism during the next Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra era—the first half of the twentieth century. 9 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—IMPERIALISM AND PROGRESS: THE VICTORIAN ERA

In-Depth Research The following topics for further study will help students make connections between history and literature, between western and eastern history, and between the past and present. EXTRA HISTORY STUDY 5. Victoria and Albert. Have students research 1. The Civil War and Its Aftermath. Have students Queen Victoria’s role in shaping Victorian research and report on already familiar aspects attitudes. A strong woman with strong of American history in light of new insights attitudes and values, Victoria—and her gained from the program. Potential research beloved Albert—were fascinating symbols of areas might include the competition between their time. African Americans and immigrants for jobs in 6. Jewels in the Crown. Have interested students northern cities; Reconstruction and the research the positive and negative effects of industrialization of the South; Native British rule on their colonies in India, American displacement; and the Australia, Africa, and other places. What industrialization—via railroads, barbed wire, lasting effects are still evident today? grain elevators, and packing houses—of the 7. Local History. Ask individuals or study groups meat and grain industries. Throughout, to investigate the history of your community students should focus on the impact of these or region during the Victorian era. Students changes on ordinary citizens. should visit local landmarks and historical 2. The Rise of Nationalism. Have students research societies, find original documents, and prepare the unification of Germany under Bismarck and a multimedia presentation (local architecture Italy under Garibaldi. As part of their research, might tell an interesting story) of their students should look for causes of the rise of discoveries. Encourage students to connect the nationalism—in these countries and throughout history they are discovering to the literature of Europe—as well as consequences, especially in the time (e.g., by labeling their exhibits with the face of British power. quotations from popular Victorian writers). 3. The Balkan Wars. Suggest that students research 8. The Women’s Rights Movement. The women’s the fighting among Serbs, Muslims, Greeks, rights movement was organized for the first Russians, and Ottoman Turks during the late time during the 1830s and 1840s. Suggest that nineteenth century, relating the events of those students or teams research the pioneers of times to present conflicts in the same region. women’s rights, focusing especially on their 4. “The Sick Man of Europe.” The Ottoman work after the American Civil War. Students’ Turkish Empire continued to weaken during reports should connect the women’s rights the late nineteenth century. Have students movement with the labor movement and other research the Crimean War and other conflicts progressive causes. between the Ottomans, their neighbors, and 9. The Birth of Environmentalism. Ask individual the European powers. Consider forming study students or study groups to research and report groups to investigate (a) reform movements on the pioneers of the environmental within the Ottoman Empire; (b) conservative movement, including Audubon, Thoreau, Muslim opposition to these reforms; and (c) Muir, and Theodore Roosevelt. Study groups the Turks’ relationships with Britain and could investigate the connections between the France and their role in the shifting balance of establishment of national parks and wilderness power in both Europe and Asia. areas and other trends of the time, such as the settlement of the Great Plains and the forced relocation of Native Americans.

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EXTRA LITERATURE STUDY 4. World Literature. Assign individuals or study 1. The Work of Walt Whitman. Assign individuals groups to research and report on the work of and teams to read and report on the works of native writers in Asia, Africa, and the Walt Whitman. Study groups should divide Americas, investigating how they reacted to Whitman’s work chronologically, comparing industrial and imperial expansion. Latin works written before the Civil War, during the American writers also produced many classic War, during the 1870s (when his fame and novels during the Victorian age. In Africa, influence were spreading, especially in Europe) Senegal and other nations began the literary and the 1880s (when he had become an icon). traditions of Pan-Africanism. Since many While students’ reports should concentrate on works are still not available in English reading and interpreting the literature, ask them translations, you might want to give this also to look for connections between Whitman’s assignment to students who speak Spanish, words and specific events of his time. French, German, and other languages. This is 2. Formula Fiction. Assign individuals or groups to an excellent opportunity for recently arrived read and report on popular fiction of the immigrants to share their knowledge. Victorian era. You might want to assign one 5. The Community of Learning. Suggest that genre to each study group, including Gothic students research the connections between and other romances, westerns, detective and writers mentioned in this program and (a) mystery stories, and science fiction. Have other writers and thinkers of their own times; students analyze the works not only as literature (b) writers in the generations before them; and but as records of the history of their time. In (c) writers in later generations. For example, their reports, have students tell what they George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans) began her learned about Victorian attitudes and ideas. career as a translator of controversial German 3. Progressive Literature. Have students find, read, theological and philosophical works by Strauss and report on Victorian literature that tackled and Nietzsche; she was also a lifelong friend of social problems. Students should use the philosopher Herbert Spencer. Charles Dickens Chronology of Literature Chart: The Victorian was both a friend and an employee of detective Era (page 14) to begin their research; Henry story pioneer Wilkie Collins. There are dozens Mayhew’s London Labour and the London Poor of other examples. Students might especially is a good place to start (see 1840–1849). want to explore the later correspondence of Mayhew, a friend of Dickens and one of his Walt Whitman. As his fame grew, many major influences, was a pioneer of sociology. aspiring writers, including Paul Laurence Jacob Riis’s How the Other Half Lives is another Dunbar and Emma Lazarus, sent him their classic. George Eliot’s masterpiece Middlemarch poems. Lazarus’s poem “The New Colossus,” has a heroine caught up in the social reform which was read at the dedication of the Statue schemes of her time. Thomas Hardy, Emile of Liberty, was heavily influenced by Whitman. Zola, and Leo Tolstoy are also important “pre- progressive” fiction writers.

11 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—IMPERIALISM AND PROGRESS: THE VICTORIAN ERA

Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study The chronologies of history and literature located on the following pages are designed both to summarize the era covered by the program and to motivate students to learn more about the era. Copy and distribute the chronologies to individual students or study groups. Use the pages for both in-class discussion and extra study assignments. CHRONOLOGY OF HISTORY: CHRONOLOGY OF LITERATURE: THE VICTORIAN ERA THE VICTORIAN ERA 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. Encourage students to restate key ideas and Encourage students to restate key ideas and draw conclusions from details on the chart. The draw conclusions from details on the chart. The following are some conclusions they can draw. following are some conclusions they can draw. •Technology was developing rapidly during •New scientific disciplines—such as the Victorian era. geology, genetics, electrodynamics, and • Events in far-flung places in the world were nuclear physics—developed during the becoming more connected during the Victorian era. Victorian era. • The social sciences—such as education, • The Ottoman Empire continued to weaken sociology, anthropology, and education— throughout the nineteenth century. were established during the Victorian era. • The Russian Empire expanded into former • During the Victorian era there were several Ottoman territory throughout the important scholarly attacks on the nineteenth century. Christian faith. • Both the United States and the nations of • Evangelical Protestantism grew and spread Europe expanded their territories worldwide during the Victorian era. dramatically during the 1800s. • Much Victorian literature, both serious and • The labor movement grew in influence and popular fiction, is still familiar to us today. organized itself across national boundaries 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask during the late nineteenth century. students to research and report on writers 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask and literary works listed on the chart. You students to research and report on events listed might want to assign one literary category to on the chart. You might want to assign one each study group and have group members continent to each study group and have group choose from writers and works in their members choose from events in their column. column. You might also assign each group a You might also assign each group a time period time period and have group members file and have group members file reports from reports about developments in different different continents. categories of literature.

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Chronology of History Chart: The Victorian Era

DATES EUROPE ASIA AFRICA AND OCEANIA AMERICAS

Greeks fight independence war Russia takes eastern Armenia Egypt occupies Sudan; U.S. Bolívar & San Martín win revo- against Ottomans; Russia sup- & Azerbaijan from Persia & founds Liberia; Fulani conquer lutions against Spain; Monroe before ports Serbian revolt; revolutions fights against Ottomans; British Hausa states; Chamba warriors Doctrine proclaimed; Missouri 1830 rock Spain, Portugal, Italy, fight Burmese War & take enter Cameroon; Shaka forges admitted as slave state; Mexico Russia, & Ireland Rangoon Zulu nation outlaws slavery

Revolutions rock France & Egypt takes Syria from Over 2,000 miles of railroads French occupy Algeria; Poland; Serbia gains indepen- Ottomans; Muhammad Ali built; Trail of Tears and Matabele Empire, Basuto, 1830– dence from Ottomans; Victoria founds new dynasty (Egypt); Underground Railroad orga- Swazi, & Tswana nations 1839 begins 60-year reign & Chartist British occupy Mysore (India); nized; Texas revolts against emerge in wake of Shaka Wars; movement begins (Britain) British monopoly ends (China) Mexico

Kossuth leads Hungarian inde- U.S. fights Seminole War & Afghan, Sikh, & Punjab forces Liberia becomes republic; pendence struggle; riots, strikes, Mexican-American War; U.S. surrender to British; China Yoruba people halt Fulani 1840– & revolts rock Paris, Berlin, labor, women’s rights & temper- signs first treaty with U.S.; advance; Maori revolt against 1849 Dresden, Prague, Vienna, Milan, ance movements founded; gold British control Hong Kong British (New Zealand) Manchester, & other cities found in California

Bessemer processes steel; Livingston reaches Victoria Falls; Britain, France, Russia, Austria, Fugitive Slave Act divides U.S.; Garibaldi begins fight for Italian South African Republic estab- & Ottomans fight Crimean War; Kansas-Nebraska Act opens 1850– independence; Fenian lished; Boers found Orange Free Indians mutiny against Britain; Indian lands; Brown raids 1859 Brotherhood founded (Ireland); State; Boers & Basuto people Perry opens U.S.–Japan trade Harper’s Ferry arsenal Prussia leads united Germany struggle over territory

Republic of Italy founded; civil war breaks out, French open Suez Canal; U.S. fights Civil War, emanci- Bismarck comes to power (Afghanistan); 15-year Tai Ping British invade Ethiopia, control pates slaves, buys Alaska, & 1860– (Germany); Russia liberates serfs Rebellion ends (China); Zanzibar, & annex Basutoland; builds railroad across continent; 1869 & suppresses Polish rebels; Marx Anglo-French alliance signs Speke, Livingston, & Stanley Juarez leads Mexicans against founds workers association Treaty of Peking explore interior French occupation

Franco-Prussian War fought; Ottoman Turks write constitu- British buy Suez Canal from U.S. fights western Indian wars; Paris Commune crushed; tion & open a parliament; Egypt; British troops intervene railroads, cattle drives, & 1870– Republican rebels defeated Queen Victoria proclaimed as in Ashanti wars; hunters destroy buffalo herds; 1879 (Spain); Greece, Serbia, & Empress of India; Zanzibar slave markets closed; telephone, typewriter, & barbed Russia declare war on Turks Japan opens railways Zulus resist British wire invented

Austria, Italy, & Germany form Berlin Conference carves up Republic of Brazil proclaimed; First Indian National Congress Triple Alliance; Victoria cele- Africa; Mahdi defeats Gordon labor unions in U.S. & Canada 1880– convened; France organizes brates 50 years of rule; Parnell (Sudan); Belgium colonizes unite; Oklahoma opened to 1889 Indo-Chinese Union; first politi- fights for Irish Home Rule; Congo; Germany takes white settlers; electric light cal parties founded (Japan) Daimler & Benz invent auto Zanzibar, Tanganyika invented

British Labor party wins first seats Turks massacre Armenians; Ethiopians defeat Italian inva- Cuban rebels fight for indepen- France becomes protector of sion; British found Rhodesia; dence from Spain; U.S. annex- 1890– in Parliament; Dreyfus Affair Laos; China-Japan War ends; British, Boers, & Africans fight es Hawaii, fights Spanish- 1899 shakes France; Social Democrats adapt Marxism (Berlin); Pan-Slav U.S. takes Guam & Philippines in Orange Free State, American War, & wins Cuba, Conference held from Spain Transvaal, & Matabeleland Puerto Rico, Philippines

Edward VII succeeds Victoria; Young Turks revolt against British annex Transvaal & T. Roosevelt elected president; Russia crushes October Ottomans; Russo-Japanese 1900– Orange Free State as Boer progressive movement & major Rebellion; Norway & Sweden War fought; Manchu dynasty 1909 Wars continue; Germans put race riots sweep over U.S.; separate; Sinn Fein party falls & Sun Yat-sen proclaims down Hottentot revolt Wright brothers fly first airplane founded (Ireland) republic (China)

European powers fight World World War I redraws map of Union of South Africa estab- Mexican Revolution fought; U.S. War I; Russian revolution Middle East; after lished; British & French acquire completes Panama Canal & overthrows czar; suffragettes Gandhi begins campaign for 1909 German territories; introduces income tax; U.S. make last push for votes; Indian independence; Egyptian nationalists revolt labor demands 8-hour work day Irish win independence slavery abolished (China)

Chronology of Literature Chart: The Victorian Era

SCIENCE, EDUCATION, NONFICTION: FICTION: POETRY, DATES RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY GEOGRAPHY GOVERNMENT, HISTORY DRAMA, NOVELS Scott, Cooper, Goethe, Lundy, Universal Emancipation; Sunday School movement flour- Accum on adulteration of food; Stendhal, & Hugo, novels; Walker, Appeal to Colored before ishes; Erskine, Evidence for Lamarck on evolution; Lancet, Irving, stories; Byron, Peoples; Sequoyah, Cherokee 1830 Tr uth of Revealed Religion; medical journal, begins; Wordsworth, Shelley, Keats, alphabet Keble, Christian Year Ampère on electricity Heine, Poe, & Pushkin, poems

Joseph Smith, Book of Frobel & Mann on education; Scott, Irving, Stendhal, Hugo, Emerson & Carlyle, essays; Mormon; Finney, sermons; Comte on sociology; Balzac, Flaubert, & Gogol, nov- Neibuhr, Carlyle, & Stevens on 1830– Strauss, Life of Christ; Blumenbach on anthropology; els; Pushkin, Heine, Tennyson, history; Bentham on law of 1839 Schopenhauer, On Will in Poisson on probability; Poe, & Longfellow, poems; nations; Garrison, The Liberator Nature Lyell on geology Andersen, fairy tales

Waitz, Foundation of Declaration of Rights of Dickens, Sand, Dumas, Balzac, Baur on biblical criticism; Psychology;von Mayer on ther- Women; Prescott on Mexico & Melville, Hawthorne, & Brontë, Gorres on Christian mysticism; 1840– modynamics; Humboldt on cos- Peru; Douglass on abolition; novels; Lowell & Poe, poems & spiritualist craze hits U.S.; 1849 mos; Doppler on starlight; Carlyle, Marx, Engels, Mayhew, stories; Tennyson, Browning, & Finney & Beecher, sermons Helmholtz on energy & Mill on economics Heine, poems

Herzog on Protestant theology; Spencer, Social Statics & Douglass, biography, North Star Dickens, Hugo, Melville, Schaff on Church history; Principles of Psychology; newspaper, & orations; Hawthorne, Brontë, Dostoyevsky, 1850– Finney, Beecher, & Sojourner Chebyshev on primary num- Thoreau, Walden; Emerson, & Eliot, novels; Longfellow, 1859 Truth, sermons; J.S. Mill on utili- bers; Darwin, Origin of Species; Ruskin, Carlyle, Holmes, & Tennyson, & Browning, poems; tarianism Pasteur on germs Marx, essays Turgenev, plays

Darwin on plant variation; Dickens, Collins, Hugo, Cardinal Newman, Apologia; Bryce & Rowlinson on history; Spencer on education & Flaubert, Dostoyevsky, Trollope, Renan, Life of Christ; Spencer, Marx, Das Kapital; Stephens on 1860– sociology; Huxley on science; Eliot, Tolstoy, & Zola, novels; First Principles; Hartmann, Constitution, Civil War; J.S. Mill 1869 Mendel on heredity; Whitman & Longfellow, poems; Philosophy of the Unconscious & S. Anthony on women’s rights Lister on antiseptics Ibsen, plays

Spencer, Principles of Ethics; Collins, Eliot, Hardy, Trollope, Darwin, Descent of Man; Still on history of Underground Blavatsky founds Theosophical Twain, Hugo, Verne, Flaubert, 1870– Huxley on evolution & genetics; Railroad; Society; Eddy, Science and Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, & Zola, 1879 Schliemann, Troy and Its Ruskin & Whitman, essays; Health;D.F. Strauss, The Old novels; Whitman, poems; Ibsen, Remains Pater on Renaissance history Religion and the New plays

Bakunin, God and the State; Twain, James, Hardy, Hugo, Bruer on hypnosis for psycho- Zamenhof on Esperanto, uni- Nietzsche, Thus Spake Dostoyevsky, Zola, Loti, & Doyle, 1880– analysis; Ward on sociology; versal language; Whitman, Zarathustra;Tolstoy, My novels; Whitman, Swinburne & 1889 Kelvin on atoms; Koch & essays; Marx, Das Kapital II; Religion;Moody, sermons; Lazarus, poems; Ibsen, Shaw, & Pasteur on vaccinations Carnegie on capitalism; Huxley, Agnosticism Strindberg, plays

Roentgen on X-rays; Marx, Das Kapital III;Webb, Wilde, Twain, James, Hardy, & Moody, sermons; Stead, If Freud on hysteria & dreams; History of Trade Unionism; Zola, novels; Doyle, Sherlock 1890– Christ Came to Chicago; Langley on aerodynamics; Herzl on Zionism; Bismarck, stories; Dunbar, Yeats, & 1899 Theosophical Society splits; Dewey on education; Reflections and Memoirs; Kipling, poems; Shaw, Ibsen, Order of Golden Dawn founded Ellis on psychology of sex Frazer, Golden Bough Pinero, & Chekhov, plays

Freud, Jung, & Wundt on Weber on Protestant ethic and Gorki, Conrad, Dreiser, James, Bertrand Russell on Leibniz; psychology; Planck on quantum capitalism; W.E.B. Du Bois, Mann, Wharton, & Sinclair, nov- 1900– William James, Varieties of theory; Marconi & Fessenden Souls of Black Folk; els; Yeats & Rilke, poems; 1909 Religious Experience; Moore, on radio waves; Washington, Up from Slavery; Shaw, Synge, Strindberg, & Principia Ethica Curies on radiation Riis, How Other Half Lives Chekhov, plays

Thompson on miracles; Russell Conrad, Forster, London, Freud, Adler, & Jung on Lenin & Trotsky on communism; and Whitehead, Principia Lawrence, Wharton, after psychoanalysis; Sorel, Angell, & others on paci- Mathematica;Husserl, Galsworthy, & Ibánez, novels; 1909 Curie, Thomson, Bohr, & others fism; Dewey, Democracy and Phenomenology; Buber, Spirit literary circles in Harlem, on atomic theory Education of Judaism Bloomsbury, & Paris 14 © CLEARVUE/eav TEACHER’S GUIDE

Cross-Curricular Explorations These projects are designed to relate the ideas in the program to other areas of study; assign them to individuals and study groups according to students’ interests and strengths. 1. Victorian Science. Research the new discoveries, Raphaelites, impressionists, and other artists. inventions, and technologies that were Notice the similarities in philosophy, approach, changing people’s lives and the environment and expression between Victorian art (or during the Victorian era. If possible, arrange a music) and literature. For example, both study-center display demonstrating the literature and music tended to be very long scientific principles involved. and fully developed. 2. Victorian Art and Music. The Victorian spirit of 3. Multimedia Victoriana. Hundreds of stories imperialism and progress manifested itself in written in Victorian times are still read today, art and music as well as literature. Research the and even more are watched. With the help of lives and works of Wagner, Mahler, Joplin, movie and television guides, compile a list of Sousa, and other Victorian musicians; also where to see and watch Victorian literature on consider the lives and works of Pre- television and in movies.

Transcript In April 1865, the poet Walt Whitman went home to Whitman was one of many writers who made the Brooklyn, New York, for a much-needed rest. For ordinary citizen into a literary hero. Ordinary lives two-and-a-half years, Whitman had nursed wounded underwent dramatic—often difficult—changes and dying soldiers. Now the Civil War was over. Then during Whitman’s time: the Victorian Age. came the dreadful news: President Lincoln was dead. The era is named for Queen Victoria, who ruled ROBERT PINSKY Great Britain from 1837 to 1901. During her reign, Whitman had seen many young men die in Britain led the world in both industrial progress and pain when he worked as a nurse during the imperial might. At the height of British power, during Civil War. The death of those young men and the 1880s, Queen Victoria had direct rule over the death of Lincoln, assassinated, probably twenty-five percent of the people on Earth. combined in Whitman’s mind to make him realize that the symbol of spring, the lilac, Industrial economies were expanding very rapidly. would always partly for him also be a symbol New technologies transformed how people traveled, of mourning as well as joy. grew their food, and got their news.

When lilacs last in the dooryard bloom’d, But industrialization had its drawbacks. In the early And the great star early droop’d in the western sky 1800s, thousands of workers had left farms where in the night, they had worked for generations, only to find I mourn’d, and yet shall mourn with ever- miserable jobs in factories. Mill towns quickly became returning spring. slum-filled cities. “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d” —Walt Whitman SUSAN BALÉE When people moved to the cities hoping to Walt Whitman called the United States “the greatest better their lives, nobody knew who they were poem.” Its genius, he declared, was in its common anymore. They lived in slums and the only people. people that you could hope would take care of you if you were ill or dying would be some

15 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—IMPERIALISM AND PROGRESS: THE VICTORIAN ERA

institution. That’s the great beginning of poor Britain and the United States were able to impose houses, insane asylums. People are suddenly their values on others because they were expanding being divided up between rich and poor, imperialist empires. Britain colonized Australia, New normal and abnormal. Zealand, and Hong Kong and conquered Afghanistan and northern India during the 1830s and ’40s. Essayist Thomas Carlyle declared that the life of the lowest classes was worse than at any time in history. During those same decades, the United States deported Native Americans from the Southeast and It is not to die, or even to die of hunger, that Midwest, and took land from Mexico after winning makes a man wretched...But it is to live the Mexican-American War. Arguing for the miserable...to work sore and yet gain nothing... annexation of Texas in 1845, journalist John L. Democracy Sullivan spoke of “our Manifest Destiny to —Thomas Carlyle overspread the continent allotted by Providence.”

Karl Marx, the founder of international communism, The writers of the day were torn between pride in called for an industrial labor revolution. progress and nostalgia for the past. The romantic writers retained their popularity from the earlier Workers of the world, unite! You have nothing to 1800s by recalling a bygone era. lose but your chains! The Communist Manifesto SUSAN BALÉE —Karl Marx The romantic poets often wrote about nature in its unspoiled state. And they wrote about In 1848, revolutions led by angry workers did erupt the imagination and the individual because in many cities, including Paris, Berlin, Prague, and they saw those things beginning to disappear Vienna. But reform came slowly. Children, especially, with the industrial revolution. They saw this suffered. British poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning kind of mindset where individuals became just wrote of them: so many people to work in a factory. And then as the century moves on by about the 1830s ...weeping in the playtime of the others. and ’40s, you have a very popular type of In the country of the free... literature called the Newgate novel. And “The Cry of the Children” Newgate was one of the prisons in London. It —Elizabeth Barrett Browning was the prison for the really terrible crimes, where the murderers went. And people were SUSAN BALÉE fascinated by these murderers—people who Children would work sixteen-hour days in had kind of subverted nice Victorian society. factories, barely making enough money to keep themselves or their families. Children would Gothic novels, adventure stories, lurid horror thrillers, often become separated from their parents. detective tales—all these forms of romantic literature They’d be living on their own. Being poor in proliferated and became the world’s first pulp fiction, England was a crime. If you went bankrupt, named for the cheap paper that could be used on the you went to prison. newly invented high-speed printing presses.

Protestant evangelicals and other liberals of the time The establishment of public education led, for the campaigned against child labor and in favor of free first time in history, to nearly universal literacy. The public schools, abolition of slavery, temperance, and public education and Sunday School movements, women’s rights. These causes were spread worldwide actively supported by the deeply religious Queen by a growing missionary movement. Victoria, helped create a mass market of readers who wanted not only romance, but moral romance. A new industry of mostly women writers grew, churning out pious, love-stricken sentiments. 16 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Actually, the mid-nineteenth century was the “golden For as this appalling ocean surrounds the verdant age” of the novel, in all its forms. land, so in the soul of man there lies one insular Tahiti, full of peace and joy, but encompassed by Charles Dickens wrote almost all of his great novels all the horrors of the half known life. for the pulp magazines—in serial form, one chapter Moby Dick at a time. Dickens, especially in his stories’ endings, —Herman Melville tended to be as sentimental as his readers demanded. But he revealed, as few writers had before, the grim Emily Dickinson, unknown in her lifetime but now everyday lives of the poor and working classes. Many considered one of America’s foremost poets, also of the characters he created are still far more real to us struck darker, more realistic notes. than people who actually lived in the Victorian Age. ROBERT PINSKY There’s Mr. Gradgrind, the worst kind of dry, Emily Dickinson knew how to catch very narrow teacher: subtle nuances of feeling, and she could do it with language that wasn’t quite the old, What I want is Facts. Teach these boys and girls traditional, religious language and wasn’t quite nothing but Facts. Facts alone are wanted in life. the conventional language of writing about Plant nothing else, and root out everything else. nature. She changed those languages, Hard Times sometimes by putting them together. —Charles Dickens There’s a certain slant of light, And there’s the mean-spirited businessman, Mr. Winter afternoons, Chuzzlewit: That oppresses, like the heft Of cathedral tunes. Here’s the rule for bargains: “Do other men, for Part II, Nature they would do you.” That’s the true business —Emily Dickinson precept. Martin Chuzzlewit Alfred, Lord Tennyson wrote what is probably the —Charles Dickens best-known example of Victorian verse. The occasion for the poem was a British attack during the Crimean Dickens’s most autobiographical character was David War. In this war, Britain allied itself with its usual Copperfield, a boy who rises from a life of poverty. rivals, Turkey and France, against its usual ally, Russia. The war is now mostly remembered by a line Another French writer whose work showed great in this poem. sympathy for common people was Victor Hugo. His novel Les Miserables chronicles the life of an ill-fated Their’s not to make reply, but good man who is tracked down for a small crime Their’s not to reason why, he committed years before. Their’s but to do and die: Into the valley of Death Many of the best nineteenth-century novels Rode the six hundred. transformed romantic conventions by making them “The Charge of the Light Brigade” more psychologically profound. Herman Melville’s —Alfred, Lord Tennyson Moby Dick is only skeletally a novel about a sea adventure, the revenge of one man against a great white It was during the Crimean War that Florence whale. It is really about the human search for meaning. Nightingale and other women worked to improve the filthy and disease-ridden military hospitals. In the process, they founded modern nursing and earned greater respect for working women. When the United

17 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—IMPERIALISM AND PROGRESS: THE VICTORIAN ERA

States Civil War began, thousands of women as well Our chiefs are killed.... The old men are all as men left their homes to do hospital work. Their dead.... The little children are freezing to death. backbreaking tasks were described by their fellow My heart is sick and sad. From where the sun now nurse, Walt Whitman. stands I will fight no more forever. —Chief Joseph To grasp the difference between romantic and realistic writing, listen to Whitman’s war poem. Many writers noted cynically how religious beliefs were being manipulated to justify and perpetuate social Bearing the bandages, water and sponge, evils. American novelist Mark Twain even nicknamed Straight and swift to my wounded I go. the late Victorian era the “Gilded Age,” meaning that if I am faithful, I do not give out, you scratched beneath society’s gaudy surface, you The fractured thigh, the knee, the wound in the wouldn’t find much of value. In Twain’s satiric novel abdomen, Huckleberry Finn, Huck Finn helps a slave named Jim These and more I dress with impassive hand (yet escape. Huck reflects on how his action not only breaks deep in my breast a fire, a burning flame). the law but challenges local religious belief. “The Wound Dresser” Nevertheless, he decides to live by his conscience. —Walt Whitman I studied a minute, sort of holding my breath, and Whitman knew that the nation and the world had then says to myself: All right, then, I’ll go to hell. festering wounds that needed dressing as well. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn —Mark Twain Before the Civil War, slave-grown cotton from the South had supplied the textile mills of the northern But the writer who most threatened Victorian states and Great Britain. At the same time, Britain religious beliefs was a scientist, Charles Darwin. encouraged emigration from Ireland and other poor Darwin’s theory of evolution, set forth in 1859 in On areas to America, to relieve employment and the Origin of the Species, boldly stated that humans population pressures. This flood of immigrants drove had evolved from other animals in a slow process that wages down in the United States, and drove up had gone on for millions of years. Later, he wrote: membership in labor unions and abolitionist groups because workers resented competing against cheap, Man with all his noble qualities...still bears in his and even slave, labor. bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin. The Descent of Man Cut off from the South by the Civil War, Britain —Charles Darwin developed its cotton fields in India instead. After the war, the main market for southern cotton was gone. For the first time, people faced the possibility that Poverty and persecution in the postwar South drove there was no divine power to rescue the human race many African Americans north, where they competed from disasters of its own making. German philosopher with new waves of immigrant labor from Europe. Friedrich Nietzsche announced, “God is dead.” Blacks, whites, and new immigrants all joined the flood of pioneers to the West, which renewed the This stark realism and the new scientific outlook pressure on Native American lands. transformed the Victorian novel from entertainment to serious philosophy. Between 1862 and 1890, a series of wars between Indians and American soldiers either killed Native Fyodor Dostoyevsky wrote many great, brooding Americans outright or forced them off their lands and novels that questioned Russia’s and humanity’s role in onto reservations. After being hounded across the the modern world. His novel The Brothers Karamazov West by the American army, Chief Joseph of the Nez portrays three brothers who argue their religious Percé tribe said: ideas, from faith to atheism. One character says:

18 TEACHER’S GUIDE

If you were to destroy in mankind the belief in serving your captives’ needs as a duty. Kipling immortality, not only love but every living force writes in his poem “The White Man’s Burden”: maintaining the life of the world would be dried up. Take up the White Man’s burden, The Brothers Karamazov Send forth the best ye breed, —Fyodor Dostoyevsky Go, bind your sons to exile To serve your captives’ need. Mary Ann Evans, who wrote under the pen name of “The White Man’s Burden” George Eliot, became one of the greatest late —Rudyard Kipling Victorian writers. She wrote of everyday life in rural England. Like The Brothers Karamazov, Eliot’s Similarly confining stereotypes about other races, masterpiece Middlemarch is a strong contender for classes, and genders were the ugly reality of everyday the title “the first modern novel” because of its fully life among the Victorians. The job of exposing these realized characters and its psychological and attitudes fell to writers. spiritual depth. African American poet Paul Laurence Dunbar wrote If we had a keen vision of all that is ordinary in of the realities of living in a white world. human life, it would be like hearing the grass grow or the squirrel’s heart beat, and we should We wear the mask that grins and lies, die of that roar which is the other side of silence. It hides our cheeks and shades our eyes, Middlemarch This debt we pay to human guile; —George Eliot With torn and bleeding hearts we smile, And mouth with myriad subtleties.... Meanwhile, the imperial race continued. In the “We Wear the Mask” 1880s, armed with the authority of modern guns and —Paul Laurence Dunbar with new medicines to ward off tropical diseases, Britain, France, Belgium, and others scrambled to Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen examined the carve up Africa among themselves. hypocrisy and restrictive morality of middle-class life. His play A Doll’s House sent shock waves through the They also made colonial inroads in the Far East: literary community because its heroine, Nora, walks France controlled Indochina, the British extended out on her spineless husband. their Indian empire eastward into much of Burma, and the Dutch ruled most of the Indonesian islands. Our house has never been anything but a playroom. I have been your doll wife, just as at home I was British writer Rudyard Kipling was noted for his Daddy’s doll child. And the children in turn have glorification of British global imperialism. But he been my dolls.... That’s been our marriage, Torvald. addressed his most famous poem to the Congress of A Doll’s House the newest world power, the United States. The —Henrik Ibsen poem’s purpose was to urge the United States to enter the imperialistic Spanish-American War. This short SUSAN BALÉE war, fought in 1898, left the U.S. in control of Puerto So what you see happening is this image of Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands. woman who’s fragile and loves her children and doesn’t work and isn’t interested in the ROBERT PINSKY intellectual pursuits of men—you see it It isn’t easy for us to try to imagine the state of beginning to change in literature. And you start mind that would use, earnestly and sincerely, to have what’s known as the strong-minded language urging a political adventure—sending woman heroine, and she needs to come into soldiers into another country—by talking being because it is no longer economically without irony—really meaning it—about feasible to have a woman who doesn’t work.

19 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—IMPERIALISM AND PROGRESS: THE VICTORIAN ERA

But all late Victorian literature was not this serious, Other writers dreamed of replacing industrial though it was scientific. Jules Verne created the capitalism with a more just, humane society. These science fiction novel during the late Victorian period. last words were written by Victor Hugo on the wall of And Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes the room where he died in 1885. stories are typically late Victorian in their belief in law and order, science, and logic. I represent a party which does not yet exist: the party of revolution, civilization. This party will By the start of the twentieth century, American make the twentieth century. There will issue from inventors put practical science to work in it first the United States of Europe, then the communications and transportation, with inventions United States of the World. like the telephone. People could look back proudly —Victor Hugo and look ahead confidently toward more progress in the century to come. Hugo and other dreamers like him could not foresee that such a future could only arrive—if it came at Some writers, though, had doubts about the future. all—on the far side of many difficult, and even Playwright George Bernard Shaw wondered if there terrible, years. was not an emptiness at the core of it all.

We have no more right to consume happiness without producing it than to consume wealth without producing it. Candida —George Bernard Shaw

20 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Credits PROGRAM WRITERS PROGRAM PRODUCERS TEACHER’S GUIDE Judith Conaway, lead writer Rhonda Fabian Judith Conaway, writer Bob Burleigh Jerry Baber Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Josh Orth Jack Phelan Teresa Koltzenburg 21 Civilization and Writing (CL949-1CV) Philosophy and Government: The World in Greek Times (CL949-2CV) Empires of Heaven and Earth: The World in Roman Times (CL949-3CV) Faith and Feudalism: The Early Middle Ages (CL949-4CV) Chivalry and Commerce: The Late Middle Ages (CL949-5CV) Renaissance and Reformation (CL949-6CV) New Worlds and New Ideas (CL949-7CV) Industry and Enlightenment (CL949-8CV) Romanticism and Revolution (CL949-9CV) Imperialism and Progress: The Victorian Era (CL949-10CV) World Wars and the Quest for Order: The Early 20th Century (CL949-11CV) Liberation and Change: The Late 20th Century (CL949-12CV)

This Teacher’s Guide may be reproduced in whole or in part for use by students.

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in conjunction with CLEARVUE/eav 6465 N. Avondale Ave. Chicago, IL 60631-1996 1-800-CLEARVU (1-800-253-2788) www.clearvue.com World Wars and the Quest for Order: The Early 20th Century

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Program #CL941-CV Running Time: 26:49

Table of Contents Summary ...... 3 Intended Audience ...... 3 Presenting the Program ...... 3 Learning Objectives ...... 4 History in the Program ...... 4 Literature in the Program ...... 4 Key Words and Concepts ...... 5 Pre-Viewing Suggestions ...... 5 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 5 Discussion: Introducing the Program and Its Key Words and Concepts ...... 6 Post-Viewing Suggestions ...... 6 Content Questions: History ...... 6 H.O.T. Topics: History ...... 6 Content Questions: Literature ...... 8 H.O.T. Topics: Literature ...... 8 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 10 In-Depth Research ...... 11 Extra History Study ...... 11 Extra Literature Study ...... 12 Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study ...... 13 Chronology of History Chart: The Early 20th Century ...... 14 & 15 Chronology of Literature Chart: The Early 20th Century ...... 16 & 17 Cross-Curricular Explorations ...... 18 Transcript ...... 19 Consultants for the Series ...... 25 Credits ...... 25

Intended for students in junior high school and above. This program is closed captioned.

Summary World Wars and the Quest for Order: The Early 20th quotes from Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, James Century is part of a 12-video History through Joyce, and other writers, the program then shows how Literature series that examines the connections the literature of the 1920s reflected the moral between historical events and the literary figures and uncertainty of society, the search for new human works of each era. Other titles in this series are listed language and identity, and a growing sense of African on the back of this Teacher’s Guide. cultural pride, activism, and nationalism. The opening scene of World Wars and the Quest for The program then defines the Great Depression and Order: The Early 20th Century takes place in early describes how it affected life in the United States, 1918 when, along with thousands of other “Yanks,” quoting works by John Steinbeck and Richard Ernest Hemingway fought in World War I. His Wright. The American political experience is experiences began a writing career that would span compared with that of Italy, Japan, Russia, Spain, and the Spanish Civil War, World War II, and the cold Germany, where the political extremes of fascism and war. Hemingway’s career paralleled the first half of communism triumphed during the Depression years. the twentieth century. The program describes Hitler’s rise to power and the alliances that led to World War II. The century began with hope and a belief in technology, progressive ideas, and science. This “age Three major campaigns of World War II—in the of innocence” ended with World War I. The program Pacific, north Africa, and Stalingrad—are described, briefly discusses the forces and alliances that led to as is the horror of the Holocaust. John Hersey’s the war and then describes the fighting through the writing describes the dropping of atomic bombs on writing of Wilfred Owen. Japan, which ended the war. World Wars and the Quest for Order: The Early 20th The program concludes with a brief look forward to Century next describes the war’s end and its political the postwar years, especially to the development of aftershocks: the Russian Revolution and its the “cold war” between the United States and the communist takeover, other revolutions worldwide, Soviet Union. Ernest Hemingway, it is noted, also reforms in Turkey, the start of Gandhi’s independence became caught up in this ideological conflict, losing struggle in India, and the women’s suffrage movement his home in Cuba to the communist revolution. in the United States and Britain. With examples and

Intended Audience This program is designed for students in junior high school and above.

Presenting the Program To prepare a lesson plan to accompany the presentation of this video, review the suggestions outlined below. You will find all of the sections mentioned in the Table of Contents of this Teacher’s Guide. 1. Familiarize yourself with the video and the 4. Check for understanding by discussing and sections of this Teacher’s Guide. reviewing the information, vocabulary words, 2. Introduce students to the video, using one or and concepts presented in the video by using more of the Pre-Viewing Suggestions to relate the the History and/or Literature Post-Viewing upcoming information to what they already Suggestions, including the H.O.T. Topics know. As a final activity, it may be helpful to (Higher Order Thinking), which delve into introduce new names and vocabulary words— many related subjects and concepts. especially those with difficult spelling and 5. If time permits, have students watch the pronunciation—by using the chalkboard or program a second time, pausing at points of overhead projector. interest for discussion. 3. Have the students watch the video in its entirety 6. As guided independent practice, choose and and without interruption. assign some of the In-Depth Research suggestions. 3 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—WORLD WARS AND THE QUEST FOR ORDER: THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY

Learning Objectives After watching this program and completing the activities, students will be able to: • List some of the important world history events •Identify the extreme right- and left-wing during the early twentieth century, especially ideologies—fascism and communism—that World War I and II (see History in the Program); divided the world between 1900 and 1950; • List some European and American authors who •Explain, using examples, how literature reflected lived and wrote during the early twentieth the uncertainty and tragedy of the two world wars century (see Literature in the Program); and the decades between them; •Explain the cause-and-effect relationship between •Describe the United States’ participation in the World War I, the postwar recovery of Germany, two world wars; and and World War II; •Describe the rise of the United States and the Soviet • Identify key inventions of the early twentieth century Union as world powers and ideological rivals. and describe the social effects of these inventions; History in the Program The following events and trends from world history are specifically mentioned in the program’s narration. They are listed below in roughly the order that they occurred in history. More events are outlined in the Chronology of History Chart: The Early 20th Century (pages 14 & 15). Decline of Ottoman and Austro- End of Ottoman Empire (Turkey) Rise of Adolf Hitler Hungarian empires Beginning of independence Rearmament of Germany Unrest in the Balkan nations struggle (India) Outbreak of World War II The progressive movement, Granting of women’s right to vote American victories in the Pacific including women’s suffrage (Britain and U.S.) Allied victories in north Africa Inventions of the automobile The literary and social scene in Allied victory at Stalingrad and airplane Paris between the wars Bombing of civilian targets Opening of the Panama Canal The rise of the consumer society in Murder of Jews and others in Nazi Introduction of psychoanalysis the United States death camps Outbreak of World War I The stock market collapse of 1929 End of war in Europe United States’ entry into WW I The Great Depression Atomic bombing of Japan Outbreak of the Russian Revolution The rise of Japanese power Positive and negative aftermath of Takeover of Russian Revolution by The rise of Italian fascism under World War II communists Mussolini Development of the cold war Geographic and political Stalinist rule of the Soviet Union between the United States and aftereffects of World War I The Spanish Civil War the Soviet Union

Key Words and Concepts Most of these vocabulary words are in the Transcript, where they appear in bold type the first time they are used. atomic bomb communist idealist quagmire anti-Semitism concentration camp journalist Bolshevik balance of power consumer lost generation rearmament blitzkrieg cynic nationalist republican capitalist expatriate Nazi Roaring ’20s civil rights fascist nonviolent Social Security civilian front Pacific theater stock market crash cold war Great Depression Pan-Africanist trenches colonial Harlem Renaissance progressive typography collectivization Holocaust psychoanalysis

Pre-Viewing Suggestions DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES weakening these empires included nationalist If you are showing this program in chronological revolutions and the expansions of Russia and order with the other programs in the History through Germany. Ask students to watch for the results Literature series, or if you want to provide of those trends during the twentieth century. background for students who may have missed the 3. What continent did the European powers previous program, lead this review and discussion. carve up during the late Victorian era? 1. The previous program, Imperialism and [Africa] Review the wars Great Britain fought Progress: The Victorian Era, described the in Africa [the Zulu wars, the Boer Wars] and period from 1830 to 1910, the so-called their results. [British control of southern “Victorian era.” Discuss the reason for this Africa] Remind students that in the name. For what ruler was the nineteenth discussion following the last program, they century named? [Queen Victoria of Great were asked to predict the effects of Britain] Give some reasons why Queen colonialism on native peoples of Africa. Ask Victoria was able to impose her personal them to listen and watch carefully for clues to values on the world. [She ruled for more than what was happening in Africa during the early 60 years over the most powerful empire on twentieth century. Earth. She had direct rule over as many as 4. Ask students to recall the period engravings 25% of the world’s people.] Ask students to and photographs seen in the last program and recall the maps they saw in the last program. to identify some of the technological advances By the end of the nineteenth century, over of the Victorian era. [railroads; reapers, what parts of the world did Great Britain rule? tractors, and other farm machines; telegraph [colonies in Africa; most of India; colonies in and telephone; high-speed printing presses; southeast Asia and China; British Honduras; increasingly advanced factory machinery] Lead Jamaica; Bahamas; Canada as part of a general discussion about how each new Commonwealth] Ask students to watch how technology made everyday life move more Great Britain used its power in the early quickly. For example, discuss how railroads twentieth century. aided the North during the Civil War by 2. The last program identified two weakening rapidly moving troops and materials. Review empires that were upsetting the balance of some of the new technologies present at the power in Europe and Asia. What were they? end of the Victorian era [electric lights, [the Austro-Hungarians and Ottoman Turks] electrical machinery, movies, phonographs] Remind students that the forces that were and ask students to predict how technology

5 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—WORLD WARS AND THE QUEST FOR ORDER: THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY

would evolve during the next decades. From DISCUSSION: INTRODUCING THE PROGRAM their general knowledge of history, students AND ITS KEY WORDS AND CONCEPTS will probably mention the automobile, 1. Introduce the title World Wars and the Quest for airplane, and radio. Ask them to watch for how Order and speculate on the meaning of its these new technologies were applied during the terms. Have students look for reasons for the first half of the twentieth century. label “world wars” as they watch the program. 5. How did the United States become a world Suggest that they also note the reasons why power during the Victorian era? What new some felt a new “quest for order” was needed. territories did it add? [California and the states 2. Introduce the Key Words and Concepts and of the Southwest from Mexico; Alaska from ask students to define the words they know, Russia; Hawaii, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the looking up unfamiliar words in a dictionary. Philippines from Spain] As with Great Britain, Have students listen for the terms as they use ask students to watch for the “national the program. Pay special attention to the fortunes” of the United States during the first different ideological groups who tried to half of the twentieth century. “establish order” in various places (e.g., communists, fascists, nationalists, Pan- Africanists, nonviolent followers of Gandhi).

Post-Viewing Suggestions CONTENT QUESTIONS: HISTORY 10. What was the Holocaust? [the systematic 1. When did World War I take place? murder of Jews and other “enemies of the race” [from 1914 to 1918] by the Nazi government of Germany] 2. What was the major cause of World War I? 11. What new weapon was first used to force [territorial and power struggles in eastern Europe] Japan to surrender, ending World War II? [the 3. What nation joined the war near its end atomic bomb] and turned the tide against Germany? [the 12. What was the military result of World War II? United States] [the defeat of the fascist powers] 4. What great power—one of the Allies fighting against Germany—experienced a H.O.T. TOPICS: HISTORY major revolution toward the end of World The following Higher Order Thinking questions War I? [Russia] should be presented in order to achieve maximum 5. What was Russia’s new name after this effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide revolution and what ideology prevailed in the supporting details for general discussion, distribute renamed nation? [the U.S.S.R., or Soviet copies of the Chronology of History Chart: The Early Union; communism] 20th Century (pages 14 & 15). 6. What was the name of the extreme right-wing 1. Communications Technology. What was the movement that swept over Europe after World fastest way to send messages at the end of the War I? [fascism] 1800s? [by telephone] What was the fastest 7. Name four nations that were taken over by way to send written messages? [by cable, or fascism during the 1930s. [Italy, Spain, telegraph] What new forms of communication Germany, and Japan] were invented during the late 1800s and early 8. What nations allied themselves against the 1900s? [movies, phonographs, radio] Ask fascist nations during World War II? [the students to recall some of the program’s visuals United States, Great Britain, France, and the that showed fighting in World War I. Lead a Soviet Union] general discussion on the effect these moving 9. What economic upheaval in the 1930s caused pictures had on people in the United States many people worldwide to lose their jobs and and other places far away from the war. homes? [the Great Depression] [Students should note that films would have 6 TEACHER’S GUIDE

made war seem more real, less romantic.] Have United States, Great Britain, and other interested students explore how radio democracies would oppose both communism technology and propaganda movies helped the and fascism. [Students should specifically Allies win World War II. identify both those movements as totalitarian.] 2. Te chnology and Warfare. Review some of the new In addition to democracy, what alternatives to technologies seen in the program and discuss totalitarianism were hinted at in the program? how they affected warfare. Review the definition [nonviolence, as advocated by Gandhi; Pan- of trench warfare and why it got bogged down. Africanism, as developed by W.E.B. Du Bois [Advances were difficult against machine-gun and others] Refer interested students to In- fire and chemical weapons.] Recall a newer Depth Research: Extra History Study for weapon that appeared in the pictures of further exploration of fascism, communism, American troops in the war. [the airplane] and nonviolence. Students should be able to reason that airplanes 4. The World Wars and the Balance of Power. Ask helped destroy trenches and thus win the war. students to review where the major battles of the What nation provided air power for the fascists two world wars were fought. What continent in Spain in 1936? [Germany] From this fact, was the major battleground for both wars? students should conclude that Germany had [Europe] What two empires, which had been armed itself with the latest military technology weakening during the nineteenth century, less than 20 years after the end of World War I. disappeared after World War I? [the Austro- What other new weapon besides the airplane Hungarian and Ottoman empires] What did the Germans use in the “lightning war” of military power allied itself with those nations 1939? [advanced tanks] From pictures seen in during World War I? [Germany] Lead students the program and reference books, ask students to recognize that, because of its alliance during to identify other types of advanced weaponry the war, Germany, even though defeated, would used in World War II. [aircraft carriers, still have strong influence in former Austro- battleships, tanks, advanced machine guns, Hungarian and Ottoman lands. Students should bombers and bombs, the atomic bomb] conclude that the destruction of these two Remind students that the trend toward more empires by the war was one of the factors that sophisticated weapons has continued to this day. led to rapid rearmament of Germany. Discuss the effects of advanced weaponry in ¶ Discuss Adolph Hitler’s program for making warfare both more deadly and more Germany and ask students to suggest some impersonal. (A good way to conclude this reasons why the program appealed so strongly discussion would be a complete reading of to the German people. [Students should reason Dylan Thomas’ poem “The Hand that Signed that many Germans longed for a return to the Paper Felled the City.”) their former days of power and influence.] 3. The Quest for Order. Identify the extreme right- ¶ What nation fought in both world wars wing “law and order” movement that arose while suffering no attacks on its own during the 1920s in Italy. [fascism] Ask mainland? [the United States] Lead students to students to suggest reasons why fascism would reason that the devastation of Europe by the have such appeal at that time. [the devastation, two world wars led to the decline of Britain, dislocation, and economic instability that France, and Germany as world powers, and followed World War I] Review the extreme that the resulting vacuum was filled by the left-wing ideology that arose in Russia during United States, which helped win both wars. same period. [communism] Ask students to Ask students why they think the United States recall Russia’s losses in World War I. From allied itself with the Soviet Union, a these facts, students should conclude that the communist totalitarian state, during the war. same postwar problems that led to fascism in Refer interested students to In-Depth Italy, Spain, and Germany led to communism Research: Extra History Study for further in Russia. Ask students to discuss why the exploration of World War II military alliances.

7 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—WORLD WARS AND THE QUEST FOR ORDER: THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY

5. World War II and the Cold War. Ask students 2. Name two writers who wrote about their to name the two nations that emerged as experiences in World War I. [Ernest superpowers after World War II [the Soviet Hemingway, Wilfred Owen] Union and the United States] and to identify 3. Name two writers who lived and worked in their opposing political systems. [democratic Britain during the 1920s and 1930s. [William capitalism and communism] Which nation Butler Yeats, T.S. Eliot] was more technologically advanced at the 4. Name at least two writers who lived and start of the cold war? [the United States] worked in France during the 1920s and 1930s. What ideological advantage did the Soviet [Ernest Hemingway, James Joyce, Union have as a result of the war? [The war e e cummings, F. Scott Fitzgerald] defeated fascism, the right-wing opposite of 5. Name at least two writers who lived and left-wing communism.] worked in the United States during the 1920s 6. Rethinking the Lead Story. In light of the and 1930s. [W.E.B. Du Bois, Countee Cullen, preceding discussion, rethink what the Jean Toomer, Zora Neale Hurston, John program said about Ernest Hemingway’s life Steinbeck, Richard Wright, William Faulkner] and work. On what new technology did 6. What was the name of New York’s African Hemingway’s war work depend? [the American cultural movement at this time? [the automobile] How did Hemingway’s war Harlem Renaissance] experiences change him? [He turned from 7. What happened to writers in the Soviet Union idealism to cynicism.] Ask students if they during the 1930s? [Like all Soviet citizens, they think Hemingway’s attitude change was were subject to ruthless purges, arbitrary unusual. [Not at all. On the contrary, it was imprisonment, and death at the hands of Stalin shared by many writers and others in the and his secret police.] period between the wars.] 8. Name two writers from the 1920s and 1930s ¶ Remind students that Hemingway served as who experimented with the basic structure of a journalist during the Spanish Civil War and language. [James Joyce, e e cummings] World War II. What new technologies might 9. What was the title of the book in which Hemingway have used in his reporting? [radio Adolph Hitler explained his fascist philosophy? and film] Discuss the roles of these media in [Mein Kampf] turning Hemingway into a literary celebrity, 10. Name at least two writers who wrote about the not just a writer. human side of World War II. [Ernest ¶ Review what the program showed about the Hemingway, Dylan Thomas, John Hersey] end of Hemingway’s career. In what “hot spot” 11. What novel helped Hemingway win the Nobel of the cold war did Hemingway live? [Cuba] Prize for Literature? [The Old Man and the Sea] How did Hemingway become a victim of the cold war? [He lost his home after the Cuban H.O.T. TOPICS: LITERATURE revolution brought the communists to power.] The following Higher Order Thinking questions Remind students that Hemingway was a should be presented in order to achieve maximum lifelong opponent of fascism and ask them to effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide speculate on his probable attitude toward supporting details for general discussion, distribute communism. Refer interested students to In- copies of the Chronology of Literature Chart: The Depth Research: Extra Literature Study for Early 20th Century (pages 16 & 17). further exploration of these and other details of 1. Innocence and Experience: World War I. Hemingway’s life. Remind students that the twentieth century began with great optimism and belief in CONTENT QUESTIONS: LITERATURE technological and social progress. Read this 1. What two early novels made Ernest excerpt from “The Soldier” by Englishman Hemingway famous? [The Sun Also Rises, A Rupert Brooke. Farewell to Arms]

8 TEACHER’S GUIDE

If I should die, think only this of me: ¶ Discuss how years of warfare could lead to That there’s some corner of a foreign field such deadening of the emotions. Then have That is forever England.... students draw parallels between Hemingway’s battle-shocked soldier and the victims of wars, ¶ Have students characterize Brooke’s outlook terrorism, and torture today. Help students [nationalistic, naive, “gung ho”] and explain grasp how this deadening of feelings prolongs that Brooke died early in the war. Then, from the cycle of violence. the Transcript, reread the fragment of poetry ¶ Have interested students find other by Englishman Wilfred Owen (page 20). Ask excerpts from the works of Gertrude Stein students to compare the world views of these and other “lost generation” authors that two poems. illustrate this point. ¶ Next, read this excerpt from Erich Maria 3. African American Literature and Culture. The Remarque’s All Quiet on the Western Front. program points out that many African Monotonously falls the rain. It falls on our American writers “found themselves” during heads and on the heads of the dead up the the time of “the lost generation.” What two line.... It falls on Kemmerich’s grave; it falls in cities were cultural centers of Pan-Africanism? our hearts. [New York and Paris] What were some of the ideas of the negritude, or Pan-African, ¶ Have students analyze the tone of these movement? [African cultural pride, excerpts. What experiences may have led to the nationalism, civil rights] What do we call the different outlooks of these writers? [the physical African American cultural and literary scene in frustrations of the front and in the trenches; the New York? [the Harlem Renaissance] Remind technological horrors of World War I] Have students of the new media—radio and students recall that the United States entered movies—that grew in popularity during the the war fairly late and that the war was not 1920s and ’30s. Students should reason that fought on its territory. From these perspectives, Pan-Africanism and other ideas of W.E.B. Du students should expect that the work of writers Bois and other writers spread from Harlem to like Hemingway, who experienced the war the rest of black America by means of the firsthand, would be more pessimistic than the radio. Refer interested students to In-Depth work of American writers who did not Research: Extra Literature Study for further experience the war firsthand. Refer interested exploration of this topic. students to In-Depth Research: Extra Literature 4. Realism and Escape. Ask students for Study to test this theory. adjectives to describe the work of 2. “The Lost Generation.” Tell students that Hemingway and the other wartime writers Gertrude Stein, an American writer who lived in whose work was quoted in the program. France, coined this name. What did it refer to? Elicit the term “realistic” to describe these [a group of American expatriate writers who writers’ cold, emotionless approach. What lived and worked in Paris in the time between new technologies for transmitting fiction the two world wars] What had this generation gained widespread popular acceptance during “lost”? [a sense of purpose in life] How did the the first half of the twentieth century? [radio work of Hemingway exemplify this attitude? [It and movies] Would students expect these projected the cold, emotionless nature of high- media also to reflect the pessimistic outlook tech warfare.] Read this excerpt from of Hemingway, Franz Kafka, and others? Hemingway’s “Soldier’s Home.” Students’ answers will vary, especially among “Don’t you love your mother, dear boy?” film buffs. Many films of the 1930s do “No,” Krebs said. reflect the grimness and uncertainty of the His mother looked at him across the table. Her intrawar period. On the other hand, the ’30s eyes were shiny. She started crying. were a time when outrageously escapist, rags- “I don’t love anybody,” Krebs said. to-riches romances were wildly popular. After

9 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—WORLD WARS AND THE QUEST FOR ORDER: THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY

a discussion of some of the reasons escapist mourn the war dead. Whitman’s poem, literature was popular, assign students however, lacked the anger and bitterness of projects from In-Depth Research: Extra Owen’s work. Refer interested students to In- Literature Study and Cross-Curricular Depth Research: Extra Literature Study for Explorations to explore further the topic of further comparisons. popular literature during the first half of the 4. Discuss the term “progressive” and how, by the twentieth century. end of the nineteenth century, the term had come to imply social as well as industrial DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES progress. Identify some progressive causes and If you are showing this program in chronological ask students to recall what happened to those order with the other programs in this History through causes during the first half of the twentieth Literature series, use this review and discussion to century. [women and minority workers made prepare students for the next program. gains as a result of both world wars; some 1. Compare the wartime experiences of Ernest progressive goals were incorporated in Hemingway, the featured writer in World Wars Roosevelt’s New Deal; women gained the right and the Quest for Order: The Early 20th Century to vote; African Americans became more active with those of Walt Whitman. Students should in their search for civil rights] note that both Hemingway and Whitman took 5. Review the political upheavals that followed care of war wounded. Hemingway’s service, World War I. [revolutions in Russia and many like his war, was more automated. Have the countries, the end of the Austro-Hungarian class compare how firsthand wartime and Ottoman empires, the rise of fascist and experiences affected the work of the two communist totalitarianism] Next, compare the writers. [In both cases, the horrors of war two world wars in very general terms. produced realistic, nonromantic writing.] [included many of the same main combatants; Compare Whitman’s feelings for his country fought over much of the same ground, with Hemingway’s. [Whitman was patriotic especially in Europe; involved European and proud of America; Hemingway was an territories around the world] From these expatriate most of his life.] comparisons, ask students to predict what 2. From visual as well as verbal clues in the would happen to the world in the immediate program, ask students to compare society in aftermath of World War II. Students should Hemingway’s and Whitman’s time. Students conclude that the post-World War II world should note that Hemingway’s world was faster would be beset by upheavals similar to those and more deadly than Whitman’s, recognizing that followed World War I. that World War I was the watershed that 6. Review how World War II devastated the separated even the most realistic Victorians Soviet Union and ask students to speculate on from modern writers. how it was possible for the Soviet Union to 3. Discuss the differences and similarities between compete with the United States after the war. the outlook of Whitman’s poem, “When Lilacs Students should conclude that an amazing Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d” and Wilfred economic recovery must have taken place in Owen’s poem, “The Anthem for Doomed the Soviet Union in the years immediately Youth.” Students should note that both poems following the war.

10 TEACHER’S GUIDE

In-Depth Research The following topics for further study will help students make connections between history and literature, between western and eastern history, and between the past and present. EXTRA HISTORY STUDY numerous connections between African 1. Revolutions Worldwide. Have students research American and African colonial writers, and report on the revolutions that occurred in especially due to the work of W.E.B. Du Bois. the years immediately following World War I, 5. Women’s History. Women finally gained the right focusing on the new nations that were formed to vote in the years following World War I. in Russia, Turkey, Ireland, Mexico, and the Suggest that individual students or study groups Middle East. Since many of the governments research and report on the final events leading to established are still in power today (in Saudi women’s suffrage and on how women voters Arabia, for example), students’ reports should used their new political power. Assign study connect post-World War I history with groups to research the causes with which women present-day events. voters were involved during the 1920s and 2. The Balkan Wars. Suggest that students 1930s, including general political organizing, the research the fighting among Serbs, Muslims, labor movement, the world peace movement, Greeks, Russians, and Ottoman Turks during and the temperance movement. Other study the late nineteenth century, relating the events groups can discuss the changing roles and of those times to the beginning of World War I responsibilities of working women. and to present conflicts in the same region. 6. Military Alliances in World War II. Why did the Students’ reports should include notes on why United States and the Soviet Union fight on that region’s location and geography make it the same side in the two world wars and then strategically important. end up ideological enemies? Assign individuals 3. The Consumer Society. The mass production of or study groups to research this topic further, automobiles, phonographs, radios, household beginning with a review of wars and alliances appliances, and other consumer goods led the in the nineteenth century. Wars that should be United States to become the world’s first examined include the Balkan Wars, the various consumer-driven economy during the 1910s Russo-Turkish wars, and the Boer War, all of and 1920s. Have individuals or study groups which affected the balance of power and research the effects of such consumerism on helped bring on World War I. For World War the job market and on society in general. Study II, assign groups of allied nations to individual groups should be assigned to follow the study group members: European Axis powers, experiences of African Americans, immigrants Asian and other Axis powers, European Allied from Europe, Mexico, and Asia, and other powers, Asian and other Allied powers, and groups as they related to this new electronic neutral nations. Students’ reports should world. Have students study the popular mention why nations formed these alliances, magazines of the 1920s and 1930s as well as including historical and geographic reasons. early examples of advertising, discussing the 7. Local History. Ask individuals or study groups advertising industry’s role in keeping the to investigate the history of your community consumer economy going. or region during the early twentieth century. 4. Pan-African History. Suggest that students Students should visit local landmarks and research and compare the experiences of historical societies, find original documents, colonized Africans and African Americans and prepare a multimedia presentation of their during the first half of the twentieth century. discoveries. Encourage students to label their Comparisons should be made in terms of exhibits with quotations from popular books, economic opportunity, racial prejudice and radio programs, magazines, and movies, legal discrimination, quality of leadership, and making other connections between the history goals. Students’ reports should note the they are discovering to the literature of the

11 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—WORLD WARS AND THE QUEST FOR ORDER: THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY

time. A substantial percentage of American order” that followed World War I. Have students are descendants of refugees who individuals or study groups research the history arrived in the United States because of World of these and other major ideologies of the early War I, the Great Depression, and World War twentieth century, including socialism, II. If you have such students in your class, ask populism, and progressivism. In their reports, them to share their family histories. students should name the major leaders and writers associated with each ideology, identify EXTRA LITERATURE STUDY nations or societies in which each ideology was 1. The Work of Ernest Hemingway. Assign proffered, and tell how the ideology persists individuals and study groups to read and today. As you assign topics to study groups, be report on the works of Ernest Hemingway. sure not to overlook more traditional Study groups should divide the work ideologies, such as major world religions. chronologically, comparing works written after 4. World Literature. Assign individuals or study World War I (when his fame and influence groups to research and report on the work of were spreading, especially in Europe), works native writers in Asia, Africa, eastern Europe, written during the 1940s (when he worked as a and the Americas during the early twentieth war reporter), and works written during the century. Since many works are still not 1950s (when he won the Nobel prize and available in English translations, you might became an icon, legendary for eating in every want to give this assignment to students who restaurant and drinking in every bar in speak Spanish, French, German, and other Florida). While students’ reports should languages. This is an excellent opportunity for concentrate on reading and interpreting the recently arrived immigrants to share their literature, ask them also to look for knowledge. Other works—such as the world- connections between Hemingway’s words and famous All Quiet on the Western Front, by Erich specific events of his time. Maria Remarque, a German writer who 2. Noncombat Writers. How did the work of emigrated to the United States after Hitler’s writers who experienced combat compare with takeover, and the psychological works by the work of writers who did not? Assign Austrian-Czech writer Franz Kafka—are individual students or study groups to explore readily available in English. this question, using the Chronology of 5. The Community of Learning. Suggest that Literature Chart: The Early 20th Century students research the connections between (pages 16 & 17) to help choose the writers. writers mentioned in this program and (a) Students should compare writers’ relative other writers and thinkers of their own times, optimism/pessimism and idealism/cynicism; (b) writers in the generations before them, and students should also compare the kinds of (c) writers in later generations. Use the literary details these authors chose to write about. circles of Paris and New York, described in the 3. Ideologies for Order. The program mentions five program, as starting points. An especially ideologies—democratic capitalism, fruitful area of study might involve Walt nonviolence, Pan-Africanism, fascism, and Whitman’s influence on writers of the early communism—that surfaced in the “quest for twentieth century.

12 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study The chronologies of history and literature located on the following pages are designed both to summarize the era covered by the program and to motivate students to learn more about the era. Copy and distribute the chronologies to individual students or study groups. Use the pages for both in-class discussion and extra study assignments. CHRONOLOGY OF HISTORY: CHRONOLOGY OF LITERATURE: THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. Encourage students to restate key ideas and Encourage students to restate key ideas and draw conclusions from details on the chart. The draw conclusions from details on the chart. The following are some conclusions they can draw. following are some conclusions they can draw. •Technology developed rapidly because of • The Nobel Prizes were established early in the two world wars. the twentieth century. • Both World War I and World War II were • The period around the two world wars fought in the same places in Europe. produced several important new • The Ottoman Empire and Austro- philosophers as well as many new writers. Hungarian Empire both ended after • The international literary scene became World War I. more interconnected during the early •Wars and unrest continued in the former twentieth century. Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman lands •Many twentieth-century writers worked in throughout the period between the wars. more than one medium. • The United States sent troops to several •A substantial percentage of writers during Latin American and Caribbean nations the early twentieth century wrote about during the first half of the twentieth century. the experience of war. • The labor movement grew in influence •Novels were more widely read than poetry and further organized itself during the or plays during the early twentieth century. early twentieth century. 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask • The international peace movement was students to research and report on writers organized early in the twentieth century. and literary works listed on the chart. You • Both fascism and communism gained might want to assign one literary category to power in the aftermath of World War I. each study group and have group members • The Great Depression of the 1930s choose from writers and works in their resulted in worldwide suffering. column. You might also assign each group a 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask time period and have group members file students to research and report on events listed reports about developments in different on the chart. You might want to assign one categories of literature. continent to each study group and have group members choose from events in their column. You might also assign each group a time period and have group members file reports from different continents.

13 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—WORLD WARS AND THE QUEST FOR ORDER: THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY

Chronology of History Chart: The Early 20th Century

DATES EUROPE ASIA British Labor party wins first seats in Parliament; Dreyfus Affair Ottoman Turks massacre Armenians; Turkey & Greece fight over before rocks France; Zionist, Pan-Slavic, & Peace conferences held; Cyprus & Crete; France rules Laos; Japan wins war with China; 1900 German socialists adopt Marxism; anarchist kills Austrian U.S. takes Guam & Philippines from Spain; empress; Benz builds auto; Marconi invents radio Philippines demand independence; Boxers organize (China) Edward VII succeeds Victoria; Austria, Italy, & Germany renew Germans build Middle East railroads; Abdul Aziz conquers cen- 1900– Triple Alliance; Italian & Serbian monarchs murdered; tral Arabia from Turks; Japan wins Russo-Japanese war; 1904 Russian socialists form Menshevik & Bolshevik parties; Boxers rebel against Europeans (China); transatlantic wireless service begins Commonwealth of Australia founded Britain & Germany build armaments; Norway & Sweden split; Young Turks’ revolt against Ottomans; Anglo-Persian oil company 1905– Austria annexes Bosnia-Herzogovina; begins drilling; Aga Khan founds All-India Muslim League; Sun 1909 Russia crushes October Rebellion; first workers’ Soviet formed; Yat-Sen leads anti-Manchu revolt; Sinn Fein party founded (Ireland) France & Japan agree to open door in China suffragettes demand vote (Britain); Portugal becomes republic; Saudi conquests reach Persian Gulf; Gandhi returns to India; 1910– Kaiser asserts German “place in sun”; SS Titanic sinks; Japan signs trade treaties with U.S., Britain; 1914 Balkan League defeats Turkey in Balkan Wars; slavery abolished, Manchu dynasty falls, & Sun Yat-Sen pro- World War I starts claims republic (China) World War I bogs down in trench warfare, U.S. troops arrive; World War I: Britain controls Mesopotamia & Palestine; 1915– armistice signed; Easter Rebellion in Ireland; Balfour Declaration supports Zionists; 1919 Russian Revolution overthrows czar; czar and family executed; Saudis defeat Rasheed rivals; Trans-Siberian railroad completed; Czechoslovakia & Yugoslavia formed; Mussolini founds fascists China enters war on U.S. side; Red armies invade Crimea Irish Free State founded; League of Nations & Hague internation- boundaries of Turkey, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, & Transjordan 1920– al court formed; Bolsheviks win Russian civil war; drawn; Kemal declares Turkish Republic; 1924 Hitler organizes & starts acts of terror, attempts coup; Reza Khan takes over Iran; Mussolini and fascists take over Italy Gandhi leads independence struggle & is imprisoned (India) fascists come to power (Portugal); 52-nation conference on eco- Arabs attack Jewish settlers (Palestine); 1925– nomics held (Geneva); German economy collapses; Socialists Ibn Saud made king of Arabs; Lebanon made republic; 1929 riot (Austria); Josephine Baker stars in “Jazz Age” (Paris); Reza Khan comes to throne (Persia); oil discovered (Iraq); Kellogg-Briand Act pledges peace; Stalin rules Soviet Union Chinese elect Chiang Kai-shek president Spain declared a republic; last Allied troops leave Germany; Saudi Arabia named; U.S. oil firms open Saudi industry; 1930– Nazis assume power & build first death camps (Germany); Gandhi leads anti-tax “March to the Sea”; 1934 Hitler & Mussolini meet; U.S.S.R. suffers famine; Japan leaves League of Nations & invades Manchuria; Stalin begins purges & builds dams & canals with forced labor Mao Tse-tung begins Long March (China) Edward VIII abdicates, George VI crowned (Britain); All-India Congress Party wins elections; Gandhi champions 1935– civil war in Spain won by fascists; Germans occupy Rhineland; Untouchables; Chinese nationalists & communists unite against 1939 Chamberlain & Hitler meet; Jews attacked on Kristallnacht; Japanese invaders; Japan sinks U.S. gunboat off China & clash- Nazis invade Poland & start World War II es with Russia; Liberals force constitution (Siam) France, Belgium, Norway, & Netherlands fall to Nazis; U.S. speeds up oil fields in Saudi Arabia; Japan conquers 1940– Soviets take Baltic republics; Germans invade Russia & crush Philippines, Dutch East Indies, & Hong Kong; U.S. & Britain open 1944 Jewish uprising in Warsaw; D-Day begins final Allied offensive; Burma Road; U.S. leads Pacific naval offensive, retaking Guam & Soviet troops retake Poland, Crimea, & Ukraine Iwo Jima; Gandhi arrested by British (India) Allies defeat Germany; U.S. drops atomic bomb & Japan surrenders; 1945– United Nations holds first session (London); state of Israel formed; 1949 Nuremberg Trials punish top Nazis; NATO formed; British grant Transjordan & India independence; Marshall Plan fuels European economic recovery Hindu-Muslim civil war erupts; Gandhi assassinated

Britain develops atomic bomb; Stalin dies; Soviets develop atom- Vietnamese defeat French; communists occupy Hanoi; U.N. 1950– ic bomb, open first nuclear power plant, & send troops to East troops fight Korean War; Japan begins economic recovery; 1954 Germany, Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, & Czechoslovakia SEATO formed; U.S. signs pact with nationalist China

Warsaw pact signed; after U.S. begins training South Vietnamese troops 1955 Soviets build Berlin Wall

Chronology of History Chart (continued)

AFRICA AND OCEANIA AMERICAS DATES Ethiopians defeat Italian invasion; Kitchener fights Mahdi’s forces Ford builds autos; new immigration & lynchings of blacks reach (Sudan); British found Rhodesia and Ndebele & Shona revolt; record numbers; gold miners rush to Yukon; Cubans declare free- before British fight Boer Wars (South Africa); dom from Spain; U.S. annexes Hawaii, fights Spanish-American 1900 Zanzibar abolishes slavery; French rule Madagascar War, & wins Cuba & Puerto Rico British conquer northern Nigeria; McKinley assassinated; T. Roosevelt becomes president; British annex Orange Free State & Transvaal & win Boer Wars; immigration levels rise; Texas oil boom starts; 1900– Mombasa–Lake Victoria rail war opens; Progressive movement flowers; Wright brothers fly first airplane; 1904 Germans put down Hottentot revolt U.S. acquires Canal Zone; Colombia gets dictator France & Spain divide Morocco; Leopold gives Congo to IWW (Wobblies) founded; financial panic & major race riots Belgium; Union of South Africa founded; British crush Zulu revolt; sweep U.S; Pure Food and Drug Act passed; immigrant quotas 1905– Gandhi organizes Indians in South Africa; set; Model T Fords appear; NAACP founded; 1909 British colonials limit Asian settlers in Kenya U.S. troops occupy Cuba; civil war sweeps Mexico & Honduras Italy defeats Turks (Tripoli); Premier Butros Ghali killed (Egypt); Triangle factory fire kills women workers; Wobblies & other Diagne starts freedom movement (French West Africa); unions organize strikes; women, Africans, Hispanics, & Native 1910– French Congo renamed French Equatorial Africa; Americans form civil rights groups; Díaz, Zapata, & Madero fight 1914 African National Congress (ANC) founded (South Africa) Mexican civil war; U.S. Marines land (Veracruz) Diagne gets French citizenship for elite west Africans; Pancho Villa raids U.S.; U.S. occupies Haiti & Dominican head tax imposed in Belgian Congo; Republic; National Park Service & KKK founded (U.S.); 1915– Du Bois organizes first Pan-African Congress; U.S. joins World War I & ratifies alcohol Prohibition; 1919 Crown Land Ordinance claims African lands (Kenya) Garvey movement at its height in Harlem & Jamaica Britain grants limited independence to Egypt; women get vote, first radio stations open, stock market & illegal Nigeria National Democratic Party founded; alcohol boom, KKK spreads (U.S.); 1920– west African leaders hold Accra Congress; Caranza assassinated and Huerta & Obregón rule (Mexico); 1924 Kikuyu people organize & leader Thuku imprisoned (Kenya) Pan-American Treaty signed; Hoover heads FBI Diagne joins colonial administration; Randolph organizes black porters; Scopes trial judges evolution; Firestone Co. signs rubber agreement (Liberia); organized crime grows; Lindbergh flies solo across Atlantic; 1925– French expand rubber plantations (Equatorial Africa); Nigerian phone service crosses Atlantic; talking films invented; 1929 market women protest; Kenyatta joins Kenya freedom struggle stock market crashes; Great Depression begins Haile Selassie (Ras Tafari) becomes emperor (Ethiopia); FDR becomes U.S. president & launches New Deal; French arrest Matswa (French Equatorial Africa); veterans protest; TVA brings electricity to rural South; 1930– League of Nations condemns forced labor (Liberia); Nationalist Prohibition repealed; first analog computer invented; 1934 (Boer) party organized (South Africa); Thuku released (Kenya) Scottsboro Boys case begins; miners strike (Kentucky) Mussolini invades Ethiopia; Nationalists demand independence Roosevelt signs Social Security Act; (Sudan); Diouf replaces Diagne as native leader (French West first analog computer invented; Scottsboro Boys tried & jailed; 1935– Africa); Nigerian Youth Movement begins; Kentucky miners continue strike; Route 66 opens; TV shown at 1939 black & white voting separated (South Africa) world’s fair; Lima Conference unites Americas against fascism Trotsky assassinated (Mexico); British & U.S. lead Allies in north Africa campaign; Japan attacks Pearl Harbor; Tubman brings reforms to Liberia; 1940– U.S. joins war, steps up weapons production, puts Japanese Free French resistance organized from French Equatorial Africa 1944 Americans in camps, & integrates Army

Nationalist (Boer) Party institutes apartheid (South Africa); "Great Migration" of African Americans to northern cities begins; 1945– Kenyatta returns to Kenya & organizes freedom struggle first Freedom Rides held in South 1949

Egypt declared a republic; McCarthy holds anti-communist hearings in Senate; Kambangu, religious leader, dies after 30-year detention (Congo); 1950– Brown vs. Board of Education outlaws school segregation Soviets & U.S. draw African freedom struggles into cold war 1954

More than 30 European colonies declare independence by 1960; Fidel Castro heads communist government (Cuba) after South Africa steps up apartheid 1955

Chronology of Literature Chart: The Early 20th Century

DATES RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY, ETHICS NONFICTION: HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, SCIENCE Lloyd, Wealth against Commonwealth;Frazer, Golden Bough; before Stead, If Christ Came to Chicago; Marx, Das Kapital;Webb, History of Trade Unionism; 1900 Booth, In Darkest England and the Way Out Herzl, Der Judenstaat;Ellis, Studies in the Psychology of Sex; Veblen, Theory of the Leisure Class Key, Century of the Child;Weber, Protestant Ethic and the Spirit 1900– W. James, Varieties of Religious Experience; of Capitalism;Freud, Interpretation of Dreams; 1904 Moore, Principia Ethica Washington, Up from Slavery; Du Bois, Souls of Black Folk; Da Cunha, Os Sertos; Steffens, Shame of the Cities Angell, Great Illusion; Colette, Vagabond; Santayana, Life of Reason; 1905– Adams, Education of Henry Adams; Hobhouse, Mind in Evolution; 1909 Beirce, Devil’s Dictionary;Ryan, A Living Wage; James, Pragmatism & A Pluralistic Universe Cadbury, Labor in Portuguese West Africa Angell, Great Illusion; Concise Oxford English Dictionary; Thompson, Miracles in the New Testament; 1910– Fisher, Purchasing Power of Money; Goddard, Kallikak Family; Husserl, Phenomenology; 1914 Montessori, Montessori Method; Whitehead, Principia Mathematica Johnson, Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man Terman, Measurement of Intelligence; Strachey, Eminent 1915– Russell, Mathematical Philosophy & Mysticism and Logic; Victorians;Huizinga, Waning of the Middle Ages; 1919 Buber, Spirit of Judaism Mencken, American Language & Prejudices; Reed, Ten Days that Shook the World; Spengler, Decline of the West Alexander, Space, Time, and Deity; McTaggart, Nature of Freud, Ego and the Id;Van Loon, Story of Mankind;Webb, 1920– Existence;Wittgenstein, Logico-Philosophus; Decay of Capitalist Civilization; Stern-Rubarth, Propaganda as a 1924 Buber, I and Thou;Barth, Word of God and Man; Political Weapon;Ortega y Gasset, Theme of Our Time; Schweitzer, Philosophy of Civilization Breton, Manifesto of Surrealism Locke, New Negro; Stein, Making of Americans; Heidegger, Being and Time & What is Philosophy?; Keynes, End of Laissez-Faire;Woolf, A Room of One’s Own; 1925– Whitehead, Function of Reason; Hitler, Mein Kampf; Jones, Autobiography of Mother Jones; 1929 Durant, Story of Philosophy Mead, Coming of Age in Samoa;Lynd, Middletown Dewey, Philosophy and Civilization; Spengler, Mankind and Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents; Johnson, Negro in 1930– Technology;Barth, Christian Dogmatics;Jaspers, Philosophy; American Civilization;Keynes, Treatise on Money; 1934 Jung, Modern Man in Search of a Soul & Psychology and Trotsky, History of the Russian Revolution; Benedict, Patterns of Religion;Whitehead, Adventure of Ideas Culture;Ortega Y Gasset, Revolt of the Masses Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society; Carnegie, How to Win Friends and Influence People; 1935– Picard, Flight from God; Lerner, It Is Later than You Think; Dinesen, Out of Africa; 1939 Jaspers, Suffering and Existence; Toynbee, Study of History;Yutang, My Country and My People; Ayer, Language, Truth, and Logic Hayakawa, Language in Action Ayer, Foundations of Empirical Knowledge; Santayana, Realms West, Black Lamb and Grey Falcon; Croce, History as the Story 1940– of Being; Niebuhr, Nature and Destiny of Man;Sartre, Being and of Liberty; Agee and Evans, Let Us Now Praise Famous Men; 1944 Nothingness; Mumford, Condition of Man;Fromm, Escape from Myrdal, An American Dilemma; Brenan, Spanish Labyrinth; Freedom;Lewis, Screwtape Letters Wylie, Generation of Vipers Buber, For the Sake of Heaven & Moses; Wright, Black Boy; Benedict, Chrysanthemum and Sword; 1945– Webb, Religious Experience; Inge, Mysticism in Religion; de Beauvoir, The Second Sex;Potter, Gamesmanship; 1949 Tillich, Shaking of the Foundations; Weiner, Cybernetics; Spock, Baby and Child Care; Revised Standard Version of Bible appears Anne Frank, Diary Ortega y Gasset, Man as Utopist Creature; Niebuhr, Christ and Lowenthal, Federal Bureau of Investigation; 1950– Culture; Buber, Chassidic Message;Peale, Power of Positive Reisman, Denny, & Glazer, Lonely Crowd;Weiner, Human Use 1954 Thinking; Heidegger, Introduction to Metaphysics;Raven, Natural of Human Beings; Skinner, Science and Human Behavior; Religion and Christian Theology Wright, Black Force; Chambers, Witness Dennis, Auntie Mame;Whyte, Organization Man;Kennedy, Paton, Modern Predicament;Wilson, Dead Sea Scrolls;Ayer, Profiles in Courage;Pollock & Weber, Revolution of the Robots; after Revolution in Philosophy & Problem of Knowledge; Barth, Smith, Where Did You Go? Out.What Did You Do? Nothing; 1955 Dogmatics;Teilhard de Chardin, Phenomenon of Man White, Elements of Style 16 © CLEARVUE/eav TEACHER’S GUIDE

Chronology of Literature Chart (continued)

FICTION: POETRY, DRAMA FICTION: NOVELS, STORIES DATES Dunbar, Majors and Minors;Yeats, Poems; Chekhov, Sea Gull; Twain, Pudd’nhead Wilson; H.G. Wells, Time Machine, Invisible Ibsen, Hedda Gabler & Master Builder;Shaw, Arms and the Man Man, & War of the Worlds;James, Turn of the Screw; before & Candida; Wilde, Importance of Being Earnest; Tolstoy, Resurrection;Crane, Red Badge of Courage; 1900 Housman, A Shropshire Lad;Jarry, Ubu Roi Hope, Prisoner of Zenda;Zola, Tr ilogy of the Three Cities Barrie, Peter Pan;Shaw, Man and Superman;Masefield, Salt O. Henry, Cabbages and Kings;Dreiser, Sister Carrie; Water Ballads; Chekhov, Uncle Vanya, Three Sisters, & Cherry London, Sea Wolf & Call of the Wild; Conrad, Lord Jim & Nostromo; 1900– Orchard; Strindberg, Dance of Death; Synge, Riders to the Sea; Conan Doyle, Hound of Baskervilles;James, Ambassadors & 1904 Jimenez, Almas de violeta Golden Bowl; Mann, Buddenbrooks Shaw, Major Barbara, Doctor’s Dilemma, & Don Juan in Hell; Wharton, House of Mirth;O.Henry, Four Million; Sinclair, Jungle; Pinero, His House in Order; Strindberg, Ghost Sonata; Forster, Where Angels Fear to Tread & A Room with a View; 1905– Rilke, Book of Hours & New Poems; Dario, Cantos; Grahame, Wind in the Willows; Conrad, Secret Agent; 1909 Tagore, Song Offerings Wasserman, Caspar Hauser; Gorki, Mother Robinson, Town Down the River;W.C. Williams, Tempers; Dresier, Jennie Gerhardt; Wharton, Ethan Frome & Custom of Frost, North of Boston;Lindsay, Congo; Brooke, Poems; the Country; Conrad, Sea Financier;Forster, Howard’s End; 1910– Shaw, Pygmalion; Synge, Dierdre of the Sorrows; Joyce, Portrait of Artist; Rilke, Notebook of Malte Laurids Brigge; 1914 Claudel, Five Great Odes; Sorge, Beggar; Sternheim, Strong Box Mann, Death in Venice;Proust, Swann’s Way Sandburg, Chicago Poems; Masters, Spoon River Anthology; Ford, Good Soldier; Cather, My Antonia; Millay, Renascence; O’Neill, Long Voyage Home; Tarkington, Magnificent Ambersons; Anderson, Winesburg, Ohio; 1915– Eliot, Prufrock; Sassoon, War Poems; West, Return of the Soldier; Maugham, Of Human Bondage; 1919 Blanco-Ibanez, Four Horsemen;Kokoscha, Job; Hasenclever, Humanity Lawrence, Rainbow; Kafka, Metamorphosis Millay, Harp-weaver; O’Neill, Emperor Jones & Hairy Ape; Wharton, Age of Innocence; Cather, One of Ours; Shaw, St. Joan; Eliot, Waste Land; Kaiser, Alkibiades Saved; Dos Passos, Three Soldiers;Ferber, So Big; 1920– Goll, Immortal One; Lauckner, A Cry in the Street; Fitzgerald, This Side of Paradise & Tales of the Jazz Age; 1924 Brecht, Baal; Capek, Outlaw; Neruda, Twenty Poems Hemingway, Sun Also Rises;Joyce, Ulysses; Mann, Magic Mountain Andersen, Saturday’s Children; Dreiser, American Tragedy; Fitzgerald, Great Gatsby; Johnson, Book of American Negro Spirituals;Pound, Cantos; Cather, Death Comes for the Archbishop; 1925– Cullen, Color; Hughes, Weary Blues;MacNeice, Blind Fireworks; Hemingway, A Farewell to Arms;Faulkner, Sound and Fury; 1929 Spender, Nine Experiments; Lorca, Gypsy Ballads Kafka, Tr ial; Remarque, All Quiet on the Western Front Crane, Bridge; O’Neill, Mourning Becomes Electra & Faulkner, As I Lay Dying, Sanctuary, & Light in August; Days without End; Pirandello, Tonight We Improvise; Buck, Good Earth; Caldwell, Tobacco Road & God’s Little Acre; 1930– Auden, Orators;O’Casey, Within the Gates; Woolf, The Waves & The Years; Nabokov, Laughter in the Dark; 1934 Mayakovski, Moscow Is Burning; Lorca, Blood Wedding Huxley, Brave New World Moore, Selected Poems;Wilder, Our Town; Glasgow, Vein of Iron; Steinbeck, Of Mice and Men & Grapes of Sherwood, Abe Lincoln in Illinois; Sandburg, The People, Yes; Wrath;Wolfe, Of Time and the River; 1935– Saroyan, Time of Your Life; Thomas, 25 Poems; Frost, A Further Hemingway, To Have and to Have Not;Rawlings, Yearling; 1939 Range; Damas, Pigments;Koestler, Spanish Testament de Queroz, Three Marias; Sartre, Nausea;Joyce, Finnegan’s Wake Wilson, To the Finland Station; Rukeyser, Wake Island & Beast in McCullers, Heart is a Lonely Hunter;Wolfe, You Can’t Go Home View;Wilder, Skin of Our Teeth;Jarrell, Blood for a Stranger; Again; Hemingway, For Whom the Bell Tolls; 1940– Brecht, Good Woman of Setzuan; Fitzgerald, Last Tycoon; Hersey, A Bell for Adano; 1944 Quasimoto, And Suddenly It Is Night;Aragon, La Creve-Coeur Welty, Wide Net;Wright, Native Son; Cary, To Be a Pilgrim Bishop, North and South; Rukeyser, Green Wave; Steinbeck, Cannery Row; Mailer, Naked and the Dead; Williams, Glass Menagerie & A Streetcar Named Desire; Capote, Other Voices, Other Rooms; Orwell, Animal Farm & 1945– Miller, All My Sons;Girardoux, Madwoman of Chaillot; 1984;Sartre, Age of Reason; Asturias, President; 1949 Camus, Plague; Williams, Paterson;Lowell, Lord Weary’s Castle Ozamu Dazai, Setting Sun;Paton, Cry the Beloved Country Wilder, Sunset Boulevard; Merwin, A Mask for Janus; Hemingway, Old Man and the Sea; Ionescu, Chairs; Roethke, Waking; Stevens, Collected Poems; Jones, From Here to Eternity;Ellison, Invisible Man; 1950– Miller, Crucible; Nash, Rainmaker; Thomas, Under Milk Wood; Baldwin, Go Tell it on the Mountain; Salinger, Catcher in the Rye; 1954 Cocteau, Orpheus; Camus, Rebel Milosc, Captive Mind; Golding, Lord of the Flies Ginsberg, Howl; Williams, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof; Becket, Waiting O’Connor, A Good Man Is Hard To Find;Kerouac, On the Road; for Godot; Miller, A View from the Bridge; Osborne, Look Back in Tolkein, Lord of the Rings; Barth, Floating Opera; after Anger; Hansberry, A Raisin in the Sun; Camus, Fall; Kemal, My Hawk; Shute, On the Beach; 1955 Yevtushenko, Zima Pasternak, Doctor Zhivago; Singer, Gimpel the Fool © CLEARVUE/eav 17 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—WORLD WARS AND THE QUEST FOR ORDER: THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY

Cross-Curricular Explorations These projects are designed to relate the ideas in the program to other areas of study; assign them to individuals and study groups according to students’ interests and strengths. 1. The Fashion Flap. During the 1920s, fashions society’s racism. Listen to early jazz tunes for for both men and women became recognizably signs of protest, calls to action, and other modern for the first time. Research the “new responses by African American musicians to look” of the 1920s, including short skirts, the events of their time. You might also want bobbed hair, and other innovations that were to study the early history of the recording and considered shocking at the time. Illustrate the broadcasting of black music. report with pictures, including moving pictures 4. Movable Literary Feats. Hemingway belonged if possible, and be sure to discuss how this to the first generation of writers whose works huge change in fashion affected everyday life. were filmed almost as soon as they were 2. Rude and Rudimentary Radio. The 1920s and written. With the help of movie guides, 1930s—the early days of radio—resurrected prepare a filmography of movies made from oral literature at its worst as well as its best. novels by Hemingway, Faulkner, and other Research the early days of radio, including its writers of the early twentieth century. In the colorful and shady characters, such as Father filmography, note which movies had Coughlin, Father Divine, and Aimee Semple screenplays written by the authors themselves. Macpherson. Listen to tapes of old programs If possible, obtain copies of the films and play for signs of race, class, and other social favorite sections for the class. attitudes of the time. 3. Jazz and Justice. The “jazz age” celebrated African American music at a time when African Americans suffered greatly from

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Transcript Across the battered landscape, deep inside muddy different perspective on your own country trenches, the great armies of Europe are bogged down when you’re not in it. in a terrifying kind of siege warfare. It is 1918 and the First World War has been raging throughout Europe In Paris, Hemingway wrote his first novel, The Sun for four years. Millions have already died, often for a Also Rises, about a group of war-scarred American hundred yards of land...a new line of trenches. expatriates who are unable to find purpose or meaning in their lives. As one character puts it... In the United States, President Wilson contemplates the consequences of sending young Americans to Don’t you ever get the feeling that all your life is fight overseas before uttering his lofty and idealistic going by and you’re just not taking advantage of it? aim for entering the war: The Sun Also Rises —Ernest Hemingway The world must be made safe for democracy. —President Woodrow Wilson The novel was a huge success, and Hemingway would become as flamboyant in his lifestyle as he was Among the thousands that are inspired by this rigorous in his writing. idealism, a young reporter named Ernest Hemingway is eager to join and, although rejected for medical Readers came to know him not only as a novelist but reasons, is able to volunteer as an ambulance driver as a world traveler...a big-game hunter...even an near the front. amateur bullfighter. With the success of his second novel—A Farewell to Arms, another war story— Hemingway witnesses firsthand the horrors of the Hemingway had become an international celebrity. war. Like many others of his generation, the war will profoundly alter his outlook on life, changing him In many ways, the career of Ernest Hemingway from an idealist to a cynic. As a result, his writing parallels the story of the first half of the twentieth style becomes icy, clipped, and distant. century...a half-century marked by two world wars, revolutions around the globe, and a continuing quest The first German I saw climbed up over the by nations—indeed, by the entire world—for a new garden wall. We waited till he got one leg over and order, a new stability, and a real peace. then potted him.... Then three more came over.... We shot them. They all came over just like that. Ironically, at the start of the twentieth century, people “We were in a garden at Mons” believed that the world was on the verge of a long era —Ernest Hemingway of prosperity and peace; that scientific and industrial progress would create a better life than anyone had After the war, in the 1920s, Hemingway returned ever known. to Europe with thousands of other disillusioned young American expatriates. He joined up with a Technology had produced such marvels as the group of artists and writers who called themselves airplane, the automobile, and the Panama Canal. “the lost generation.” Social problems were being tackled through public SUSAN BALÉE health and education measures. Hemingway and Fitzgerald and these people who lived in Paris—which was really the place Great efforts were also being made to limit where literary life was happening in the early armaments throughout the world. Nations gathered twentieth century—they felt at home nowhere, at The Hague in 1899, and again in 1907, for so they happened to shore up in Paris. And disarmament talks. But even as the great nations met their literature...which is to look back at to discuss peace, privately many prepared for war. America when you’re abroad...you have a very 19 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—WORLD WARS AND THE QUEST FOR ORDER: THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY

In June 1914, the process for peace was shattered Once-rich farm fields became such muddy quagmires when a young revolutionary shot and killed Archduke that men and horses often drowned. For Europeans, Ferdinand and his wife as they drove through the First World War had become the defining horror Sarajevo, Serbia, on a mission of goodwill. The of modern life. Archduke was heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. ROBERT PINSKY By assassinating him, the young nationalist had It was the modern war. And it was a war that hoped to frighten Austria-Hungary into recognizing changed people’s attitudes toward the way Serbia’s claim to Bosnia. society was organized, toward old ideas like respect for elders, old ideas of social class, old But the Austro-Hungarians, once a powerful empire, ideas of heroism and gallantry—all called into claimed that the Serbian government was behind the question permanently, it felt like, by that war. assassination and quickly declared war on Serbia. These are lines from Wilfred Owen’s poem “Anthem for Doomed Youth.” Russia, a longtime rival of Austria-Hungary, called in troops to protect Serbia and then declared war on What passing bells for those who die as cattle? Germany, a growing military power who had allied Only the monstrous anger of the guns. with Austria-Hungary. Only the stuttering rifles’ rapid fire Can patter out their hasty orisons. Britain, Germany’s greatest military and colonial No mockeries now for them, nor prayers, nor bells. rival, was in shock. The murder in Sarajevo was just Nor any voice of mourning save the choirs, the spark needed to ignite these long-smoldering The shrill, demented choirs of wailing shells, conflicts, and soon the alliances for peace were And bugles calling for them from sad shires. replaced by alliances for war—a war that would “The Anthem for Doomed Youth” spread across Europe, Asia, and Africa. —Wilfred Owen

Because of their location in the center of Europe, At long last, the entrance into the war by the Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria were United States in 1917 tipped the balance with called the Central Powers. Britain, France, Russia, enough materials, machinery, and manpower to Italy, and their allies—eventually a total of 24 nations defeat Germany. from around the world—were called the Allies. On November 11, 1918, the so-called “war to end all As the nations tumbled into war in that summer wars” ended. The human cost: approximately 10 of 1914, most thought the conflict would be brief million killed and over 20 million wounded. and decisive. The political aftershocks would be felt around the But by 1915, both sides were bogged down. The world. Nationalist revolutions broke out in Russia, two sides dug themselves into trenches, facing each Germany, Hungary, Turkey, Palestine, Arabia, Ireland, other across battlefields sometimes only a few and Mexico. hundred feet wide. In India, Mahatma Gandhi would lead nonviolent The trenches would finally stretch all the way from campaigns for Indian independence after living under Switzerland to the English Channel. British rule for nearly two centuries. “Nonviolence,” Gandhi said to a court trying him on the charge of Human and property losses were staggering. In one sedition, “is the first article of my faith. It is also the instance, at the Battle of the Somme, British forces last article of my creed.” suffered over 50,000 casualties...in the first half- hour alone. In Britain and America, women used their work during the war to gain, at last, the right to vote.

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In many ways, the war had become a spiritual and SUSAN BALÉE intellectual watershed. But for some, it engendered a I think what happened early in the twentieth deep despair and pessimism. century was that the ideas of Sigmund Freud were finally catching on in a bigger cultural SUSAN BALÉE arena. People were realizing that what you saw Whenever people are in a period of history on the surface was like an iceberg. It was only where they’re disgusted by the events that have 10% of the person. The other 90% is happening just gone before—and, in our case, in this where you can’t see it. It’s happening in the century it’s after World War I and it’s after interior. And that’s when you have the first idea World War II that you have major periods of of an interior monologue. You have people like disenchantment—those people will then turn James Joyce with the stream of consciousness. inward. They’re not finding meaning outside in life anymore. Irish writer James Joyce also created new forms of literary expression in Ulysses and Finnegan’s Wake. This sense of despair was expressed by Irish poet William Butler Yeats in his postwar poem “The riverrun, past Eve and Adam’s, from swerve of shore Second Coming.” to bend of bay, brings us by commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs. ROBERT PINSKY Finnegan’s Wake These lines are from his poem, written in —James Joyce 1921, “The Second Coming”: American poet e e cummings experimented with Things fall apart; the center cannot hold; unusual typography and punctuation. Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world, The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere Buffalo Bill’s The ceremony of innocence is drowned; defunct The best lack all conviction, while the worst who used to Are full of a passionate intensity. ride a watersmooth-silver “The Second Coming” stallion —William Butler Yeats and break onetwothreefourfive pigeons— justlikethat The Waste Land, T.S. Eliot’s poetic masterpiece, Portraits became a cultural and literary event. To many, it —e e cummings precisely captured the state of culture and society after World War I. A war supposedly fought to save The American Pan-Africanist scholar W.E.B. Du European civilization instead became the most brutal Bois began the Niagara Movement, which stressed the and destructive in history. The Waste Land suggests responsibilities of leadership. Du Bois and other that the devastation of World War I left the world African American writers living in New York City without spiritual values. also pioneered the black cultural movement known as the “Harlem Renaissance.” A heap of broken images, where the sun beats. Writers and poets such as Langston Hughes, Jean And the dead tree gives no shelter.... Toomer, Zora Neale Hurston, and Countee Cullen The Waste Land celebrated African American life and actively protested —T.S. Eliot against racism and in favor of black civil rights.

The development of psychoanalysis and other advances In America, the postwar years were dubbed “the in psychology inspired many writers to explore the Roaring ’20s.” Encouraged by the explosion of human psyche in more depth than ever before. advertising and a new technology—radio—Americans

21 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—WORLD WARS AND THE QUEST FOR ORDER: THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY became enthusiastic consumers of automobiles, “Okie” use’ ta mean you was from Oklahoma. household appliances, fashion, and entertainment. Now it means you’re scum. Don’t mean nothing itself, it’s the way they say it. Perhaps the writer who best characterized the self- The Grapes of Wrath indulgent tone of America in the ’20s was F. Scott —John Steinbeck Fitzgerald. In his novel The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald tells of the romantic love of a self-made tycoon, In his novel Native Son, Richard Wright chronicled named Jay Gatsby, for a married woman, Daisy how the combination of poverty and racism affected Buchanan. Daisy and her husband, Tom, personify African Americans. upper-class greed and emptiness. We live here and they live there. SUSAN BALÉE We black and they white. Humans need more than material goods. They got things and we ain’t. That’s really what The Great Gatsby is about. They do things and we can’t. Here are these incredibly wealthy people and It’s just like living in jail. yet they’re so empty. Why are they empty Native Son inside when they have all of these things? —Richard Wright

They were careless people, Tom and Daisy—they For many societies throughout the world, the crushing smashed up things and creatures and then retreated burden of debt, unemployment, and inflation would back into their money or their vast carelessness, or lead to extreme, and often violent, change. whatever it was that kept them together, and let other people clean up the mess they had made. Although victorious in the war, the economy in Italy The Great Gatsby had fallen apart. Millions were unemployed and —F. Scott Fitzgerald anxious. The Italian people, looking for order and strong leadership, would be drawn into a fascist For America—for the entire world, in fact—the mess movement, a totalitarian idea of society in which the that resulted from the excess of the Roaring ’20s was government controls everything. A young fascist enormous. In the fall of 1929, the overpriced leader, Benito Mussolini, would tackle the problem American stock market suddenly crashed. Boom of depression by creating jobs for the people in times had turned to bust. Businesses closed. Banks building up his armed forces. Opposition parties failed. People lost their jobs and often their hopes. were soon wiped out; freedom of speech, press, and assembly were halted. The Great Depression would circle the world and last over 10 years. International responses to it would be In Russia, the new communist leader, Joseph Stalin, extreme. In the United States, Americans elected had become tyrannical and steel-fisted in his rule. In Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1932, believing he his plans to strengthen the state’s power, his policies could solve their problems. Roosevelt’s New Deal of collectivization abolished all private ownership, reformed American government and introduced vast and anyone who questioned his rule would be gotten new programs like Social Security. But even with rid of. This extreme brutality crushed any hopes of government help, over a third of the nation was the idealism created by the Revolution in 1917. gripped by poverty. Meanwhile, Germany suffered horribly from war debt John Steinbeck’s powerful novel about the and inflation. As millions of jobs were lost, many Depression, The Grapes of Wrath, followed an looked to the National Socialist—or Nazi—Party as impoverished family leaving dust-blown Oklahoma to the possible answer to their problems. Headed by find a better life in California. One character tells Adolf Hitler, the Nazis promised new jobs and how it feels to be poor and insulted. leadership that would bring a proud Germany into a thousand years of empire. Hard times led most

22 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Germans to support the Nazi Party, and the current border. The Germans called this rapid tank and anti-Semitism that existed in the country also led airplane attack a blitzkrieg, or “lightning war.” them to support Hitler’s prejudices. And indeed, World War II had begun in a flash. Like Mussolini, Hitler’s was a fascist program focused Germany’s bold act drew Poland’s allies, France and on rearmament and territorial expansion. But Hitler’s England, into the war. But Germany quickly was unique in its claim that Germans were a superior overpowered the poorly equipped Poles and, less than race of people, thus justifying his hatred for various a year later, invaded and defeated France as well. minorities, particularly Jews. Hitler moved swiftly to gain total authority over the German people and all By June 1941, the German army had driven into the forms of public opinion. His Nazi party seized Soviet Union, ultimately advancing to the outskirts of control of newspapers, film studios, radio stations, Moscow. By this time, Germany could rely on its and schools. fascist allies, Italy and Japan.

The German people were, for the most part, In Japan, another form of dictatorship had arisen. mesmerized by their Führer, or leader. Hitler wrote in Instead of a political party seizing control, as in his book, Mein Kampf... Germany and Italy, the Japanese military forced its way into power. Seeking more raw materials than The great masses of the people will more easily fall they possessed at home, Japan’s military leaders sent victims to a big lie than to a small one. armies into Manchuria in the early 1930s and Mein Kampf eventually controlled much of China. These —Adolf Hitler aggressive tactics put Japan in potential conflict with Russia as well as the United States, which still ruled In July 1936, Hitler and Mussolini would join the Philippine Islands. together in support of a civil war in Spain, effectively overthrowing the republican Spanish government and However, the United States vowed to remain neutral setting up a fascist dictatorship in its place. It was in the war, giving only material aid to Britain. But on German-manned planes that bombed and destroyed December 7, 1941, Japanese planes delivered a Spanish cities. surprise attack on the American fleet anchored at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, killing 2,400 soldiers and The town of Guernica is immortalized in a famous civilians. One day later, America declared war, both painting by the Spanish artist Pablo Picasso. in Asia and in Europe.

Hemingway, who worked as a journalist during the No war in history would uproot or kill more people. Spanish Civil War, drew from the experience for his The death figures are staggering, particularly in the novel For Whom the Bell Tolls. The hero is an Soviet Union, where an estimated 30 to 50 million American, fighting with the losing Republicans people—soldiers and civilians—died. against the Fascists. The war’s end also revealed that six million Jews— Fearing the outbreak of another world war, the plus as many as four million other “enemies of the United States, Britain, and France were compelled to race”—had been deported to concentration camps by remain neutral. the Nazis. Men, women, and children were shot, starved, or tortured in “medical experiments,” or By 1939, Hitler had fully rearmed Germany and was gassed in chambers that were disguised as showers. eager for expansion. On September 1, Germany One-third of the Jewish population in Europe had invaded Poland. Divebombers swept down on Polish been killed. A horrified world would call this vast troops. Bombs were dropped across airfields, destruction of Jewish lives “the Holocaust.” destroying planes before they could get off the ground, and German tanks rumbled across Poland’s

23 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—WORLD WARS AND THE QUEST FOR ORDER: THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY

In May 1945, Hitler committed suicide in his The war’s end, however, seemed to create as many underground bunker in Berlin, and Germany problems as it solved. Although one of the most evil surrendered. The Nazi Empire had been defeated. ideologies in recent human history—fascism—had The war in Europe was over. been crushed, and many countries, particularly the United States, had overcome the economic crisis of But in the Pacific theater, fanatical resistance, the Great Depression, millions of the world’s people combined with harsh jungle conditions, threatened to had been left homeless, countries laid in ruins, and keep the war alive much longer. government stability remained precarious throughout the world. Facing the prospect of a prolonged war, in August 1945 the United States dropped an atomic bomb on But most significantly, a monstrous new the Japanese city of Hiroshima, and brought a quick technology—atomic weapons—had been unleashed, and decisive conclusion to World War II. and two superpowers confronted one another: the capitalist United States, which had survived the war Then a tremendous flash of light cut across the intact, and the communist Soviet Union, victorious sky.... It seemed a sheet of sun.... Under what but badly damaged by the war. seemed to be a local dust cloud, the day grew darker and darker. For the next 30 years, the two superpowers would Hiroshima conduct a so-called “cold war,” a struggle that would —John Hersey create “hot spots” and localized wars around the world.

Welsh poet Dylan Thomas wrote bitterly of how During the 1940s and 1950s, Ernest Hemingway anonymous orders and high-flying unseen planes lived in one of the hot spots, in Cuba. There he wrote brought death and destruction to millions. his greatest novel, The Old Man and the Sea, earning him the 1954 Nobel Prize for Literature. ROBERT PINSKY The hand that signed the paper felled the city. Hemingway lost his home during Cuba’s communist Five sovereign fingers taxed the breath, doubled revolution in 1959. He would die two years later, the globe of dead, and halved a country. These five having witnessed wars, destruction, revolution, and kings did a king to death. despair, not knowing if the world’s nations would “The Hand that Signed the Paper Felled the City” ever bring a peaceful order to it all. —Dylan Thomas

The bomb’s effects were devastating. Five square miles of the city were destroyed. Around 100,000 people were killed. A second bomb dropped three days later on Nagasaki brought about Japan’s quick surrender.

24 TEACHER’S GUIDE

Credits PROGRAM WRITERS PROGRAM PRODUCERS TEACHER’S GUIDE Judith Conaway, lead writer Rhonda Fabian Judith Conaway, writer Bob Burleigh Jerry Baber Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Josh Orth Jack Phelan Teresa Koltzenburg 25 Civilization and Writing (CL949-1CV) Philosophy and Government: The World in Greek Times (CL949-2CV) Empires of Heaven and Earth: The World in Roman Times (CL949-3CV) Faith and Feudalism: The Early Middle Ages (CL949-4CV) Chivalry and Commerce: The Late Middle Ages (CL949-5CV) Renaissance and Reformation (CL949-6CV) New Worlds and New Ideas (CL949-7CV) Industry and Enlightenment (CL949-8CV) Romanticism and Revolution (CL949-9CV) Imperialism and Progress: The Victorian Era (CL949-10CV) World Wars and the Quest for Order: The Early 20th Century (CL949-11CV) Liberation and Change: The Late 20th Century (CL949-12CV)

This Teacher’s Guide may be reproduced in whole or in part for use by students.

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in conjunction with CLEARVUE/eav 6465 N. Avondale Ave. Chicago, IL 60631-1996 1-800-CLEARVU (1-800-253-2788) www.clearvue.com Liberation and Change: The Late 20th Century

CL949-12CV CLEARVUE/eav THE MOST COMPLETE SOURCE FOR CURRICULUM-ORIENTED A-V MATERIALS History through Literature Liberation and Change: The Late 20th Century

Program #CL949-12CV Running Time—24:13

Table of Contents Summary ...... 3 Intended Audience ...... 4 Presenting the Program ...... 4 Learning Objectives ...... 4 History in the Program ...... 5 Literature in the Program ...... 5 Key Words and Concepts ...... 6 Pre-Viewing Suggestions ...... 6 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 6 Discussion: Introducing the Program and Its Key Words and Concepts ...... 7 Post-Viewing Suggestions ...... 7 Content Questions: History ...... 7 H.O.T. Topics: History ...... 7 Content Questions: Literature ...... 9 H.O.T. Topics: Literature ...... 10 Discussion: Linking Parts of the Series ...... 11 In-Depth Research ...... 12 Extra History Study ...... 12 Extra Literature Study ...... 13 Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study ...... 14 Chronology of History Chart: The Late 20th Century ...... 16 & 17 Chronology of Literature Chart: The Late 20th Century ...... 18 & 19 Cross-Curricular Explorations ...... 20 Transcript ...... 21 Consultants for the Series ...... 27 Credits ...... 27

Intended for students in junior high school and above. This program is closed captioned.

Summary Liberation and Change: The Late 20th Century is part hot rods, drive-ins, rock and roll, and early television. of a 12-video History through Literature series that However, writers such as J.D. Salinger, Arthur Miller, examines the connections between historical events Allen Ginsberg, and Jack Kerouac revealed the spirit and the literary figures and works of each era. Other of rebellion, even romantic rebellion, that lay titles in this series are listed on the back of this beneath the surface of American society. Teacher’s Guide. A new communications technology—television— The opening scene of Liberation and Change: The changed everyday life during the 1950s and ’60s. Late 20th Century takes place in 1993, when Toni The program shows how television woke Morrison, an African American writer, is awarded the Americans up, with the Soviet Sputnik flight and Nobel Prize in Literature. The honor illustrates a the ensuing “race for space,” with John F. major trend in both history and literature during the Kennedy’s call to public service, the near-nuclear late twentieth century: many previously silenced disaster of the Cuban missile crisis, and, especially, peoples have found their voices. the black civil rights movement.

Our society of today was formed after World War II, The campaigns of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who the most destructive war in human history. After the adapted Gandhi’s tactics to the television age, are war, the revelations of Nazi atrocities and the described, along with some of their positive and neg- destructive power of atomic bombs led many writers ative results. The growing backlash among whites, to a sense of despair. The program describes the tur- disillusionment of younger black people with the moil that followed the war in Israel and the split in nonviolent approach, the rise of the black power postwar Europe that led to an “iron curtain” between movement, and parallel developments among communist nations and the West, and the growing Hispanic and Native Americans are discussed, as is power of communist dictatorships, not only in the the devastating aftermath of Dr. King’s assassination Soviet Union and eastern Europe, but in China and in 1968. The early work of Toni Morrison reflects North Korea. some of the frustration and anger of the time.

The program next describes the collapse of British, The program quickly reviews another social causes of French, and other European colonial empires in the the 1960s—the antiwar movement. The program face of rising nationalism. The philosophy of nonvio- points out that disaffected youth were demonstrating lent resistance, which Gandhi used effectively in his throughout the world at this time and examines the campaign for Indian independence, is examined in main reason for their unrest: fear. The 1960s saw the some detail, with emphasis on how this philosophy coming of age of the first generation born under the influenced liberation movements in Africa and the threat of nuclear destruction. At the end of the civil rights movement in the United States. 1960s, the cold war, and this underlying threat, still dominated the world. The program connects the tensions in the Middle East and the nationalist revolutions in South America During the 1970s and 1980s, however, radical and Africa to the cold war, showing how the United changes began to take place. To a degree never pre- States and the Soviet Union supplied arms to rival dicted even by the experts, a worldwide media revo- sides in freedom struggles, contributing to a world- lution also caused immense political and social wide arms race. changes. The program looks at how satellite telephones, fax machines, and photocopiers helped Next the program views the prosperity and outward spread the feminist movement, alert the world to complacency of mainstream American life in the impending environmental disaster, and cause the 1950s, the decade of “baby boomers,” the G.I. Bill, breakup of the Soviet Union and the liberation of the

3 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—LIBERATION AND CHANGE: THE LATE 20TH CENTURY nations in its communist empire. The communica- to create change across the political spectrum, and, at tions revolution also helped achieve what armed a time when writers have better tools than ever struggle failed to do in South Africa: end apartheid. before, they are also in greater danger.

The program concludes with a look at the present The program describes extremist death threats and some speculations about the future. It looks at against Salman Rushdie and other writers and ends some of the ethnic conflicts in the Balkans, which with a hopeful quotation from Rushdie: “Literature have reemerged since the collapse of the Soviet is the one place in any society where, within the Union, and points out that the same extremist posi- secrecy of our own heads, we can hear voices talking tions that helped cause World War II are now widely about everything in every possible way.” accessible on the Internet. Gandhi’s tactics are used

Intended Audience This program is designed for students in junior high school and above.

Learning Objectives After watching this program and completing the activities, students will be able to: • List some of the important events of world •Describe nonviolent resistance and how it uses history during the late twentieth century, the modern media as a weapon of protest; years after the end of World War II (see History • List some of the key events of the African in the Program); American civil rights movement of the 1940s • List some authors who lived and wrote during through 1960s, and describe the role of the late twentieth century (see Literature in nonviolent resistance in this movement; the Program); •Identify key inventions of the late twentieth century •Explain the cause-and-effect relationship between and describe the social effects of these inventions; post-World War II Europe and the beginning of •Explain, using examples, how literature reflected the the cold war; changes taking place during the last 50 years; and •Identify the ideologies—capitalist democracy and •Draw conclusions about the effects of current communism—that divided the world during the events and trends on future history and literature. cold war of the 1950s through the 1980s; 4 TEACHER’S GUIDE

History in the Program The following events and trends from world history are specifically mentioned in the program’s narration. They are listed below in roughly the order that they occurred in history. More events are outlined in the Chronology of History Chart: The Late 20th Century (pages 16 & 17). End of World War II Beginning of volunteer movement Murder of Jews and others in Nazi death camps (e.g., Peace Corps) Establishment of the State of Israel Civil rights campaigns of Arab-Israeli wars Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Development of the cold war between the United Birmingham church bombing States and the Soviet Union Assassinations of President Kennedy Establishment of the iron curtain and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The Marshall Plan Urban racial riots of the late 1960s Establishment of NATO The Vietnam War and the antiwar movement Further development of Stalinist repression Development of the “counterculture” in the Soviet Union and eastern Europe Invention of “instant media” Communist revolutions and civil wars and development of global networks in China and North Korea Development of the feminist movement Gandhi’s final campaign for Indian independence Development of the environmental movement Spread of Gandhi’s ideas to Africa Fall of the Berlin Wall and the United States Collapse of communism in eastern Europe Armed revolutionary struggles and the Soviet Union in Africa and South America Fall of white apartheid regime in South Africa Jailing of Nelson Mandela Release of Nelson Mandela Communist revolution in Cuba Election of Mandela as president of South Africa and other Latin and South American countries Suppression of Tiananmen Square protests in China G.I. Bill benefits for veterans Chernobyl and Three Mile Island nuclear accidents Elements of 1950s consumer society End of British colonial rule (Hong Kong) Development of television Rekindling of pre-World War I Balkan hostilities The flight of Sputnik and the “space race” Rekindling of pre-World War II extremism Election of John F. Kennedy Death threats on Salman Rushdie Challenges of the future

5 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—LIBERATION AND CHANGE: THE LATE 20TH CENTURY

Key Words and Concepts Most of these vocabulary words are in the Transcript, where they appear in bold type the first time they are used. apartheid exiles nonviolent civil disobedience arms race fascism patriarchal atom bomb feminism Peace Corps baby boom ghettos peace movement backlash G.I. Bill picaresque balance of power Hispanics propaganda beat generation Holocaust racial discrimination Berlin Wall industrial waste regime black power Information Age rock bands capitalist Internet segregated civil rights movement iron curtain space race cold war Marshall Plan superpower colonized media television communist nationalist nuclear war computers Native Americans totalitarian counterculture NATO veterans death camps Nazi women’s movement environmentalists Nobel Prize

Pre-Viewing Suggestions DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES program carefully to see how their If you are showing this program in chronological predictions were fulfilled. order with the other programs in the History through 2. Review the devastation caused to the Soviet Literature series, or if you want to provide Union by World War II and remind students background for students who may have missed the of their previous conclusion: that an amazing previous program, lead this review and discussion. economic recovery must have taken place in 1. The previous program, World Wars and the the Soviet Union in the years immediately Quest for Order: The Early 20th Century, following the war. Have students watch for described the period from 1900 to 1950, the evidence in the program to see if their first half of the twentieth century. Name the conclusion was correct. two largest wars fought during this time 3. Ask students to recall the maps they saw in the [World War I, World War II] and ask last program. At the end of World War II, over students to recall where they were fought. what parts of the world did Great Britain rule? Which war involved more of the world? [colonies in Africa, most of India, colonies in [World War II] Remind students that they Singapore and Hong Kong] Ask students to predicted what would happen in the predict what would happen to Britain’s empire immediate aftermath of World War II: that during the last half of the twentieth century, the post-World War II world would be beset and then have them watch the program to see by upheavals similar to those that followed if their predictions were correct. World War I. Have students watch this

6 TEACHER’S GUIDE

4. The last program identified two weakening 6. From their general knowledge of current events empires that were upsetting the balance of and geography, ask students to identify some power in Europe and Asia. What were they? of the world’s wars and other conflicts that are [the Austro-Hungarians and Ottoman Turks] still unresolved today. Suggest that they watch Remind students that the forces that were the program for information about the roots of weakening these empires included nationalist these conflicts. revolutions and the expansions of Russia and Germany. Ask students to watch for the results DISCUSSION: INTRODUCING THE PROGRAM of those trends during the twentieth century. AND ITS KEY WORDS AND CONCEPTS 5. Have students recall some of the new 1. Introduce the title Liberation and Change and technologies used during the two world wars. speculate on the meaning of its terms. Point [automatic machine guns, fighter planes, out that the term “liberation” is now applied to tanks, radio, telegraph, movies, radar, personal growth as well as political change. battleships, aircraft carriers] Ask students to Suggest that they listen closely for how the predict how technology would evolve during meaning of the word evolved in the last 50 the next decades. From their general years of the twentieth century. knowledge of history, students might mention 2. Introduce the Key Words and Concepts and television, video recorders and hand-held ask students to define words they know, cameras, rockets, space capsules, space looking up unfamiliar words in a dictionary. shuttles, the Hubble space telescope, satellites, Suggest that they listen for the terms as they fax machines, photocopiers, computers, and watch the program. Of particular interest are the Internet. Ask students to watch for the terms that suggest change through struggle, effects of these inventions on society during such as apartheid, backlash, balance of the last 50 years. power, black power, cold war, counterculture, and superpower. Post-Viewing Suggestions CONTENT QUESTIONS: HISTORY 8. What foreign war did U.S. troops fight in the 1. Who won World War II? [the United States late 1960s and early 1970s? [the Vietnam War] and its allies] 9. What threat to global stability is the result of 2. What new nation was formed in Palestine right industrial society and population expansion? after World War II? [Israel] [environmental destruction] 3. What was the iron curtain? [the long, sealed- 10. What new technologies helped bring about the off border between the communist and free collapse of the Soviet Union and other nations of Europe] European communist powers? [instant 4. What do we call the long ideological struggle communications machines: copiers, fax between the democratic and communist machines, cellular telephones, computers] nations? [the cold war] 5. What happened to European colonies in Africa H.O.T. TOPICS: HISTORY during the 1960s and 1970s? [They became The following Higher Order Thinking questions independent.] should be presented in order to achieve maximum 6. What tactic, used by Gandhi to liberate India, effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide also inspired freedom fighters in Africa and supporting details for general discussion, distribute civil rights groups in the United States? copies of the Chronology of History Chart: The Late [nonviolent resistance] 20th Century (pages 16 & 17). 7. What nation was the first to put a satellite in 1. Communications Technology. What was the orbit? [the Soviet Union] to put a man on the fastest way to send messages at the end of moon? [the United States] World War II? [by telephone or radio] What was the fastest way to send written messages?

7 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—LIBERATION AND CHANGE: THE LATE 20TH CENTURY

[by cable, or telegraph] What new machines contemporary history. Point out that world for communication have come into leaders themselves never answered it properly widespread use in the years since World War either—one of the major drawbacks of the II? [television, video cameras, video recorders, cold war.] Did the Soviet Union and the photocopiers, fax machines, computers, United States ever fight each other directly? satellites] From their television and Internet [No, but they came very close during the contacts as well as their general observations of Cuban missile crisis. Review this event with current events, ask students to describe how students.] Students should conclude that this communications technologies affect warfare lack of direct fighting was the reason the war today. Have them compare our technology to was called “cold.” Ask students for evidence what was in use at the end of World War II. from the program that the war was often Lead students to recognize the exponential “hot.” [revolutions in Africa and South expansion of the communications revolution, America, continuing violence between Israelis concluding that new communications and Arabs] technologies will probably be introduced at an 4. African Independence. Remind students that even faster pace in the future. To drive home Great Britain, France, and other colonial this point, ask the computer buffs in your powers still ruled Africa, India, and other class to identify the “absolute latest” in colonies at the end of World War II. Ask communications technology. They will, of students to think of a direct cause-and-effect course, disagree on what that is. Suggest that relationship between Britain’s role in World students wait three months and then check War II and the loss of its African colonies. If again to see who was right. students cannot identify the relationship 2. Weapons Technology. Review some of the new [because of the war’s cost, Britain could no technologies seen in the program and discuss longer afford its colonial administration], how they affected warfare. Help students remind students that Britain also was one of identify types of advanced weaponry used in the main combatants in World War I. How the Vietnam War. [attack helicopters, AK-47s might the war years themselves have aided and other high-powered machine guns] Ask African freedom struggles? [by distracting the students to compare those weapons with those attention and resources of Britain, France, they see in television newscasts today. Remind Germany, and other colonial powers] students that the trend toward ever more 5. Civil Rights in the United States. From visual sophisticated weapons has continued to this clues in the program as well as from students’ day. Discuss the effects of advanced weaponry general knowledge of U.S. history, identify in making warfare both more deadly and more some of the groups who did not want Dr. King impersonal. In addition, note another key to succeed. [“White racists” is an obvious difference between current and historical news answer; however, students should also reason footage of ethnic conflicts in the Balkans, that militant black power elements might have Africa, and other places: these days, many wanted Dr. King’s nonviolent revolution to people carry guns. fail.] What were some of the events that led 3. The Cold War. Ask students to speculate on the younger black leaders to espouse black power? reasons for the term “cold war.” Who were the [the assassination of Dr. King, violent white two main combatants? [the United States and backlash against black civil rights] Remind the Soviet Union] Name some of the places in students of the dates of King’s campaigns—the which these two superpowers took sides in late 1950s and early 1960s. What was going on local political struggles. [Israel, Africa, Cuba, in Africa at the same time? [independence Vietnam] In each case, which power was on struggles of African nations] What visual clues the winning side? [Students will probably be in the program showed that African Americans unable to answer this question, even if they were affected by Africa’s struggles? [Afros and have a great deal of knowledge of African clothing, African flag colors, ANC

8 TEACHER’S GUIDE

slogans, etc.] Lead students to conclude that ¶ Reviewing the dates in the program, remind televised events helped connect Africans and students that Toni Morrison’s Nobel Prize for African Americans. Suggest that African Literature came right after Mandela was American students interview their older released and apartheid ended in South Africa. relatives to see if that indeed was true. Have What might have been her reaction to these your students read Lorraine Hansberry’s A events? [great joy] How would you be able to Raisin in the Sun for a portrayal of 1950s find out what she said at the time? [by looking Africanism in a black American household—or up contemporary accounts and interviews at show the video of the television production the library or on the Internet] Discuss how the starring younger versions of now-familiar faces, Internet helps Morrison’s writing reach people Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee. around the world. Have students run a variety 6. The Pendulum Swings. Ask students to name of searches using Morrison’s name and other the various radical movements that occurred words that exemplify her connection with this during the postwar years. [civil rights, historic period. nonviolent resistance, environmentalism, anti- nuclear protest, feminism, black power, etc.] CONTENT QUESTIONS: LITERATURE Ask students to characterize the political 1. Name at least two novels written by Toni atmosphere of that time. [radical, more left Morrison. [The Bluest Eye and Beloved are wing, Democratic rather than Republican] mentioned in the program; other works include Have students describe the political Sula, Song of Solomon, Tar Baby, and Jazz] atmosphere of the ’80s and ’90s. [more 2. What honor did Toni Morrison win in 1993? conservative, Republican] Have students [She received the Nobel Prize for Literature. suggest reasons for this change. [a reaction to Explain that this prize is an international radicalism, a need or desire for order during award given not for a particular work, but for chaotic times, a willingness to sacrifice some the entire body of an author’s work.] freedoms to achieve stability, etc.] Have 3. What happened to dissident writers in the students examine other periods of history in Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin and his which similar swings of the political pendulum successors? [They were imprisoned, sent to have taken place. Have students predict what labor camps, or sent into exile and forbidden they might expect in the future. Do they see contact with the West.] any signs of it yet? Why? Why not? Refer to 4. Who said that western civilization “would be a the last paragraph of Discussion: Linking Parts good idea”? [Mahatma Gandhi] of the Series (page 12), to discuss the change in 5. What did Chilean author Pablo Neruda protest recent times of the meaning of “liberation.” in his poem “The United Fruit Co.”? [the 7. Rethinking the Lead Story. In light of the economic control the U.S. had over his nation] previous discussions, rethink the life and work 6. Name at least three writers who protested of Toni Morrison. Inform students of some against the conformity and decay of American basic facts about Toni Morrison: she graduated society in the 1950s. [J.D. Salinger, Arthur from Howard, the famous black university, in Miller, Allen Ginsberg, Edward Albee, 1953; she received her master’s degree from Tennessee Williams] Cornell University, returned to Howard to 7. Name the African American minister whose teach, and then, in the mid-’60s, moved to life and work during the 1950s and 1960s New York City and became an editor at influenced many writers and helped advance Random House. From these facts, students civil rights. [Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.] should reason that Morrison was directly 8. Name at least three writers from other influenced by the black power movement countries whose work has been influential among students in the ’60s, and that she during the last half of the twentieth century. would have probably known James Baldwin [Andrei Sakharov, Alexandr Solzhenitsyn, Wole and other black writers of the time. Soyinka, Salman Rushdie]

9 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—LIBERATION AND CHANGE: THE LATE 20TH CENTURY

9. What movement that took off during the 1950s rights struggles around the world. Ask produced many authors and raised women’s students to suggest ways the Soviets might consciousness about their status? [feminism] have used these images as propaganda among 10. What movement raised people’s consciousness freedom fighters in Africa. with writing and protest against pollution and 2. Gandhi and Nonviolent Resistance. Gandhi’s the reckless abuse of nature? philosophy is often called “pacifism.” Ask [environmentalism] students for reasons why this program did 11. For what novel is Salman Rushdie still under a not use that term. From the program, death threat from Muslim extremists? [The students should reason that pacifism implies Satanic Verses] passivity, and that nonviolent resistance is in 12. What modern form of communication fact a confrontational tactic. What was technology are many writers of all views using Gandhi’s purpose in forcing confrontations to share their work? [the Internet] with the British? [to expose the hypocrisy of Britain’s claim to be a leader of the free H.O.T. TOPICS: LITERATURE world] Where did Gandhi and other The following Higher Order Thinking questions colonized people get their democratic ideals? should be presented in order to achieve maximum [ironically, from their colonial rulers] effectiveness. To jog students’ memories and provide Recalling images from the program, ask supporting details for general discussion, distribute students to compare Britain’s democratic copies of the Chronology of Literature Chart: The ideology with its colonial reality. Ask them to Late 20th Century (pages 18 & 19). suggest what Gandhi’s specific complaints 1. Cold War Propaganda. Remind students that against British rule might have been, and the years between 1945 and 1990 were have them verify their answers with research. marked by extreme ideological competition 3. African American Literature and Culture. As between the United States and the Soviet with Britain and its colonies, discuss the Union. Review the fate of dissident writers in differences between America’s official the Soviet Union and lead students to ideology—democracy—and the reality of conclude that there has also been extreme African American life. From the Transcript, censorship of writers in communist China, read the quote from Dr. King’s “I Have a North Korea, and Cuba. Were communist Dream” speech (page 24). What did Dr. King countries the only ones who censored their mean when he asked America to “live out the writers? What about South Africa? From clues true meaning of its creed”? [The United States in the program as well as their general should establish democracy and equal rights knowledge, students should conclude that the for all its citizens.] Lorraine Hansberry’s A apartheid government of South Africa Raisin in the Sun was the first play by a black imprisoned dissident writers, kept them from woman to be performed on Broadway—and publishing, and sent them into exile. Was later on TV. It is the story about a black family there censorship of writers in the United that buys a house in a white neighborhood. States? If students don’t think so, remind them What other similar day-to-day struggles that the West largely ignored Mandela’s jailing affected African Americans on a personal in 1962 because he had been labeled a level? [school segregation, “colored only” signs communist. In such an atmosphere, what over drinking fountains and restroom doors, might have happened to a writer in the United being forced to sit at the back of the bus] States suspected of communist sympathies? Students should reason that plays, poems, and [Some may know about the McCarthy novels written by August Wilson, James hearings and the Hollywood blacklist from Baldwin, Ralph Ellison, Richard Wright, and their general knowledge of history.] Remind other African Americans would include students that during the cold war, television personal accounts of such discrimination. was broadcasting images of American civil Refer students to works by African American

10 TEACHER’S GUIDE

writers to test their theories. Use the Chronology of Literature Chart: The Late DISCUSSION: LINKING PARTS OF THE SERIES 20th Century (pages 18 & 19) to help you If you are showing this program in chronological select the literature. order with the other programs in this History through 4. Poetry and Song. Throughout history, song has Literature series, use this review and discussion to been used as a persuasive vehicle for many conclude the series. points of view. Folk songs and other “people’s 1. Remind students that Morrison won a Nobel music” experienced a revival during the protest Prize for literature in 1993. When did Ernest movements of the ’60s and ’70s. Have students Hemingway win the same prize? [in 1954] bring in samples of such poetry set to music Discuss in general terms the themes of and discuss the composer’s point of view and Hemingway’s novels [World War I, the Spanish the change he or she hoped the lyrics would civil war, the “lost generation” in Paris] and generate. Suggest that students start with these Morrison’s. [race, gender, class, and their Bob Dylan songs: “The Times They Are A- effects on society] Changin’,” “Blowin’ in the Wind,” and “If I 2. From visual as well as verbal clues in the Had a Hammer” (made popular by Peter, Paul, program, ask students to compare society in and Mary). Have them gather various versions Hemingway’s and Morrison’s times. Students of “We Shall Overcome” and discover the wide should note that Morrison’s world is faster and variety of groups who used it as their anthem. more deadly than Hemingway’s, noting also 5. Literature at Risk. The program reviews the that the global communications revolution is a plight of one writer—Salman Rushdie—who watershed that separates the world literature of has been personally threatened because of what today from the nationalist literature of the he wrote. Cite another example—that of world war years. Taslima Nasrin, a Bangladeshi poet who went 3. Discuss the differences and similarities into hiding, in exile, for writing about the between the outlook of the Harlem plight of women in her poverty-stricken Renaissance writers of the 1920s and the country. Read this excerpt from one of her African American writers of the 1960s. poems, “Character”: Students should note that both groups were You’re a girl influenced by liberation struggles in Africa, and you’d better not forget and that both groups promoted black pride that when you step over the threshold of and protested for black civil rights. Discuss your house some of the reasons African Americans finally men will look askance at you…. broke so many legal barriers during the 1960s. If you’ve got no character Remind students that African Americans you’ll turn back, fought in both World War I and World War and if not II. Discuss what African American veterans you’ll keep on going might have felt when they returned from as you’re going now. World War II only to be regarded as second- class citizens. Ask students to think of at least ¶ How does modern technology make these one other way black experiences in World War threats against writers such as Rushdie and II led to greater militancy. [the rise of a new Nasrin more grave? Discuss the meaning of generation of black leaders—those who had Orwell’s phrase “Big Brother is watching you” been officers in the war] in light of developments in communications technology. Then lead a general debate on the question of whether writers today have more freedom...or less. Remind students that freedom for writers translates into free speech for ordinary citizens.

11 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—LIBERATION AND CHANGE: THE LATE 20TH CENTURY

4. Discuss the term “liberation” and how, by the promising “freedom” today. Conclude with a end of the twentieth century, the term implied debate on whether and how the Internet will personal as well as political freedom. Ask lead to more liberation—we know, of course, students to identify some of the religions, that it will lead to change. popular philosophies, and fads that are

In-Depth Research The following topics for further study will help students make connections between history and literature, between western and eastern history, and between the past and present. EXTRA HISTORY STUDY Dr. King gave his “I Have a Dream” speech. 1. Revolutions Worldwide. Suggest that students Using Du Bois’s career as an example, suggest do further research and reporting on the that students research and compare the revolutions that occurred and the new nations experiences of colonized Africans and African that were formed in Asia, Africa, and South Americans during the second half of the America during the years since World War II. twentieth century. Comparisons should be In their reports, students should describe the made in terms of economic opportunity, racial roles of the United States and the Soviet Union prejudice, legal discrimination, quality of in each independence struggle. leadership, and goals. Students’ reports should 2. The Balkan Wars. Suggest that students note how the cold war affected both Du Bois’s research the fighting among Serbs, Muslims, career and the African liberation struggles. Greeks, Russians, and Ottoman Turks during Students will learn that Du Bois, after the late twentieth century, relating those enduring persecution for his leftist opinions in conflicts to the beginning of World War I, the United States, became a communist and the cold war, and the fall of the Soviet moved to Africa in 1961. His move Union. Students’ reports should include encouraged a general trend to the left among notes on why the region’s location and African liberation leaders. geography make it strategically important, as 5. Women’s History. Why did the “women’s lib” well as a progress report on the status of the movement break out when it did? Suggest that region today. individual students or teams research and 3. Computer Consumers. The personal computer report on the events of the 1960s and how is the most important of the many new they led to radical feminism. Assign study machines that have invaded people’s homes groups to research the roles of women in the during the last two decades. Have individuals civil rights movement, the antiwar movement, or study groups research the effects of and the 1960s counterculture. Students will computerization on society. Study group discover that, just as America’s record on black members should be assigned to research civil rights contradicted its claims on computers and the job market, computers democracy, so the discrimination within the and work processes, the role of information protest movements contradicted radical in earning profits, the effects of liberation rhetoric. In their reports, students computerization on advertising, marketing, should include statistics that record the gains and selling, as well as the negative and made by women since World War II. positive potential of computers for bringing 6. Military Alliances in the Vietnam War. By the about political change. time of the Vietnam War, which the United 4. Pan-African History. W.E.B. Du Bois, the great States fought between 1964 and 1975, Chinese African American scholar and pioneer of Pan- communism had become just as large a threat Africanism, died on August 27, 1963. He was as Soviet communism. Although there was remembered with a moment of silence at the cooperation between the communist August 28 March on Washington, at which superpowers on cold war issues, there was also 12 TEACHER’S GUIDE

intense competition between them as well as study groups to read and report on literature occasional military hostilities along their written by veterans of these wars. Suggest that shared border. Assign individual students or they concentrate primarily on the literature teams to research the actual history of the while looking for telling details that Vietnam War, using newspaper and television distinguish each war. In their reports, students accounts of the time. Other study group should also discuss the various authors’ members should research the histories of attitudes toward the war. French colonial rule of Vietnam, the anti- 3. Women’s Literature. The women’s movement colonial revolt, and the evolution of the started back in the 1800s, but modern communist societies in China and North feminism finally found its voice in the late Vietnam. After reading those accounts, twentieth century. Have interested students students will be better prepared to interpret report on the writings of the founding more recent writing about the war. mothers who led the recent movement, 7. Local History. Ask individuals or study groups including Simone de Beauvoir, Betty Friedan, to investigate the history of your community Germaine Greer, Kate Millet, Gloria or region during the 1950s, ’60s, and ’70s. Steinem, and Alice Walker. Students should visit local landmarks and 4. Ideologies for the Future. The program historical societies, find original documents, mentions several ideologies—capitalism, and prepare a multimedia presentation of communism, nonviolent resistance, their discoveries. Encourage students to label traditional religions—that have channeled their exhibits with quotations from popular people’s hopes during the last 50 years. books, radio programs, magazines, and Assign individuals or study groups to read movies and to make other connections and report on these ideologies, paying special between the history they are discovering and attention to how they currently are spreading the literature of the time. A substantial through electronic means. In their reports, percentage of Asian American students belong students should identify societies in which to families who arrived in the United States each ideology prevails, the effects of the during or after the Vietnam War. If you have ideology on everyday life, and the conflicts such students in your class, ask them to share present within each ideological group. their family histories. Students should also examine how each ideology is received by its rival ideologies. EXTRA LITERATURE STUDY For example, although the overwhelming 1. The Work of Toni Morrison. Assign individuals majority of the world’s Muslims follow their and teams to read and report on the works of religion’s noble traditions of freedom of Toni Morrison. Students should divide the worship, in the western mind Islam is now work chronologically, comparing works written often identified with only its most during the 1970s, the ’80s, and the ’90s. While extremist elements. students’ reports should concentrate on reading 4. World Literature. Assign individuals or study and interpreting the literature, ask them also to groups to research and report on the work of look for connections between Morrison’s words native writers in Asia, Africa, and the Americas and specific events of her time. (Note: For during the late twentieth century. Since many Internet-based information, contact Morrison’s works are still not available in English publisher at www.randomhouse.com.) translations, you might want to give this 2. Hot and Cold War Novels. As in the years assignment to students who speak Spanish, following World War I, in the years following French, German, and other languages. This is World War II many veterans wrote about their an excellent opportunity for recently arrived war experiences. The same thing happened immigrants to share their knowledge. after the Korean War, the Cuban revolution, 5. The Community of Learning. Suggest that and the Vietnam War. Assign individuals or students research the connections between

13 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—LIBERATION AND CHANGE: THE LATE 20TH CENTURY

writers mentioned in this program and (a) their publishers’ Web pages. Robert Pinsky, other writers and thinkers of their own times, America’s Poet Laureate, who appears as a (b) writers in the generations before them, and commentator and reader throughout the (c) writers in later generations. Since all these series, is poetry editor of the Internet writers can now communicate with each other, magazine Slate. Exploring this and other students should use the Internet to make Internet resources can be an exciting place to connections. As with Morrison, students can start understanding the important role writers access most contemporary writers through play in each other’s development.

Chronologies: Class Discussion and Extra Study The chronologies of history and literature located on the following pages are designed both to summarize the era covered by the program and to motivate students to learn more about the era. Copy and distribute the chronologies to individual students or study groups. Use the pages for both in-class discussion and extra study assignments. CHRONOLOGY OF HISTORY: left their own planet—and our machines THE LATE 20TH CENTURY have even left the solar system. 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask Encourage students to restate key ideas and students to research and report on events listed draw conclusions from details on the chart. The on the chart. You might want to assign one following are some conclusions they can draw. continent to each study group and have group •Technology sped up dramatically because members choose from events in their column. of the two world wars. You might also assign each group a time period •World War II was followed by revolutions and have group members file reports from around the world. different continents. •Germany was divided between CHRONOLOGY OF LITERATURE: communism and capitalism for several THE LATE 20TH CENTURY decades after the war. Note: The following Chronology of Literature • As soon as the Soviet communist bloc Chart differs in some respects from previous began to disintegrate, warfare broke out in chronologies. Because most students today study the Balkans. twentieth-century literature, the chronology lists • The United States sent troops to individual titles rather than only authors and several Latin American and Caribbean genres. To give students more options, the Fiction nations during the second half of the category has been divided into two categories: twentieth century. Poetry and Drama; Stories and Novels. In addition, • The labor movement was stronger during the “Science” category has been eliminated— the 1950s than it is today. because scientific publishing is now so extensive • The United Nations, which was organized and so specialized that there is no room on the chart! Scientific works that have had wide public after World War II, has since been distribution and popular appeal, such as Norbert involved in many conflicts and disasters Weiner’s Cybernetics and Stephen Hawkings’s A around the world. Brief History of Time, are listed under Nonfiction: • Both fascism and communism, the History, Biography, and Science. political extremes that helped spark World 1. Class Discussion: Drawing Conclusions. War II, are still active ideologies. Encourage students to restate key ideas and •During the last half of the twentieth draw conclusions from details on the chart. century, humans have, for the first time, The following are some conclusions they can draw. 14 TEACHER’S GUIDE

• The period of the world wars produced • African American and other previously several important new philosophers as well marginalized writers have enjoyed as many new writers. unprecedented popularity since the 1960s. • The international literary scene became •Women writers have enjoyed more interconnected during the late unprecedented popularity since the 1970s. twentieth century. 2. Extra Study: Researching and Reporting. Ask •Many twentieth-century writers worked in students to research and report on writers more than one medium. and literary works listed on the chart. You •A substantial percentage of writers during might want to assign one literary category to the late twentieth century wrote about the each study group and have group members experience of war. choose from writers and works in their •Fiction was more widely read than column. You might also assign each group a nonfiction during the late twentieth century. time period and have group members file •Many of our most familiar films first reports about developments in different appeared as books and plays during the categories of literature. 1950s and 1960s. •During the late twentieth century, a wide international readership exists for writers from around the world.

15 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—LIBERATION AND CHANGE: THE LATE 20TH CENTURY

Chronology of History Chart: The Late 20th Century

DATES EUROPE ASIA

Allies defeat Germany; United Nations holds first session; U.S. drops atomic bomb & Japan surrenders; state of Israel 1945– Nuremberg Trials punish top Nazis; NATO formed; formed; British grant Transjordan & India independence; Hindu- 1949 Marshall Plan initiated to rebuild Europe; Muslim civil war erupts & Gandhi assassinated (India); “cold war” begins with Soviet blockade of Berlin Communists under Mao Tse-tung take over China; Taiwan formed

Britain & Soviet Union develop atom bomb; Muslim leader Adbullah killed (Jordan); 1950– Elizabeth II crowned (Great Britain); Soviets open first nuclear Iran nationalizes oil industry; U.N. troops fight Korean War; 1954 power plants, sign treaties, & send troops into East Germany, Vietnamese defeat French; Vietnam and Korea divide into com- Poland, Hungary,Yugoslavia, & Czechoslovakia munist north & capitalist south; China invades Tibet

East & West Germany officially divide; Arab Federation formed; 1955– Euro-communists sign Warsaw Pact; anti-communist protests in U.S. Marines invade Lebanon to shore up elected government; 1959 Poland & Hungary put down by Soviet troops; European Pakistan becomes an Islamic republic; Dalai Lama flees Tibet; Common Market founded; Soviets launch Sputnik U.S. begins training South Vietnamese troops

Profumo scandal rocks British government; France & Britain Nehru dies (India); Federation of Malaysia formed; 1960– explode atom bombs; Greece & Turkey fight in Cyprus; Diem government falls (Vietnam); 1964 Soviets build Berlin Wall & shoot down U-2 spy plane as cold Gulf of Tonkin Resolution draws U.S. into Vietnam War; war escalates; U.S.S.R. launches first manned spacecraft Chairman Mao imposes “Cultural Revolution” (China)

Ceaucescu comes to power (Romania); Italy rocked by strikes Israel and Egypt fight Six-Day War; most Arab states enter 1965– & violence; Soviet Union invades Czechoslovakia after protests Soviet sphere of influence; Indira Gandhi elected (India); 1969 of “Prague Spring”; students & unions strike (France); China explodes atom bomb; U.S. bombs North Vietnam; Catholic vs. Protestant violence tears apart N. Ireland Indonesian army, under Sukarno, defeats communists

longtime dictator Salazar dies (Portugal); Arab oil policies create worldwide energy crisis; Egypt, Syria, & 1970– European economies hurt by energy crisis; Israel fight Yom Kippur War; Arab terrorists seize several Middle 1974 terrorists kill Israeli athletes at Munich Olympics; mass protests East-bound planes; drought hits China & eastern U.S.S.R.; crushed by communist leaders (Poland & Czechoslovakia) U.S. bombs Cambodia & ceases fire in Vietnam

religious violence tears apart Lebanon; Saigon falls & last U.S. longtime dictator Franco dies (Spain); 1975– citizens & supporters flee (Vietnam); Mao Tse-tung dies Soviet Union undergoes revival of Orthodox religion; 1979 (China); Israel & Egypt sign peace treaty; Soviet Union invades Conservative Margaret Thatcher elected prime minister (Britain) Afghanistan; Islamic militants take over (Iran)

France elects socialist Mitterrand; Walesa & others found Palestinian uprising begins (Israel); radicals take U.S. hostages 1980– Solidarity movement (Poland); Soviet leaders Brezhnev, (Iran); Iran & Iraq begin 8-year war; Israel invades Lebanon & 1984 Andropov, & Chernenko come to power; state cracks down on bombs Iraqi reactor; Indira Gandhi assassinated (India); China writers & other dissenters (U.S.S.R.) opens up trade & begins some reforms

massive protests across Europe follow Chernobyl nuclear acci- Zia assassinated (Pakistan); 1985– dent (U.S.S.R.); free elections bring Solidarity victory (Poland); Soviet Union withdraws from Afghanistan; 1989 Gorbachev comes to power, institutes liberal reforms, & signs Chinese army crushes Tiananmen Square protest, kills over INF treaty with U.S.; cold war ends as Berlin Wall falls 500 dissidents, injures 10,000, & jails 10,000

U.S. & U.S.S.R. both reduce cold war troop buildups in central 1990– Iraq invades Kuwait; Europe; civil wars tear Yugoslavia into Bosnia & Serbia; 1994 U.S.-led coalition attacks Iraq & wins Persian Gulf War Serbs subject Muslims to “ethnic cleansing”

1995– Bosnian conflict draws U.N. troops; slash-and-burn farming causes thick smog over southeast Asia; 1999 Europe works toward economic union; millions mourn Diana, Hong Kong returns from British to Chinese rule; Princess of Wales, who was killed in Paris car crash Philippine & Asian stock markets crash

Chronology of History Chart (continued)

AFRICA AND OCEANIA AMERICAS DATES

“Great Migration” of African Americans to northern cities Soviet Union & U.S. vie for influence over Egypt & other African begins; President Roosevelt dies; Truman in office; first 1945– nations; Kenyatta returns to Kenya & organizes freedom struggle; Freedom Rides held in South; Robinson breaks color barrier in 1949 Nationalist (Boer) Party institutes apartheid (South Africa) baseball; Organization of American States founded

Libya & Egypt declare independence; Rosenbergs executed for espionage; McCarthy holds Kambangu, religious leader, dies after 30-year detention (Congo); anti-communist hearings in Senate; Eisenhower elected 1950– Soviets & U.S. draw African freedom struggles into cold war; president; television reaches average American homes; 1954 massive anti-apartheid protests (South Africa) U.S. Supreme Court rules school segregation unconstitutional

anti-French revolts rock Algeria; Rosa Parks & Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. begin Montgomery Egypt, France, & Britain caught up in Suez Canal crises; boycott; AFL & CIO unite; first U.S. satellite orbits; 1955– Sudan, Morocco, Tunisia, & Ghana are independent; Alaska & Hawaii become states (U.S.); 1959 black African leaders tried for treason (South Africa) St. Lawrence Seaway opens; Castro leads revolution (Cuba)

Algerian war ends with French defeat; more than 30 European John F. Kennedy elected president & founds Peace Corps; U.S. colonies declare independence; Lumumba killed (Congo/Zaire); invades & fails at Bay of Pigs (Cuba); John Glenn orbits in 1960– black leaders acquitted of treason & white police massacre pro- space; U.S. & U.S.S.R. face off in Cuban missile crisis; 1964 testers at Sharpville (South Africa) Dr. King declares “I have a dream”; J.F.K. assassinated

Khaddafi comes to power (Libya); Dr. King leads civil rights marches in South & North & joins black African unity groups (ANC, PAC, OAU) advocate armed growing protests over Vietnam War; Dr. King & Robert Kennedy 1965– struggle against white power in Rhodesia & South Africa; assassinated; U.S. Apollo 11 mission lands astronauts on 1969 white Rhodesia breaks with Britain over race moon; Presidents Johnson & Nixon elected

civil war erupts (Nigeria); Nasser dies & Sadat in power (Egypt); public pressure against Vietnam War grows; National Guard major droughts in Sahel region (Ethiopia); kills anti-war protesters at Kent State; first Earth Day (U.S.); 1970– Soviet & Cuban troops join war (Ethiopia & Angola); leftist Allende elected & killed in coup (Chile); Nixon resigns 1974 French troops fight in Chad, Zaire, & Mauritania after Watergate hearings; Ford elected president

last European colonies granted independence; Carter elected president; U.S., Canada, & Mexico hit by police massacre Soweto protesters (South Africa); inflation, recession, & energy shortages; drug cartels gain 1975– after 10-year civil war, blacks get vote & elect Mugabe power (Colombia); leftists win civil war (Nicaragua); 1979 (Rhodesia/Zimbabwe) right-wing squads deal death (El Salvador)

Sadat assassinated (Egypt); U.S. ends relations with Libya; eco- Mt. St. Helens erupts; Reagan elected president; nomic decline & social unrest throughout continent, U.S. enjoys economic boom while homelessness grows; 1980– including many ethnic and tribal clashes; military spending & national debt multiply; personal computer 1984 AIDS epidemic sweeps over central Africa revolution begins; AIDS reaches U.S. & Canada

drought hits Sahel region; stock market, federal housing, & heavy trade imbalances rock AIDS epidemic rages over sub-Saharan Africa; 1985– U.S. economy, multiplying federal deficit; stock market crashes; anti-apartheid protests & U.N. sanctions erode white govern- 1989 Bush elected president; Iran-Contra affair hits Congress ment, & De Klerk elected on reform platform (South Africa)

savings and loans go bankrupt; Clinton elected president; ANC’s Nelson Mandela & other leaders released from prison & FBI and ATF attack cult headquarters (Texas); 1990– Mandela elected president in first free election (South Africa); U.S., Canada, & Mexico sign North American Free Trade 1994 U.S. troops carry food & relief to famine victims (Somalia) Agreement; terrorists bomb World Trade Center (New York)

civil unrest in Liberia, Rwanda, Burundi, Nigeria, Sudan, Clinton & Congress balance budget; 1995– Somalia, & Kenya; U.S. economy flourishes; 1999 South Africa builds foundation of peace and democracy Panama Canal reverts to Panamanian control

Chronology of Literature Chart: The Late 20th Century

DATES RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY, ETHICS NONFICTION: HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, SCIENCE

Buber, For the Sake of Heaven & Moses; Wright, Black Boy; De Voto, Across the Wide Missouri; 1945– Webb, Religious Experience; Inge, Mysticism in Religion; Benedict, Chrysanthemum and Sword; de Beauvoir, The 1949 Tillich, Shaking of the Foundations;Graves, White Goddess; Second Sex;Potter, Gamesmanship;Weiner, Cybernetics; Revised Standard Version of Bible appears Spock, Baby and Child Care; Anne Frank, Diary

Ortega y Gasset, Man as Utopist Creature; Niebuhr, Christ and Lowenthal, Federal Bureau of Investigation; 1950– Culture; Buber, Chassidic Message;Peale, Power of Positive Reisman, Denny, & Glazer, Lonely Crowd;Weiner, Human Use 1954 Thinking; Heidegger, Introduction to Metaphysics;Raven, of Human Beings; Skinner, Science and Human Behavior; Natural Religion and Christian Theology Wright, Black Force; Chambers, Witness;Milosz, Captive Mind

Dennis, Auntie Mame;Whyte, Organization Man;Kennedy, Paton, Modern Predicament;Wilson, Dead Sea Scrolls;Ayer, 1955– Profiles in Courage;Pollock & Weber, Revolution of the Robots; Revolution in Philosophy & Problem of Knowledge; Barth, 1959 Smith, Where Did You Go? Out.What Did You Do? Nothing; Dogmatics;Teilhard de Chardin, Phenomenon of Man White, Elements of Style

Goodman, Growing Up Absurd; Wise & Ross, Invisible Government; Carson, Silent Spring; 1960– McLuhan, Gutenberg Galaxy & Understanding Media; King, Why We Can’t Wait;Friedan, Feminine Mystique; Baldwin, 1964 Berne, Games People Play; Fire Next Time; Hofstadter, Anti-Intellectualism in American Life Jacobs, Death and Life of Great American Cities

Cox, The Secular City; Autobiography of Malcolm X; Schlesinger: A Thousand Days; 1965– Beckett, Stories and Texts for Nothing; Mailer, The Armies of the Night; Coles, Children of Crisis; 1969 Morris, Naked Ape; Dubos, So Human an Animal; Terkel, Division Street; Cleaver, Soul on Ice; Lorenz, On Aggression Ehrlich, Population Bomb

Cox, The Seduction of the Spirit; Boorstin, The Americans; Fitzgerald, Fire in the Lake; 1970– Fromm, The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness; Millett, Sexual Politics; Dee, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee; 1974 Toffler, Future Shock; Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings;Douglas, Erickson, Gandhi’s Truth Feminization of American Culture; Reich, Up the Organization

Dillard, Pilgrim at Tinker Creek; Wilson, On Human Nature; 1975– Sagan, The Dragons of Eden; Bronowski, A Sense of the Future; 1979 Raines, My Soul Is Rested; Peck, The Road Less Traveled Zukav, Dancing Wu Lin Masters

Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long; Baker, Growing Up; 1980– Schell, The Fate of the Earth; Barnet, The Lean Years; Hofstadter, Göedel, Escher, Bach 1984 Braudel, Structures of Everyday Life; Joyner, Down by the Riverside

Bailyn, Voyagers to the West;Branch, Parting the Waters; 1985– Küng, Christianity and the World Religions; Paz, One Earth, Four or Five Worlds; 1989 Brodsky, Less than One Puller, The Fortunate Son;Terkel, The Good War; Wilson, Sociobiology; Mathabane, Kaffir Boy

Ulrich, A Midwife’s Tale; Prejean, Dead Man Walking; 1990– American Social History Project, Who Built America?; Armstrong, A History of God; 1994 Hawkings, A Brief History of Time;McCoullough, Tr uman; Brown, Death of the Messiah Delaney, Having Our Say; Kaplan, Balkan Ghosts

Miles, God: A Biography; 1995– Zukav, Seat of the Soul; Croner, Connected Knowledge; 1999 Penrose, Shadows of the Mind; Hawkings & Penrose, The Nature of Space and Time Norris, The Cloister Walk

Chronology of Literature Chart (continued)

FICTION: POETRY, DRAMA FICTION: NOVELS, STORIES DATES

Bishop, North and South; Rukeyser, Green Wave; Steinbeck, Cannery Row; Mailer, Naked and the Dead; Williams, A Streetcar Named Desire; Miller, All My Sons; Capote, Other Voices, Other Rooms; Orwell, Animal Farm & 1945– Girardoux, Madwoman of Chaillot; Camus, Plague; Williams, 1984;Sartre, Age of Reason; Asturias, President; 1949 Paterson; Ionesco, Bald Soprano; Neruda, General Song Ozamu Dazai, Setting Sun;Paton, Cry the Beloved Country

Brooks, Annie Allen; Merwin, A Mask for Janus; Hemingway, Old Man and the Sea; Jones, From Here to Ionesco, Chairs; Roethke, Waking; Stevens, Collected Poems; Eternity;Ellison, Invisible Man; Baldwin, Go Tell It on the 1950– Miller, Crucible; Nash, Rainmaker; Thomas, Under Milk Wood; Mountain; Salinger, Catcher in the Rye;Milosz, Captive Mind; 1954 Cocteau, Orpheus; Camus, Rebel Golding, Lord of the Flies; Greene, Quiet Man

Ginsberg, Howl; Williams, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof; O’Connor, A Good Man Is Hard to Find;Kerouac, On the Road; Becket, Waiting for Godot; Miller, A View from the Bridge; Tolkein, Lord of the Rings; Shute, On the Beach;Pasternak, 1955– Osborne, Look Back in Anger; Hansberry, A Raisin in the Sun; Doctor Zhivago; Singer, Gimpel the Fool; Calvino, Italian 1959 Camus, Fall;Yevtushenko, Zima Folktales; Mahfouz, Children of Gebelawi

Williams, Night of the Iguana;Levertov, The Jacob’s Ladder; Cortázar, Hopscotch; Pynchon, V; Lessing, The Golden Bly, Snowy Fields; Plath, Bell Jar; Simon, Barefoot in the Park; Notebook; Lee, To Kill a Mockingbird;Faulkner, The Reivers; 1960– Berryman, 77 Dream Songs;Pinter, Homecoming; Bellow, Herzog;Grass, Cat and Mouse; 1964 Baldwin, Amen Corner;Baraka, Slave Burgess, Clockwork Orange;Barth, Sotweed Factor

Gilroy, The Subject Was Roses;Albee, A Delicate Balance; García Márquez, One Hundred Years of Solitude; Sackler, The Great White Hope; Beckett, Acts without Words; Nabokov, Ada;Styron, Confessions of Nat Turner; 1965– Goldman, Lion in Winter;Pinter, Homecoming; Barth, Giles Goat-Boy; Pynchon, Crying of Lot 49; 1969 Merwin, Lice; Hansberry, To Be Young, Gifted, and Black Matthews, Tlooth; Momaday, House Made of Dawn

Gordone, No Place to Be Somebody; Böll, Group Portrait with Lady; Pynchon, Gravity’s Rainbow; Crews, Brodsky, Selected Poems; Gospel Singer; Bellow, Mr. Sammler’s Planet; Solzhenitsyn, August 1970– Stoppard, Jumpers; 1914; Updike, Rabbit Redux;Welty, Losing Battles; Gorimer, 1974 Ionesco, Killing Game Conservationist; Pirsig, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance

Shepard, Buried Child;Ferré, Pandora’s Papers; Ferré, Pandora’s Papers; Puig, Kiss of the Spider Woman; Milosz, Bells in Winter; García Márquez, Autumn of the Patriarch; 1975– Montale, Storm and Other Poems; Baldwin, Just above My Head; Golding, Darkness Visible; 1979 Graves, Collected Poems; Mamet, Squirrels Bellow, Humboldt’s Gift; Solzhenitsyn, Gulag Archipelago

Golding, Rites of Passage; O’Toole, A Confederacy of Dunces; Henley, Crimes of the Heart; Vargas Llosa, War of the End of the World; 1980– Mamet, Glengarry Glen Ross; Kincaid, Annie John; Gaddis, J.R.; 1984 Norman, ’Night, Mother Haley, Roots;Walker, Color Purple

Lessing, Good Terrorist; Uhry, Driving Miss Daisy;Wilson, Fences; Rushdie, Satanic Verses; 1985– Wasserstein, Heidi Chronicles;Paz, Collected Poems; McMurtry, Lonesome Dove; 1989 Soyinka, “Funeral Sermon, Soweto” Morrison, Beloved

Wilson, The Piano Lesson; Shenkkan, The Kentucky Cycle; Hijuelos, Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love; Kushner, Angels in America; Updike, Rabbit at Rest; Pynchon, Vineland; Morrison, Jazz; 1990– Wasserstein, Sisters Rosensweig; Simon, Lost in Yonkers; Halpern, A Soldier of the Great War; Gaddis, A Frolic of His 1994 Angelou, On the Pulse of Morning;Albee, Three Tall Women Own; Sontag, Volcano Lover; Gaines, A Lesson in Dying

Conroy, Beach Music; Heaney, poems; 1995– Ishiguro, The Unconsoled; Szymborska, poems 1999 Ford, Independence Day

Cross-Curricular Explorations These projects are designed to relate the ideas in the program to other areas of study; assign them to individuals and study groups according to students’ interests and strengths. 1. Flower Child Fashions. During the 1960s, the 3. History Rocks. Chuck Berry hit the scene in the so-called “counterculture” used fashion as a 1950s, and Elvis Presley wasn’t far behind. means to express its discontent. Have Research the history of rock and roll, paying students research “hippie” styles and how special attention to how the music both mirrored they affected the fashion industry. Their and affected American society. Find out how “reports” might consist of a fashion show. Be racism helped turn black rhythm and blues into sure students note which elements of the white rock and roll, how the civil rights hippie style are still with us today. For movement and the “Motown sound” were example, since the 1960s, blue jeans and T- related, and how African American blues became shirts have become so respectable that they Beatles pop. Compile a discography of rock and are an American uniform, worn by people of blues songs that reflect the history of the time. If all classes. possible, arrange a concert for the class. 2. Afrofashion. Lorraine Hansberry’s 1958 play, A 4. Screenplays as Literature. Although many works Raisin in the Sun, has a character who dresses of fiction are still adapted for films, many more “Afro,” to the scornful amusement of the other films are now written as original works of black characters. Research the civil rights and literature. Study the development of this new black power movements from a fashion point literary genre during the last 50 years. Pay of view, showing how black power styles special attention to how African Americans, reached the mainstream fashion industry. women, and other previously marginalized Arrange a fashion show of African styles from groups have made their points of view felt in the 1960s to the present. film, as they have in novels and poetry. Discuss how films both mirror and affect our society.

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Transcript In 1993, the Nobel Prize for Literature was awarded to shift again, when we will retain some of to a writer who, according to the Nobel committee... these important marginalized voices—like Toni Morrison or some of the great gay and ...delves into the language itself, a language she lesbian writers of the period—but we will wants to liberate from the fetters of race. She incorporate again the classical voices. addresses us with the luster of poetry. —Nobel Prize Committee The second half of the twentieth century has also been a period of hopeful struggles—for national and That remarkable novelist was Toni Morrison. individual freedom—undermined by threats of nuclear war and environmental disaster...a period in From her first novel—The Bluest Eye, written in which incredible advances in technology have revolu- 1970—Morrison has confronted issues of race, class, tionized our view of ourselves and the universe. and gender, issues that she believes shape the lives of African Americans. The Bluest Eye tells the story of a All of these threads are woven into the literature of poor, abused black girl who yearns to have blue eyes: our times.

Anger stirs and wakes in her; it opens its mouth Our present-day world finds its roots in the period and like a hot-mouthed puppy, laps up the dredges immediately following the Second World War, the of her shame. Anger is better. There is a sense of most destructive war in human history. being in anger. A reality and presence. An awareness of worth. Although the United States and its allies were victori- The Bluest Eye ous in 1945, the war’s end brought terrifying new —Toni Morrison problems. The awesome destructive power of the atom bomb convinced many that the future of the In 1987, Morrison wrote Beloved, a Pulitzer Prize- world was in doubt. winning novel set in nineteenth-century America. Combining the elements of a ghost story, a mys- And when Allied troops liberated the Nazi death tery, and a work of historical fiction, the main camps, the world learned of the evil that was possible character kills her own child rather than allow her in human behavior. to become a slave. For Morrison, recognition not only as an African American, but as a woman, was Paul Celan, a Jewish Romanian poet, mourned the mil- like a double victory. lions of Jews murdered in the Holocaust in this way:

Toni Morrison’s literature reflects, in many ways, the ROBERT PINSKY changes that have taken place in the second half of Black milk of daybreak we drink it at sundown the twentieth century...a period in which many previ- we drink it at noon in the morning ously silenced people—women, blacks, the poor, and we drink it at night the colonized—have found their voices. we drink and we drink it we dig a grave in the breezes SUSAN BALÉE there one lies unconfined. That’s really what’s happened in literature in “Death Fugue” America. At most colleges and high schools, —Paul Celan more previously marginalized voices of women and people of color are being heard more now Achieving justice for European Jews was one of the than ever before. But a lot of traditional, most serious problems facing the United Nations classical white voices are not being heard. We’re when it was established after the war. probably living in a period when that’s about

21 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—LIBERATION AND CHANGE: THE LATE 20TH CENTURY

In 1947, U.N. members voted that a separate Jewish In his book, he introduced an ominous new phrase state be created in Palestine. One year later, the that readers would not soon forget: Jewish state of Israel was born. Big Brother is watching you. Placed in the midst of four Arab nations—Lebanon, 1984 Syria, Jordan, and Egypt—war and violence immedi- —George Orwell ately erupted and still continue today as the Israelis and the Arabs both claim the land in Palestine theirs In Asia, too, communism was rising up after World by ancestral right. War II. Armed conflicts and civil war in China, between communists and pro-democratic nationalist The conflicts in Palestine, like other postwar conflicts supporters, were products of the cold war. The com- around the world, would become even more compli- munists defeated the nationalists and began their cated by a so-called “cold war” that developed long rule in China in 1949. between the huge, communist-run Soviet Union and the young western superpower, the United States. Korea and Vietnam soon became the focus of serious confrontations between the communists in Asia and After the war, the West feared that the communists, the West, providing a playing field where superpow- led by the Soviet Union, were planning to take over ers on either side of the iron curtain would exhibit all of Europe. their influence. In the early ’50s, the United States and other U.N. member nations sent troops to help Having already taken control over most of the resolve the conflict in Korea. Many people—Asian, nations in Eastern Europe, the Soviets built a long, American, and European—would die in this war. heavily patrolled border to keep out the capitalist When it ended, Korea was divided between the com- enemy of the West. munist North and the democratic South.

Winston Churchill, who had led Britain during the Meanwhile, nationalist revolutions erupted in war, named this border the “iron curtain.” European colonies around the world.

The United States countered this front put up by the To India and other colonies, Great Britain, France, Soviets by establishing the Marshall Plan, which and the western powers were hardly the champions poured economic aid into western Europe. of democracy that war propaganda had boasted them to be. They also helped to set up NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, which pledged to A reporter asked Mahatma Gandhi, the leader of the defend western Europe against the Soviet threat. The freedom struggle in India, what he thought of “west- cold war—a war fought with money-induced loyalty ern civilization.” rather than weapons—would affect nearly every event in Europe and the world for decades to come. “Yes,” Gandhi replied, “That would be a good idea.”

The Soviet-bloc countries in eastern Europe were Gandhi, a London-educated lawyer, taught the world ruled by communist dictators. a radical new way to gain attention and force change through nonviolent civil disobedience. Writers in the West, such as George Orwell, attacked this Soviet-style totalitarian rule. In his In his simple Indian dress, Gandhi led protest novel 1984, Orwell depicts a future in which all citi- marches, hunger strikes, and sit-ins—all reported on zens would be controlled by a tyrannical and coldly radio and in newsreels. efficient government.

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In this powerful new way, he helped expose to the SUSAN BALÉE world the unjust, sometimes brutal nature of British You’ll have the incredible conformity of the colonial rule. 1950s, where the dominant ideology was men in gray flannel suits working from nine to five By 1947, Britain was forced to grant India indepen- and women staying home and baking cookies dence—or renounce its claim as a leader of the and raising their kids. And then you’ll see that “free” world. completely flip in the 1960s. The women’s movement...the civil rights movement...the Cold war propaganda was often used to cover up or protesters growing their hair long, wearing tie- excuse state-sponsored acts of violence. In 1962, the dyed clothes—forget the gray flannel suit. white government of South Africa arrested Nelson Mandela and hundreds of other black leaders. Rebellion became a popular theme in literature as Although the jailed leaders belonged to many differ- many writers decried the 1950s as a time of ent parties, they were all labeled “communists.” This mindless conformity. eliminated any protest from the free world. J.D. Salinger’s novel The Catcher in the Rye intro- In Latin America, communism held a much stronger duced a young rebel hero, Holden Caulfield, who appeal to the oppressed people, where many coun- runs away from his boarding school. The book creat- tries had become economic, if not political, colonies ed a scandal when it appeared in 1952 and was of the United States. banned in most schools.

Chilean poet Pablo Neruda wrote of the United States Jack Kerouac’s novel On the Road would nurture the sarcastically in his poem “The United Fruit Co.” spirit of rebelliousness.

ROBERT PINSKY But then they danced down the road like When the trumpet sounded, it was all prepared dingledodies, and I shambled after...after people on the earth, who interest me...the ones who never yawn or say and Jehovah parceled out the earth a commonplace thing, but burn, burn, burn like to Coca Cola Inc., Anaconda, fabulous yellow roman candles exploding like Ford Motors and other entities. spiders across the stars.... The Fruit Company, Inc. On the Road reserved for itself the most succulent, —Jack Kerouac the central waste of America. “The United Fruit Co.” SUSAN BALÉE —Pablo Neruda That, by the way, is another great American theme...is the road trip novel. Back from the By the late 1990s, only one communist government days of On the Road with Jack Kerouac, there’s would remain in all of Latin America—Fidel Castro’s always been this urge in America to go West. Cuba. Upon his takeover in 1959, hundreds of thou- And so you have a lot of books about people sands of Cubans would flee to the United States. on car trips very frequently going West. They’re There, they found the richest and probably the most going to California and back. It’s the American optimistic nation on Earth during the 1950s. picaresque novel; Don Quixote in a Corvette.

The G.I. Bill gave housing and education benefits to Playwrights such as Arthur Miller, Edward Albee, American veterans, who went to college in record and Tennessee Williams examined the decaying val- numbers and created new families in a postwar “baby ues and seeming emptiness of modern life. boom.”

23 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—LIBERATION AND CHANGE: THE LATE 20TH CENTURY

Allen Ginsberg—a member of the so-called beat gen- I have a dream: That one day...we will be able to eration of writers—in his 1956 poem Howl raged speed up that day when all God’s children—black against America’s worship of Moloch, the ancient god men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants of money. and Catholics—will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual: Free at last, angel-headed hipsters burning for the ancient free at last, thank God almighty we’re free at last. heavenly connection to the starry dynamo in Speech at the March on Washington the machinery of night... —Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. who burned cigarette holes in their arms protesting the narcotic tobacco haze of capitalism. Two weeks after Dr. King’s historic speech, a bomb Howl went off in a Birmingham church, killing four black —Allen Ginsberg children and injuring 19 others.

Many writers and intellectuals blamed the new medi- Only a month later, President Kennedy was assassi- um—television—for Americans’ bland conformity. nated in Dallas and the U.S. descended into a five- TV was called a “vast wasteland” and nicknamed “the year period of unprecedented domestic upheaval. Dr. boob tube.” King would win the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 and inspire new civil rights laws, and convince many But television would also energize American society. whites that racism was wrong. In 1957, the Soviets launched the first manned space flight. With a jolt, Americans realized that the Soviets But the resulting backlash of other whites convinced were a huge technological threat. many blacks that nonviolent resistance wasn’t working fast enough. A furious arms race and space race began. When the United States put a man on the moon in 1969, it The black ghettos of Los Angeles and other cities was an ideological—as well as scientific—victory. exploded in race riots, and young black intellectuals began repudiating Dr. King, calling for armed revo- Americans sat before their televisions as their new, lution and “black power.” young president challenged them: Meanwhile, Dr. King expanded his mission and Ask not what your country can do for you—ask joined the rising chorus of protests against sending what you can do for your country. United States troops to fight in Vietnam. Inaugural speech —President John F. Kennedy But on April 4, 1968, Dr. Martin Luther King was assassinated, and the pent-up rage of America’s inner Thanks to television, white Americans could no cities burst into the streets with riots and anger, as longer refuse to see the injustice of segregated well as an outpouring of public grief. schools, or the despair of racial discrimination. Protests and marches by minority populations rose A new African American leader, the Reverend Martin up across the nation. Anger at American society and Luther King, Jr., adapted Gandhi’s nonviolent tactics at the United States government reached its peak in to the television age. the late 1960s, as previously silenced groups, including Hispanics and Native Americans, demanded to In August 1963, Dr. King organized a march in be heard. which thousands of people of all races traveled to the nation’s capital to peacefully demand black civil SUSAN BALÉE rights. At the march, Dr. King delivered his best- Since the civil rights movement of the 1960s, known challenge to the nation. a lot of voices that you didn’t hear in literature are, for the first time, being heard. And these

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are very frequently women’s voices, African In South Africa, modern media would also help over- American voices, gay and lesbian voices...any throw apartheid, the racist policy that had denied of the people who were marginalized by a more blacks social and economic equality with whites. traditional society or by that dominant ideology—which was white, male, traditional The South African poet Wole Soyinka became the patriarchal values—the other voices are being first African writer to win the Nobel Prize for heard now. Literature. Here, he describes some of the South African blacks who were massacred at Soweto, a Another voice that demanded the public’s attention in black township. the ’60s was that of the environmentalists. In 1962, American environmentalist Rachel Carson warned... ROBERT PINSKY We, As crude a weapon as the cave man’s club, the the sludge of gold and diamond mines, chemical barrage has been hurled against the Half-chewed morsels of canine sentinels fabric of life. In nervous chain-stores, snow-white parks…. Silent Spring We, the bulldozed, twisted shapes of —Rachel Carson Shanty lots that mimic black humanity…. “Funeral Sermon, Soweto” Environmental threats had become increasingly visible, —Wole Soyinka and by the ’80s and ’90s, serious issues began to affect the public, from industrial waste, to the destruction of In 1990, 28 years after his imprisonment, ANC South American rainforests, to nuclear accidents such leader Nelson Mandela was released from prison. as Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania and the huge Less than four years later, he was elected president of Chernobyl disaster in the Soviet Union in 1986. South Africa. In cold war terms, this was another miracle. The Chernobyl nuclear meltdown was followed by widespread anger and protests throughout the Soviet But with the collapse of the Soviet Union, the cold Union, without any media coverage of the complaints. war was over—wasn’t it? Well, yes...and no. After all, communism still rules over a quarter of the world’s But news of the aftermath in Chernobyl found its population. way to the West by fax, phone, and hand-held video cameras. Soviet- and U.S.-made weapons distributed during the cold war are still contributing to unrest in Africa These new tools of communication marked the and elsewhere, and the media is still a major factor in beginning of the Information Age. Soon they shaping world opinion. would help document and allow the world to witness major events and changes of the late twentieth Former Soviet-bloc nations are embroiled in ethnic century—such as the fall of the communist battles, warring over the same futile ideals that led to regimes in Poland and in Czechoslovakia, where World War I. playwright Vaclav Havel, once imprisoned by the communists, became his country’s first democrati- Extreme right- and left-wing groups, close cousins of cally elected president. those who helped launch World War II, can be found with a few quick clicks on the Internet. Rock bands, video cameras, tape recorders, and computers were on hand in 1989 to witness the destruc- And at a time when writers have wider audiences than tion of what was perhaps the greatest symbol of the ever, with access to the World Wide Web and the iron curtain: the infamous Berlin Wall in Germany. Internet, they can also be in more danger than ever. And the world watched as the Soviet Union collapsed in the early 1990s.

25 HISTORY THROUGH LITERATURE—LIBERATION AND CHANGE: THE LATE 20TH CENTURY

Salman Rushdie, an Anglo-Indian writer living in SUSAN BALÉE London, published his novel The Satanic Verses in You have the romantic period, around the turn 1988. Because the novel offended many Muslims, of the eighteenth to the nineteenth century. Iranian leader Ayatollah Khomeini called for the You have the stream-of-consciousness novel murder of the author. Rushdie remained in hiding coming out around the turn of the nineteenth for many years, but claimed: to the twentieth century. We’re coming now to the turn of the twentieth to the twenty-first, Literature is the one place in any society where, so it will be very interesting to study the art within the secrecy of our own heads, we can and literature of this period, because usually at hear voices talking about everything in every the turns of century you see some kind of a possible way. shift in what people are doing in art and Is Nothing Sacred? literature. I think we’ll see it. —Salman Rushdie Whatever the challenges of the future, we can be sure When Toni Morrison was asked what her aim was in that writers will continue to address humanity’s con- writing, she responded: cerns, as they have for the past 30 centuries and more.

To show how to survive whole in a world where Like writers of the Renaissance, whose works were we are, all of us, more than just individuals, but the first printed books, writers today know they are related to one another in a greater shared history. witnesses to the birth of a new literary age. —Toni Morrison

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Credits PROGRAM WRITERS PROGRAM PRODUCERS TEACHER’S GUIDE Judith Conaway, lead writer Rhonda Fabian Judith Conaway, writer Bob Burleigh Jerry Baber Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Mary Watanabe Josh Orth Jack Phelan Teresa Koltzenburg 27 Civilization and Writing (CL949-1CV) Philosophy and Government: The World in Greek Times (CL949-2CV) Empires of Heaven and Earth: The World in Roman Times (CL949-3CV) Faith and Feudalism: The Early Middle Ages (CL949-4CV) Chivalry and Commerce: The Late Middle Ages (CL949-5CV) Renaissance and Reformation (CL949-6CV) New Worlds and New Ideas (CL949-7CV) Industry and Enlightenment (CL949-8CV) Romanticism and Revolution (CL949-9CV) Imperialism and Progress: The Victorian Era (CL949-10CV) World Wars and the Quest for Order: The Early 20th Century (CL949-11CV) Liberation and Change: The Late 20th Century (CL949-12CV)

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