JapaneseJapaneseSociety Society ofCulturalAnthropologyof Cultural Anthropology

Japanese Review of Cultural Anthrepology) vol.5, 2004

NorthernStudies in Japan

IRIMOTo Takashi

Hokkaide University

Northern culture refers to the mode of Iife unique to northern areas in terms of ecology, $ociety

and culture, dating back to the advance into Northern Eurasia by modern man (Horno sapiens

"Northern sapiens) in the history of human evolution and proliferation to North America. culture"

describes a whole body of cultures, which have changed, descended and developed up to today.

On the basis of this definition of northern cultures, changes of and product$ from northern studies

in Japan are reviewed in each period: the Age of Exploration (c. 400-1867), the Age of Academlcs

(1868-1945), and the Age of the World (1946-2000). As a result, research subjects for northern

studies have changed from Ainu culture to a variety of cu[tures in broad northern circumpolar

areas including Northern Eurasia, Japan and North America. Study methodology also has - changed from folklore and ethnology to shizenshi anthropoiogy of nature and culture - and

$tudy objectives have shifted from the clarification of the origin of the Japanese and their culture to

"What the c[arification of universal issues in anthropological studies; i.e., are human beings?"

Finally, since the northern studies have been developed to search for the universality of human

beings, 1 present an outlook for the 21st century of anthropo[ogy as the Age of the Humanity.

Key words:north, northern culture, Eurasia, Japan, North America, folklore, ethnology,

anthropofiogy, shizenshi, humanity

Introduetion

For some people, the North was the periphery far away from the eenter, For some others, it was a frontier that must be explored. And for the people who lived there, it was the ordinary

place of their everyday lives. [[bdaM the North is also reeognized as a home where people can get back the nature and humanity that have been largely lost during the process of

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56 IRIMOTO Takashi

modernization. The North thus shows a various aspects in difTerent times and for different people. From the viewpoint of human historM the North was of course an important stage for human adaptation and evolution in the process oftheir advance and dispersion to the Northern Eurasia and to the New World from their native land of Afirica. From an academic perspective, then, the North is a place for the intellectual challenges of understanding human beings,

learning the wisdom of their ways of life and Iooking toward their future.

In this pape4 I would like to review the changes and results of these intellectual

challenges through studies of northern cultures, with the goal of discussing future prospects, I

have conducted my studies in the framework of anthropology in general, and have never positioned myself as a specialist of northern studies in a relatively narrow sense. However, I

might have been viewed objectively as a scholar of northern studies, based on my career of

research and education at the Department of Anthropology of the University of Tbkyo,

universities in Canada, the North Asia Seetion of the First Research Department of the

National Museum of Ethnology) and the Institute for the Studies ofNorth Eurasian Cultures of

Hokkaido University Also, it is probably because my field covers the Athapaskan (Dene) in

Nor'th America, the Ainu in Japan and the Koryak in Northern Eurasia, Mongolia, China,

Tibet and India. Thus, even if it is insufTicient, a review of northern studies in Japan from my

point of view may be usefu1 fbr people who study anthropology in the future. I would therefore

like to discuss northern studies here from a comprehensive peTspective and, at the same time,

based on the experience ofwhat I have mainly learned and specialized in. In the sections below,

"Northern I describe what the Culture" is, as well as the eras ofexploration, academics and the

world. In the conclusion, I present an outlook for the future, which may be called the"age ofthe humanity"

"NoT'thern What is Culture?"

Northern culture refers to the mode of life unique to northern areas in terms of ecology)

society and culture, dating back to the advance into Northern Eurasia by modern man (Hbmo

sqpiens sapiens) in the history of human evolution and proliferation to North America,

Northern culture is a whole body ofeultures, which have changed, descended and developed up

te today (IRIMoTo 1992a: 1-2, 11-2; 2004a: 1-2, 54).

I actually defined northern culture as mentioned above and stipulated the direction of our

research in October 1990 when we launched the preparatory committee for the Hbppo Gahhai

(Northern Studies Association, or NSA), founded the NSA in September 1991 and held the first

international symposium in commemoration of the Association's foundation at Holtkaido

University in October of the same year. NSA was founded for the purpose of contributing to the

understanding of human beings through studies of various northern cultures in Eurasia and

North Arnerica, as well as through international exchanges, The Association has two functions;

it is an association for regional studies and also an association for studies of human beings,

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Northern Studies in Japan 57

that is, anthropelogy in a broad sense, In terms of regtonal studies, the northern region is the

subject of the studM including Eurasia and North America, two important areas where

sufficient studies and information are lacking. Japan has historical, ecological, and cultural

characteristics indicative of its location en one end of the Eurasian continent. When one looks

at Japan as part of the northern Pacifie Rim region, however, a close relationship with North

Ameriea is evident, Therefbre, it is important to study Eurasia, Japan and North America, as a

continuous and unified nerthern region,

In the human evolutionary historM the Paleolithic culture ofJapan is not unrelated to that of northern Eurasia, and some northern characteristics are alse recognized in the Jomon

culture, which fbllowed Paleolithic culture. There are many ethnological aspeets which

Northern Eurasian cultures, Northern Arnerican cultures, and Ainu culture have in common.

For example, the worldview behind the Ainu Bear Festival is based on the repetition of - reciprocity between humans and deities that is to saM their logic behind it is that their game animals are divinities wearing flesh and hides brought to humans as gifts, and divinities are sent-off by humans to their divine world, receiving worship and return-gifts, including inau,

wooden sticks with shavings, home brew, and millet dumplings while being invited to visit the

human world again, Such a worldview is commonly found in a wide range of Northern Eurasian and North American cultures. In addition, the shamanistic view of the world plays an

important role in northern cultures in connecting nature (deities) and human beings.

In ecological studies in northern regions, the main subject is how people live in northern

climates. Fer example, snowshoes, technologically related to regions with snow accumulation,

are most developed among the American boreal forest Indians, but are also found in Japan.

Breeding and rearing reindeer are characteristic of Eurasia, but are traditionally not

conducted in North America. In the latter region, the caribou (wild American reindeer), which

belongs to the same biological species as the reindeer, occupies this niche only as game

animals, This cultural differenee stems from ecological and historical conditions.

These various cultures of northern regiens have ehanged up to today Comparative studies of the current northern regiens are as important as studies of prehistoric cultures and

ethnographics. For example, Hokkaido has a natural environment similar to Scandinavian

nations, Russia, Canada, the United States and other northern nations, These regions have a

common goal; that is, to live comfortably during the long winter, Furthermore, changes in the

environment greatly influence the northern eeosystem, Such changes should not be viewed as the problem of one nation, but should be seen as an international problem cemmon to all

northern regions,

Therefbre, research on northern culture is wide-ranging and also considered to be anthropological research. It is possible to proceed with research by considering northern

regions as cultural demains, and constantly performing comparative reviews of whether the cultural characteristics are indeed northern charaeteristics or characteristics universal to all

human beings regardless of geographical location. By doing so, we can consider northern

culture in the context of overall human culture and approach a more universal issue; i.e."What

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)-8 IRm{OTO Takashi

are human beings?" This manifesto of northem studies by IRIMoTo is characterized first by the broad definition of the research subject as northern regions including Northern Eurasia, Japan and North - - America; second, by application of shizenshi, which is anthropology of nature and culture

to the researeh theory and method; and third, by the fact that the final goal of research is the - "What clarification of a universal issue in anthropology are human beings?" This differs

greatly from conventional northern studies in Japan, which were !imited to Hokkaido or

adjoining northern regions in Japan, with the Ainu as the main focus, applied

folklorelethnology as methodology Also, it differs in that the purpose was to clarify the origin of the Japanese people and culture. This change, however, was a natural consequence of changes in northern studies in Japan, rather than something that occurred suddenly I therefore

explain these changes in the subsequent sections,

Age of Exploration

In the foIlowing three sections, I explain the characteristics and results of nerthern

studies by dividing them into three ages. The first is the Age of Exploration, starting in the 4th

centurM when the Yhmato Imperial Court was formed, then the unified government of Japan, to the Chusei (medieval period) and the Kinsei (modern times) in the mid-nineteenth century, when the Edo period ended. The second is the Age of Academics in the Kindai (modern period)

from the Melji Restoration to the end ofPacific War. The third is the Age ofthe World up to the

end of the twentieth centurM when the bipolar Cold-War structure after the war collapsed. These divisions are of course not mutually exclusive, It just means that characteristics of

northern studies can,be observed more clearly by looking at northern studies objectively by age. It is because researchers engaged in northern studies seem to have proceeded with their

studies with intellectual ehallenge to the nomh as their driving force regardless of the ages,

although there are differences among individuals, and their observations may have been

affected by the times in some cases. Based on the above conditions, next I explain northern

studies during the Age of Exploration.

Interest in the north could be fbund in Japan sinee old times, The north was an object of

"Ylamato exploration from the formation of the Imperial Court up to the end of the Ede period in

1867. Needless to saM the interest in the north was fbr acquisition of knowledge on ethnie

groups in surrounding areas, such as the Emishi in the north and Hayato in the south, which weTe subdued and integrated during the process of Japan's political unification, rather than for academic purposes, For example, Nihon Shoki or Chronicles qfeJdpan (ToNERI-SHINNo et al. ed.

720/1669), compiled in 720 as Japan's oldest anthology of official histery by Imperial

Command, states that the Mishihase, currently regarded by ethnologists as a [Pungus-speaking ethnic group, eame to the nor'theTn Sado Island of Etsu Province (present-day eastern Fukui,

[[byama and Niigata) in 544, but islanders did not approach them, ealling them ogres and

monsters rather than people (Hokkaido ed, 1989: 5).

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Northern Studies in Japan 59

'lived It also states the fbllowing events: chiefs of the ancient Emishi including Ayakasu, who in the present-day Aomori, Akita and northern Miyagi Prefectures in northern Japan and

are believed by many Japanese specialists to be related with ancestors of the Ainu both

'Ylimate physically and linguisticallM came to the Imperial Court in (present-day Nara) in 581 and took an oath pledging their obedience. Abe no Orni went on an expedition leading 180

warships in 658 and 659 and forced the Emishi in Wanita, Aita and Nushiro (present-day Akita) to pledge their loyalty to the Imperial Court, He also led 200 warships in 660 and conquered the Mishihase with the support of the Mutsu (now known as Aemori and a part of

Iwate) Emishi and Oshima (now Hokkaido) Emishi (Hokkaido ed. 1989: 5; OBiwAsm 1994: 125,

127-8). Nihon Shohi also states that, in 659, there were three groups ofEmishi - those in

Tsukaru (modern Aemori), Shishi Emishi and Niki Emishi - from the far side, and the Niki

Emishi visited the Imperial Court to offbr a tribute (Hokkaido ed. 1989: 5). It can be seen that

-Yarnato Niki Emishi lived closest to and were the most obedient to the Imperial Court out of

the ancient Emishi groups.

In Jussai KbfLtka Ezosho, or Emishi Surrendering to the 10 years old Prince Shotoleu, (Unknown author 1323!1959: 25; 1323/1968: no, 159: 186-7; 132311973: 11-3) in the pictorial

biography of Prince Shotoku written around 1323, there is a legendary scene in which Prince

Shotoku, ten years old at the time, suggested to the Emperor Bidatsu to invite the Emishi chief Ayakasu and his men to the bank of the Hatsuse River and then persuaded them to obey the Imperial Court, While this is said to be the oldest genre picture of the Ainu (i.e., a picture that

depicts Ainu customs) remaining to this daM it is obvious from the description in Nihon Shoki

that this was a picture ef Emishi in Honshu and not the Ainu in Hokkaido, It is naturally not

known to what degree this picture, painted at the end of the Kamakura era, was based on the

knowledge on the Ainu in Hokkaido or the Emishi in Honshu. As indieated by many

descriptions in Nihon Sholei, however, it is true that knowledge on the Emishi had already been

collected in those days. Considering such a background, it was presumed that people appearing in the picture were the Emishi. While the people in the picture depicted bows and quivers, also

found in Ainu culture, they were feather and fur shawls, hoods and headbands, and had spears

decorated with cloth slightly different from those ofthe Ainu. They also wore shoes that looked

like Iong boots, which did not exist in Ainu culture. This picture had been evaluated negatively as an imaginary painting depieting the Ainu incorrectly As mentioned before, however, this

can be interpreted as a picture of the Emishi and is likely the oldest and only genre picture of the Emishi. Ifthis is true, the abovementioned differencesfrom the Ainu in the times rpodern have important meaning as the characteristics of the Emishi in Honshu, rather than just being the products of imagination.

In fact, analysis of the description of Emishi in Nihon Shoki revealed some facts

concerning their mode of living and view of the world. They sustained themselves by hunting,

gathering, fishing, as well as cultivating wet rice, and breeding horses. They divided a year into - two seasons summer and winter, and the times of their revolts against the Imperial Court

were related to the transition of these two seasons; i.e,, the breaks between subsistence

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60 IRIMOTO Takashi

activities, being concentrated at the end of winter or the end of summer (OBiyyAsm l994: 131,

136). Based on such information, it can be presumed that the Emishi in Honshu were engaged

in subsistence activities difft]rent from those of the Ainu in Hokkaido, were directly influenced

by the centinent concerning the use of horses, and were a culturally different group from the

Ainu, although they had the same ancestors.

Description of the Ainu in Hekkaido can be seen in documents dating back to approximately the same time as the pictorial biography of Prince Shotoku. While

arehaeologists believe that Ainu culture fbrmed around the twelfth centurM the Suwa

Daincyojin Ekotoba (SuwA DAisHiNBo 135611925: 53-4; Hokkaido ed. 1989: 9) states that

Ezogashima Island was situated in the middle of the ocean in the northeast of Japan, and that

three groups ealled the Hinerneto, Karako and Watarito lived on 333 islands. It also states that

the Watarito shared one island with other groups and did trades on the coast outside of Oshu

Tsugaru. KINDAIcHI Kyosuke (1925: 54-5, 357-401) concluded that the Hinomoto were the

group in the eastern province (East Ezo) that later came to be called the Chishima (Kuri1)

Ainu, the Karako were the Ainu influenced by Manchurian culture via the [fatar Straits who

were later called the Karafuto (Sakhalin) Ainu, and the Watarito were the group that fled from

Ou, or the Ainu eiijoying Japanese culture at the gateway to Hokhaido,

Suwa Daimorojin Ekotoba (Suwn DAIsHINBo 135611925: 55-6) also states that the

territories ofthe Hinomoto and Karako were eonnected to foreign countries, and that they were

engaged in hunting and fishing, they did not eonduct farming (such as cultivating five grains as - - staple foods ineluding riee, wheat, foxtail millet, bean, millet or barnyard grass although

there are varied opinions) and had different languages. In contrast to this, the Watarito were

similar to the Japanese and shared the same language. Some of them knew how to hide

themselves by creating a smoky fog, On the battlefield, armored men advanced, armed with

bows and arrows, and women remained at the back uttering incantatibns to the sky while

grasping strips ofwood. Both men and women moved freely without the aid ofhorses and used

arrows with poisoned heads made from fish bones. Ainu in Edo period shared these

characteristics. In the medieval period, Japan had already expanded its outlook to Ezo-ga- Chishima (now known as Hokkaido and neighboring areas), and people living there, and had

recognition that there was foreign land beyond, - It was, however, not until the Edo period in the modern times 265 years from the

opening of the shogunate in Edo (modern [[bkyo) by ToKuGAwA Ieyasu in 1603･ to the - Restoration of the Imperial Rule by ToKuGAwA Ybshinobu in 1867 that correct and detailed

descriptions of the Ainu were reliably discovered. Looking at the general survey ofthe history

of Hokkaido in the Shin Hokkaidoshi IVlempyo or IVew chronological table ef the histoiy of

Hokhaido (Hokkaido ed. 1989: 688-96), which is a reproduction of the chronolegical table part

of the Historical Record No. 3, Vbl. 9 of the New History of Hokkaido (Hokkaido ed, 1980), the

number of documents on the Edo period was approximately 440, while only 50 regarding the

period from ancient to medieval times were quoted. Although these documents are only a part

of ancient writings about the history ofHokkaido, it can be seen from the number of documents

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Nerthern Studies in Japan 61

that interest in the northern regions, including Hokkaido and its adjoining areas, was very

high during the Edo period. For example, ARAI Hakuseki wrote Eaoshi (ARAI, 1720/1979: 39- 54), the first geography book of Hokkaido in 1720, Matsumaekoku Chuhi (Unknown author c.

1720) was also written by an unknown author at roughly the same time, Also, KuDo Heisuke

published Aka Ezo Husetsuko (KuDo 178311972: 209-45) in 1783, which described a district

called Kamusasuka(present-day Kamchatka), also known as Aka Ezo (Red Ezo or"Russianized"

Ezo Country), along the northern island of the Chishima (Kuril) Islands, and that people living there bTought dried salmon and salmon oil to trade fbr salt, rice, rolls of cloth and textiles.

There was also mention that a large country called Oroshiya (now Russia), which had its

capital in Musukobeya (modern Moscow), expanded its power gradually starting from the

Kanbun era (1661-1672) and took control of Kamusasuka by the Shotoku era (1711-1715), indicating that the necessity of national defense was promoted in Japan,

Because of this, the shogunate sent an investigating party to Ezo in 1785 and 1786, and

they traveled to Karafuto (Sakhalin) in the north and Kunashiri Island of Southern Chishima

(Kuri1) Archipelago in the east, At that time, MoGAMI [[bkunai went not only to Etorofu Island

of the southern Kurils, but also to Urup Island of the northern Kurils. SA[po Genrokuro, a

participant in this partM compiled the results of the survey of Ezo into E2o Shui (SAIDo 178611972: 248-309) in 1786. Mogami also published Ego Soshi (MoGAMI 1790/1972: 310-410) in 1790, with descriptions of geographM produets, Ainu secietM rituals, songs and dances.

Karafuto and the Kurils in those days served as the northern border ofJapan with Russia. For

example, the Ainu of Etorofu Island went to Urup Island of the northern Kurils to find work

and presented sea otter skin and eagle feathers to the shogunate, Because some of them were

plundered of their eargoes and shot to death by Russians in 1770, they took revenge (Hokkaido-

cho 1901: 36-7; IRIMoTo 1995a: 128). After that, a missien to Japan led by Adam LAKsMAN came

to Nemuro and Hakodate on the Ekaterina in 1792, with a request for amity from the Governor-

General of Siberia under the pretext of extradition ofDAIKoKuyA Kodayu of Ise Province among

other drifters. Their proposal fbr trade was, however, rejected according to the closed-door

policy ofthe shogunate, The Providenee, a British expedition ship led by BRouGHToN, also came

to Abuta and Etomo in 1796 and 1797, and demanded of the shogunate the opening of the

country The shogunate sent another investigating party to eastern and western Ezo immediately after, in 1798. At that time, another party including KoNDo Juzo and MAMIyA

Rinzo went to Etorofu Island of the southern Kurils, and MuRAKAMI Shimanojo (a.k,a. HA[[A Awakimaru) published Ezoshima Kihah in 1799 (MuRAKAMI 179911953; 27, 29; 1799/1973: no,

41-77), which contained pictures and text depicting the lives of the Ainu, Also, INo Tadataka

conducted a survey of Ezo in 1800 by permission of the shogunate, and MAMryA Rinzo made

inspections ofnorthem Sakhalin in 1808 and 1809, and eonfirmed that Sakhalin was an island

through exploration ofthe Mamiya (Tatar) Strait (Hokkaido ed. 1989: 89, 91-2; YAMADA 2002a: 362-363).

There is mention of Sakhalin in those days in Hokuidan (MATsuDA 182211972: 117-276), a

record on Ezo written by imTsuDA Deajuro between 1799 and 1822, For example, it says that

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62 IRIMO'vOTakashi

the Orotsukojin (Uilta) raised animals called tonakai (reindeer) to ride and carry loads, and

the Sumeren-guru (Nivkh) kept dogs to pull boats from the sea onto the shore in summer and

sleighs on the snow in winter, It also states that the Santantl'in (Mngus-speaking people in the

coastal area) visited this island every year to trade with the Ainu in Karafuto and Soya in

Hokkaido, the Ainu in Karafuto and visiting Santanjin who hunted in the mountain went by

boat to Deree (Deren) by the Amur River, where the Manchurian temporary government was

situated, to trade otter, fox and sea otter furs for foxtail millet, rice, sake and tobacco. They also

took pieces of brocades, blue glass balls for neck ornaments, bowls of tobacco pipes and other goods to Soya to trade them fbr otter, ibx and raccoon dog furs (MATsuDA 188211972: 171-2, 175-

8; MAMIyA 185511972: 286), These deseriptions revealed not only the status of fur trading in the

coastal area ofthe Asian continent and Karafuto with the Qing Dynasty in the background, but

also the fact that the Santanjin and Ainu in Karafuto played the roles ofmiddlemen by trading

with the Ainu in Hokkaido. Furthermore, MAMIyA Rinzo went to the continent by sea from

Karafuto in 1809, crossed a mountain pass carrying the boat and reached Deren via Lake

Kizhi, observed the state of trading by Manchurian public servants, and traveled down the main stream of the Amur River on his journey home. It is said that MAMIyA made a fair eopy of

the record of this trip called the 7bdatsu Chiho Kiko (rvIAMIyA, 1811al1969: 180-99), and

presented it to the shogunate in 1811 (Hokkaido ed. 1989: 101-2; TAKAKuRA 1969: 178). In this

report, MAMryA mentiened the state of trading at the Manchurian temporary government by the Amur River, and the recorded the names of various ethnic groups living in the area

extending from northern Karafuto to the lower reaches of the Amur River, including Orotsuko

(Tungus-speaking Orok, or Uilta), Sumeren-guru (Nivkh), Shir'un-aino (Ainu in the hinterland

of Karafuto), Kimun-aino (mountain Ainu), Santan (probably the [Vungus-speaking Ulchi in the

lower reaches of the Amur River), Korutetsuke (likely the [Dungus-speaking Goldy in the lower

reaches ofUssurii River), KYatsukara (probably [Vungus-speaking Negtdal in the lower reaches

of the Amur River), Ida (Tungus-speaking Udegey east of the Sikhote Alin mountains) and Kiren (a group of Goldy called Samagir).i Also, Hbkui Bunkai }bwa (MAMIyA 1811b/1973: 76-

80; 1811cl1973: no, 78-143) that was written together with 7bdatsu Chiho Kileo was published in wood-block print as Kita E2o Zusetsu (MAIvrIy?t, 185511972: 283-380) in 1855. The book

contains detai}ed descriptions and ethnography of the Ainu in Karafuto, Orotsuko (Uilta) and

Sumeren-guru (Nivkh), including food, housing, skills, livelihood, trading and ceremonies.

Records on the Ainu are characterized by many genre pictures, in addition to written

descriptions. Those pictures shown in the fbrm of picture scrolls or figures inserted in old

chronicles present valuable information that cannot be expressed with words alone, just like 'ethnography photos in Exoshi Fuxu (ARAI 172011945: 9; TAKAKuRA 1959: 9; 172011973: 14) of

ARAI Hakuseki attached to the above-mentioned Ezoshi is known as the first realistic genre

picture of the Ainu. It is a simple picture of Ainu men and women wearing eharaeteristic

costumes and accessories, accompanied by the description ofsizes, materials and usage, as well

as pietures related to material culture of the Ainu, including those of bows and arrows, containers and clubs (ARAI, 172011953: 5; TAKAKuRA, 1953: 4-7). Also, Exoleoku F"e (KoDAIytA

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Northern Studies in Japan 63

1756f1945: no, 4; 175611953: 10; 1756/1973: no, 27-40), which is said to be the work ofpainter

KoDAMA Sadayoshi of Matsumae, created in 1756, also includes vivid pictures of the Bear Festival, kelp gathering, shut (corporal punishment), audiences with the baron of Matsumae

and other scenes of the Ainu's lives and festivals.

Furthermore, portraits of twelve imposing men from the Kunashiri and Menashi areas

wearing Ezo brocade from Santan with deeorated swords or spears under their arms were

painted by KAKIzAKI Hakyo in Ishu Retsuzo in 1790 (KAKIzAKI 179011953: 17; 179011968: no. 1-

4; 179011973: 1-14). As mentioned before, the eighteenth century was the time when the

shogunate sent an investigating party to Ezo to deal with Russians expanding southward, and was when the first era of direct control of Ezo by the shogunate began. Many books and genre pictures of the Ainu were produced in those days. TANI Gentan's Ezo Kiko Zufu (TANI 179911953: 21; 1799/1973: no. 170-91) contains realistic pictures of the lives of the Ainu, including a woman weaving atsushi (bank-cloth), a hunting scene, children at plaM a drinking scene, corporal punishment, sailing, kindling of fire, praying and passing around a pipe. The

abovementioned Ezoshima Kifean (MuRAKAMI 179911953: 27, 29; 1799f1973: no. 41-77), which

was developed based on the shogunate's second survey of Ezo, contains detailed description

and pictures of Ainu myths, ceremonial occasions and daily activities, including the earth-

creating deity(Goddess in the Cave), Ainu men and women, an audience with Baron

Matsumae, sitting in attendance, greetings and salutations, taking care of a the siek, funerals,

saimon (trial by boiling water), machikoru (wedding), the burning of the houses of the

deceased, uhari (beating with a club), dances at a feast, drinking, exorcism of evil spirits,

nlyoen (homecoming ritual), dogs pulling a boat, the harvesting of kelp, the castration of dogs, the harpooning of salmon, the stripping of tree bark, the gathering medical plants and the trapping of an eagle, as well as bows and arrows, quivers, women's tattoos, shitoki (necklaces),

and dwellings and their interior. It contains many records on modern Ainu culture that had

been lost since the Melji era. It was because MuumII Shimanojo had clear intentions of

producing a picture scroll to record the Ainu customs (TAKAKuRA 1953: 26), as can be seen in his "I remark, hope to avoid losing the past descriptions of the Ainu and show them to those who

have never seen them,'i The illustrations ofMuRAKAMI were later sorted by his adopted son

[[bisuke and MAMIyA Rinzo, and have been kept as Exo Seikei Zusetsu contained in the

Departrnent of anthropology class of the University of [[bkyo and Ezoshirna Zusetsu eontained

in Hakodate Library (the original is Ezo Gacho contained in the Cabinet Library) (T.4KAKuRA

1953: 31; 1968: 157; 1973: 26). Ezo Seikei Zusetsu or E2o Gacho (MuRAKAMI 1804-182311945:

no. 20; 1804-2311953: 27; 1804-23/1968: no, 44-6, 50, 53-6, 64-9, 72, 76, 78, 85, 87, 90, 149)

includes pictures ofvarious aetivities related to subsistence of the Ainu and material aspects related their food, clothing and shelter. They include pictures of the cultivation process of

miscellaneous grains from seed to harvest, bleaching of tree bark to make clothing, twisting of

i The comparison with the current names of ethnie groups is based on TAKAIcuRA {1969: 199}, who wrote explanatery and supplementary notes for 7bdatsu Chiho Kiko,

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tree-bark fibers, clothes made of fur, feathers, grass and various other materials, construction

of houses, houses covered with miscanthus, birch bark and bamboo leaves, the eating meals,

inau (wooden sticks) state of inau-making, and boats on the sea with sails made of straw mats.

After the Golovnin incident in 1811, PERRy's fleet came to Uraga in 1853 and the shogunate opened the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate the fo11owing year. In the same year, PuTyAl]IN's fleet visited Nagasaki and Hakodate and signed a memorandum setting the

national boundary between Japan and Russia at the Etorofu Channel in the northern part ef

Etorofu Island of the Kurils, and designating Karafuto as a mixed-residence area. The

instruments of ratification were then exchanged in 1856 (Hokkaido ed, 1989: 103, 131-3). With

the dramatic changes of the domestie and intemational situations in the transition from the

elosed-door policy to opening of the countrM Ezo entered the second period of direct control by the shogunate (1855-1867) (IRIMoTo 1987: 3). Genre pictures of the Ainu were created in addition to many reports in those days. Among them were the masterpieces of HIRAsAwA - Byozan Ezov'in Shuto-no-zu (HIRAsrwA 185711945: no. 32; 185711968: no. 109) that depieted

a scene of smallpox vaccination for the Ainu at the Hakodate Magistrate's Oence under the

instruction of the shogunate in 1857 and 1858 and E2o Fuzohu Juni-hcrgetsu llyobu (folding

screen of twelVe months of the Ainu customs) (HIRAsAwA late 1800sl1945: no. 38-43; late 1800sf1973: no, 15-26). The folding screen contains pictures of visiting a shrine on New Year's

day (January), hunting deer (February), gathering seaweed (March), twisting atsushi bark (April), drying fish-oil cakes (May), harvesting kelp (June), catching trout (July), catching

salmon (August), harpooning salmon using marek (September), departing for a hunting trip

(October) and the Bear Festival (Deeember). Pictures 130 cm in height and 52 cm in width are

on a pair of six-panel screens. It is not only highly artistic, but also accurately depicts the

yearly cycle of the Ainu, Ainu Fuzohu Enzahi (scroll painting of Ainu customs) produced by

NISHIKAwA Hokuyo (end of 1800sl1973: no. 149-69) also contains realistic and detailed pictures of cendolence, the playing of mouth harps, subsistence activities of hunting, fishing and

gathering, the rearing ofbear cubs, the Bear Festival, plays, the reciting ofshakorobe epics and

a trial.

These genre pictures of the Ainu also have titles in the Ainu language and serve as

valuable records of the language. In fact, the Ezo Hbgen Moshiagusa, a bilingual dictionary of

the Ainu language and Japanese, was written by interpreter UEHARA Kumajiro and Governor

ABE Chozaburo in 1792, and published by MoGAMI [[bkunai in 1804 (UEHARA and ABE 1792,

1804/1972; Hokkaido ed, 1989: 84). Many more publications were issued in the late Edo period.

KANsENDo-YuKI then published a map called Ezohohu Chiri-no-2u firom the Edo Asakusa

GyQkuryuken KYokuhogata in 1853, which included a supplemental booklet that introduced

the Ainu language called Ego Hin'i lhkugen (KANsENDo-YuKI 185311872; TAKAKuluk 1973: 31).

Later, MATsuuRA Takeshiro, who went on fbur exploratory trips in Ezo starting in 1845,

and who was employed by the shogunate in 1856 to investigate the geography of Ezo

mountains and rivers, introduced Ezo to a wide range of people through wood-printed books

featuring genre pictures of the Ainu. He also collected and disseminated past genre pictures of

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the IVnu (MATsuuRA 185911945: no. 49(1); 185911968: no. 125; [I]AKAKuRtx 1973: 31-2). imTsuuRA

explored extensive areas of Hokkaido and Karafuto in the late Edo period. He not only kept valuable investigation records on geographM place names in the Ainu language and censuses of the Ainu population, but also earned the trust of the Ainu with his universal and objective

outlook (YAMADA 2002a: 361, 368-9; 2003: 77). Based mainly on the journals and geographical survey maps of lhTsuuRA Takeshiro (185611978, 1858!1985, 185911983, 1863/1962), a series of

pioneering studies of IRiMoTo were later conducted (IRiMoTo 1987, 1988, 1992b), which

included anthropological and historic - ecological analyses ofthe Ainu in the Saru River basin.

This anthropological study ofhistorical rnaterials on the Ainu in the Saru River basin was

the analysis on the Ainu society and culture in this area from around 1300 to 1867.2 The

significance of this study were described as fbllows: The first point is the extremely steady

colleetion and analysis of data using literature and archeological rnaterials systematically

while referring to ethnographical reports ofthe modern period, The second point is the division - into three major periods the first from around 1300 te 1603, the second from 1604 to 1669

and the third from 1670 to 1867 - and the establishment ofthree sub-periods during the third

period. The third point is that the study revealed the transition of weight on activities to gather food in the wild, such as hunting animals, gathering plants and fishing, to trade, plant-

cultiyation and employment activities throughout these periods. The fourth point is that

analysis was conducted based on fu11 understanding of the standard of studies in modern-day

cultural anthropology While the ecologieal point of view was especially characteristic to this

studM a balanced interpretatien was made by also taking the importance of pelitical history

factors into account. It also revealed that the social and political system ofthe Ainu was formed

through a political and economic relationship with the Matsumae elan and shogunate,

including trade and employment activities, while it was supported by the ecological basis and

subsistence activities, population and settlement patterns of the area. As mentioned above, it could be said that northern studies in Japan began in the Age of

Exploration. It is pessible to clarify the mode of life, society and culture in the northern regions

in modern times based especially on the records created in the Edo period for the fo11owing

reasons: First, interest in the northern regions, including Hold{aido and its adjoining areas,

was high, and many materials were left from the era. This was probably because the Matsumae

Clan under the [[bkugawa shogunate obtained the management rights to Ezochi (present-day

Hokkaido and Chishima [Kuri1] Archipelago) and KaTafuto (Sakhalin) firom ToKuGAwA Ieyasu

in 1604 and executed them, and the shogunate positioned the northern regions of Japan as

Hbkumon no Mamori (the guardian of the northern gate) and the front line of the nation

against Russia. There was also the fact that people's curiosity was extended to external things during the prosperity of culture in the Kyoto and Osaka area and popular culture of Edo.

Second, an objective and comprehensive description method was established based on

2 This study received the sixteenth Dr. KiNDAicHi Kyosuke Memorial Award in 1988, which is given for important

contributions eoncerning languages and ethnic cultures in Japan and surrounding areas.

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66 IRIMOTO Takashi

natural observation, which is a traditional culture of Japan. It is entirely the result of

establishment of scientific method based on the natural view unique to JaPanese culture. Such

rnethod was esthblished in the history of Japan through experience of compilation of Fudoki

(geographical description of the origin of the narTie, topographM products, legends and other

conditions of a certain area) that began in the eighth centurM and tradition of painters who worked as artisans to produee paintings under direct control of the Court or shogunate after

introduction of the laws and ordinance system in the seventh century This tradition has been

handed down to fblklore and ethnology of Japan in the Age of Academics, while introducing

Western science in the modern period, as mentioned below} and has now evolved into shixenshi

(anthropology of nature and culture) by integrating Western anthropelogy (physical

anthropology and cultural anthropology) in the Age of the World,

Age of Academics

The seventy-eight years from the establishment of the new Melji government in 1868,

through the Taisho era (1912-1926), to the end of Pacific War in 1945 was the age ef the

evolution of Japan into a modern nation. In academic fields, Western science was introduced to

Japan's existing traditional science, which resulted in the creation of a variety of new fields of

study and organizations, In anthropological studies, on the other hand, issues concerning the

origin of the Japanese people and culture became the major focus, TsuBol Shogore and his

"Friends associates founded the of Anthropology" in 1884, the predecessor of the

Anthropological Soeiety of Nippon, the Japanese Society of Ethnology and other organizations.

It was renamed the Anthropologieal Research SocietM the Anthropologieal SocietM then the Anthropological Society of [Ibkyo in 1'886 and to the present name the Anthropological Society

of Nippon in 1941. In 1886, the first issue of the society's jeurnal Jinruigaku Holeohu, Bulletin of the Anthropolqgicat SocieCy3 was published (TERADA 1975: 31-3), where the fbundation of

anthropology in Japan was laid.

It is understandable that study was limited to setting up various hypotheses concerning

the origins of the Japanese, since there was almost no accumulation of concrete data in those

days. SHIRAI Mitsutaro (M,S, 1887: 70-5) and KoGANEI Ybshikiyo (1889a: 2-7; 1889b: 34-9; 1904)

considered the Ainu to be Japan's Stone Age people. TsuBol Shogoro (1886:11-4; 1887a: 93-7;

1887b: 167-72; 1971-72), on the other hand, believed the Stone Age people in Japan were the

Korobokkuru, who were mentioned in Ainu folk tales and theught to have lived before the

Ainu. Furthermore, the explorer ToRII Ryuzo conducted ethnological research over a broad

area of northern Asia, including Liaodong, Manchuria, Mongolia, the northern Chishima

(Kuril) Islands, Sakhalin and Siberia, since the latter half of the Melji era until areund 1940,

" [Vhe journal was later known as 7bdyo Jinruigaku Hbleoleu, Bulletin ofthe Ibkyo Anthropolqgical Societ}s 7bbyo Jinruigaku Zasshi, Jburnal ofthe Anthrqpolagical Society of 7bdyo, and then Jinruigahu Zasshi, the Journal of

the Anthropolagieal Soeiety ofNim)on in 1911.

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Northern Studies in Japan 67

t`Theory and set up a unique ofJapanese-proper," a hypothesis that first the Ainu migrated to

the Japanese islands, then the Mengolian-Yamato people eame from the north over to Kyushu

and lived mixed with locals, fo11owed by Indonesians coming to coastal areas, and finally a

Mongolian closely related to the Tungus eame from the north and became an emperor by

annexing and assimilating the various ethnic groups to form a dynastM which became the

Yamato, or Japanese race (ToRII 1975-77; [PERAI)A 1975: 83-4>.

The existence of Yayoi earthenware becarne known in 1896, and effbrts were made to

organize prehistorie data, including a chronological arrangement of Jomon-period historM

during the Taisho era. KIyoNo Kenji and KANAzEKI [Ilakeo of Kyoto University and

archaeologist HAMADA Seiryo believed that the culture during the Stone Age was neither the

Ainu nor the present Japanese, but the proto-Japanese (KANAzEKi 1976; KiyoNo 1925, 1982; KIygNo and KANAzEKI 1928; FuJIoKA 1979: 47, 139-40), During the same period, HAsEBE Ketondo of [[bhoku UniversitM who Iater founded the Department of Anthropology at the

University of [rbkyo, reached the eonelusion that the people during that time were ancestors of the modern Japanese people, and those who migrated from the continent played an elemental role (HAsEBE 1949, 1975; TERADA 1975: 150, 163-4), The theory that the people during the

Stone Age were the proto-Japanese was based on the new idea that anthropological characteristics ceuld change enough during a period of approximately 10,OOO years to be

observed, which is relatively shoTt in human evolution historM when compared with various

theories previously proposed in whieh they presumed that the present-Japanese came later to

LL-t'x- the Japanese Islands. The theory supported by HAsEBE and other researchers formed the

foundation for further development of the view that the Jomon, the people from Japan's Stone

Age, might have acquired modern Japanese characteristics by rniero-evolution through

ettanges iii lifestyles (SuzuKI 1963, 1971, 1992), as well as formed the basis to arrive at the

research on the oTigin and fbrmation of the results of present ' Japanese,which assert the Jomon were the pr.oto-Japanese, although the genetie influences of the Yayoi were significant,

and there was a genetic gradient for Yayoi characteristics; that is, they peaked at western Japan where the Yayai arrived and spread toward the north and south of the Japanese islands

(I{[ANI}{ARA 1996; IKEDA 1987; OMoTo 1995, 1996; YAMAGucHI 1990). AccordinglM it was

concluded that in addith"n to the Japanese, the ancestors of the Ainu, who have continpously

held an important position in r?gard to the origin of the Japanese, were the Jomon. Anthropological studies in trils period covered not only what we today call physieal

anthropologyl but also fblklore, ethnology and prehistory For this reason, materials and data

on culture, in addition to characteristics of people in Japan and its peripheral areas, were exhaustively collected. In 1913, YANAGITA Kunio et al. (YANAGITA 1989-91) published Kiyodo

Kbndyu or Folfe Studies (four volumes, ending in 1917) and Minzohu or Ethnos in 1925 (four

volumes up to 1929). A meeting for Ainu studies was held in 1926 under the leadership of

YANAGITA, in which KoGANEI Ybshikiyo, a physical anthropologist, and John BATcHELoR, a missionary and linguist as well as an ethnologist, participated (TERADA 1975: 190), and thus

researchers exchanged their views on common subjects. In 1929, a society of ethnology was

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organized, and its journal, Min2ohugaku or liblklore, was published (publication ended in

1933). Then, a new societM the Japanese Society of Ethnology; was fbunded by some of the

coteries in 1934, with the publication of its journal Minzohugahu Klendyu or The eJdpanese

cJburnal ofEthnolag), starting in 1935. During the same year, YANAGITA Kunio played a central

role in the establishment ofthe Society ofFolklore (renamed the Folklore Society ofJapan after World War II), and the journal Minhan-densho or liblkore4 was first published. Thus, ethnologM the comparative study of different ethnic groups, and folklore, the study of one's own ethnic group, were separated (IToH 2002: 26-7; TERADA 1975: 240), During the same period,

anthropology and archaeology were divided, and special fields of study were established:

physical anthropologM folklore, ethnology and archaeology There was, of course, an approach to anthropology from a broad perspective, as that of HAsEBE Kotondo, fbunder or the University

of [Ibkyo's Anthropology Course in 1938, which was succeeded by the Department of

Anthropolog)c Faculty ofScience, the University of [[bkyo after World War II, This was also the

start of ecological anthropology in Japan as deseribed in the section below,

The fields Qf folklore and ethno!ogy were different; however, they used the same

methodology} which is the traditional Japanese methodology to comprehensively describe the

lives, cultures and traditions of humans, With the use ofthis methodology, the collection of the

folklore and ethnological materials and data began, In 1869, the Hokkaido Development

Commission was established, and the Sapporo Agricultural College in 1876, with W S, CLARK

of the President of the Massachusetts Agricultural College serving as the Vice President, was

fbunded. The college was then reorganized as Agricultural College, [Ibhoku Imperial University

in 1907, and in accordance with the fbundation of Hokkaido Imperial UniversitM it was 't･I- reorganized as Agricultural College of the university The development of Hokkaido further ttt. increased after Japan gained the entire area of the Kuril Islands and the southem half..

Sakhalin in accordance with the terms of [[hreaty of St. Petersburg in 1875 and the [[reaty of

Portsmouth in 1905 after the Russo-Japanese War, Along with this development,

anthropological, archaeological, and ethnological materials and data in Hokkaido, Sakhalin

and the Kuri1 Islands (ToRII 1975-77; SuDA 1939; KoNo Tsunekichi 1974-75; KoNo Hiromichi

1971-72), in particular those related to Ainu culture, were accumulated by many researchers

including KIN]AIcHI Kyosuke (1992) and CHml Mashiho (1973-76) SIRIMOTo 1992; YAMADA

2003: 77-87).

In 1910, as a result of the annexation of Korea, thp Governor-General's Offiee of Korea

was established in Keljo (present-day Seoul), and Kbljo Imperial University was opened in

1926. After the Manchurian Incident in 1931, the establishment ofManchukuo was declared in

1932 (Hokkaido 1989: 387, 487, 489). Ethnological materials and data on the rituals,

shamanism and family system of various northem people such as the Manchu and the

Mongolian collected in these areas were published on 7bdyo Jinruigahu Zasshi, Jinruigakhai Zasshi, Minxohugaku Klenllyu, Manmo and other journals by aforementioned ToRII Ryuzo

` The journal was renamed IVihon Minzokugaku or Fblhlore oftJdpan after World War II.

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Northern Studies in gapan 69

(ToRII 1909a, 1909b), and other researchers (AKAMATsu 1936; KoBAyAsHI 1932; KoBoRI 1949;

Oyma 1941; TAKIzrwA 1937). In the end of this period, anthropological studies in northern areas from a socio-eeological perspective appeared; for example, socio-ecological studies on

nomads in Da Hinggan Ling and Inner Mongolia by IMANIsHI Kiriji (I"[ANIsHI 1974-75; 1995;

1974-75; IMANISHI and BAN 1948a, 1948b), UMEsAo Tadao (1976, 1989-94) and other

researchers, studies on the sociat structure and livelihood domain of the Orochon in Da Hinggan Ling by IzuMI Seiiehi (1937), and studies on the social structure of the Orok (Uilta) in Sakhalin by IsHmA Eiichiro (1941). In additien, institutions related to ethnological studies were established: the Institute efEthnos in the second year of the Pacific War in 1943 and the

Institute fbr the Study of Northwest (of China) in Zhangiiakou in 1944 (TERADA 1975; 257-9). However, in the fbllowing year, the war ended. UMEsAo Tadao, who conducted research on dog

sleds in Sakhalin as a student, as well as nomads in Da Hinggan Ling and Inner Mongolia,

reported that research had been very difficult due to strict restrietions set by the Japanese

militarM so when the war ended, he thought that from now on he could carry out research

freely (UMEsAo 2003-04: personal communication).

As described above, it could be said that the issues surrounding the origin of the Japanese

in the time of the creation of a medern nation in Japan were assoeiated with the formation of

"One an ethnie-national identity, Along with the movement of Nation's Folklore," fblklore - - the study ofone's own ethnic group traced the identity ofthe Japanese inward through the - - ceuntry's history In contrast, ethnology the comparative study of different ethnic groups

explored outwards to seek the identity of the Japanese. After the war, such explorers extended

their studies as far as to Africa, Himalaya and Andes.

Age of the World

The period of fifty-five years from 1945, when the Pacific War ended, to 2000, when the twentieth century ended after the collapse of the post-war structure of bipolar confrontation,

was the age of social and economic reconstruction for Japan under a new democratic system. In

the field of anthropology) with the introduction of cultural anthropology from the United State, "What a universal issue of anthropelogy - are human beings" - became the central focus,

rather than issues surrounding the erigin of the Japanese, which was associated with the

conventional ethnic-national identity, This period is the Age of the World, so to speak, in which

the area of academic interests is expanded to the world. - "Physical The broad view of HAsEBE Kotondo anthropology is the study of the natural history of man of all times and regions"(HAsEBE 1927: 3) - was inherited by the Department of 'to Anthropology in the University of [[bkyo. It engaged in studies aiming clarify the

relationship between human physics and technology based on the idea ofviewing anthropology

"works" as a comprehensive science fbcusing on the ofmen (SuGIuRA 1951: 2). After the War,

the Department of Cultural Anthropolegy was separated from the Department of

"one Anthropo}ogM but maintaining its stance of viewing anthropology as comprehensive

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70 IRIMOTO Takashi

science," as IsmDA Eiichiro consistently emphasized (IsHIDA 195511967: 157; 1959: 4; 1970,

1970-72; IsHIDA et al, 1958: 2).

As northern studies, the Department of Anthropology dealt with northern hunter-

gatherers using evolutionary-ecological and functional approaches; for example, life of the Ainu

during the last half of the nineteenth century was rebuilt and described by WATANEBE Hitoshi

firom ecological and structural-functienal viewpoints (WA[rANABE 1964/1972), and he further

argued that the Jomon society in Japan was a stratified one (WtsuvANABE 1990). As part of the

International Biological Prograrn, research on the adaptability to northern climates and

geneties of the Ainu were carried out (Seihutsuken 1970). In respect to northern studies at the

Department of Cultural AnthropologM characteristics of Japanese culture with multi-ethnic

oTigins weTe revealed based on the comparison of cultural elements, especially the myths,

between the north and south, by OBi"rAsm Taryo (OBAyAsHI 1961, 1999). SuE (HARA) Hiroko, a

student of eultural anthropology at Bryn Mawr College, U.S.A., conducted research on the

Hare, the northern Athapaskan people as a part of work on her doctoral dissertation (SuE

1965), Concerning studies on the Alaskan Eskimos, OKA Masao ofMelji University carried out

three field surveys (WATANABE et al. ed. 1961; GAMo 1964). SoFuE Takao (1972) engaged in

psyehological anthrepological research on Eskimos, and MIyAoKA Osahito developed linguistic

anthropologyl discussing not only linguistics, but also the relationship between culture and

language of YUp'ik Eskimos, and encouraged the Projeet ori the Endangered Languages by

actually teaching the Eskimo lariguage to Eskimos in cooperation with the University of Alaska

(MIyAoKA 1979, 1987, 1994).

The ecological anthropological studies fbcusing on human activities were developed in the

Department of Anthropology at the University of Ibkyo. Activities, also referred to as works,

were considered as the subject of scientific research, which eould be recorded and analyzed

according to time and space through fieldwork (IRIMoTo 1973, 1977a, 1977b, 1977c, 1977d;

WATANABE ed. 1977a, 1977b). Based on this methodolog:y) I eonducted an ecological

anthropological research on the Athapaskan (Dene) in the Canadian subarctic (IRIMoTo 1979,

1981)5. The relationship between the ecology and worldview of caribou-hunters was further

discussed, and published along with the reeords showing the process of the fieldwork (IRIMoTo

198312002). These studies fbrmed the foundation of the theory and methodolegy fbr shizenshi - anthropology of nature and culture (IRIMoTo 1996), which was presented in a later year.

5 From 1970 to 1977, I studied anthropology at the Department of Anthropology, Graduate School ofScience at

the University of Tbkyo under the guidance of WATANABE Hitoshi. In addition, I reeeived instruetion in northern ethnelogy from OBtyyAsm Taryo threugh personal guidance and seminars offbred by the Department ef Cultural Anthropology [[b further pursue northern studies, I traveled to Canada to study at the Graduate Schoel of the University of Manitoba and later at the Graduate SchDol of Simon Fraser University in British Columbia.

During my staM I conducted ecological-anthropologieal fieldwork on the Chipewyan caribou-hunters, the

Athapaskan laiiguage familM in the Canadian subarctic for 15 menths in 1973 and between 1975 and 1976, Then

I worked on my doctoral dissertation at Simon Fraser University between 1978 and 1979 and received my Ph.D.

This dissertation was later published by the National Museum of Ethnology in 1981, for which I worked, and it was seiected to be included in Yhle University's Human Relations Area Files in 1989,

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As the National Museum of Ethnology was established in 1974 and opened 1977, through

the endorsement of IzuMI Seiichi and UMEsAo Tadao, who had been involved in northern

studies before World War II, I was employed to developjoint studies on comparative research of

northern hunter-gatherers with support from Director-General UMEsAo Tadao, Director of

Research Department SoFuE Takao, a psychological anthropologist; Director of Research

Department KATo Kyuzo, a researcher of documents in Siberia and Central Asia (KATo 1974);

and KoTANI Ybshinobu, a researeher of the cultural history of Alaskan Eskimos (KeTANI ed,

1980). In Japan, northern culture was conventionally framed in a relatively narrow sense as cultUre in the peripheral areas of Japan, such as Ainu culture. Having lively conversations

with such scholars as WATANABE Hitoshi and OBAyAsm Taryo, who have a broad anthropological view over several years in thesejoint studies, in which researchers of northern

studies throughout Japan gathered, I came to believe that it was necessary to compare and

verify cultures commonly seen in the broad area of Northern Eurasia and North America, This

broad view toward northern culture was in accordance with the internationally-accepted view - of circumpolar the North Pole and its peripherM and formed the foundation of my idea to study Eurasia, Japan and North America as a continuous and unified northern region as I

described in the beginning ofthis paper regarding the definition ofnorthem culture. Meanwhile, the Institute for the Study of North Eurasian Cultures at Hokkaido

University was considered as the unique Institute for northern eultural studies in Japan.e Its

predecessor was the Research Institute fbr Northern and Arctic Culture, established by the

Hokkaido Imperial University in 1937 as a research institute within the university It

developed unique fields of study in anthropologM folklore, ethnology and aTchaeology of

nortbern areas, particularly those concerning the Ainu, and its achievements resulted in a twenty-volume Studies from the Research Institute for Northern and Arctic Cutture (1939- 1965). During this period, anthropological and ethnological materials and documents and data

on Hokkaido history were gathered together. They are currently stored in Northern Studies

Collpction, Hokkaido University LibrarM School of Medicine, and Museum Faculty of

Agriculture, In 1947, Hokkaido Imperial University was renamed Hokkaido University In

1966, the Research Institute fbr Northern and Arctic Culture was merged with the Institute of /Eurasian Cultural Studies, which was established in 1964 in the Faculty of Letters, and newly

established as a government facilitM the Institute fbr the Study of Northern Eurasian Cultures, Faculty of Letters, Hokkaido University Taking over Studies from the Research Institute for ATbrthern and Arctic Culture (1939-1965) and Bulletin of the Institute of Eurasian

Cultural Stualies (1965), the institute published its research results on eultural anthropology and archaeology of northern areas in Bulletin of the Institute for the Study of IVbrth Eurasian Cuttures Hohkaido Uhiversity, twenty-one volumes (vols. 2-22, 1967-1995). However, since the

6 After working at the National Museum ofEthnology from 1977 to 1984, I moved to the Hokkaido University in

1984 and worked there up to the present <2005). From 1996 te 2003, I also served for the National Museum of

Ethnology as a Visiting Professor.

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72 IRI)foTO Takashi

institute accomplished a certain level of success and fu1fi11ed its immediate role, it was closed

in accerdance with the reorganization of Faculty of Letters in 1995. Then, the Institute for the

Study of Northern Cultures was newly established in Faculty of Letters and Graduate Sehool

of Letters to engage in researeh and education with the purposes of promoting research of

northem areas including Eurasia, Japan and North America (IRIMoTo 1993; 2003: 362-3). At the former Institute for the Study of North Eurasian Cultures, I started research on

northern cultures, focusing on that of the Ainu, in addition to the research of North America

and Tibet that I had worked on at the National Museum of Ethnolog}n In respect to Ainu

"Age studies, as described in the Section of of Exploration" in this paper, I started with a

historical and cultural anthropological analysis of the Ainu in the Saru River region. Then, a

bibliographical database on the Nnu was created, and a series of research on ecologM

shamanism, ethnicitM identitM cultural revitalization, cultural ereation and others were

published during the twenty years up to the present day (YAJmoA 2003: 87-8). Meanwhile, various nerthern cultures were comprehensively compared, With the goal of clarifying the

characteristics of various northern cultures, Hoppo Gakkai, or the Northern Studies

Association (NSA), was established, and its journal Hbppo Gakkai Hb or Albrthern Studies Association Bulletin (ten volumes, nos. 1-10, 1992-2004) was published. In addition,

international collaborative research was promoted. The first international symposium, the

"Intemational Conference on Religion and Ecology in Northern Eurasia and North America,"

was held at Hokkaido University in 1991, in which, in addition to Wrtl]ANABE Hitoshi, OBiyyAsm

Taryo and other researchers, internationally eminent pioneers in northern studies, including Frederica de LAGuNA from Bryn Mawr College, U.S,A. and iMce HuLTKRANz from the University

of Stockholm, Sweden, presented papers (IRIMoTo and YAMADA eds. 1994).' SubsequentlM the

``Animisrn second international syrnposium of the Northern Studies Association and

Shamanisrn in the North" was held in 1995 (YAMAJ]A and IRIMoTo eds. 1997) and the third "Ethnicity international symposium of the Northern Studies Association and Identity in the

North" in 2000 (IRIMoTo and YAMADA eds. 2004), which culminated in three volumes of

resear ¢ h results consisting of 77 anthropological and ethnological papers on northern cultures by researchers who participated in these symposiums from twelve countries: Japan, the United

States, Canada, France, Sweden, Finland, Norway, Russia, HungarM China, Mongol and the UK

The first signifieance of the series of northern studies was that they were international

collaborative studies, As a result, northern cultures, which had been approached with the focus

on Japan, were able te be characterized from an international viewpoint, The second

significance was that those who had been researehed, such as the Ainu, indigenous American

people, the Sami and the Mongels, participated in the symposiums on an equal footing with

' Circumpolar Religion and Ecolog:y,: An Anthrcrpolog}, of the IVbrth, edited by IRiMoTo Takashi and YAtimi)A Takako and published by the University of 1[bkyo Press in 1994, received the Prize of the Society for

International Exchange ofPublishing Culture in 1994.

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Nerthern Studies in Japan rs

researchers, and presented papers on common suhjects. The third significance was that the

most recent anthropological issues were chosen and discussed, and thereby new paradigms for

anthropology were acquired and distributed. FinallM the fburth significanee was that a variety

of unique studies were promoted and developed through the exchange of knowledge at the

interpational symposiums.

For example, YAMADA Takako (1994, 2001a) discovered that the worldview of the Ainu was complimentary dualism, Based on this, she pioneered fieldwork in post-Soviet Siberia te

research shamanism and the view of nature in Sakha (Yakut), and unveiled that the

philosophy of symbiosis with nature worked as a message for the restoration of ethnicity and

identity (YAMADA 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002b, 2004), AdditienallM she eonducted

studies on environmental conservation and religion in association with oil development in

Siberia based on the fieldwork, targeting Khanty (YAMADA 2001b; YAMADA and GLAvAzvsKAyA 2002).

Based on fieldwork on the Canadian Inuit, not only in vMages, but a]so in urban areas, KIsHIGAMI Nobuhiro (1994, 1997, 1998, 2004) pointed out that the Canadian Inuit reproduced

human relations through the distribution of food and exchange of presents despite of changes

in the society Having researched Matagi, hunters in northern Japan, IKEyA Kazunobu (2002,

2004) further developed his research and discussed the cultural transformation and identity of

Chukchi in post-Soviet Chukotka Peninsula. On the basis of the studies of Soviet ethnology on

a historical basis, SAsAKI Shiro (1994, 2002) clarified the history ofvarious ethnic groups in the

Primorsky region from bibliographical materials. KoNAGAyA Yinki (1997) discussed the

Mongolians' view on animals through animal sacrifice, and KuREBITo Megumi (2002, 2004) presented the eultural transformation and linguistic identity of the Koryak from a perspective

of linguistic anthropology based on the fieldwork data. OHMAGARi Kayo (2004) discussed the

2dentity of the Cree in Canada and the role of traditional fbod, while INouE [[bshiaki( 2004)

analyzed oil-resource development and traditions in modern life in Gwich'in, Alaska.

Concerning changes in subsistence activities and the issue of the identity in Inner Mongolia,

China, ALTA (1998, 2000, 2002, 2004) discussed using an ecological anthropological approach,

and YuN Xiaomei (2000, 2003, 2004) discussed the identity of [Vumed Mongols not only from a

historical perspective but also based on the analysis of current social conditions, Furthermore, ALTANBuLAG (2001, 2002, 2003) conducted cultural anthrepological analysis of the Mongol

people's sense of aesthetics based on their poetrM folk songs, and designs and pattems. Then, as an area study of northeast Asia including northern regions, SEGAwn Masahisa at

the Center for Northeast Asian Studies, [[bhoku UniversitM conducted the cultural

anthropological researches on the ethnicity of Han in South China CSEGAwA 1993; TsuKADA et

al. ed. 2001), and TAKAKuRA Hiroki (2000) analyzed socio-economic aspect of contemporary

reindeer herders of east Siberia. SuGA Yintaka (2002) at the Institute of Oriental Culture,

University of Tbkyo, analyzed the subsistence strategies of Sho in China from the viewpoint of

fblklore and ecological anthropologM WA[vANABE Hibi (2003), discussed the politics and culture

of the post-Soviet Buryat. Henry STuART at Hoso University and OMuRA Keiichi at Osaka

NII-Electronic Library Service JapaneseJapaneseSociety Society ofCulturalof Cultural Anthropology

M IRIMOTO Takashi

University discussed the cultural change and reproduction among the contemporary Inuit

(STuART 1996; OMuRA 1998). "original Meanwhile, I clarified characteristics of northern cultures, including the

oneness" and the recognition of reciprocity between humans and deities, based on the

comparison between the Ainu in Japan and the Athapaskan in North America (IRIMoTo

1983/2002, 1994, 1996). Furthermore, I started new fieldwork fbr the first time as a fbreigrier

in the post-Soviet Kamchatka region in 1993, 1995 and 1997 to conduet anthropological

research on the ecologM worldview and rituals of reindeer-herding Koryak, and clarified the

origin of and changes in nomadism and their idea of cosmic eyeles based on the comparison

between hunting and herding (IRIMoTo 2004b). In addition, I analyzed the worldview of and

changes in shamanism in Inner Mongolia, China and Mongolia (IRIMoTo 2002), thus developing my research en the cultural dynamics of various ethnic groups, primarily in

Northeast Asia (IRIMoTo ed. 2002),

In northern areas, including Eurasia, Japan and North America, socio-economic changes,

restoration of ethnicity and identitM and cultural dynamics after the collapse of the bipolar

post-war confrontation have become common anthropological issues. Thus, northem studies

have developed into the studies on the Age ofthe World.

Conclusion

Northern studies in Japan have gone through unique changes and developments during

the long history before rnodem times. Research subjects have changed from Ainu culture to a

variety of cultures in broad northern circumpolar areas including Northern Eurasia, Japan and

North America. Study methodology also has ehanged from folklore and ethnology to shizenshi - anthropology of nature and culture, and study objectives have shifted frorn the clarification

of the origin of the Japanese and their culture to the clarification of universal issues in

"What anthropological studies, i.e,, are human beings?"

Shizenshi (spentaneouslnatural reeord) referred here is a new anthropological theory and

methedologM which could be called anthropology of nature and culture. The literal

'`nature" "as interpretation of shizen is in English; however, it also includes meanings it is, "reeord." or whole truth" in Japanese, and -shi means Here, human beings are considered

as nature as well as culture, and human lives, which is the common field for both physical

anthropology and cultural anthropologyl becomes to be a study subject. Also, hurnan lives are

considered as systems of activities. Shi2enshi is aecordingly the systemic description of human

activities, in which culture and nature overlap each othez Empirical observational method is

methodology that observers identify themselves with subjects and experience their world from

inside (IRIMoTo 1996: 9-21; IRiMoTo 2004b: 291).

I eharacterize shi2enshi as the integration of Japanese and Western sciences. Its

framework as a whole is consisted of objective descriptions based on the traditional Japanese - "how" "why" - view ofnature, and Western analytic thinking and are part ofit. TEraditional

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Northern Studies in Japan 7)J

- Japanese thinking in which nature and culture are not regarded as two conflicting concepts, - but eonsidered essentially the same can be recognized in Ainu pictures and archives depicting human surrounded by nature. Furthermore, it has been descended to the tradition of

anthropology by HAsEBE Kotondo, SuGIuRA Kenichi and WNrANABE Hitoshi, members of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Tbkyo, all consistently placing greater "works" "activities" importance on the and of human beings, while adapting Western scientific

anthropology since the Meljj era; Japanese foIklore tradition by YANAGITA Kunio, whose

academic goal and methodology was comprehensive description avoiding analysis; and

anthropology tradition in Japan by IsmDA Eiichiro of Department of Cultural Anthropology at

the University of [[bkyo, who stressed that anthropology was"one comprehensive science," even

when cultural anthropology was introdueed after World War II, and foeused on the

understanding of human beings in general. wnile I succeeded to these traditions, I have also

added a bit of the liberal spirit for human studies in socio-cultural anthropology I learned in

Canada to them, I believe that if we can broadly present Japanese thought through shizenshi, a

new perspective in the field of anthropologg it may beneficially centribute to the field of

anthropology in the world,

"original Through shi2enshi, oneness" based on the idea that humans and anirnals are

essentially the same, the recognition of the relationship between human and the supernatural

has reciprocitM and the recegnition of nature as a whole, including human from a perspective of

cycle and symbiosis, were extracted as characteristies of northern cultures, It was then

unveiled that these ideas were closely connected with ecDlogyi society and worldview in

hunting-based northern areas. However, I believe these characteristics might be some

universal ideas of human beings not limited to nerthern cultures alone, [lb clarify why sueh

ideas were born and how they now function in the framework of human evolution history is te "What understand the human mind and also to answer the anthropological thesis, are human

beings?" Northern studies developed from the exploration of northern cultures to the search for

the universality ofhuman beings.

Studies on the ethnicity and identity in northern cultures have revealed that the idea of

symbiosis played the role of resolving ethnical conflicts. The importance of the functions of the

symbiotic idea and agency in the creation and restoration of Ainu culture was accordingly

pointed out (IRIMoTo 1995b, 2001, 2004c). The first half of the twenty-first century is said to be

the age of ethnic conflicts. As seen in the eollapse of socialistic states and other events, this is

because the relationship between states and ethnic groups and that among ethnic groups have

changed, and ethnic groups who had been oppressed started to assert themselves. A number of

people were killed or became refugees during large conflicts involving such violations. It is

therefore thought that various mechanisms for confliet resolution, once integrated into culture,

must be illuminated using an anthropological approach.

If northern studies are able to contribute to the resolution of these problems, answers to

"What "How not only the question are human beings?" but also the thesis should human beings live?" will be surely provided. Through nor'thern studies, we encounter issues common

NII-Electronic Library Service Japanese SooietySociety of Cultural Anthropology

76 IRIMoTo Takashi

to human beings in addition to those unique to northern cultures ． To talk about northern

cultures is no longer to talk about issues of the limited areas ， It is to discuss cu 皿 ent

such as ecology religion nations anthropological issues，which can be seen beyond such Iimits， ， ， ，

states ethnici 七 society activities mind evolution conflicts and language ， ， Y7 identity， ， ， the ， ，

roles of studies ． If this is the case as an outlook f（）r the future we may conflict resolutions and ， ， ， ” − “ be able to call the twenty first cen 七ury the Age of the Humanity for anthropology ．

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Northern Studies in Japan 77

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「’ 78 IRI．MO 1O Takashi

1858／1985 『戊 午東 西蝦 夷 山川 地理 取 調 目誌』 （A D α iry of Geographicα1 Explorα tions in Eastern and 一 tUestern Ezo in the Year ofEarth −Elder Brother・Horse ），高倉 新 郎 （校訂 ），秋葉 実 （解 説 ）（Edited ’ ー by T RA Shin ichiro with introduction by AHBA Minoru ）．札 幌 ：北 海 道 出 版 企 画 セ ン タ

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The World （）fAinu）， no ．125 ．東京 ：鹿 島研 究所 出版会 （［［bkyo ：K 匍ima Kenkyusho Shuppankai ）． “ 1859／1983 「東西 蝦夷山川 地 理 取調 図』 （Maps of Geographtcα 1 Explorα tions in E αstern and Western 一・ ’ Ezo ）．高 倉新 郎 （監 修，校 閲，解 説 ） （Edited by TAKAKuRA Shin ichi）．東 京 ：隆政 堂 （Tokyo ； Ryuseido）、 1863／1962 『蝦 夷 H 誌 （卜、）』 （A Diary ・fEgo， vol ．1）．吉円 常吉 （編）（Edited by YosHIDA Jokichi ）、東

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MOGAMI Tokunai 最上 徳内 一 179011972 「蝦 夷 草 紙 』 （Aeco槻 オs げ E どo ）．大 友 喜 作 （編）『北 門叢 書 第 冊』 （ln OToMo Kisaku， ed ．，

vol ．1 ．310 −410 ． ： ［ ： ． Hohumon Series， ）， pp 東京 国書刊行会 （Tbkyo Kokusho Kankokai ）

MuRAKAMI Siman （）jo村 上 島 之丞 （also HATA Awakimaru 秦 檍 丸 ） 一 1799！1953 『蝦 夷 島奇観 』 （Natur α l Wonders ofEzo Jslα nd ）．高倉 新 郎 「蝦 夷風 俗 画 に つ い て 」 （ln ’ “ ” TAKAKuRA Shin ichiro About Pictures Painting Ezo Ainu ． ， ［ ］） 「北 方 文 化 研 究 報 告 』 （Studies

from the Reseα rch lnstitute for Northern an （i Arctic Culture）8 ： 27，29． 一 1799 ！1973 「蝦 夷 島奇観』 （Natural Wonders ofEao lslα nd ）．高倉 新 郎 （編）『ア イ ヌ 絵 集成 （図 録

’ ’ − 巻）』（lnrTAKAKuRA Shin ichiro， The Worgd ofAinu Pict“ res ： A Volume ノor IZIustrα tion）， nos ．41

77 ．東京 ：番 町書房 （Tbkyo ： Bancho Shobo ）． − 1804 23〆1945 「蝦夷生計 図説』（『蝦夷画帖』）（IUustrations o プLivelihood of E20∠IA Shetchboole ofEzoD ． 一 ー 越 崎 宗 「ア イ ヌ 絵 』（ln KosHlzAla Soichi， Ainu Pictures）， no ．20 ，札 幌 ：北 海 道出版 企 画 セ ン タ

（Sapporo：］日［okkaido Shuppan 正qkaku Center）． − ’ 1804 23〆1953 『蝦 夷 生計 図説 』（「蝦 夷 画 帖 』）（lllustrα tions ofLivelihood of Eao ／A Sketchbooh ofE20D ． 一 ’ “ 「 夷 風 画 に つ い て 高倉新 郎 蝦 俗 」 （ln TAKAKuRA Shin ichiro， About PicturesPainting Ezo ” ［Ainu］）． 「北 方 文化 研 究 報告 』 （Studies from the Research Institute fbr Northern αnd ・Arctic

σulture ）8 ：27， − 1804 23／1968 『蝦 夷生計 図 説 』〔『蝦 夷画 帖 ∫）（IZIustrα tions ofLivelihoo （i（ofEzo rA Sketchboofe ofExo ノ）． 一 編 『ア イ ヌ の 世 ed ． ofAinu nos ． − − − 泉靖 （ ） 界1 （In IzuMISeiichi， ， The World ）， 44 6， 50 ， 53 6 ， 64 ． 9，72 ，76，78，85，87，90，149．東京 ：鹿 島研 究所 出版 会 （Tokyo ：K 頭 ma Kenkyusho Shuppankai ）．

NlsHIKAwA Hokuyo 西 川 北洋 一 1800 年代 末／1973 「ア イ．ヌ 瓜 俗絵 巻 』 （A Picture Scroll ofAinu Customs ）．高倉新 郎 （編 〉「ア イ ヌ 絵

’ ln TAKAKuRA Shin ichiro ed ． The World of Ainu Pictures’ AVotume br 集成 （図録巻）』 （ ， ， ／ − Illustrα tion）， nos ，149 69 ，東京 ：番 町書 房 （Tokyo ： Bancho Shobo ），

SATo Genrokuro 佐藤玄 六 郎 一 ・ 178611972 「蝦 夷拾 遣』 （Gleα nings on E20 ）．大 友喜 作 （編 ）『北 門叢 書 第 冊」 （ln OToMo Kisaku ，

− ed ．，Hohumon Series， voL 1）， pp ．248 309．朿京 ：国書刊行会 （Tokyo ： Kokusho Kankokai ）．

SuwA −DAIsHINBo Enchu 言取訪大進房円忠

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／ 一 1356 1925 『諏訪 大明神絵詞 』 （Accounts on the Pictwres1）edicated to the l）eity ofSuw α ）．金 田 京助

ア ヌ の 「 イ 研究』（ln KINDAIcHIKyosuke ，Study ofAinu ），東京 ：内外書房 （Tokyo ： Naigai Shobo ）． TANI Gantan 谷元 旦 ’ ／ ．一 1799 1953 『蝦 夷紀 行 図譜 」 〔lllustrations 〔ゾ野 卿 eZs 読 Ego ）．高倉新 郎 「蝦 夷風 俗画 に つ い て 」 （ln ’ ‘‘ ” TAKAKURA Shin ichiro About Pictures Painting ， Ezo ［Ainu］）．『北 方 文化研 究報 告』 （Studies

r fromtんe Reseα rch lnstitute／fbr〈 ・ rthern and ArcticCulture）8 ：21． ・ ．・ 1799 ／1973 「蝦 夷紀行 図 譜 』 （ltlustrαtions of 7｝avels in Ezo ）．高倉新 郎 （編 ）『ア イ ヌ 絵 集 成 （図 録 ’

（ln TAKAKuRA Shin ichiro ed ． The ofAinu ： nos 巻）』 ， ， World PicturesA Vogunzefbrlllustration）， ． − 170 91 ．東 京 ：番 町 書房 （Tokyo ：Bancho Shobo）． TONERI−SHINNO 舎 人親王 ． 720 ／1669 日本 書紀 ofJap α n 八 四 edited ・ 『 1 （Chronicles ）． 尾 甚 郎 （編）， 全30 巻 （ by YAe Jinshiro30 vols ． ， ） 京都 ：八 尾 甚 四郎 〔Kyoto ： YAo Jinshiro）．北 海道 大学付属図書館蔵 （In the col ］ection of the

七 UniversityLibraryArchives， Hokkaido Universiy ）． ． UEHARA Kumajiro and ABE Chyosaburo −1：原熊次郎，阿部長 三 郎 1792 1804〆1972 ・一 一 ， 『蝦夷方言 藻汐草 』 （ （） Exo ∠ Dialect．金 田 Cotlectionsf tAinu］ ） 京助 （解説）， 成田修

（撰 「ア イ ヌ ln NARITA Shuichi ed ． Series ofMaterials ） 語 資料叢書』 （ ， on Ainu L α nguage with ， ，

comments by K ［NDAICHI Kyosuke ）．東 京 ：国書刊行 会 （Tokyo ： Kokusho Kankokai ）．

Unknown author 著 者不 詳 “ 1323／1959 「十 歳 降伏蝦 夷所」 「聖徳太子絵伝』（Emishi Surrendering to the ten−year −old Prince ” 一 Shotoku in Prince Shotoku Pieture 山 ， Seroll）．越 奇宗 「ア イ ヌ 絵 志 ln KosmzAKI SoichirD 』 （ ， ー Records ofAinu Pictures ．25 ． ： セ ン タ Sapporo： Hokkaido ）， p 札 幌 北 海道 出版企 画 （ Shuppan 正Ω kaku Center ）． ‘ 1323 ／1968 「十歳 降伏蝦 夷 所」 『聖 徳太子絵伝』CEmishi Surrendering to the ten−year −old Prince ” ．．一 Shotoku in Prince ）．泉靖 （編 『ア イ ヌ の 世 ln lzuMI Seiichi ed ． ， ShotokuPictureScroll ） 界』 （ ， ，

of no ． ． ： ］［ The World Ainu）， 159 東京 鹿 島研 究所 出版会 （bkyo：K 勾ima KenkyushoShuppankai）， “ 1323／1973 「十 歳 降 伏蝦 夷 所」 『聖徳 太子 絵 伝 』（Emishi Surrendering to the ten −year −old Prince ” 一 ． ア イ ヌ n Shotoku， in Prince Shotoku Picture Scroll） 高倉 新 郎 （編）『 絵 集 成 （解説巻 〉』⊂ ’ ’ TAKAKURA ed ． of ． ； or 。 − 。 Shin ichiro， ，The WorZd 4inu PicturesA Volume ノ lllustration）， PP 11 3 東 京 ：番 町 書 房 （Tokyo：Bancho Shobo ）． Unknown author 著者不詳 ’ 1720頃 『松 前 國 中記』 （A Record （｝f 7｝avels in Matsum α e ）．北海道大 学付属 図書館蔵 （ln the collection of the University Library Archives， Hokkaido University）．

2 ．Other Works

AKAMATsu ［ibmoki 赤松 智城 “ ” 1936 「蒙 古 の 行 事」 （Events in Mongolia）．『京城 帝国大 学文学会論纂 第4輯 京城帝 国大学創立十

念 of of Keijo lmperi α l 周年記 論文集哲学篇』 （A aoltection Papers ／br Societγ Letters，

Univsersity voL 4 A Commemoration Number br the Tenth Anniversar r （） Found α of ， ， ／ ） f tion

旋 oImperial ’ ． − ． ： ［［ ： σ University Philosoρhy）， pp 113 30 東京 大阪屋 號書店 （bkyo Osakayago Shoten）． ALTA阿 拉騰 ・ ． ’ 1998 「内 モ ン ゴ ル に お け る 遊 牧 と 定住 化 ア ダ リ ガ ホ トの 事例 か ら」 CNomadism and Settlement

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80 IRIMOTO 距 kashi

” in Inner Mongolia： the Case of Adriga Hota ）． 「北方学会報』 （Northern Studies Associα tion − Bulletin＞6 ：8 21 ， ・ 2000 「中国 内 モ ン ゴ ル チ ャ ハ ル に お け る 遊 牧 民 の 文 化変 化 に 関す る 生態 人類学的研究』（An EcoZegicα l

A 祕 rq ρ吻 9鰡 S 跏 （砂 ・π ω 齠 α Z Cんα es （ゾ伽 1V碗 α ds げ e ゐα んα 弓 伽 er 忽 ）ngoli α ， C 伽 α）・ ． 北 海 道 大 学 文 学 研 究 科 学 位 論 文 （Ph ．D ． Dissertation， Graduate School of Letters， Hokkaido University）． “ 2002 「内 モ ン ゴ ル に お け る チ ャ ハ ル 人 の 生 計 活動 の 変 化」 （Changes of Subsistence Activities of ” ア ジ ア の ln IRIMoTo Takashi Chahar in Inner Mongolia ）．煎 本孝 （編 ）『東北 諸民 族 文化動態』 （ ，

ofl ＞ α st α n ． − ． ：北 道 大 学 図 書 刊 行 会 ed ．，Cutturα1Dyn α mies brthe Asi Peoρ les）， pp 441 64 札 幌 海

（Sapporo：Hokkaido University Press）． “ ” 2004 Ecological Changes and Identity of Chahar Mongols． In IRIMoTo Takashi and YAMADA

． α r α nd ． − ． Takako ， eds ， Circumpol EthnicitOr Identity（SenriEthnologicalStudies， 66），pp 343 5

Osaka ； National Museum of Ethnology． ALTANBULAG 阿拉 坦 宝 力格 ． “ 2001 「文化 人類学的視 点か ら の モ ン ゴ ル 民謡 歌詞内容分類 の 試み」 （Attempts to Classify Mongolian

” Folk Song Performance， Symbols and Narrative Styles）。 「北方学会報 』 （No アthern Studies

Associatien Bulletin）8 ： 13−26 ，

2002 『モ ン ゴ ル 人 の 美 意識 に 関 す る 文 化 人 類 学 的研 究』 （A Cultu ral Anthroρological Stu（ly on the

of Ph ．D 、 Dissertation Graduate AestheticSense MongoZs ）．北 海道大 学文学研究科 学位 論 文 （ ，

School of Letters， Hoklcaido University）． “ 2003 「モ ン ゴ ル 人 の 美 意識 に 関す る 文化 人類学 的研 究」 （ACul 七ural Anthropological Study on the ” − Aesthetic Sense of Mongols ），「北 方 学 会報』 〔Northern Studies Association BulZetin〕9 ： 12 3． ． BABA Osamu 馬 場 脩 ・ ．』 ・ 1979 「樺太 千 島考 占 民族 誌 』 （Archαeolog γ and Ethnograρhor on Kar α futo and Chishima ）．札 幌 ： ー 北 海 道 出版 企 画 セ ン タ （Sapporo： Hoktkaido Shuppan Kikaku Center）．

CHIRI Mashiho 知里 真志保 − 1973 1976 『知里真志 保著作集』全6巻 （Collected Worhs of CmRi Mashiho ，6vols，）．東 京 ：平 凡 社 （Tokyo ： Heibonsha ），

FuJloKA Kenjiro藤 岡謙二 郎

1979 『浜 田 青 陵 と そ の 時代 』 （HAMADA Seiryo and His Epoch ）．東 京 ：学 生 社 （Tokyo： Gakuseisha）．

GAMo Masao 蒲生 正男 ・ ー “ 1964 「ア ラ ス カ エ ス キ モ に お け る バ ン ドの 構造 原 理」 （Structural Principles of Alaskan Eskimo ” − Bands ）． 「民族学研 究』 （The Jap α nese Journ α 1 ofEthnol （）gy）28（2）： 1 32 ．

HANIHARA Kazuro 埴 原 和郎

1996 『日本人 の 誕 生 』 （Birth （）f the Jap α nese ）．東京 ：吉 川 弘文館 （Tokyo ： Yoshikawa Kobunkan ）。 ・ HASEBE Ko 七〇ndo 長 谷部 言 人

19271949『自然人 類学概論』（An lntroduction to Physical AnthropoZogy）．東京 ：岡書院 （Tokyo ：Oka Shoin）．

『日本 民 族 の 成 立』 （新 日本 史講 座 、原 始 時 代）（Fermation of Jap α nese PeopZe： New Course on the

llt ・ Japα nese History． Primevai Age ）．東京 ： 央公論社 （Tokyo： Chuo Koronsha ）、

1975 「長 谷 部 言 人集 』江坂 輝 彌 （編 ）〔ESAKA Teruya ， ed ．， Collected Works ofHASEBE Kotonde），斉藤忠

ほ か 日 エTo et al eds of アeheolog （編）『 本考 古学会選集』 （SA Tadashi ．， ．， SelectedWorhs A γ in

Jap α n ）， voL 15．東京 ：築地書 館 （Tokyo ； Tsukiji Shokan）．

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Hokkaido （ed ．）北 海道 （編 ）

1980 『新北 海道 史第9巻 資料3 』 （The IVew Hokk α ido Histonyy， vo1 ．9， Material ， no ．3）．札 幌 ：北 海道 （Sapporo：Hokkaido ）． ー 1989 『新北 海道史年表』 （The Ne ω Chronot （）gγ ofHokk α ido History）．札 幌 ：北 海 道 出 版 企 画 セ ン タ （Sapporo：Hokkaido Shuppan Kikaku Center）． Hokkaido −cho 北海道庁

1901 『北千 島調査 報文』 〔Report oflnvestig α tion on the Norihern Chishima fKuril1）．札 幌 ：北 門活 版

所（Sapporo：Hokumon Kappansho ）． IKEDA Jiro池 田次郎

1982 『日本 人 の 起源』 （The Origin of the Jap α nese ）．東京 ：講談社 （Tbkyo ： Kodansha ）． IKEyA Kazunobu 池谷和信 ー ‘ 2002 「シ ベ リ ア 北 東 部 に お け る チ ュ ク チ の 文 化 変 容 チ ャ ウ ン ス キ の 事 例 か ら」 （℃ ultural ” Changes of the Chukuchi in Northeastern・ Siberia ），煎本孝 （編）『東北 ア ジ ア 諸 民族 の 文化 動 態』 − （In lRIMoTo Takashi， ed ．， Culturα 1 D γn α mics ofi ＞brtheα st Asian Peoples）， pp ．283 317．札 幌 ：北 海道大 学 図 書刊行会 （Sapporo：Hokkaido University Press）．

“ ” 2004 Historical Changes in Reindeer Herding by the Chukchi and Preservation of the Identity．In

and eds α r α n 〔 （∫εη IRIMoTo Takashi YAMADA Takako ， ．， Circumpol Ethnicity 11 雄 y （Senri − Ethnological Studies， 66）， pp ．269 78． Osaka ：National Museum of Ethno ］ogy ． IMANISHI Ki煽i今西 錦司

1995 「遊牧論そ の ほか』 （Theor y of P α storaZisrn and Other Wor 々s ）．東京 ：平凡社 （Tokyo ： Heibonsha）． − 1974 1975 「今西 錦 司全 集 』全12巻 （cotlected works of IMAIvlsHJ Kinji，12 vols ．）．東京 ：講談 社 （［［bkyo ： Kodansha ），

IMANIsHI Kinji and BAN Yutaka 今 西錦 司 ，伴 ．豊 “ 1948a 「大興安嶺 に お け る オ ロ チ ョ ン の 生 態〔1）」 （Ecology of Orochons in the Great Khingan ” − Mountains ， part 1 ）．「民 族学研 究 』 （The Japanese Journ α 1 ofEthnologOr ）13（1）： 21 39 ． “ 1948b 「大 興安嶺 に お け る オ ロ チ ョ ン の 生 態（2）」 （Ecology of Orochons in the Great Khingan ” ． − Mountains ， part 2 ），『民 族学研 究 』 （The Japα nese Journal ofEthnotogy ）13（2）： 42 61，

INOUE Toshiaki井上 敏昭

“ ’ 2004 The Gwich in Gathering：The Subsistence Tradition in Their Modern 上ifb and the Gathering

’ ” against Oil Development by the Gwich in Athabascan ． In IRIMoTo Takashi and YAMADA − Takako ， eds ．， Circumpolar EthnicitOrα nd Identity（Senri Ethnological Studies，66）， pp．183

204 ．Osaka ： National Museum of Ethnology ． IRIMoTo Takashi 煎 本 孝

“ ” − 1973 Daily Space Use Patterns of Male Breath Hold Abalone Divers． Journ α 1（oゾHunt α n ErgologOr

2 ： 59−74 ． “ ” 1977a Daily Space Use Patterns of 野 aditional Diving Fishe en of Kawaguchi ． In WATANABE

Hitoshi ， ed ．， Hum α n ActivitrV S γstem ， pp ．71 −89 ． Tokyo ： University of Tokyo Press ． “ ” of the − on the of ， 1977b Ecology Sea Food Gatherers Rocky Coast Kawaguchi ln WATANABE Hitoshi，

ed ． α n stem ． −116 ． Tbkyo ： of Tokyo Press ． ， Hum ActivitySγ ， pp 91 University ・ ・ 1977c 「房総 漁 民 の 生 態 岩礁 帯 に お け る 漁 撈 採集活動 の 時間 空間構造 とそ の 形成 に 関与す る 性 年 “ − ・ 齢 的 役割 に つ い て 」 （Ecology of Fishermen in Boso ： SpatioTemporal Structure of Fishing ” on the 七 and of and ． Gathering Activities Rocky Coas ， Roles Age Sex forltsFormation ）渡辺仁

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82 IR工MOTO Takashi

ed ． ology vol ， （編 ）『人 類 学 講 座 第12巻 生 態 』 （ln WATANABE Hitoshi， ， Anthroρ ， 12， Ecologγ）， − pp ．251 79．東京 ： 雄1【．［閣出 版 σbkyo ：Yuzankaku Shuppan ）． “ 1977d 「房 総 海士 、海 女 の 潜水 採 集活 動 日周活 動 リ ズ ム に お け る 空間利用 と行動的適応」 （Diving−

Gathering Activities of Ama in Boso ： Space Use in Daily Activity Rhythm and Behavioral ”

AdaptatiDn ）．渡辺仁 （編 ）『人類学講座 第12巻 生態 』 （WATANABE Hitoshi， ed ．， Anthropologpt， − vol ．12 ， Ecology ）， pp．251 97 ，東京 ：雄 山閣出版 （Tokyo ： Yuzankaku Shuppan ）． − 1979 Ecol（）gicα l Anthr （）pology （ゾ the Caribou E α ter Chipewy α n of the Wc）llaston L α ke Region of

Northern Sα skatchew α n ． Ph．D ． Dissertation， Simon Fraser University， Canada， xxi ＋ 479 pp ．

） ． ： of ． 1981ChipewOran Ecol（gy （SenriEthnologicalStudies， 8） Osaka National Museum Ethnology

（Filed in Hulnan Relations Area Files， lrimoto E −5 Chipewyan ND7 in 1989＞． ・ 1983 〆2002 『カ ナ ダ イ ン デ ィ ア ン の 世界 か ら 』 （From the World of C α nadi α n lndiα ns ）．東京 ：福音 館

書店 （Tokyo ：Fukuinkan Shoten）． “ 1987 「沙 流 川 流 域 ア イ ヌ に 関 す る 歴 史 的資 料 の 文 化 人 類 学 的 分 析 C1300 −1867 年」 （A ・Cultural − Anthropological Analysis of Historical Data on the Ainu of the Saru River Region：c ．1300 1867 ” AD ．）．『北 方文化研 究』 （Bulletin of the lnstitute／fbr the Stu 〔iy of1 ＞brth Eur α sian Cultures ）18 ： 1−218． ー ー ‘ 1988 「沙 流 川 流 域 ア イ ヌ の 文 化 人 類 学 的情 報 に 関 す る デ タ ベ ス 」 CA Cultural Anthropological ” Database on the Ainu of the Saru River Region ）， 「北 方文化研 究』 （Bulletin of the lnstitute

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1992b Ainu Bibliography． Sapporo：Hokkaido University． 1993 「新設 大 学 院研 究科 構想 にお け る 北 方 文化研 究 施 設 文化 人 類学 部 門 の 位置 づ け と 役 割 、お よ び 今 後 ・ “ の 具体 的な推進 整備研 究計画」 （Placement and Roles of Department of Cultural

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“ ” of the 。 and eds ， 1994 Anthropelogy North In IRIMoTo Takashi YAHADA Takako ， ， Circumpolar − Religion and Ecology ， pp ．317 40 ． Tbkyo ： University of ［Tokyo Press ， 一 “ 1995a 「千 島列島択 捉 島、北 海道東海岸 に お け る ア イ ヌ 文化 に 関す る 考察」 〔Examination of Ainu ” Cultures ・of ・Etorofu lsland the Kuril Islands and the East Coast of Hokkaido ． ， ， ） 「北 方 文化 研 − 究』 （Bulletin of the Institute f（）r the Study of North Eur α sian Cultures）22： 117 37 ． ‘’ 1995b 「ア イ ヌ に シ ャ マ ニ ズ ム は あ る か 聖 典 、治 療 、演劇 の 象 徴 的 意 味 」 （ Did Shamanism EXist ” among the ？ of ［ and ． Ainu Symbolism Sacred Ora1 fradition， Healing， Dramas ） 『民 族 学研 究』 − （The JaP α nese Journ α 1 〔）fEthnoZogy）60（3）： 187 209．

1996 『文化 の 自然誌』 （Shizenshi ef Culture： An Anthroρol（）gy ofNature and Czalture）．東 京 ：東 京大

学 出版 会 （Tokyo ：University of ％ kyo press）．

2001 「まりも祭りの 創造 ア イ ヌ の 帰 属性 と 民 族的共 生 」（℃ reation of Marimo Festival：Nnu ldentity ” − and Ethnic Sylnbiosis）．『民族 学 研 究 』 （The Jap α nese Journ α1 ofEthnoZogy ）66（3）：320 42． ・ 一一 ・ 2002 「モ ン ゴ ル シ ャ マ ニ ズ ム の 文化 人 類学 的分 析 内 モ ン ゴ ル 、ホ ル チ ン ボ の シ ャ マ ニ ズ ム に “ お け る 歴 史意識 と 宇宙論 的秩 序 」 （A Cultural Anthropological Analysis of Mongolian

一 Shamanism ：Historical Consciousness and Cosmic Order among the Shamanism of Horchin

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” Bo of lnner Mongolia ）．煎本孝 （編）「東北 ア ジ ア 諸 民 族 の 文化動態』 （In IRIMoTo Takashi ed ． ， ，

α n α mics of ＞ α st ． − ， ： CuZturl D γ 1 brthe Asian Peoρles）， pp 357 440 札幌 北海道大学図 書刊 行会

（Sapporo： Hokkaido University Press ）． “ ” 2003 「北方文化論講座」 （lnstitute for the Study of Northern Cultures）．北 海 道大学 百 二 十 五 年 史編

集室 （編 ） 『北大 百 二 十五 年 史 通説 編 』 （Edi七〇rial Committee for the 125 Years of Hokkaido

University ed ． The 125 Yeα rs （） − ： ， ， fHohhaidoUniversity）， pp ．362 63．札 幌 ：北 海道大 学 （Sapporo Hokkaido University）． “ ” 2004a 「北 方 学 と 人類 学」 （Northern Studies and Anthropology ），「北方学会報』 （Northern Studies

： − − AssociationBulletin）10 1 4， 52 4，

2004b The Etern α t aycle， Ecology ， WorZdview α nd Rituα l of Reindeer Herders （ゾ Northern

α tka ： of Kamch （SenriEthnologicalReports， 48）．Osaka NationalMuseum Ethnology． “ 2004c 「ア イ ヌ 文 化 に お け る 死 の 儀礼 の 復 興 紛争解決、共生 、行為主 体」 （Revival of Ainu Death ” Ritual： Conflict Resolution， Symbiosis and Agency ）， 「北 海道大学文学 研 究科紀 要 』 （The ｝ − Annu α l Report on Culturαl Science，正液）hleα ido Iノniversity ）113： 31 64． IRIMoTo Takashi （ed ．）煎 本 孝 （編 ）

2002 「東北 ア ジ ア 諸民族 の 文化動 態』 （Culturα 1 Dyn α mies ofNorthe α st Asiα n Peoples），札幌 ：北 海道

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IRIMoTo Takashi and Y △MADA Takako （eds ，）

1994 aircumpolα r Religionα nd Ecol（）g γ． T （）kyo ： University of Tbkyo Press．

2004 Circumpolα r Ethnieity α nd Identitbl （Senri Ethnological Studies，66）． Osaka： National

Museum of Ethnology． 一 IsHIDA Eiichiro石 田英 郎 一 “ 「邦 領 南 樺 太 オ ロ ッ コ の 氏 族 に 就 い て the of the 血 to 1941 （ ）」 （On Clans Orok in Southem Kara ， ” − Japan， part 1 ）．『民 族学 年 報 』 （A η 翩 α Z地 por ’（）fEthnology）3 ：343 90， ー 1955／1967 『文 化 人 類 学 ノ ト』 （叢 書名著 の 復興 3）（1＞btes on Culturα Z Anthropol（）gy ），東京 ： ぺ り か

ん社 （Tbkyo ：Perikan Sha ）．

1959 「文化人 類学序説 』 CAn lntnoduction to Cwlturα 1 Anthropologor）．東京 ：時潮社 （Tokyo ：Jichosha），

1970 「人 間 と文化 の 探求』 （Seα rch fbr Human α nd Culture），東京 ：文 芸春 秋 社 （［Ebkyo： Bungei Shunjusha ）． 一 1970−1972 『石 田 英 郎全 集 』全 8巻 （Collected Worles oflsHmA Eiichiro，8vols ．）．東京 ：筑 摩 書房 （Tokyo ： Chikumashobo ）． 一・ IsHIDA A IsHIKAwA Eikichi Eiichiro，TE Kazuo and 石 出英 郎 ，寺田和夫 ， 石 川栄 吉

1958 『人 類学概 論』 （An Jntroduction to Anthropol（］gy）．朿 京 ： 日 本 評論 新社 （Tokyo ： Nippon Hyoron Shinsha ）， ． IToH Mikiharu 伊藤幹治

2002 『柳 田 国 男 と文化 ナ シ ョ ナ リ ズ ム 』 （YANAGITA Kunio and （yulturα l Nation α Zism ）．東京 ：岩波 書 店

（Tbkyo ： Iwana 皿 i Shoten）． 一 IzuMI Seiichi泉 靖 “ 1937 「大興 安嶺東南部 オ ロ チ ョ ン 族踏査報告」 （AReport on the Ethnographical Survey of the ” Orochon ［Eribes in the South−Eastern Parts of the Great Hsingan Mountains ），「民 族 学研 究 』 − （The Japanese Journ α l ofEthnolog γ）3 （1）二 39 106． AZEKI Takeo 金 関 丈夫

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1976 「日 本民 族 の 起 源』 （The Origin of the Japanese People）．東京 ：法 政 大学 出版 局 （Tokyo ： Hosei

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1974 「シ ベ リ ア に 憑 か れ た 人 々 』 （The Men Who Were Possessed by Siberiα ）．東京 ：岩波書 店 （Tbkyo ：

Iwanami Shoten）． 一 KINDAIcHI Kyosuke 金 田 京助

1925 『ア イ ヌ の 研 究』 （Study ofAinu ）．東京 ： 内外書房 （Tokyo ： Naigai Shobo）． 一 1992 『金 田 京助全 集 』全 15巻 （Collected Worfes ofKINDAI （］HI Kyoswlee，15 vols ．〉．東 京 ：三 省 ．堂 （Tbkyo ； Sanseido〕．

KISHIGAMI Nobuhiro 岸 上 伸 啓 “ ” 1994 Why Become Christian？ Hypotheses on the Christianization of the Ca皿 adian Inuit． In

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Tokyo ： University of TZ）kyo Press． “ 1997 Personal Names ， Name Souls， and Social Change Among Canadian Inuit： ACase Study of ” the ］ and eds α r Aku ivikInuit， In YAMADA Takako IRIMoToTakashi， ．， Circutnpol Animisnz α nd

Sh αm α nism ， pp ．151 −67 ． Sappore：Hokkaido University Press． ・ 1998 の カ ダ イ ヌ イ ッ ト of α n α α ． ： ［［ 「極北 民 ナ 』 （The ArcticPeople， lnuit C d ）東 京 弘 文 堂 （bkyo ； Kobundo ）． “ ” and of ． and 2004 Cultural Ethnic Identities Inuitin Canada In IRIMoToTakashi YAMADA Takako ， − eds ．， Circumpolαr EthnicitOrα nd Identity（Senri Ethnologica］Studies｝66）， pp ．81 93． Osaka ： National Museum of Ethnology． ’ KIYONo Ke 【りi 清野 謙 次 − 19251982『日本原 人 の 研究』 （Stu（ty（）f the Pnoto Jap α nese ）．東京 ：岡書 院 （Tokyo ： Oka Shoin）． ’ 『清 野 謙次 集』江 坂輝彌 （編 ）（EsAKA Teruya， ed ．， Collected Worfes ofK ）yoNo Kenji）．斉藤忠 ほ か （編 ）

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KIYoNo Ke 均 i and KANAzEKI Takeo 清 野 謙 次 ， 金 関丈夫

1928KOBAYASH『人類起 源論 』 （人類 学 叢 書 2）（The Origin ofMan ）．東京 ：岡書 院 （Tokyo ：Oka Shoin）．

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KoGANEI Yoshikiyo 小 金井 良 精 “ ” 1889a 「北 海道石 器 時代 ノ 遺跡 二 就 テ 」 （On Some Remains of the Stone Age in Hoklcaido ）．『東 京 人

類 学雑 誌 』 （Tokyo Jinruigαku Z αsshi ）5（44）：2−7． “ ” 1889b 「北 海道石 器 時代 ノ 遣跡 二 就 テ （続）」 （On Some Remains of the Stone Age in Hokkaido 〉．『東

京 入類 学 雑 誌 』 （Tokyo Jinruigαfeu Z α sshi ）5〔45）；34−9．

1904 「自本石 器 時代 の 住民 』 （The Inhα bitα nts in the Stone Age of Jap α n ）．東 京 ：春 陽 堂 （Tokyo ： Shunyodo ）．

KOHORI lwao 小 堀巖 “ 1949 「満 州族 薩 満 の 祭 祀 を見 て 黒 河省 曖 琿 縣大 五 家 子村 の 場 合 」（Religious Rites and Ceremonies ” − of Manchurian Shamans ），『民族 学研 究』 （The Japanese Journ α 1 ofEthnologOl ）14（1）： 26 32 ．

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“ 1997 The ” Mongolian Perspective on Animal Resources； Analyzing the Ritual of Slaughter． In

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1980Al α sh α Native and 4 ． ： National Culture Histot：y （Senri EthnologicalStudies， ）Osaka Museum ef Ethnology．

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Koryak Language in Their Narratives ： From the Viewpoint of the Influence of the Russian ” Language ）．煎 本 孝 （編 〉 『東北 ア ジ ア 諸 民族 の 文化動態』 （ln IRIMoTo Takashi， ed ．， Culturα l − Dyn α nzics of Northe α st Asiα n Pe （膨 e8 ）， pp ．151 66．札 幌1 ：北 海道 大 学 図書 刊行会 （Sapporo： HokkaidQ University Press）． “ ” 2004 Incorporation as a Linguistic Identity in Koryak ． In IRIMoTo Takashi and YAMADA Takako ，

eds α r αnd − ．， Circumpol Ethnieity ldentity（Senri EthnologicalStudies， 66）， pp ．279 91，0saka ：

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Iwanami Sho七en ）

“ ’ ” 1994 The Yup ik World Seen through Linguistic Demonstratives．In IRIMoTo Takashi and YAMADA

Takako eds ． Circumpolα r Religion and Ecology ．237 −45 ． Tokyo ： ， ， ， pp Universityof ［［bkyo Press． MlyAoKA Osahito， with Elsie MATHER

’ ’ 1979 Yup ih Eshitno Orthogrα ρhOr． Fairbanks： Yup ik Language Center， University of Alaska． M ．S ．（白井光 太 郎） “ ” 1887 「コ ロ ボ ッ ク ル 果 シ テ 北海道 二 住 ミ シ ヤ 」（Have Korobokkru Ever lnhabited in Hokkaido ）．『東 − 京人 類 学 会報告』 （The Bulletin ofthe Tokyo Anthropologicα 1 Societor〕2（11）： 70 5，

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1961 『日 本 神話 の 起 源 』 （Origins of Jap α nese Myth ）．東京 ：角川 書店 （［［bkyo ： Kadokawa Shoten）． “ ” 1994 The Annual Cycle of the Ancient Emishi． In IRIMoTo Takashi and YAMADA Takako ， eds ．， − Circunzpolα r ∫Religion and Ecology， pp ．125 35． T （〕kyo ： University of Tbkyo Press．

1999 の の α （ α ω ： 『銀 河 道、虹 架 け橋 』 （Ro d of Milky Way， Bri ige of R inbo ）．東京 ：小 学館 （［ibkyo Shogakukan ）．

OHMAGARI Kayo 大 曲佳 世

“ ” 2004 The Role of Traditional Food in ldentity Development among the Western James Bay Cree．

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B ）．Kyoto ： International Research Center for Japanese Studies． 一 OMuRA Keiichi大村敬 ・ ー “ 1998 「カ ナ ダ イ ヌ イ ッ トの 日常 生 活 に お け る 自己 イ メ ジ 」 （Se1伍 mage and Everyday Practices ” in Canadian Inuit Society： the tactics of Inuinnaqtun ［the Inuit way 】）． 『民 族 学研 究 』 （The − J＠ α η ε8e Journ α l ofEthnol （）gy）63（2 ）：160 70． 一 OYAMA Hikoichi大 LL【彦 “ ” 1941 「薩満教 と満 州 族 の 家 族 制度 」 〔Shamanism and Family Organization of Manchurian ）．「民族 − 学研 究 』 （The Japanese Journ α 1 ofEthnology ）7（2 ）： 157 89． SASAKI Shiro佐 々 木史郎 “ − − 1994 EconoMic Cultural ［fypes and HistoricalEthnographic Regions in the Lower Amur Basin and ” Sakhalin Island， In IRIMoTo Takashi and YAMADA Takako， eds ．， Circumpolα r Religion αnd

− Ecology， pp．403 14． T（）kyo：University of T（）kyo Press， ・ “ 2002 「ソ ビ エ ト民 族学 に よ る シ ベ リ ア 極東研 究概 観」 （A General View of Studies on Siberia and ” East Ethnology ． ア ジ ア の ln IRIMoTo Takashi Far by Soviet ）煎 本孝 （編）『東北 諸民 族 文 化 動 態』（ ，

α α mics of α n ．− ． ：北 道 大 学 図 書 会 ed ．，Culturl Dyn Northeast Asi Peo ρles）， pp 9 37 札 幌 海 刊行

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1965 「極北 の イ ン デ ィ ア ン 』 （lndiα ns of Far North）．東京 ：朝 日 新 聞社 （Tokyo ：Asahi Shinbunsha ）． SUDA Akiyoshi須 田昭義 ー “ 1939 「オ ロ ッ コ 及 び ギ リ ヤ ク の 皮膚 隆線 系統』 （On the Palm and Sole Pattern in the Oroks and ” − the Giliaks）．「東京人類 学 雑誌』（The Journ α 1 of the Anthr （）ρologic α 1 Society of Tohyo ）54 ： g 35 ． ’ 一 SuGluRA Ken ichi杉浦健

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1992 「鈴木 尚骨 格 人 類学 論 文 集』 （SeZected P 〔lpers of SuzuKI Hisα shi on Sfeeletα I AnthropoZ〔）gy ）鈴 木 ー 尚先 生 傘 奉記 念会 （編）『人 間 科 学 全 集研 究 集 録 シ リ ズ2 』 （Organizing Committee fbr the

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“ ” 1953 「蝦夷風俗画 に つ い て 1 （About Pictures Painting Ezo ［Ainu 】 ），『北 方 文化研 究 』 （Studtes from

the α rch − Rese InstituteforNorthern α n 【IArcticC “ lture）8： 1 67 ， “ ” 一 1968 「ア イ ヌ 風 俗画 に つ い て 」 （About Pictures Painting Ainu ）．泉 靖 （編 ）『ア イ ヌ の 世界』 （ln

IzuMI Seiichi ed ． The World of Ainu ．149− ． ： ： ， ， ）， p 59 東京 鹿島研 究 所 出版 会 （Tbkyo Kajima Kenkyusho Shuppankai）． ・ “ 1969 「東韃 地 方紀行 解 題 補注」 〔ABibliographical Introduction and Supplementary Notes on the ” 一 Accounts of a Joumey through Eastern 』 tary ）．谷 川健 （編 ）「日本庶 民 生 活 史料 集成 第四 ’ ln ［VANIGAwA I（en ichi ed ． Coglections of M α teriα ls on Life 侃 巻 』 （ ， ， the げ 卿 ese Commen 一 ’ voL4 ． − ． ： 三 ： ． Peoρle， ）， pp 177 79 ， 199 東京 書房 （Tokyo San ichiShobo ） “ ” 一 1973i ア イ ヌ 絵 の 世 界」 （The World of Ainu Pictures）．高倉新 郎 （編） 『ア イ ヌ 絵集成 （解説 巻）』 ’ ’ − （ln TAKAI（uRA Shin ichiro， ed ．， The World ofAinu Picture：AVolume ノor lnterpretation）， pp ．10 33．東 京 ：番 町書房 （thkyo ：Bancho Shobo ）．

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24 （281 ＞：422−26． − 1975 77 「鳥居龍蔵全 集』全 12巻、別 冊 〔CompZete Worhs of Toml Ryuzo ，12 vols with separate vol ．）．

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88 IRIMOTO Takashi

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1997Circumpol αr Animism and Sh α m αnism ． Sapporo： Hokkaido University Press．

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YUN Xiaomei 雲 肖梅 ・ “ 2000 「内 モ ン ゴ ル に お け る ト ゥ メ ト モ ン ゴ ル 人 の ア イ デ ン テ ィ テ ィ 」 （ The Identity of Tumed ” − Mongols in Inner Mongolia ）．「北 方学 会 報 』 （N ，）rthern StudiesAssoci αtion Bulletin）7 ： 12 31 ． ・ 2003 『ト ゥ メ ト モ ン ゴ ル 人 の 文化 変化 と民族 的 ア イ デ ン テ ィ テ ィ 』 （Cult“ r α 1 Changes and Ethnic

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School of Letters ， Hokkaido University）． “ ” 2004 Ethnic Identity of Tumed Mongols in Inner Mongolia， In IRIMoTo Takashi and YAMADA − Takako ， eds ．， Circumpolar Ethnici tγ α nd ∬dentity（Senri Ethnological Studies，66 ）， pp ．325 41 ，

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